St. Godric of Finchale (1065) is one of the oldest composers whose work has survived to the present day. In fact, his four extant songs constitute the earliest-recorded pieces of music ever set to the English language. He wrote their text, however, before the "Great Vowel Shift" (a linguistic movement that began around 1350 and completely changed the way our language sounds), meaning that they bear little resemblance to what we now think of as "English." Though he was a hermit that was said to have had visions and be prescient (both Thomas Beckett and Pope Alexander III sought his counsel), his local Bishop ultimately canonized him for the supposed miracles that took place at his gravesite. He is not an official saint, however, because back then, it was exceedingly rare for someone's sainthood to be made doctrine outside of Rome – the first time that a Pope did so was only a few years earlier, in 993. Songs:

• Crist & St. Marie; Performed by Russell Oberlin & Seymour Barab (1958)o St. Godric’s sister supposedly sang this song to him in a vision as she ascended

into heaven. The singer in this recording, Russell Oberlin, was an incredibly significant pioneer in the mid-century's "Early Music Revival," and remains, to this day, one of the greatest medieval/baroque music specialists ever recorded. He also premiered the solo role in Leonard Bernstein's "Chichester Psalms," was a Fulbright Scholar and, aside from having a pretty well-developed voice, was an absolute master of phrasing. These recordings are taken from his seven-CD project, "Music of the Middle Ages," which has long been considered a benchmark of the genre. Oberlin also provides me with the perfect opportunity to address a very pernicious misunderstanding about vocal pedagogy: most people consider him to be America's first internationally distinguished countertenor, but this is, at best, confusing. First of all, contrary to popular belief, there is no such vocal fach as that of the countertenor. Rather, it is a decision made by modern tenors or baritones to neglect the chest register and sing in an improperly mixed, falsetto-dominant registration balance. Note that not a single composer from the Bel Canto era wrote a role for this "voice part;" this is because they knew that the only way to sing well is to develop the registers so that they exist in perfect equilibrium, ruling out the possibility of a virtuoso falsettist. Getting back to Russell Oberlin, however – just because he sang in the range currently associated with that of the "countertenor," does not mean that he was one, even if he mistakenly referred to himself as such. In reality, he was merely the century's highest-lying leggero tenor (though his career was short-lived, indicating that he habitually used too much chest action in the falsetto range and that his tessitura was most likely lower). This vocal subclassification is also known as the "tenore di grazia" or "haute-contre," all of which are synonyms for the tenor equivalent of the lyric coloratura soprano. I should mention here that I am not all that wild about vocal subclassifications in general, though, as all members of the six standard voice types should be able to sing high into their falsettos, low into their chests, loudly, softly, quickly and slowly. More often than not, a vocal subclassification merely refers to a natural predilection or gift that a particular singer might possess. First-rate singers, however, are comfortable in all roles.

• Marie Virgene Moder; Performed by Russell Oberlin & Seymour Barab (1958)o According to Christian myth, the Virgin Mary herself composed this song while

visiting St. Godrich in a vision.• Marie Cristes Bur; Performed by Russell Oberlin & Seymour Barab (1958)

John Dunstable (1390) was arguably the single most innovative musician of the 15th century. To understand just how influential he was, though, we must first quickly review the history of harmony. As is evidenced by the previous three compositions, music started off being monophonic – meaning that only one melody sounded at a time (though occasionally it was played in unisons or octaves by another performer). Music as a discipline then progressed to employ something called Organum, which essentially introduced a secondary voice that constituted the primary melody, or "cantus firmus," transposed up by a 4th or a 5th. In addition to a few other innovations, such as highly restricted contrary and oblique motion, this resulted in a nascent form of polyphony (the simultaneous playing of two independent melodies) known as heterophony. It wasn't until Dunstable introduced the 3rd and the 6th to this technique that triadic harmony became possible, thus paving the way for the high polyphony of the Renaissance era. You see, he, along with his younger contemporaries Guillaume Dufay and Gilles Binchois, formed the Burgundian School of composition -- the direct predecessor to the Franco-Flemish school, whose most famous exponent was Josquin des Prez (the first master of Renaissance high polyphony). Please keep in mind, though, that this description is an oversimplification of the evolution of music for the sake of expediency. It is nearly impossible to form a cogent narrative of this topic because composition was in no way standardized at the time, various countries developed different methodologies in relative isolation and records from this period are scanty at best. Songs:

