Chapter 4

MENU FOR THE ANCIENT MAYA

Modeling Considerations

Necessary components for inferring the structure of extinct dietary systems from the

isotopic analysis of skeletal remains include determining possible foods and the behavioral

and agricultural structure of the human system under investigation. Testable models can be

formed from ethnographic studies of descendants, contact period documents (if they exist),

and archaeological material remains. From these components it should be possible to model

the flow and cycling of stable isotopes within ancient human systems.

Studies that contain reconstructions of available regional ecological resources indicate

potential dietary items. Information specific to the Copán Valley includes a compilation of

plants from the Copán Valley (Popenoe 1919), and an ethnography by Wisdom (1940) of

the Chorti Indians who lived near the Copán Valley.

Food plants which originated in Mesoamerica include the grains

Amaranthus

hypochondriacus

,

A. creuntus

, and

Zea mays

; stimulants such as pulque (

Agave salmiana)

,

monkey chocolate (

Theobroma angustifolium

), and cacao (

T. cacao

); vegetable species

from the Curcurbitaceae family (for instance,

Cucurbita argyrosperma

,

C. moschata

,

C.

pepo

, and

C. ficifolia,

Sechium edule

and

S. tacaco)

, and tomato (

Lycopersicon

esculentum

), tomatillo (

Physalis philadelphica

),

Crotalaria longirostrata

,

Solanum

americanum

,

S. wendlandi

,

Cnidoscolus chayamansa

,

Chenopodium berlandieri

spp.

nuttalliae

,

Chamaedorea tepejilote

, and

Opuntia leucantha

. Grain legumes include

Phaseolus vulgaris

,

P. coccineus

,

P. polyanthus

, and

P. acutifolius.

Many fruit trees have

their origins in Mesoamerica, for example the species

Annona diversifolia

,

A. reticulata

,

45

and

A. scleroderma

,

Casimiroa edulis

,

Couepia polyandra

,

Diospyros digyna

,

Inga jinicuil

,

I. paterno

,

Licania platypus

,

Manilkara zapota

,

Parmentiera aculata

,

Persea americana

,

P. schiedeana

,

Pouteria campechiana

,

P. hypoglauca

,

P. sapota

,

P. viridis

,

Prunus capuli

,

Psidium friedrichsthalianum,

and

Spondias purpurea

. Spices native to Mesoamerica

include

Calathea

sp.,

Capsicum annuum

,

C. frutescens

,

Cymbopetalum penduliflorum

,

Fernaldia pandurata

,

Pimenta dioica

,

Quararibea funebris

, and

Vanilla planifolia

(Bermejo and León 1994).

Ethnographic Studies

Since the Copán polity had developed and dissolved by the thirteenth century

A

.

D

., well

before European contact, there are no first–hand written accounts by outside observers.

However, later Maya and Mesoamerican groups, including the Chorti and Yucatec Maya,

were chronicled by conquistadors and several hundred years later were studied by

anthropologists.

Chorti Indians

The Chorti–speaking Indians, most closely related to the Maya of the Yucatan peninsula

and northern Guatemala, eastern Guatemala, and the portion of western Honduras that

includes Copán, were studied by Wisdom (1940). His observations help to characterize the

environment of the Copán Valley and illustrate how Copan's resources were utilized by a

low–energy social system (

i.e.

, tasks accomplished solely with human muscle and

unassisted by energy efficient apparatus like wheels or metal tools, and plow or burden

animals).

46

At the time of Wisdom’s fieldwork, 75% or more of the consumed plant foods were

grown. Other foods were purchased from urban distributors. Occasionally, wild foods were

collected. Vegetables, fruits, and animals, in order of importance, were gathered or hunted

as supplementary food items. The staple dietary items were maize and beans. The estimated

Chorti diet was composed of 65% maize, 22% beans, and 13% other foods (Wisdom 1940).

At least ten different types of maize were recognized and raised by the Chorti. The

varieties of maize included red (

barroso

), yellow (

maíz bayo

), white spotted or blood maize

(

maíz sangre de Cristo

), tiny maize or forty–day maize, greenish black maize (

maíz negro

),

tepezinte maize, majoco maize,

maíz pushagua

,

maíz raque

, and

apante maíz

(Wisdom

1940). Any type was used in making the principally consumed form of maize — tortillas.

Several varieties of the second staple, beans, were also grown including shrub beans: a

black bean (

frijol Terezo

), a red navy–like bean, a small black bean (

frijol arbolito

,

frijol

siete caldos

,

frijol chapín

), a down–covered black bean (

frijol vellano

) and vine beans: a

black bean (

frijol talete

or

frijol pacho

), a black violet and spotted bean (

frijol pocajul

), a

Mexican string bean (

frijol perome

or

ejotillo

or

ejote cachito

), a black red white–and–

spotted bean (

frijol Chajan

or

frijol enredador

), and a lima–like bean (

frijol Chapaneco

or

frijol gigante

) (Wisdom 1940).

The Chorti also grew and ate black pumpkin, dark white pumpkin, yellowish pumpkin,

guicóy

,

pepitoria

,

cilacayote

or

chiberre

, muskmelon,

melocotón

or

melón de olor

, sugar

cane, rice, forage grasses, banana (seven types:

manzano

,

majoncho

,

cantiado

,

labanero

,

datil

,

criollo

, and

minimo or guineo de seda), plantain, and cacao. Other items consumed

included coffee, tobacco, coconut, pineapple, avocado, chucte huisquil, and cashew

(Wisdom 1940).

47

Yucatec Maya

Steggerda (1941) studied residents of Piste, a village near Chichen Itza, Mexico. Maize

comprised between 75% and 85% of their diet. A family of five consumed 64 bushels of

maize per year. Their milpas of 10 acres produced 104 bushels of maize in 72 days. Stuart

(1990) estimates this as 670 g/person/day.

Other contemporary Mesoamerican maize–based diets

Stuart (1990) compiled daily per capita maize consumption data from published

surveys based on informant estimates of food intake and twenty–four hour observations

from Mexico and Guatemala. Stuart found that average informant estimates varied over a

range considerably greater than for twenty–four hour observation periods. Stuart believes

that overestimates of maize use by household heads is due to poor conversion from local

units to kilograms, or improperly equating weights of nixtamal, which has a higher

moisture content, with weights of dry maize. The average maize consumed per capita

ranged from 270 g to 900 g (n = 12 studies) based on informant estimates and from 261 g

to 438 g (n = 10 studies) as determined from 24 dietary intake studies. Therefore, the total

range spans from 261 g to 900 g of maize consumed per person with averages of 614 g for

informant estimates and 371 g for twenty–four hour surveys.

The percentage of calories derived from maize can be estimated (Table 4.1) by

assuming an average diet of 2300 cal, a high–calorie diet observed among well–nourished

Mexicans (Pelto 1987: 528, Table 21.9), and using a value of 3.61 cal/g of maize, for dry

maize (Stuart 1990: 137). Clearly, maize contributes more than the average total daily

calories to some diets.

48

In a study of dietary patterns for Alvarado, Vera Cruz, Mexico, a maize–based diet with

meat and milk supplements was observed to be deferentially distributed by age and sex

(Morris 1997). Young infants were given more milk than older infants and children, while

male infants were fed more milk relative to female infants (Morris 1997). Meat went to

children and then men (Morris 1997). The food allocation pattern was found to follow age,

sex, and social status lines, but had developed due to difficult economic situations (Morris

1997). Morris (1997) believes that distinguishing between a food consumption pattern

related to scare resources and social status, or one representative of plentiful times is

difficult from skeletal studies without more ethnographic research which quantifies the

relationship between health and food allocation patterns.

The important point to be drawn from the studies of Wisdom, Steggarda, and Stuart is

that maize is often a significant component of the diet of contemporary Maya peasants.

Maize, in its many consumed preparations, typically contributes more than 50% of calories

consumed. Such a dietary composition may have been the foundation of ancient Maya diet.

a. From data in Stuart 1990. b. Based on an average diet of

2300 cal/day.