• O Rosa Bella; Performed by Alfred Deller, August Wenzinger, Marianne Majer & Gertrud Flugel (1950)

o This song is one of the more popular compositions from the 1400's. Though musicologists have traditionally attributed it to John Dunstable, a composer named John Bedyngham is now believed to be its actual writer. Regardless, authorship of British music from this period is usually impossible to establish to a total degree of certainty because most of the country's musical manuscripts were destroyed in the Dissolution of the Monasteries during the English Reformation. As a result, musicologists have had to rely on sources recovered from across the continent and frequently must infer authorship while reconciling anonymous or conflicting attributions. The singer in this recording is Alfred Deller – an even more significant figure in the "Early Music Revival" than Russell Oberlin. Deller, as opposed to his American counterpart, was a true countertenor – in fact, he was the world's first internationally renowned one. Though he was, from a functional perspective, not a very good singer (as I mentioned, countertenors have emaciated chest voices, which causes problems with vowel formation, pitch accuracy, vibrato and dynamic control), he was at least innovative and a highly skilled musician. Additionally, his falsetto was relatively well-developed, which is more than I can say for many of the other

singers of the last 60 or so years (note the relative lack of overtones in his singing – the result of very little vocal fold mass engagement and an open throat, aka, robust falsetto action). In fact, one of the reasons why people might think that baroque singers didn't employ vibrato may very well be because of this strength that Deller had – a testament to his profound influence on the early music revival. You see, in its pure form, the falsetto cannot produce vibrato; this is because the vocal folds are not adducted enough to create sufficient resistance to the flow of air against the glottis to create one. As a reminder: the folds undulate to relieve subglottal pressure, which is what causes the small deviation in pitch known as vibrato. However, when there is little subglottal pressure as a result of air flowing directly through an abducted glottis (i.e., when one uses pure falsetto), the aforementioned tension and flexion of the folds will not take place. I've said it before, and I'll say it again, though: because the castrati's registers were perfectly fused, they unquestionably would have produced a healthy vibrato. It is, in fact, impossible to sing well without one because it means that the singer is either directly manipulating their vocal mechanism or singing with an incorrect registration balance (though the two go hand-in-hand). Both of these things homogenize the voice and make it weak, inflexible, and inaccurate in both its ability to match the right pitch and form the correct vowel. Getting back to Deller, however: he first rose to prominence as a result of advocacy on the part of Michael Tippett – a prominent English composer. Historically, the only place in which one could actually hear the countertenor voice was in all-male choirs, and after hearing him perform at a church service, Tippett thought Deller talented enough to become a soloist rather than a chorister. He also gained the attention of another famous British composer, Benjamin Britten, who notably wrote a role for him in his opera, "A Midsummer Night's Dream" (marking the first time in history that a composer wrote an operatic role for a countertenor). Lastly, Deller also founded many early-music ensembles/festivals, the most famous being the Deller Consort – one of the first and best groups dedicated exclusively to Historically Informed Performance. The other musicians in this recording are not particularly notable, except for August Wenzinger, who was arguably the greatest viola de gambist ever recorded. He also taught Jordi Savali (the most famous player of the instrument today) and was one of the first people to champion HIP.

A bit of a refresher for those who need one:The next several composers were active during the English Reformation, so I thought that I might quickly cover its history. The Reformation was set into motion when Queen Catherine of Aragon was unable to give King Henry VIII a male heir (though they did have a daughter – the woman who would go on to become known as "Bloody Mary"). Wanting to establish a Tudor Dynasty, he demanded that the Pope annul his marriage so that he could father a child with the Queen's maid, Anne Boleyn. This appeal, however, put everyone involved in a tough position. You see, the previous Pope had to give Henry special dispensation to marry Catherine because Leviticus says that a man cannot marry the wife of his brother (which she was). The Pope at the

time, however, was not empowered to vitiate his predecessor's ruling, as canon law would have proscribed this. The King, instead, was forced to ask Parliament to grant him his annulment. This request instigated famous debate between Thomas Cromwell (Henry VIII's Chief Minister) and Thomas More (the Lord High Chancellor of England) – the subject of the great play-turned-movie, "A Man for All Seasons." When Parliament refused to rule in his favor, Henry essentially had his most prominent dissenters beheaded after declaring himself the "Supreme Head on Earth of the Church of England" through the "Acts of Supremacy." He then had Cromwell draft the "Statute in Restraint of Appeals," thus severing all ties to the Papacy. After this, Anne Boleyn gave birth to Elizabeth I, the Pope excommunicated Henry VIII, Cromwell dissolved the monasteries and seized all church property, Henry had Anne Boleyn and Thomas Cromwell executed – you get the idea. When Henry died, the son of his third wife, Eduard VI, carried on his father's legacy of Catholic oppression. When Mary I took over, however, she repealed much of the legislation passed by her predecessors and attempted to rehabilitate England's relationship with Rome (interestingly, her first act was to have her mother's marriage to Henry reinstated ex-post facto to establish her royal lineage). While Mary was in many ways Henry's religious antithesis, her methods were very familiar. Instead of focusing her ire on Protestant institutions, however, she persecuted Protestants themselves -- an inquisition that resulted in the immolation of nearly three hundred citizens on charges of heresy (the action that earned her the famous sobriquet). Eventually, Mary died, and, childless, her younger half-sister, Elizabeth I, inherited the throne. Though she, like her father, did much to move the nation towards Protestantism (it was she that officially established the Church of England), tolerance of other faiths defined the Elizabethan Era. It was under her 45-year long reign that England ushered in an unprecedented era of peace and prosperity – an age that gave rise not just to the likes of Shakespeare and Marlowe, but to many great musicians as well.

Renaissance

Disclaimer:The music of the Renaissance, more often than not, requires a significant amount of focus on the part of the listener to prevent the impression of monotony. When one is able to achieve a

certain level of concentration, however, the payoff is quite high. You see, modal polyphonic music cannot modulate, meaning its tonal center on a macro scale cannot shift. Instead, one

must focus their attention on the contour of each melodic line and how they interact with one another – melodies that, because they are modal, are usually more beautiful than those constructed from the diatonic scale. Similarly, most of this music is performed by only

moderately talented musicians, as interest in this period was minimal until about halfway through the century.

John Taverner (1490), not to be confused with the contemporary composer of the same name (who claims to be Taverner’s direct descendant), was one of England’s most important composers pre-Thomas Tallis. Among his most enduring achievements was creating a new form of music known as the “In Nomine” – this refers to, what is, typically, a short, 4-voiced composition for viola de gamba ensemble (though others eventually began deviating from this

model). Up until this point in history, composers primarily wrote music for the voice, and the In Nomine became a significant example of a type of work written explicitly for instrumental ensembles. It has also been said that after serving a musical appointment at one of Oxford University’s subsidiary institutions, Taverner was employed as an agent of Thomas Cromwell. Motets:

• Dum transisset Sabbatum; Performed by the Choir of King's College, Cambridge & Sir David Willcocks (1962)

o The Choir of Kings College, Cambridge, founded all the way back in 1441, was the 20th century’s most famous exponent of the British choral tradition. They are led here by Sir David Willcocks – their director from 1957 to 1974 (as an interesting aside, Willcocks conducted the choir in the Rolling Stone’s recording of “You Can’t Always Get What You Want”).

Thomas Tallis (1505), along with his colleague/pupil, William Byrd, constituted 1/2 of the most celebrated musical duo of the Renaissance. As such, he and Byrd became two of the first people in history to be granted a patent to print and publish music, as their careers directly coincided with the invention of the printing press. Tallis was also especially renowned for his versatility, as he had to meet the musical demands of the varying denominations of the entire House of Tudor (he lived all the way from Henry VIII’s reign to Elizabeth I’s). You see, each sect of Christianity demanded different things in the composition of its music; for instance, Protestants discouraged elaborate polyphony, to make the words of the prayer more readily audible to the congregation, whereas Catholics encouraged it, to inspire more awe in the listener. Additionally, depending upon the kind of religious service for which it was written, a piece of music's form would vary considerably.Large-Scale Choral Works:

• The Lamentations of Jerimiah, Pts. 1 & 2; Performed by the Deller Consort (1968)o These are some of Tallis’ most well-respected compositions. People have often

interpreted them as a personal lament of England’s embattled religious landscape at the time. Incipit Lamentatio Jeremiae Prophetae Aleph - Quomodo Sedet Plorans Ploravit De Lamentatione Jeremiae Prophetae Ghimel Migravit Judas Daleth Omnes Persecutores Heth Facti Sunt

Motets: • In Jejunio Et Fletu; Performed by the Choir of King's College, Cambridge, Sir David

Willcocks & John Langdon (1965)o This work was most likely one of the last pieces of music that Tallis wrote before

dying.

• O Nata Lux de Lumine; Performed by the Deller Consort (1960)o O Nata Lux is surprisingly chromatic for a composition written during the

Renaissance – its final cadence is particularly famous for its striking dissonance. Salvator Mundi; Performed by the Choir of King's College, Cambridge, Sir David Willcocks

& John Langdon (1965)o This motet is from Thomas Tallis’ and William Byrd’s mammoth publication,

“Cantiones quae ab argumento sacrae vocantur” – a set of 34 Latin motets written right after Queen Elizabeth I granted them their patent. Unfortunately, the Cantiones Sacrae turned out to be a commercial flop, and the two composers were forced to rely on the queen’s patronage to stay afloat.

Salvator Mundi Domine; Performed by the Deller Consort (1968) Sancte Deus; Performed by the Choir of King's College, Cambridge, Sir David Willcocks &

Sir Andrew Davis (1965) Spem in Alium; Performed by the Morley College Choir & Sir Michael Tippett (1948)

o This work stands as one of the Renaissance’s most towering monuments, along with the likes of Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina’s Missa Papae Marcelli and Gregorio Allegri’s Miserere. What makes this piece so remarkable is that it contains a whopping 40 independent vocal lines, all seamlessly woven into a beautiful polyphonic tapestry (it is scored for eight 5-part choirs). The recording that I have chosen is the first one ever made of this piece and is conducted by a young Michael Tippett.