Table 4.1: Select values of maize consumption

maize in diet/day

(g)a

percent contribution

to dietb

261 41%

371 58%

438 69%

614 96%

900 141%

49

Copán Archaeological Excavations

Fauna

Bones from several fauna have been identified in excavations at Copán. Identified

species include white–tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), domestic dog (Canis

familiaris), peccary (Tayassu sp.), ocelot (Felis pardalis), puma or cougar (Felis concolor),

jaguar (Felis onca), pygmy owl (Glaucidium brasilianum), tapir (Tapirus bairdi), paca

(Cuniculus paca), Dicotyles spp., coati (Nasua narica), Cuniculus paca, Didelphis spp.,

Pseudemys scripta, marine mollusk (Spondylus spp.), jute or freshwater snail (Pachychilus

corvinus and P. largillierti, Succinea sp., Hydrobidae), and land mollusk (Neocyclotus

dysoni, Bulimulus unicolor, Lamellaxis micra, Orthalicus princeps), and sea urchin

(Feldman 1994, Gerry 1993, Pohl 1994, Zeleznik–personal communication 1996).

A very few large fauna were available as meat sources. Their acquisition by the ancient

Maya would have been dependent on availability, suitable animal habitat and behavior, and

hunting strategies.

Peccary species include the collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu nelsoni, T.t. yucatanensis,

and T.t. nigrescenes) and the white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari, Dicotyles labiatus)

which are omnivorous (Dillon 1988). Collared peccary adults weigh 14 kg to 25 kg. White-

lipped peccary adults can weigh over a 62 kg. While collared peccaries prefer dense tropical

deciduous forest habitats, the white-lipped peccaries prefer the virgin forest and avoid the

second growth areas or field edges favored by the collared species. Ramón tree products,

wild figs, and zapotes are favored forage of wild animals including peccaries and tapirs

(Dillon 1988). Poor breeding in captivity creates a particular hindrance to peccary use as a

stable, consistent source of meat (Dillon 1988). Dillon proposes a peccary hunting–tree

50

crop model in which the natural affinity between them provided the ancient Maya an

efficient hunting strategy.

Deer native to the Maya area include white–tailed (Odocoileus virginianus) and brocket

(genus Mazama) (Carr 1996). Deer hunting techniques used by the ancient Maya include

pit falls, projectile hunting, and spring–pole snare as evidenced from scenes in the Madrid

Codex (Carr 1996). Edges between forests and clearings and second growth bush are

attractive areas to deer. Carr (1996) proposes that shifting cultivation practices would be

more suited for deer exploitation than intensive types of agriculture. Fields under

permanent cultivation would be less suitable for attracting deer since humans would be

making regular visits for longer periods of time than fields under shifting agriculture.

Additionally, vegetation structure and, thus, the habit attractiveness and protective cover

differ substantially under different cultivation types.

Cormie and Schwarcz (1994) report that interregional ranges in the isotopic

composition of North American white–tailed deer are considerably greater than for

intraregional ranges. Overall ranges were estimated for d13C of 9.7‰ and d15N of 13.8‰,

while intraregional differences were 1.8‰ for d13C and 1.2‰ for d15N. They conclude that

their results indicate the importance of establishing the ecological baseline isotopic

composition of local flora and fauna food sources. Additionally, the majority of deer

consumed a C3–based diet of shrubs and small trees.

Flora

Archaeobotanical research at Copán has furnished evidence for the C4–plant maize

(Zea mays) and the C3–plants, bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), squash (Cucurbita moschata),

nance (Byrsonima crassifolia), and wild grape (Vitis sp.) (Lentz 1991). Other plant remains

51

from Copán included chayote (Sechium edule), bottle gourd (Lagenaria sp.), palm or coyol

(Acrocomia mexicana), ciruela (Spondias sp.), avocado (Persea americana), zapote

(Pouteria sp.), hackberry (Celtis sp.), and frijolillo (Cassia occidentalis). None of the

C3–cultivars of Neotropic origin, yam (Dioscorea trifida), manioc (Manihot esculenta),

malanga (Xanthosoma sp.), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), breadnut or ramón (Brosimum

alicastrum), chili peppers (Capsicum annuum), or cacao (Theobroma cacao), have been

identified among the archaeobotanical remains (Lentz 1991).

In a study of the differences in floral remains between elite and nonelite contexts, Lentz

examined a portion of the archaeobotanical remains which best represented species that

may have contributed to the diet (Table 4.2) and reported a statistically significant

difference between low status and elite status samples (t = 1.88, df = 141, p = 0.07, Lentz

1991).

Five taxa from 162 Coner phase proveniences at minimally 19 sites were counted (Table

4.2, Lentz 1991: Table 4). Although unclear from Lentz’s paper, these data, listed in Table

4.2, represent the number of samples in which a particular plant species occurred (i.e.,

ubiquity). Only collective data for each plant were reported, making it impossible to verify

or attempt other subsampling of the archaeobotanical counts (Lentz 1991: Table 1). Macro–

remain totals were reported by plant type without providing counts for each phase and

social status (Lentz 1991: Table 1). For example, 89 samples contained Zea mays macro–

remains for nine of the ten possible contexts, for all five phases, and all four social statuses.

Thus, from Lentz’s article it cannot determined, for instance, how many samples came from

midden or fill contexts, or how many samples were from the earlier Acbi phase.

52

Lentz’s study contains a possible miscalculation and has shortcomings in the statistical

analysis, which call into question his conclusion of status–related differences. The

Shannon–Weaver measure of heterogeneity, which Lentz applied, has a sample size

dependency which renders it inadequate for measuring diversity. Bobrowsky and Ball

(1989) note that Pielou’s measure performs better as a measure of heterogeneity (or

diversity). In applying the Shannon–Weaver measure the zero count for Phaseolus sp.

(beans) must be excluded since the logarithm of zero is undefined. Apparently, Lentz

removed the zero bean count for calculation purposes from the low status category, but

retained the two count when calculating the diversity measure for the elite category.

Removing the bean counts from both status categories provides a corrected Shannon–

Weaver (Table 4.2). Pielou’s measure shows greater diversity in both status categories and

yields essentially the same value whether counts for beans are included or excluded1.

a. Lentz 1991: Table 4. b. Bean counts removed from both categories. c. Bean counts included.

1. Calculations were performed in Mathematica (see page 259).

Table 4.2: Ubiquity counts of floral remains from Copána.

Species Lowstatus

Elite

palm 47 34

maize 28 24

squash 1 2

bean 0 2

others 8 8

group totals 84 70

total number of samples 102 60

Shannon–Weaver 0.42 0.52

correct Shannon–Weaverb 0.42 0.46

Pielou’s measurec 0.57 0.64

53

Whether the p–value of 0.07 represents a statistically significant difference as

interpreted by Lentz (1991: 281) is arguable. Although 0.1 and 0.05 are conventionally

hypothesis test a-values, the null hypothesis of no difference between samples would be

accepted for a–values greater than 0.07 and rejected for a–values less than or equal to 0.07.

Thus, at a = 0.05 the samples would be considered equivalent, while at a = 0.10 they would

be considered different.

If counts of the number of samples in which a plant species occurred is assumed to be

represented by Lentz’s data, then a statistical test of proportions (e.g., Cox 1987: 72 and

discussed here on page 260) is appropriate to determine if low status contexts differ from

elite contexts. The null hypothesis of equal proportions is rejected when |Z| > za/2 (Cox

1987: 73). In this case, at a = 0.05, za/2 = 1.96 and at a = 0.10, za/2 @ 1.645 (Cox 1987:

Table A2). A z–test of proportions for low status versus elite status contexts yields for

values of 1.30 for palm, 1.65 for maize, 1.07 for squash, 1.86 for bean, and 1.13 for other.

Since none are greater than 1.96, the hypothesis of equal proportions is accepted at a =

0.05. In terms of individual plant type remains, low status and elite contexts show similar

counts. However, at a = 0.10, maize and bean exceed 1.645. The result for the bean counts

is undoubtedly due to a zero count for the occurrence at low status sites and I suspect it

represents preservation bias rather than a lack of bean consumption by low status

individuals. The result from a z–test of proportions for maize is only slightly significant.

These results could lead to the conclusion that maize and beans are more ubiquitious at the

elite Type IV sites. But, the lack of bean remains for low status sites, the close equivalency

of diversity measures, and the near insignificance of statistical tests, illustrates that a better

data set is needed to demonstrate differences in diet, if indeed they existed. Contrary to

Lentz’s inferences, I suggest that there is limited difference, if any, between elite and low

status sites in terms of access to and consumption of plants. This conclusion is explored

further in Chapter 7 and Chapter 8.

54

Other Floral Studies

Scholars have attempted to determine what plants were available to the ancient Maya.

In one study of potential economic long–distance trade goods (floral, faunal, and

mineralogical) for the Petén a list of items having the characteristics of transportability,

imperishability, and efficacy1 was compiled (Voorhies 19822. The key sources used were

sixteenth century documents, therefore, some items included in Voorhies’ list may have

lacked economic importance to earlier Maya. Furthermore, Voorhies’ compilation is a

subset of all resources that were mentioned in the sixteenth documents. Marcus (1982) also

provides a list of plants that were used by the Lowland Maya between A.D. 1566 and 1696.

The eyewitness accounts that Marcus based her lists on probably provide a nearly complete

picture of the patterns of plant use by the Lowland Maya during the early Spanish

occupation, but only tenuous connections should be made with earlier times. From two

visits to the Copán Valley, Popenoe (1919) compiled a catalog of plants, many of which

were probably available to the ancient Maya.

It is likely that the ancient Copán Maya made use of locally available plants as well as

flora that were available through trade with other Maya centers, such as nearby Quiriguá

and the more distant Palenque. A sense of the range of plants potentially available to the

ancient Maya can be obtained by combining the lists presented in Marcus (1982), Morley,

Brainerd, and Sharer (1983: 197), Popenoe (1919), and Voorhies(1982). Table 4.3 includes

only edible plants with Neotropic origins (verified from the compilations of Bermejo and

León (1994), Brücher (1989), or Zeven and Zhukovsky (1975)). Plants are listed with

common name (Spanish and English) and scientific name, and for each plant stable carbon

isotope values are included.

1. A measure of value retained relative to the time passed since procurement. Items that lose their valued properties soon after procurement were excluded.2. Compiled from Gates 1939, Lundell 1937, 1938, and Roys 1931.

55

Table 4.3: Stable carbon isotope ratio values for edible plants in the Maya area.

common names: Spanish, English(Scientific name)

d13CPDB (‰) recent(*: prehistoric specimen)

Copán Valley (Popenoe 1919)

maiz, maize(Zea mays)seed isotopic values

C4a, (-11.2, -11.0)i,

(-9.7, -9.6, -10.1, -9.8)e

(-10.8, -11.6, -12.0, -11.7, -11.8, -11.6,

-11.2, -9.3*, -12.1*, -10.3*, -9.1*)c

frijol, bean, black beanb

(Phaseolus spp., P. vulgaris)(-27.1, -27.8)i,

(-28.3, -28.6)e,(-24.9, -21.7, -25.9, -26.4, -26.9, -26.4,-26.5, -25.2, -26.0, -25.4, -25.8, -26.9,-26.1, -24.5, -26.2, -29.3, -25.1, -25.3,

-25.7, -26.5, -25.9, -22.8*, -22.6*,

-24.3*, -22.2*, -23.2*, -23.9*, -24.0*)c

ayote, pumpkin, squash(Pepo maximus, Pepo vulgaris, Cucurbita maximac)

(-24.8, -25.0, -24.5, -24.6, -25.0, -23.8,

-24.2)c

camote, sweet potato(Ipomoea batatas)

-26.4i, -26.9d

yuca, bitter cassava

(Manihot utilissima, Manihot esculentae)-26.1e

guayaba, guava(Psidium guajava)

-27.3i, (-24.3*, -26.7*, -26.4*, -23.8*)c

nance(Byrsonima crassifolia)

-27.1i, -28.3e

aguacate, avocado(Persea americana, P. gratissima)

(-25.0*, -23.1*, -26.0*)c

zapote, mamey, sapote, marmalade plum(Calocarpum sapota, syn. C. mammosum, Achras mammosa)

(-27.1, -28.1)i

sunza, sunzapote(Licania platypus)

-29.3i

papaya(Carica papaya)

-26.4i, -25.2d

56

piña, pineapple(Ananas sativus, Ananas comosuse)

-13.2e, -12.4d

coco, coconut

(Cocos nucifera)f, g-23.7d (C3

h)

cacao, chocolate(Theobroma cacao, Theobroma ciocarpum)patashte, Nicaraguan cacao(Theobroma bicolor)

-34.1i

chile, chile pepper(Capsicum baccatum)

-30.1i, -27.8i

vainilla, vanilla(Vanilla planifolia) j

C3k

Additional plants noted by Morley, Brainerd, and Sharer (1983: 197)

ayote, squash

(Cucurbita pepol, Cucurbita sp.i)(-27.4, -27.1)i, -27.6d

(-25.5, -25.8, -27.3, -26.7)c

breadnut, ramón(Brosimum alicastrum)

(-27.7, -27.0)i

cassava, manioc

(Manihot esculenta)l-25.7d

soursop

(Annona muricata)l, m-27.7i, -24.4c

Petén plants noted by Voorhies (1982)

sweetsop, sugar apple, custard apple

(Annona squamosa)m-29.0i

peach palm

(Bactris spp., Bactris gasipaese)-27.1e

achiote(Bixa orellana)

-29.7i

piñuela(Bromelia karatas, Bromelia pinguinn)

-16.7i

Table 4.3: Stable carbon isotope ratio values for edible plants in the Maya area.

common names: Spanish, English(Scientific name)

d13CPDB (‰) recent(*: prehistoric specimen)

57

a. Downton 1971. b. Common bean (P. vulgaris), runner bean (P. coccineus), and tepary beans (P. acutifolius) have wild ancestors

in Mexico (Flannery 1986). c. DeNiro and Hastorf 1985. d. Yoshinaga et al. 1991. e. Norr 1990: 134. f. Popenoe considered this plant a late introduction to the valley and unavailable to the ancient Maya. g. Originated in South East Asia, Indonesia, West Pacific, or South America (Zeven and Zhukovsky 1975: 53). h. Hillaire–Marcel 1986: 524. i. Wright 1994: 202. j. Morley, Brainerd, and Sharer (1983: 197) note the species Vanilla fragrans. k. Krueger and Reesman 1982: 234. l. A different species than observed by Popenoe. m. Central American and Mexican origin (Zeven and Zhukovsky 1975). n. South American origin (Zeven and Zhukovsky 1975).

58

Plants observed by Popenoe (1919) from the Copán Valley, but which lack published

isotopic measurements, include some C3–based and likely C3–based ones1: güisquil or

chayote–a Cucurbita (Chayota edulis, Sechium edule); tomate or tomato (Lycopersicon

esculentum); mikltomate, ground–cherry, or husk–cherry (Physalis pubescens)2; jocote,

Spanish plum, or red mombim (Spondias purpurea); jobo, hog plum, or yellow mombim

(Spondias mombim, syn. S. lutea); guayaba or sour guava (Psidium molle); shucte, chucte,

or coyó (Persea sp., Persea schiedeana3); níspero, chico, or sapodilla (Achras zapota,

Sapota zapotilla); guapinol or pinoli tree (Hymenaea courbaril); anona, custard apple, or

Bullock’s heart (Annona reticulata)4; suncuya (Annona purpurea Moc. and Sessé)4; anona

blanca (Annona diversifolia4, 5); matasono or white sapote (Casimiroa edulis); uva

silvestre or wild grape (Vitis caribaea); paterna (Inga radians); jocote–marañon or cashew

(Anacardium occidentale)5; chiltepe or chile pepper (Capsicum frutescens6); and the CAM–

based plants isote or yucca (Yucca elephantipes) and pitaya or pitahaya (Cereus sp.)7.

Plants of unknown photosynthetic pathway or isotopic composition from Morley, Brainerd,

and Sharer (1983: 197) include yautia (Xanthosoma violaceum, X. robustum8) and from

Voorhies (1982) Petén plants: a riverside tree with edible seeds (Pachira aquatica Aubl.);

allspice or pimento (Pimenta officinalis9); Clerodendron ligustrinum; Croton galabellus; a

Mexican medicinal (Cymbopetalum penduliflorum); an intoxicant (Lonchocarpus

longistylus Pittier); a medicinal (Pluchea odorata); Quaribea fieldii Mill. sp.; Scheelea

1. Plants are listed with common English or Spanish names followed by its botanical name in parentheses or the botanical name alone when common names are unknown.2. Listed as Physalis ixocarpa or tomatillo by Zeven and Zhukovsky (1975).3. Noted as the coyó avocado by Zeven and Zhukovsky (1975).4. Central American and Mexican origin (Zeven and Zhukovsky 1975).5. Popenoe considered this plant a late introduction to the valley late and unavailable to the ancient Maya.6. Morley, Brainerd, and Sharer (1983: 197) note the species Capsicum annuum.7. Cactaceae Selenicereus grandiflorus is also Cereus grandiflorus Mill., a drug source (Zeven and Zhukovsky 1975: 164).8. Central American and Mexican origin (Zeven and Zhukovsky 1975).9. Noted by Zeven and Zhukovsky (1975: 170) as Pimenta Dioica (L.) Merr.