Videte Miraculum; Performed by Choir of King's College, Cambridge, Sir David Willcocks & Sir Andrew Davis (1965)

William Byrd (1539) was, along with Thomas Tallis, one of the two most redoubtable English musicians of the Renaissance. Though his music may not always be as aesthetically pleasing as that of his mentor, he was unquestionably more innovative, as he was the first composer in history to leave behind a substantial legacy of keyboard and chamber music.Masses:

Mass in Three Voices; Performed by the Choir of King's College, Cambridge & Sir David Willcocks (1963)

o This composition is the first of Byrd’s three Latin masses – the works for which he is perhaps best known. Because Queen Elizabeth I was in power at the time of their creation, it would have been impossible for them to serve a liturgical function, as they are Catholic masses. As a result, they must have been composed for their own sake, making them one of the first (if not the first) examples of large-scale art music. Additionally, the sparsity of their scoring makes them anachronistic for pieces that were written during the late Renaissance, to say nothing of the fact that they mark the first time that an English composer included a Kyrie section in one of his masses. This recording, as well as the following two, earned the Penguin Guide to Recorded Classical Music’s coveted “Rosette” status.

Kyrie – Gloria Credo

Sanctus – Benedictus Agnus Dei

Mass for Four Voices; Performed by the Choir of King's College, Cambridge & Sir David Willcocks (1963)

o Kyrie o Gloriao Credo o Sanctus – Benedictuso Agnus Dei

Mass for Five Voices; Performed by the Choir of King's College, Cambridge & Sir David Willcocks (1959)

o Kyrie o Gloriao Credo o Sanctus – Benedictuso Agnus Dei

Motets and Madrigals: Ave Verum Corpus; Coro de Madriglistas de Mexico & Luis Sandi (1959)

o Ave Verum Corpus is one of the most popular pieces from Byrd’s “Gradualia” – a set of 109 motets that stands as one of his many crowning achievements.

Justorum Animae; Performed by the Harvard Glee Club, Radcliffe Choral Society & G. Wallace Woodworth (1958)

o This piece is similarly from the Gradualia. The recording that I have selected features the Harvard Glee Club – America’s oldest collegiate choir and the dedicatees of works by Darius Milhaud, Francis Poulenc, Gustav Holst, Leonard Bernstein, Elliott Carter, Virgil Thompson and Randall Thompson. Notable members have included several of the aforementioned composers, as well as Presidents Theodore Roosevelt & FDR.

This Sweet and Merry Month; Performed by Alfred Deller & the Deller Consort (1962) o This Sweet and Merry Month is from Byrd’s collection, “Psalms, Songs and

Sonnets of 1611.” Consort Songs:

Lullaby, My Sweet Little Baby; Performed by the Wenzinger Consort of Viols & Alfred Deller (1959)

o Lullaby, My Sweet Little Baby is one of Byrd’s “Songs of Sadness and Piety” – consort songs (meaning songs accompanied by an ensemble of viola de gambas) that helped establish the genre as one of the country’s dominant musical forms.

Why do I Use my Paper Ink and Pen?; Performed by Russell Oberlin, the In Nomine Players & Denis Stevens (1958)

o This piece is similarly from the “Songs of Sadness and Piety.” Ye Sacred Muses; Performed by the Wenzinger Consort of Viols & Alfred Deller (1959)

o Ye Sacred Muses is Byrd’s most famous work of the genre, and justly so – it is one of the most profoundly melancholic songs that you’ll ever hear. Its somber

atmosphere makes sense, as Byrd composed it as an elegy for his friend, mentor, and colleague, Thomas Tallis.

Consort Music: Fantasia a 6 in G minor Performed by the In Nomine Players & Denis Stevens (1958)

o This is one of Byrd’s more famous pieces of consort music (a genre that would eventually evolve into what we now call chamber music). You’ll notice that it, at one point, quotes the melody of “Greensleeves,” which would have been a contemporary folk tune at the time of this work's composition.

Keyboard Works: The Fitzwilliam Virginal Book

o The Fitzwilliam Virginal Book is one of the most substantial collections of Renaissance keyboard music in existence. William Byrd was its primary contributor, but it contains music from several other composers as well.