59

lundellii Bart.; and Maman Guepe, Ortiga de caballo, Quaina, a medicinal (Urera baccifera

Gaud).

Other edible plants with Central American and Mexican origins mentioned by Zeven

and Zhukovsky (1975:162–172) include maguey (Agave sp.)1; izote, bulbstem, or yucca

(Yucca elphantipes); Bromarea edulis prince’s feather, huautli, alegría, bledos, or

amaranto (Amaranthus sp.)2; chupadilla or jocote (Cyrtocarpa procera); ceriman or

cheeseplant (Monstera delicioisa); candle tree (Parmentiera cereifers, P. edulis); night–

blooming cereus (Hylocereus undatus); nopal (Nopalea cochenillifera); Nopalea dejecta,

Indian fig, or nopal (Opuntia ficus–indica); tuna, nopal, or mission prickly pear (Opuntia

megacantha); dahlia (Dahlia variablisis); malabar gourd or fig–leaf squash (Cucurbita

ficifolia); pumpkin, winter squash, or walnut squash (Cucurbita mixta); cushawa, China

squash, pumpkin, or winter squash (Cucurbita moschata); prickle cyclanthera, pepino

hueco, caíhua, or achokcha (Cyclanthera pedata)3; tacaco (Polakowskia tacacco); black

sapote or zapote negro (Diospyros ebenaster); copte or siricote (Cordia dodecandra);

(Jatropha aconitifolia); sweet cassava (Manihot dulcis, M. palmata); sauwi (Panicum

sonorum); Tripsacum sp.4; teosinte (Zea mexicana); pecan (Carya pecan); Guatemala

walnut (Juglans mollis); sieve bean or lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus); metcalf bean

(Phaseolus retusus); manila tamarind (Pithecellobium dulce); Bunchosia costaricensis,

Costa Rican guava (Psidium friedrichsthalianum); arrayán (Psidium sartorianum); West

Indian vanilla (Vanilla pompona); pacaya (Chamaedorea tepejilote); Mexican prickly

poppy (Argemone mexicana); seaside grape (Coccoloba unifera); winter purslane or

miner’s lettuce (Claytonia perfoliata); Mexican hawthorn or tejocote (Crataegus

pubescens); green sapote (Calocarpum viride); star apple (Chrysophyllum cainito); egg 1. Including A. americana, A. atrovirens, A. cantala, A. crassispina, A. ceweana, A. fourcroydes, A. funkiana, A. letonae, A. sisalana, and A. tequilana.2. Including A. cruentus, A. hydridus, and A. hypochondriacus.3. Of Andean origin according to Bermejo and León (1994: 18) and Brücher (1989: 265).4. Including T. dactyloides, which has the widest distribution, T. lanceolatum, T. latifolium, T. laxum, T. maizar, T. pilosum, and T. zopiotense.

60

fruit (Lucuma bifera); yellow sapote or zapote amarillo (Lucuma salicifolia); and potato

(Solanum sp.).

Intrasocial Divisions and Bioarchaeological Analysis for the Maya

Statistical experimental designs for the Copán skeletal sample provided the basis for

selecting which bone specimens to process and led to the identification of categories which

lacked skeletal material. While there are many ways in which the analysis of dietary

patterns could be structured, the sample was partitioned by social status, sex, age, and urban

or rural provenance (Tables 4.4 and 4.5). The proposed partitioning is appropriate and

suited for addressing questions related to dietary variation based on social structure, while

controlling for potential confounding factors such as sex, age, and urban or rural burial

location (assumed to reflect the urban or rural domestic setting experienced during the

lifetime of an individual).

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Table 4.4: Variables for grouping isotopic results.

Variable Divisions

Sex male (M), female (F), unknown (U)

Age(expanded in Table 4.5)

children (infant, juvenile)adult (young, middle, old)

Social Status:Site Type or Grave Type

site: NM (no mound), SM (single mound), AG (aggregate), T1, T2, T3, T4, MG (main group)grave: low (pit), middle (cobble stone, capstone, cist), high (rough stone tomb, dressed stone tomb)

Temporal Predynastic, ruling dynasty (Table 2.1), Post dynastic

Ceramic chronology (Figure 2.3)

Hydration dates of burial

Regional chronology (Pre, Early, Classic, Late, Terminal, Post)

Long Count dates

Locale Main Group, rural, urban

Pathological Indicators enamel hypoplasia, anemia, dental caries, periosteal or osteostitis

Table 4.5: Age categories.

Abbreviation Age categoryRange of years

for age–at–death

I infant 0–1

J juvenile 2–14

D adolescent 15–19

YA young adult 20–34

MA middle–aged adult 35–50

OA old adult over 50

A adult of unknown age over 20

A?probable adult of

unknown ageover 20?

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Bioarchaeological studies of skeletons provide a foundation from which dietary

expectations for the Copán isotopic results can be built. Human skeletal and dental tissues

retain indicators of the health and nutritional stress experienced by individuals during their

lifetimes. Maya osteological studies have recently matured to a state where intrasocial

behavioral inferences, according to sex, age, and social status, and temporal and

geographical trends can be made more readily (Whittington and Reed 1997a).

Plant proteins are often deficient in some amino acids or have amino acid ratios

inappropriate for human protein synthesis which can lead to synthesis stoppage.

Increasingly maize–based diets have been associated with physiological stress since maize

is deficient in certain essential amino acids (Larsen 1997: 16). The protein quality of maize

is limited by a deficit in lysine and tryptophan, and an excess of leucine (Food and

Agricultural Organization 1992). The process in which maize kernels are soaked and then

cooked with lime or wood ashes results in the maize product nixtamal (Coe 1994: 14).

Nixtamalization aides in removal of the pericarp and the kernel becomes easier to grind.

Additionally, nixtamal or alkaline treated maize has an enhanced nutritional quality from

increased bioavailability of niacin1 which destroys any pellagrous effect and improved

amino acid balance which increases protein quality2 (Food and Agricultural Organization

1992: 66–68).

Addition of legumes to a maize–based diet also improves protein quality. A proportion

of 3:7 beans–to–maize ratio provides the best protein complement by balancing the amino

acid components (Food and Agricultural Organization 1992: 122). However, such a diet

remains inadequate in quality for children since it is deficient in methionine and lysine and

it is low in total protein content (Food and Agricultural Organization 1992: 126, 129).

Methionine is the limiting amino acid in diets higher in beans, while lysine is the limiting

amino acid in diets higher in maize (Food and Agricultural Organization 1992: 129). 1. Lime liberates the vitamin niacin from an indigestible complex.2. However, some studies contradict these conclusions (Food and Agricultural Organization 1992).

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Nutrient quality improves with the addition of meat or green leafy vegetables (Food and

Agricultural Organization 1992: 131).

Reduced terminal height or stature has been correlated with growth suppression in

childhood due to physiological disruption or stress, especially poor nutrition, in living

population studies (Larsen 1997: 13). When other factors, including disease stress and

genetic regulation, can be taken into account, then temporal changes or intrapopulation

differences in stature may be indicative of dietary differences. Trends of stature reduction

consistent with declining quality diets have been suggested for populations dependent on

cultigens, particularly maize (Larsen 1997: 16).

Some skeletal and dental pathological markers are often correlated with diet and the

adoption of maize as a staple in the Americas. Iron deficiency anemia, as indicated by the

presence of porotic hyperostosis and cribra orbitalia, is often considered a product of diets

high in maize and carbohydrates, but deficient in iron or copper. These markers are related

to iron deficiency anemia suffered in childhood and brought on by infection or parasites in

individuals with poor quality diets. Iron absorption efficiency is best from meat and

variable, although mostly poor, for plant sources (Larsen 1997: 29). Some substances, such

as phytates, contained by plants can inhibit iron absorption, while ascorbic, citric, and lactic

acids can promote iron bioavailability (Larsen 1997: 29). Chronic anemia, regardless of a

dietary, parasitic infectious, or anemic predispositional cause, is most often identified by

the presence of lesions in the roofs of eye orbits (cribra orbitalia) or lesions involving

cranial vault bones (porotic hyperostosis) or both (Larsen 1997: 30).

Another common paleopathological marker often associated with diet or infection is

enamel hypoplasia. Growth disruptions can lead to dental macrodefects including visible

alterations in the structure or surface of enamel (Larsen 1997: 44). A typical defect appears

as horizontal grooves (linear enamel hypoplasia) caused primarily by systemic metabolic

stress or, rarely, by either hereditary or localized trauma (Larsen 1997: 45).