Wolsey's Wild (Wilson's Wild); Performed by Wanda Landowska (1928) Wanda Landowska remains, to this day, one of the two most

talented and influential harpsichordists on record, second only to the next performer on this list. Though it was Violet Gordon-Woodhouse who resuscitated this instrument in the musical community, Landowska popularized it with the broader public. Most proponents of HIP today, however, tend to scoff at her, as she had Pleyel and Company construct something called the "Grand Modèle de Concert" specifically for her-- a kind of behemoth harpsichord that was seven and a half feet by three and a half feet long. This instrument had two keyboards (placed very close to one another so that she could play on both with one hand), a five-octave range, seven pedals and internal strings that reached up to sixteen feet in length! Ironically, however, this model was not so different than those made by Hieronymus Albrecht Hass, whose instruments J.S. Bach undoubtedly would have used (yet another instance where the position of so-called "purists" is utterly fatuous). Back to Landowska, however: one of her most significant achievements was her participation in the premiere of Manuel de Falla’s opera, “El Retablo de Maese Pedro,” as it marked the first time in the 20th century that a composer included a harpsichord in the scoring for an orchestra. She was also the dedicatee of two of the century’s greatest concertos for the instrument, those by De Falla and Francis Poulenc.

Rowland or Lord Willobie's Welcome Home; Performed by Violet Gordon-Woodhouse

Violet Gordon-Woodhouse was one of the single most significant harpsichordists since the invention of the pianoforte, as she was the preferred instrumentalist of Arnold Dolmetsch -- the first person ever to reconstruct period instruments. She was also the

first musician to record on the harpsichord and was pivotal in reintroducing several composers such as Scarlatti and Purcell into the standard repertoire. Among her most ardent admirers were Auguste Rodin, Pablo Picasso, Bernard Shaw, T.E. Lawrence, Virginia Woolf, Ezra Pound, T.S. Eliot, Frederic Delius, Bela Bartok, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Sergei Diaghilev (the founder of the Ballet Russes), Igor Stravinsky, Sergei Rachmaninoff and Adelina Patti.

The Queene's Alman; Performed by Violet Gordon-Woodhouse Galiarda; Performed by Violet Gordon-Woodhouse Earle Of Oxford's Marche; Performed by Violet Gordon-Woodhouse

My Ladye Nevells Booke; Performed by Glenn Gould (1971)o My Ladye Nevells Booke is another one of the most consequential sources of

Renaissance keyboard music ever written – this time, composed exclusively by Byrd. If, as the legendary conductor and pianist Hans von Bulow once said, Bach’s Well-Tempered Clavier is the Old Testament of Keyboard music and Beethoven’s 32 sonatas the new, then My Ladye Nevells Booke must be the Tanakh (the Hebrew text from which the Christian bible is mostly plagiarized). The paucity of keyboard music from the Renaissance is attributable to the fact that, at the time, music was printed one melodic line at a time – there was no such thing as a full score. Because there are two hands, however, music for the virginal (the Renaissance equivalent of the harpsichord) required two staves, presenting a challenge in the production of its sheet music. Glenn Gould – one of the stranger virtuosi of the 20th century, performs the five pieces that I have selected from this anthology. Though he was particularly renowned for his interpretations of Bach’s keyboard works, Gould also specialized in music that inhabited both extremes of the temporal spectrum, eschewing the late romantic composers that were staples of so many of his colleagues’ repertoires. He also had a propensity for grunting while playing, even in the recording studio (though he does not engage in this behavior so much in these recordings). Gould has, at various times, been called a hypochondriac, paranoid, a recluse and obsessive-compulsive. This reputation partly stems from the fact that he frequently canceled performances at the last minute, and insisted on regulating every aspect of his environment when recording – the temperature of the room, the height of the piano, the seat that he sat in, etc. He was also very rigid in his interpretive vision for his performances – this resulted in several spats with his fellow musicians such as Elisabeth Schwarzkopf and Leonard Bernstein (the latter of whom famously disavowed their performance of Brahms 1st piano concerto before they even started, citing the pianist’s insistence that they ignore Brahms’ tempo and dynamic indications). Lastly, Gould had a photographic memory, perfect pitch and was one of the few musicians of the 20th century who knew anything about aesthetics. By the end of his career, he had drawn acclaim as one of the greatest pianists of the mid-late 20th century, was designated a national historic person by his native country, Canada, was inducted into the Canadian

Music Hall of Fame and had one of his recordings included in Voyager I’s Golden Record.

First Pavan and Galliard Sixth Pavan and Galliard Hughe Ashton's Ground Sellinger's Round A Voluntary

Elizabethan Suite; Performed by Ray Robertson and Ethel Bartlett (1945)o I’m not entirely sure how to classify the Elizabethan Suite, as it contains music

written by several composers from a few different sources. Nonetheless, I shall include it here. Many of its component pieces are by Byrd and are from the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book, but it also features one of his compositions from the Parthenia (otherwise known as “The first musicke that ever was printed for the Virginalls”). It similarly contains works by John Bull and Giles Farnbay – two of the other most prominent English composers of keyboard music from the Renaissance. One of the performers in this recording, Ethel Bartlett, decided to compile all of these compositions, arrange them for piano duo, and perform them consecutively with her husband, Ray Robertson. You see, the two of them were known as “Bartlett and Robertson,” and together, they nearly singlehandedly popularized the two-piano repertoire in the 20th century. Both were students of the legendary English piano pedagogue, Tobias Matthay, and went on to commission works from Arnold Bax, Benjamin Britten, and Béla Bartók.

Thomas Morley (1557) was one of England’s foremost composers of secular music in the Elizabethan era and was almost single-handedly responsible for popularizing the Italian madrigal in Britain (a, traditionally non-religious, through-composed and polyphonic composition for acapella choir). Madrigals and Songs:

April is in My Mistress' Face; Performed by Alfred Deller & the Deller Consort (1973) It was a lover and his lass; Performed by John Coates & Berkeley Masson (1925)

o This piece is unique, in that it is one of the few Shakespearian songs written during the writer’s lifetime. Though there is no direct evidence that he and the Morley ever met, it is highly likely. The performer in the recording that I have selected is John Coates – one England’s premier singers of the early 20th century. In fact, many people regard him as the last surviving member of an extraordinary lineage of British tenors, stretching back to John Braham, who was the predecessor of the legendary Sims Reeves. Coates was also one of the more versatile singers on record, specializing in French, German and British music, spanning the Renaissance to Modern eras, and encompassing pieces for both the recital hall and operatic stage.

O Mistress Mine; Performed by Alfred Deller & Desmond Dupré (1967)o This song must have been the first musical setting of Shakespeare’s frequently

used text from Twelfth Night.

John Dowland (1563) is perhaps best described as the Renaissance equivalent of Shubert, in that he elevated the accompanying instrument of his songs (in this case, the lute), to a prominence on par with that of the soloist. It is because of this, as well as his talent for text-setting that he is remembered as one of England’s greatest songwriters. Consort Music:

Lachrimaeo Lachrimae is Dowland’s best-known collection of instrumental music. It is an

early example of both large-scale consort and program music – meaning music that is intended to convey a symbolic meaning (though its particular significance is not apparent). As was common at the time, this collection’s full title is much longer than that by which it is commonly known – this one, however, tickles me. It is as follows: “Lachrimæ or seaven teares figured in seaven passionate pavans, with divers other pavans, galliards and allemands, set forth for the lute, viols, or violons, in five parts.”

Lachrimae Antiquae, Lachrimae Antique Novae, Lachrimae Gementes, lachrimae Tristes, Lachrimae Coactae; Performed by the Philharmonia of London & Thurston Dart (1958)

This recording, as well as the following one, is of an orchestral transcription conducted by Thurston Dart – another prominent figure in the mid-century’s early music revival. He was a very distinguished musicologist, conductor, harpsichordist, clavichordist, and teacher (his students included the now-famous early music specialists, John Eliott Gardiner and Christopher Hogwood).

Lachrimae Amantis, Lachrimae Verae; Performed by the Philharmonia of London & Thurston Dart (1958)

Semper Dowland, Semper Dolens; Performed by Julian Bream (1956) This is probably the most famous number from the Lacrimae,

even though it is not one of the seven pavans (a type of dance form) after which the collection is named. The phrase, "Semper Dowland, Semper Dolens" translates to “Always Dowland, always doleful;” a play on the fact that almost all of his music is pathetick (meaning slow and in a minor key). It also made musicologists realize that they were mispronouncing his name -- phonetically, it would have sounded like Doland (as in Poland), thus completing the rhyme. The performer in this recording is Julian Bream – probably the most distinguished Guitarist of the mid-late 20th century. Bream was the dedicatee of works by Benjamin Britten, Michael Tippett, and William Walton, to name just a few, and the recipient of numerous Grammies, honorary doctorates, fellowships and governmental distinctions.

Sir John Langton's Pavan; Performed by Julian Bream (1965) Captain Digorie Piper's Galliard; Performed by Andres Segovia (1957)

Andres Segovia is often referred to as “the grandfather of modern classical guitar,” for no one in the 20th century did more to elevate the status of the guitar as a concert instrument than him. Segovia was the dedicatee of works by Joaquín Rodrigo, Manuel Ponce, Heitor Villa-Lobos and Darius Milhaud, and was a very prolific arranger of works originally written for the piano, lute, and violin. He was also the teacher of many other famous guitarists, including John Williams (the late 20th century’s greatest exponent of the instrument). His many accolades include ten honorary Ph.D.'s as well as a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. Most impressively, however, he was made Marquis of Salobreña by the King of Spain.