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Dental caries is a disease process characterized by decay of dental hard tissues. Organic

acids derived from bacterial fermentation of carbohydrates act to create cavities involving

from the partial to total destruction of tooth crowns and roots (Larsen 1997: 65). Factors

involved in lesion production include diet composition and consistency, tooth surface

exposure, and the presence of oral bacterial flora, salivary glycoproteins, and adhering

inorganic salts (Larsen 1997: 65). Again, maize–based diets have been implicated in higher

dental caries prevalence primarily due to increased carbohydrate (sucrose) consumption

(Larsen 1997: 69).

Differences according to social status

It is necessary to discuss the possibility that individuals of high rank did consume a diet

isotopically distinct from other members of the Copán polity. A typology of residential

architecture (Table 2.2) serves as an index of co–residential wealth, assuming that energy

expended for construction is proportional to the energy available to the residential group

(Abrams 1994: 76–77). For the purpose of studying diet or health it is convenient to assume

that co–residents, or patio groups, share relative wealth in terms of living conditions,

socioeconomic ties, and access to resources, including food. Alternatively, grave type and

grave accoutrements often serve as a marker of social status. The Copán Maya were buried,

from lowest to highest social rank, in simple earthen pits, cobble stone graves, capstone

covered graves, cists, rough stone tombs, and dressed stone tombs (see page 26). Both

classification schemes have been employed in Copán skeletal studies.

When considering dietary variability within a single span of time between

sociopolitical groups, differential access to resources must be examined. At Copán, a

distinctive ruling group developed most clearly between A.D. 600 and 800 (page 19,

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Webster 1985, 1988, Webster and Freter 1990). This would have been the time period

during which dietary distinctions would have been most readily apparent.

Food items likely to be used as objects of status would form minor portions of the diet.

For instance, meat might have been considered a food of choice because of its nutritional

value or its scarcity. If this were true during the period of greatest social distinction, then

the expectation would be that more faunal remains would be found in elite contexts than in

non–elite ones. This is difficult to support with current evidence, but it is even more difficult

to imagine how non–elites, whose households were spread throughout the valley, would be

prevented access to wild game sources.

Studies on Maya skeletal collections, from Tikal and Copán, indicate that status–related

differences existed. Stature, dental markers of stress, and other indicators are reviewed

next. Tikal represents another urban Classic Maya center and Haviland’s pioneering and

influential, though flawed, study stands as a counterpoint to Copán.

Tikal. Stature between tomb and non–tomb contexts at Tikal was estimated for thirty–six

males (Haviland 1967). Mean stature was on average greater (approximate 8 cm) for males

buried in tombs versus males found in less elaborate graves. Although from statistical test

results1 Haviland’s (1967) observations and conclusions are somewhat undermined. While

a statistically significant difference exists between the statures of tomb and nontomb males

regardless of time period (nontomb: n = 242, tomb: n = 10, t = 3.02, p = 0.008), no

statistically significant difference in stature exists between tomb and nontomb male burials

within the Early Classic (nontomb: n = 6, tomb: n = 3, t = 1.724, p = 0.185), Late Classic

(nontomb: n = 15, tomb: n = 4, t = 1.576, p = 0.1936), or earlier time periods (nontomb: n

= 3, tomb: n = 3, t = 1.941, p = 0.1777). Thus, stature was statistically equal between tomb

and nontomb males within each time period, which is at odds with Haviland’s (1967: 316)

1. Using two sample t-tests.2. Although there were 26 nontomb male stature estimates, Haviland considered two Late Classic male stature estimates to be outliers and they were removed for statistical analysis.

66

conclusion that “[s]tature differences between those buried in tombs and others at Tikal

suggest that, in the last century B.C., a distinct ruling class developed…. Doubtlessly,

elaborate burial correlated with wealth and status differences in Maya society, but stature

differences were statistically insignificant by burial type within each time period at Tikal.

Statistical test results made on Haviland’s stature estimates of the Tikal inhabitants lead

to an inference of stature reduction by the Late Classic relative to the Early Classic.

However, the trend appears only to be relevant for individuals interred in nontomb graves,

not for all individuals at Tikal as suggest by Haviland (1967: 322). Contrary to Haviland’s

(1967: 320) conclusion of a social status related stature difference of about 7 cm, all

statistical tests yielded insignificance for each time period. As Haviland (1967) suggested,

nutritional stress could still have been the mechanism for stature reduction in the lower

status males. Higher status males may have maintained access to nutritionally better diets

than lower status males from the Early Classic to the Late Classic, but a lack of statistically

significant differences for social status within each time period leads to an inference of

stable stature over time. Clearly, larger and better representative samples are needed to

finalize any conclusions about Tikal’s dietary and health status, because the widely cited

study by Haviland (1967) is not as definitive about differences in health as it is believed to

be.

Copán. Whittington (1991) observed, for low status Copán Maya, a statistically significant

difference between Acbi and Coner phase groups in terms of survival distribution functions.

The Acbi phase group had a lower proportion of older individuals and statistically

significant higher hazard functions. Whittington (1991) concluded that fertility increased

from the Acbi phase to the early Coner phase and decreased to below Acbi levels by the late

Coner phase. Hazard values for the late Coner group were statistically significantly higher

than for earlier phases, indicating a period of high stress during childhood.

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Health or nutritional stress, as indicated by enamel hypoplasia frequencies, was

statistically the same between individuals from Type I and II sites (Whittington 1992). Most

low status individuals experience similar amounts of childhood stress (Whittington 1992,

Whittington and Reed 1997b).

A small skeletal sample of Coner phase people was examined by Storey (1985). The

average number of enamel hypoplastic events between individuals from tomb and pit

interments were compared. Persons found in tombs experienced fewer enamel hypoplastic

defects than those from pit burials. The occurrence of porotic hyperostosis was also

examined. A smaller percentage of individuals buried in tombs was affected by anemia than

was the case for persons buried in pits. The pattern of the enamel hypoplasia and porotic

hyperostosis data lead to the inference that elites at Copán were subjected to less stressful

childhoods than people of lower statuses.

From a study of 122 children under the age of 15, a portion of 264 individuals recovered

during excavations of site 9N–8, Storey (1992) found evidence for poor health and diet

among individuals of a wealthy and high ranking Copán lineage. Deciduous enamel defects

provided evidence that very young children were subjected to physiological stress from

malnutrition, disease, or both.

In a further study of a larger sample (n = 128), Storey (1998) found statistically

significant differences in susceptibility to childhood anemia, for males and females, by

social status. The highest status group, composed of individuals interred in tombs and stone

construction graves or the presence of grave offerings, was least affected by porotic

hyperostosis, while the lowest status group, consisting of individuals from rural sites, was

most affected. The middle status group consisted of individuals found in earthen pits and

without grave offerings. Enamel hypoplasic defect frequencies were statistically equal

according to social status. Stature for females was also found to be equivalent across the

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status groups, while stature for males showed a statistically significant difference between

the highest and lowest ranks.

Differences according to sex

In archaeological skeletal series from different societies, females frequently have

higher dental caries rates than males (Larsen 1997: 72–76). The difference is associated

with food consumption patterns in which females consume less meat and more plant

carbohydrates than males (Larsen 1997: 72). Additionally, dietary differences between men

and women are common throughout human history (Harris 1987, Ross 1987). The

ramifications of sex–related dietary restrictions, such as limiting the consumption of

protein–rich foods (e.g., meat) for pregnant or lactating women, could include

compromising the health of mother and child if alternative high quality foods were

unavailable (Harris 1987, Ross 1987).

Tikal. The statistical significance of Haviland’s observations can be addressed with t–tests.

Haviland (1967) suggested that male stature dropped from the Early Classic (EC) to the

Late Classic (LC) at Tikal. Although Haviland did not test the difference, it is statistical

significant (EC: n = 9, LC: n = 19, t = 3.748, p = 0.0015) though sample sizes are small.

However, stature reduction showed only a statistical significant difference for the nontomb

group (EC tomb: n = 3, LC tomb: n = 4, t = 1.552, p = 0.182; EC nontomb: n = 6, LC

nontomb: n = 15, t = 3.76, p = 0.003) with an average loss of nearly 9 cm. A more recent

examination of stature change though time for additional Maya sites also comes to the

conclusion that stature reduction occurred, particularly in males, after the Preclassic period

(Márquez and del Ángel 1997). Whether the observed trend is statistically significant

remains unknown since only summary data were reported by Márquez and del Ángel.

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Haviland (1967) noted that stature for females remained stable over time. He suggests

that male social status was higher than female social status and since women were already

shorter and possibly less well–nourished than men, their stature remained the same while

male stature fell during the Late Classic.

Copán. In terms of survival distribution functions, a measure of cumulative survival,

Whittington (1991) found statistically insignificant differences within the lower

socioeconomic status Coner phase Copán population between males and females.

However, Whittington (1991) believes that the increased mortality observed for females

under 35 years of age could be related to childbirth or childrearing stresses.

Dental caries frequency for low status individuals was 26% for females and 14% for

males during Acbi and Coner phases, a statistically significant difference (Whittington

1998). Since the consistency of carbohydrate consumption and the frequency with which

carbohydrates are eaten holds greater influence on dental caries rate than total amount

consumed, Whittington (1998) inferred that low status females ate maize more frequently

than their male counterparts, not necessarily in greater proportions. Thus, females tended

to have their teeth exposed to decay inducing conditions more often than males.

Statistically insignificant differences between males and females were noted in the

frequency of enamel hypoplasic defects among low status individuals (Whittington 1992).

Although, the period of high enamel hypoplasia frequencies began and ended earlier for

males (Whittington 1992).

Although low status females had more evidence of anemia (lesions of porotic

hyperostosis and cribra orbitalia) than males, the differences were statistically insignificant

(Whittington and Reed 1997b). Anemia indicators were present on 14 of 22 (64%)

individuals possessing more than 50% of the parts of crania normally affected by such

lesions (Whittington and Reed 1997).

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Storey (1998) concluded from a skeletal examination of adulthood indicators of

infection and childhood markers of stress that incidences were common regardless of sex

or social status and that males and females had equivalently impaired nutrition. Low status

males generally had more severe anemia, were 3 cm shorter in stature, and had only one

enamel hypoplastic defect. High status males and high status females typically had multiple

enamel hypoplastic defects and little porotic hyperostosis, possibly indicating a higher

quality diet which provided greater buffering of childhood stress. Statistically significant

differences were only achieved for porotic hyperostosis among social statuses for females

and stature for males.

Differences according to age

The expectation is that the relationship between age and diet would be most apparent

in a comparison of adults with very young subadults. The assumption is that once a child

reaches the age of three, he will be consuming the same staple dietary components as

adults. Before the age of three, the child will likely be fed breast milk and later soft foods.

The soft food diet may contain similar amounts of adult staples, but in a more readily

masticated form.

Copán. Enamel hypoplasia observations for the low status show evidence for extended,

recurring periods of chronic stress along with occasional acute episodes during childhood

(Whittington 1992). Peak enamel hypoplasia frequencies and childhood deaths between

ages 3.5 and 4.5 were interpreted by Whittington (1992) as indicating late weaning among

the low status population.

Children from a high status compound (9N–8) had a high level of mortality (Storey

1992). Their mortality was accompanied by the majority having been subjected to

physiological stress early in life during enamel formation (Storey 1992). The combination

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of a high childhood mortality, deciduous and permanent enamel defects, and occurrences

of porotic hyperostosis led Storey (1992, 1997) to conclude that those high status children

suffered stress, nutritional or disease or both, which put them at health risk during the Coner

phase.

Differences through time

As agriculture intensification increases, wild resources decline in abundance, and

reliance upon maize increases, there should be changes in stable isotopic values. As maize

becomes more important in the diet and its alternatives and supplements decline, the stable

isotopic record should shift in its value. Whether there were dietary changes over time

across the entire Maya area or only at some local levels is difficult to determine from the

current paleopathological data. For this Copán stable isotopic study, the temporal

dimension will be excluded from analysis because of the lack of reliable collagen

preservation and the small number of human skeletal remains for phases other than the

Coner phase.

Differences according to geographical location

It is expected that urban and rural settlements should correspond to the pattern of diet

observed for social status. Most co–residential units are of Types III and IV in the Copán

urban zone, while examples of high status compounds are rare in outlying settlement zones.

Copán. Fertility, as indicated by survival distribution functions and hazard models, was

lower for rural than urban group location among the lower socioeconomic status at Copán

(Whittington 1991). However, the differences were statistically nonsignificant.

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Statistically, childhood stress was equal between rural and urban low status groups

(Whittington 1992). Enamel hypoplasia frequencies were highest and weaning earliest for

the rural group, but statistically the same as for the urban group (Whittington 1992).

Summary

Evidence for intrasocial differences in the health and nutritional state of the ancient

Maya varies considerably in quality. Many studies are plagued by small sample size, poor

representation of social categories, and failure to yield statistical significance for observed

and reported patterns. The Copán based research stands out in sample representativeness

and careful analytical approaches.

Wright and White (1996) critically reviewed much of the published Classic Maya

paleopathological studies. They argue, although the prevalence of porotic hyperostosis is

high in children and adults at some sites, that regional variability, poor evidence for an

increase in prevalence over time, and comparable levels elsewhere in the world fail to lead

to a conclusion that the Maya were affected by anemia to an anomalous extent.

Furthermore, the relationship between climate, population density, and the distribution of

Neotropical hookworms leads them to suggest that parasitic load and geographic variation

might account for the porotic hyperostosis evidence instead of maize–related malnutrition.

In reviewing the dental evidence (e.g., enamel hypoplasia), Wright and White (1996)

note that its reporting is too varied in the literature to allow a pan–Maya comparison.

However, they conclude that Classic period children generally suffered a severe disease

burden, but health remained essentially the same over time regardless of population density

or size change over time.

The prevalence of periostitis, a skeletal indicator of infection, remained stable from

Preclassic times through the Terminal Classic in the Pasión region (Wright and White

73

1996). This result, coupled with a lack of comparative data from other Maya sites, except

Copán and Colonial Tipu, leads them to decide there is no evidence to support a hypothesis

of increased infectious disease load over time.

Dietary differences according to age, sex, and social status should be expected, since

nutritionally related differences were observed in some paleopathological analysis. Since

no sector of Copán society was effectively buffered from disease or stress, indicating

predominantly deficient nutrition, dietary differences according to stable isotopic analysis

may be small, if detectable at all.

Mathematical Models for Isotopic Paleodietary Studies

A commonly used formula, based on a mass balance equation1, for estimating the

contribution of C4–plants to the collagen isotopic value is:

where dcollagen stands for the sample carbon isotopic value, dC3 represents the average

carbon isotopic value for C3–plants eaten, dC4 denotes the average carbon isotopic value

for C4–plants eaten, and DDC is the diet to collagen fractionation (White, Healy, and

Schwarcz 1993, Schwarcz et al. 1985). All variables are in units per mil. Different values

(refer to the discussion on page 38) for each variable have been suggested as more isotopic

studies and data have become available. The authors of one study suggest the values be dC3

= –26.5‰ for the worldwide C3–plant average, dC4 = –9.5‰ for archaeological maize

rather than a worldwide C4–plant average of –12.5‰, and DDC = –5‰ (White, Healy, and

Schwarcz 1993, Schwarcz et al. 1985).

1. fraction of X = (dmixture – dY)/(dX – dY).

C4%dcollagen dC3 DDC+–

dC4 dC3–-------------------------------------------------100=

74

After substitution with recommended values the formula simplifies to

. Changing DDC would change the intersection of a

simplified equation, while changes in the values for dC3 and dC4 would alter the slope of a

simplified equation. Thus, a 1‰ change in DDC causes approximately a 6% change in

estimated percent contribution of C4. Changes in the values of dC3 and dC4 will cause

changes in the amount per mil required for a 1% change in diet. From the given formulation

a 1% change in diet equals a 0.17‰ change in dcollagen. A similar point was made by

Ambrose (1993: 83–85). The overall error will be based on the algebraic combination of

errors for sample measurements, for endpoint isotopic values of foods, and for errors in

measuring DDC, but for C3 versus C4 endpoint comparisons it should be approximately ±

5% (Chisholm 1989).

Mesoamerican Specific Isotopic Studies

When this project began, only one stable isotopic study had been performed on skeletal

material from a Maya site. That study was concerned with temporal dietary change at

Lamanai, Belize (White 1988a, 1988b). The only other stable isotopic study for the

Mesoamerican region focused on temporal dietary change and diet reconstruction for the

Tehuacan Valley (Farnsworth et al. 1985). Since then several more Mesoamerican skeletal

collections have been studied.