Songs: Can she excuse my wrongs?; Performed by Russell Oberlin & Joseph Iadone (1958)

o This song is one of Dowland’s more historically significant ones. Its text was most likely written by Robert Deveraux, the 2nd Earl of Essex, in reference to his relationship with Queen Elizabeth I (the subject of which would serve as the premise for Donizetti’s opera, “Roberto Devereux”). Initially a suitor for the “Virgin Queen,” she appointed him to several prominent military positions, only to for him to disappoint her at every turn. Eventually, her patience wore thin, and she imprisoned him. After he got out, he staged a coup, but was unsuccessful, and was ultimately beheaded.

Come again, Sweet Love; Performed by Roland Hayeso Roland Hayes was the oldest black artist of international renown to make

recordings. Hayes began his career singing with the famous “Fisk Jubilee Singers,” but eventually broke away as a soloist in Boston (for those of us who live here, Jordon Hall was the venue at which he made his debut). By the end of his career, he had sung for King George V, was written about by Langston Hughes, and was the first black soloist to be engaged by the Boston Symphony Orchestra.

Fine Knacks for Ladies; Performed by John Langstaff, David Soyer & Herman Chessido John Langstaff was a mid-century early music specialist and child educator.

Though his vibrato is somewhat tremulous, his registers were relatively well-developed.

Flow My Tears; Performed by Aksel Schiøtz & Jytte Gorki Schmidt (1941)o Flow My Tears is the composition for which Dowland is best known, as it is the

single most famous song to emerge from Elizabethan England. It also served as the basis for his instrumental collection, Lachrimae – each of the seven “tears” being a variation on its opening motif of a descending fourth. The singer in this recording, Aksel Schiøtz, is one of the better post-WWII lieder singers on record.

From Silent Night; Performed by the Consort of Viols of the Leonhardt Baroque Ensemble, Alfred Deller, Desmond Dupré & Gustav Leonhardt (1954)

If My Complaints Could Passions Move; Performed by Peter Pears & Julian Bream (1960)

o This piece is from Dowland’s “First Book of Ayres” – a collection of songs that represented a watershed moment in the genre’s development, as it proved to be more commercially successful than any other previous endeavor of the kind. Like many of his songs, Dowland reworked the music of this piece to fit several formats, one such example being the earlier “Captain Digorie Piper's Galliard.” The singer in this recording is Peter Pears. Though he performs this song with Julian Bream, it is his relationship with another musician for which he is best known. You see, he and his romantic partner, Benjamin Britten, constituted one of the century’s most efficacious power couples. Not only were they an extremely prolific recital duo, but Pears premiered the lead tenor roles in nearly all of Britten’s operas and concert pieces for voice. As Britten was England’s most beloved native composer since the baroque musician, Henry Purcell, this meant that the two of them dominated the country’s musical landscape for nearly all of their professional lives. In fact, so far-reaching was Pears’ influence on subsequent generations of singers that his voice is now considered to be that of the quintessential “English tenor.” This contention is, however, historically without basis, for, as I mentioned earlier, singers such as Edward Lloyd or John Coates more aptly hold this distinction. No, Pears actually had relatively poor vocal technique, and some, including me, would say that his success was in large part due to his professional and romantic partnership with Britten, rather than his talent. Though he was, undoubtedly, an impressively capable musician, his lower and upper extensions were constricted in both their range and timbre, he had next to no dynamic control, and in all of his recordings, no matter how early in his career that he made them, you can make out a pronounced wobble.

In darkness let me dwell; Performed by Russell Oberlin & Joseph Iadone (1958) I Saw my Lady Weep; Performed by John Langstaff, David Soyer & Herman Chessid

(1952)o Though it is a beautiful song in itself, I Saw My Lady Weep was intended to serve

as a prelude to the following song in Dowland’s Second Book of Ayres, “Flow My Tears.” Musicologists have deduced this because it ends on the dominant of the next song’s tonic (the chords built off the fifth and first scale degrees of a piece's key, respectively), thus forming a cadence in the movement from this song to the next. The recording that I have selected, however, resolves the hanging dominant itself with a quick arpeggiation of the tonic on the lute. You see, most tonal songs begin and end on the tonic, as this inspires the same kind of katharsis that Aristotle described in his dramatic treatise, “Poetics”; that is, it introduces, then subsequently disrupts an object before returning it to its natural state. Aristotle believed that this gave the audience member an impression of a perfect, single and inevitable action, or the distillation of a plot into a single conception. This theory is from whence the idea of the tragic hero originates – a hero that is done in because of some fatal flaw that the author establishes at the story’s onset. Now, I recognize that this is a little hippy-dippy for my style, but not only has this proven to be an empirically effective approach to composition of all kinds (just ask the great Greek Tragedians, Shakespeare, or

any musical genius of the Baroque, Classical or early Romantic eras), it is also borne out by contemporary neuroscientific research. Once one establishes a harmonic center through the act of a cadence, the human ear subconsciously anticipates a return to that center. Even though Arnold Schoenberg all but threw out the West's preconceived notions of harmony, he similarly recognized this when he, rightly or wrongly, coined the term “Developing Variation” – the idea that every musical figure in a composition, both motivic and harmonic, must necessarily be derived from its opening motif.