A few studies have explored diet change over time for the Maya and Zapotec with stable

isotopic and trace elemental methods. Recent works on the paleodietary inferences from

stable isotopes of the ancient Maya include Gerry (1993, 1997), Gerry and Krueger (1997),

Reed (1994), Tykot, van der Merwe, and Hammond (1996), White (1988a, 1988b, 1997),

White and Schwarcz (1989), White, Healy, and Schwarcz (1993), White, Wright, and

C4% 126.471 5.882d+ collagen=

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Pendergast (1994), Whittington and Reed (1994, 1997b), Wright (1994, 1997), Wright and

Schwarcz (1996).

Most have small samples within time period divisions, especially for those equivalent

to the Coner phase or the Late Classic (Table 4.8). Gerry (1993) classified all samples as

adult and therefore was unable to examine age–at–death related patterns within his

samples. Several Copán samples from Gerry (1993) can be matched with skeletons studied

by Whittington (1989) and assigned sex and age–at–death determinations. This makes it

possible to consider age and sex related patterns in his Copán sample and to make

comparisons with my results (Figures 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, and 8.4).

Four social status categories (commoner, junior elites, petty elites, and high elites) were

assigned by Gerry (1993) based on a cluster analysis of mortuary variables (grave type,

architecture type, settlement location, and presence or absence of grave offerings). The

clustering was performed on the 178 individuals selected for isotopic analysis. Serious

problems lie in this approach. The sample of 178 is taken to represent the larger collection

of 432 possible individuals in the Peabody Museum (Gerry 1993: 87). This brings up the

question of whether the rank of a burial would change if a larger sample were analyzed. No

consideration was given to time period, even though the sample was divisible into Early and

Late Classic time periods. However, the most likely outcome of a better mortuary analysis

would be shuffling of rank assignments for the middle status individuals and little change

in social standing determinations for the highest and lowest persons.

Variables of sex, age–at–death, skeletal modifications, structure type, grave type,

skeletal position, and grave offerings used by Wright (1994) for analyzing mortuary

patterns had more subdivisions, but no account seems to have been made for site location.

Unlike Gerry, Wright performed a mortuary analysis on a larger Pasión region burial

sample of 286 individuals, rather than the subset of 121 subjected to isotopic analysis. A

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more complex approach was taken providing sitewise and temporal clusters which

indicated that age– and sex–related distinctions were rare (Wright 1994: 162).

The skeletons from Holmul were excavated from one elite structure, Building B of

Group II (Gerry 1997). All skeletons from Uaxactún came from one building of religious

function, Structure A–V (Gerry 1997). Except for three individuals found with considerable

amounts and quality of grave offerings, all Altar de Sacrificios graves were simple in

construction and content (Gerry 1997). One prominent individual was among the skeletons

sampled from Seibal, otherwise they were nearly all Early Classic and found in domestic

groups along the site periphery or from ceremonial or elite residential structures with

modest graves (Gerry 1997). The Seibal and Altar de Sacrificios mortuary sample

essentially represent burials from monumental architecture rather than domestic units

(Wright 1994). The skeletons from Barton Ramie essentially came from beneath house

mound floors, were interred in simple pits with few or no grave offerings (Gerry 1997). All

Baking Pot individuals were from Group I, Mound G, an elite residential unit. With the

exception of one elaborate crypt, all burials were made in simple pits with few to no grave

offerings (Gerry 1997). The Copán skeletons sampled by Gerry (1997) came from either

the Main Group Mound 36, part of the royal residential complex or from the urban

settlement zones. Social status assignments were made from the results of a cluster analysis

and some sites have representatives for only one cluster. Samples from Barton Ramie and

Seibal account for 83% (54/65) of the commoner division. Copán has the largest

representation of the middle ranks of junior elite (46% or 18/39) and petty elite (47% or

15/32) with Altar de Sacrificios and Baking Pot representing an additional 44% (17/39) of

the junior elites. Holmul (57% or 24/42) and Uaxactún (21% or 9/42) have individuals only

in the high elite category (Gerry 1997: Table I). Aguateca, Dos Pilas and Itzán excavations

centered on domestic units and smaller mounds, so few high status burial were likely to

have been encountered (Wright 1994). From Lamanai all individuals came from the site

77

ceremonial core and two came from tombs (White and Schwarcz 1989). The Zapotec

Monte Alban samples come from tombs, mostly in the Main Plaza or the North Cemetery,

and other, either simple, stone–lined, or secondary tomb burials (Blitz 1995). They

belonged to 6 of the 15 barrios or residential neighborhoods and likely represent a mixture

of social ranks (Blitz 1995).

Clearly there is poor internal polity representation of social status divisions in these

studies. Sites are often represented by individuals from the Early and Late Classic together,

rather than separately (Table 4.7), particularly when social status assignments were made.

The sample chosen for this paleodietary study of Copán better represents the intrasocial

dimensions of age, sex, and social status than any other published study.

Although in many cases sample sizes were too small to attempt statistical evaluation,

Wright (1997) found some social status, as assigned by cluster analysis, differences in diet

based on stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes. Dietary differences by social status were

concluded to be more important than differences according to sex during the Late Classic

for the sites of Altar de Sacrificios, Dos Pilas, Seibal, Aguateca, and Itzán.

Sampling of skeletons for stable isotopic analysis was duplicated for 41 individuals

(according to burial labels) between Gerry (1993) and Wright (1994) for the sites of Seibal

and Altar de Sacrificios. This duplication provides an opportunity to compare the relative

agreement between the two research projects. From highest to lowest social rank Wright

assigned 5 ranks (A, B, C, D, and E, although E does not appear at either sites, Table 4.7)

and Gerry found 4 ranks (4, 3, 2, and 1, Table 4.7). Using a direct association between the

two systems (highest = A or 4, high = B or 3, low = C or 2, and lowest = D or 1) results in

6 of 41 (15%) cases of equivalent rank assignment by the authors, 7/41 (17%) were

extremely different with one method assigning a highest rank while the other assigned the

lowest rank to an individual, 11/41 (27%) differed by two ranks, and 17/41 (41%) differed

by one rank. The dissimilarity between the two social status assignment methods fails to

78

improve even when assignments were collapsed into only high (A and B, or 4 and 3) or low

(C and D, or 2 and 1). Under the pooled case 10 were equal and 31 were unequal. With each

system Wright assigned higher status than Gerry more than 60% of the time. Collapsing

status assignments into high (A or 4), middle (B and C, or 3 and 2), or low (D or 1) fails to

improve the dissimilarity, while using high (A or 4), or low (B, C, and D, or 3, 2, or 1)

makes almost everyone low status. Thus, the social status assignments provided by Gerry

and Wright are too dissimilar to rely on for direct comparison between their interpretations

of diet according to social status.

In instances of other assignments, Gerry and Wright differed among their duplicates for

the time period pairs Preclassic – Early Classic and Late Classic–Terminal Classic because

Wright used four time periods while Gerry only used two. Sex assignments were the same

for 33/41 (80%) skeletons and reversed for 8/41 (20%). Exact reasons for the differences

are difficult to pinpoint without further reporting on the osteological examinations.

Reanalysis of d13Ccollagen results according to sex yields some different observations

than presented by the original authors (Table 4.6). Reanalysis according to pairwise

differences in social status yields no statistically significant differences at the 0.05 level

with two–sample t–tests for either Late Classic Seibal or Altar de Sacrificios from either

Wright’s or Gerry’s data. There is no statistically significant difference for the d13Ccollagen

values of males at Seibal between Wright and Gerry (t = 0.768, p = 0.4477) or females (t =

1.64, p = 0.1586), indicating that the individual samples should be equivalent. However, the

same comparison for the two Altar de Sacrificios samples yields a difference between the

two male data sets (t = 2.426, p = 0.0291), no statistically significant difference between the

two female data sets (t = 2.03, p = 0.0628). Wright (1997) found that carbon isotopic

differences at Dos Pilas were statistically significantly different on the basis of sex, with

male adults 1.1‰ more positive than female adults. This disparity between the two data sets

partially explains the lack of similar decisions for each site (Table 4.6).

79

a. Terminal Classic samples included because Gerry (1993: 28) included Terminal and Late Classic skeletons in the Late Classic. b. Late Classic samples only.

Table 4.6: Statistical results for Late Classic Maya

site (source) sexmeandddd13C

sd nmean

differencet p decision

originaldecision

Altar de Sacrificios (Wright)a male –8.26 0.71 10 1.32 3.415 0.0032 unequal equal

female –9.58 1.04 11

Altar de Sacrificios (Wright)b male –7.40 1.24 2 2.19 1.690 0.1964 equal equal

female –9.59 1.64 3

Altar de Sacrificios (Gerry) male –9.04 0.61 7 0.16 0.593 0.5669 equal untested

female –8.88 0.34 6

Seibal (Wright)a male –9.83 1.12 20 1.28 4.006 0.0007 unequal equal

female –8.56 0.48 6

Seibal (Wright)b male –9.91 0.89 10 1.25 2.400 0.1419 equal equal

female –8.86 0.62 2

Seibal (Gerry) male –9.59 0.83 17 0.17 0.320 0.7611 equal untested

female –9.42 1.09 5

80

When the Term

inal Classic portion is excluded from

a statistical test of differences between the m

ean of male and fem

ale adults,

sample sizes becom

e very small (Table 4.6). C

onsidering the large differences in mean d

13Ccollagen , the lack of statistically

significant differences emphasized the poor sam

pling.

Regional differences in diet w

ere concluded to be the major distinction am

ong the Late C

lassic inhabitants of the settlements at

Holm

ul, Uaxactún, B

arton Ram

ie, Baking Pot, A

ltar de Sacrificios, Seibal, and Copán V

alley (Gerry 1993, G

erry and Krueger

1997). Few statistically significant differences w

ere found for sex, temporal, or social status distinctions, w

hile significant

differences were observed according to variation am

ong the Petén, Belize V

alley, and Copán V

alley groups. The B

elizean sites

(Barton R

amie and B

aking Pot) showed greater evidence for C

3 –based foods in the diet, while the Petén sites (H

olmul, U

axactún,

Altar de Sacrificios, Seibal) and C

opán showed a higher reliance on m

aize. Based on carbon isotopic m

easurement of bioapatite,

Gerry and K

rueger (1997) estimate that the B

elizean inhabitants had diets of 48% C

4 –based foods, while all others had diets of

estimated at 59%

C4 –based foods.

In a Pacbitun skeletal series, White (1997) reports finding that as social status increased C

4 –based food consumption also

increased. Additionally, fem

ale adults showed indications of 10%

less maize consum

ption than male adults. T

hree children (ages:

3–4 years old, 6–7, and unknown) had statistically significantly m

ore negative d13C

values than all adults, indicating a low

consumption of m

aize (White, H

ealy, and Schwarcz 1993).

81

Additionally, significant differences were reported by grave type (crypt/cist, pit, and urn

in order from highest to lowest). Higher ranked individuals consumed more C4 foods than

lower ranked ones (White, Healy, and Schwarcz 1993).

For the site of Lamanai, White (1997) observed equal dental caries rates, amounts of

enamel hypoplasia, and no differences in average carbon or nitrogen isotopic values

between male and females adults. Based on nitrogen isotopic values and enamel formation,

children were weaned between 2 and 4 years of age.

Coyston (1995) performed a stable carbon isotopic study of bioapatite from skeletons

from the sites of Lamanai and Pacbitun. No statistically significant differences were found

between males and females for Pacbitun, contrary to the d13Ccollagen results of White,

Healy, and Schwarcz (1993). However, both research groups chose to collapse the time

category for purposes of analyzing differences between the sexes. Their choice was

partially because of sample size, since only one Early Classic (A.D. 250–550) skeleton and

three Late Classic (A.D. 550–700) skeletons provided isotopic results, while thirteen

skeletons dated to the Terminal Classic (A.D. 700–900).

In White, Healy, and Schwarcz (1993) this choice has statistical test result

consequences. For a pooled comparison in which time phase is ignored, the mean

difference in d13Ccollagen is statistically significant at a 0.05 level (t = 2.847, p = 0.013).

Alternatively, when only the Terminal Classic sample is compared the mean difference is

not statistically significant (t = 1.979, p = 0.0776). Sample sizes change from 8 male and 8

female adults in the pooled data set to 5 male and 7 female adults for the Terminal Classic

sample. The Late Classic and Early Classic samples are too small for meaningful statistical

tests to be performed. In either case, statistical significance would be reached for a 0.10

level t–test1.

1. No a value was provided in the original paper, but only one difference would be statistically significant a conventional 0.05 level.

82

In the analysis of d13Capatite from Pacbitun skeletons, Coyston (1995: 150, 151, 231)

reports no statistically significant difference between all male and female adults. However,

the reported mean and standard deviation results appear to be incorrect. The only way to

yield summary statistics equal to Coyston’s was by dropping the first male and female adult

from the list of results, even then the standard deviation was incorrect, so I believe some

calculation was incorrect (though possibly some data were recorded wrong). A two–sample

t–test for Terminal Classic of differences between 5 male and 6 female adult d13Capatite also

results in no statistically significant difference (t = 0.246, p = 0.8116).

Early Classic Lamanai high elites showed evidence of greater C4 consumption

according to d13Capatite values than lower elites. The inference from d13Ccollagen values

indicated the reverse. Thus, Coyston (1995) concluded that different proportions of

C3–based and C4–based carbohydrates and proteins comprised the diet of each group.

However, meat provided substantial protein in their diet remained indeterminate based on

protein to carbohydrate differences in bioapatite and bone collagen stable carbon isotopic

compositions (Coyston 1995: 176). Nor was it determined which nutrient (or carbon)

routing diet model most correctly describes the source of carbon isotope ratios in bone

bioapatite and collagen.

83

a. Gerry 1997, 1993. b. Wright 1994. c. White, Healy, and Schwarcz 1993. d. White and Schwarcz 1989. e. Blitz 1995: 136. f. this study.

Table 4.7: Social status divisions of adults for Mesoamerican sites sampled for isotopic paleodietary analysis regardless of time period.

site highest4 3 2

lowest1

Altar de Sacrificiosa 2 6 9 2

Baking Pot 1 1 8 –

Barton Ramie – 6 – 34

Copán 5 15 18 9

Holmul 24 – – –

Seibal 1 4 4 20

Uaxactún 9 – – –

highestA B C D

lowestE

Aguatecab – 2 2 2 1

Altar de Sacrificios 4 8 13 11 –

Dos Pilas 3 5 4 5 2

Itzán 1 1 1 1 –

Seibal 9 15 5 2 –

crypt cist pit urn ?

Pacbitunc 5 6 3 – 3

tomb other

Lamanaid 2 41

Monte Albane 23 12

by site type Type IV Type III Type II Type I

Copánf 39 4 16 12

by grave rank high middle low

Copán 8 22 35

84

a. M: male, F: female, U: unknown. b. I: infant, J: juvenile, D: adolescent, YA: young adult, MA: middle adult, OA: old adult, A: adult (as defined on page 61). c. sample sizes for all time periods sampled from the site. d. one sample missing d15N measurement. e. time period divisions differ for the Zapotec, so those equivalent to the Maya Late Classic were counted. f. site time period divisions differ, so those equivalent to the Maya Late Classic were counted.

Table 4.8: Sample sizes for stable isotopic studies of Mesoamerican groups dating between A.D. 600–1

Sitesexa age–at–deathb sample

sizetotalsizec reference

M F U I J D YA MA OA A

Aguateca 4 3 – – – 1 – 5 1 – 7 (8)d 8 Wright 1994

Altar de Sacrificios 6 6 – – – – – – – 12 12 (13)d 18 Gerry 1993

Altar de Sacrificios 3 2 1 – – 1 2 2 – 1 6 38 Wright 1994

Baking Pot 5 3 1 – – – – – – 9 9 9 Gerry 1993

Barton Ramie 13 11 7 – – – – – – 31 31 38 Gerry 1993

Copán 41 38 11 1 3 5 18 30 25 2 90 90 Reed (this study)

Copán 8 11 19 – – – 3 3 1 31 38 41 Gerry 1993

Dos Pilas 8 7 – – – 1 5 5 2 2 15 19 Wright 1994

Holmul – – 2 – – – – – – 2 2 14 Gerry 1993

Itzán 2 3 – – – 1 1 – – 4 5 5 Wright 1994

Lamanai 2 – – – – – 1 – – 1 2 55 White and Schwarcz 1989

Monte Albane 8 2 8 – – – – – – 18 18 40 Blitz 1995

Pacbitunf 7 8 4 – 3 – 1 2 – 13 19 21 White, Healy, and Schwarcz 1993

Seibal 19 5 1 – – – – – – 25 25 27 (28)d Gerry 1993

Seibal 10 1 – – – – 2 4 1 4 11 36 Wright 1994

Uaxactún 1 2 2 – – – – – – 5 5 5 Gerry 1993

85