Shall I Sue; Performed by Aksel Schiøtz & Jytte Gorki Schmidt (1941) Weep You No More, Sad Fountains; Performed by Sarah Fischer (1923)

o This recording is earliest-made one of music by John Dowland that I can find. The performer in it is Sarah Fischer – a relatively obscure soprano active during the early 20th century, who nonetheless had an impressive career. She starred in the first televised opera production, performed in recitals with many of the great French impressionist composers, participated in the first radio broadcast of a Covent Garden production and was pivotal in maintaining London’s music scene during The Blitz.

Lute Music: Farewell (A Fancy); Performed by Julian Bream (1956)

o Farewell (A Fancy) is, along with the next composition, one of the earliest examples of a chromatic fantasia ever written.

Forlorne Hope Fancy; Performed by Julian Bream (1956) My Ladye Hunsdon's Puffe; Performed by Julian Bream (1956)

John Wilbye (1574), along with his contemporary, Thomas Weelkes, was one of England’s most famous madrigalists of the late Renaissance. Madrigals:

Draw On, Sweet Night, Best Friend unto Those Cares; Performed by Alfred Deller & the Deller Consort (1966)

Thomas Weelkes (1576), as I mentioned earlier, was a renowned composer of madrigals. Madrigals:

O Care, Thou Wilt Dispatch Me; Performed by Alfred Deller, Margaret Field-Hyde, Eileen McLoughlin, Rene Soames & Gordon Clinton

Orlando Gibbons (1583) was England’s last great composer of the Renaissance. Miscellaneous Choral Works:

The Silver Swan; Performed by Alfred Deller & the Deller Consort (1962) o This madrigal is Gibbon’s most famous work. The text, referencing the swansong,

is particularly beautiful, and, as the piece's polyphony hinders its comprehension, I thought that I would include it here: “The silver Swan, who, living, had no Note, when Death approached, unlocked her silent throat. Leaning her breast upon the reedy shore, thus sang her first and last, and sang no more: "Farewell, all joys! O Death, come close mine eyes! More Geese than Swans now

live, more Fools than Wise."” The last sentence is likely an allusion to Gibbons’ assessment of the contemporary musical landscape in England.

What Is Our Life; Performed by August Wenzinger, The Deller Consort & Violen-Ensemble Der Schola Cantorum Basiliensis (1962)

o Musicologists have frequently attributed the text of this piece to Sir Walter Raleigh – the Elizabethan explorer that searched for the city of El Dorado. He most likely wrote it before he was executed by King James I (Elizabeth’s successor) for offenses against the Spanish empire committed during his travels.

Hosannah To the Son of David; Performed by the Choir of King's College, Cambridge, Boris Ord & Hugh Maclean (1956)

o Boris Ord was David Willcock’s mentor and predecessor, and the second conductor of the Choir of King’s College, Cambridge to make recordings (Arthur Mann was the first, and only left behind two tracks – both of Bach motets).

O Lord in Thy Wrath Rebuke Me Not; Performed by the Choir of King's College, Cambridge, Boris Ord & Hugh Maclean (1956)

This is the Record of John St. John; Performed by August Wenzinger, The Deller Consort & Violen-Ensemble Der Schola Cantorum Basiliensis (1962)

Miscellaneous Keyboard Works: Allemande (Italian Ground); Performed by Glenn Gould (1971)

o Orlando Gibbons was Glenn Gould’s favorite composer. Fantasy in C Major; Performed by Glenn Gould (1971) Lord of Salisbury Pavan and Galliard; Performed by Glenn Gould (1971)

Baroque

John Blow (1649) was the father of English Baroque music, in that he was one of the first prominent composers of the era, and went on to teach several other musicians – his most notable pupil being Henry Purcell. Operas:

Venus and Adoniso Venus and Adonis is considered by most to be the first English opera ever

written, though musicologists have also classified it as a masque or semi-opera (these genres, however, are characterized by the inclusion of spoken dialogue, which, to my knowledge, this work does not possess). Like its successor, Purcell’s Dido and Aeneas, this work is through-composed -- in this context, meaning that it does not delineate between its arias, recitatives, choruses, instrumental movements, duets, etc. Though I don’t think that Venus and Adonis is very compelling from a musical perspective, I have included the numbers that constitute its final “scene,” as it represents the best of what this work has to offer. The conductor in the recording that I have selected (the first of its kind, by the way) is Anthony Lewis – a pioneer of the 20th century’s early music revival who especially excelled in the British repertoire. Margaret Ritchie (one of Benjamin Britten’s favorite sopranos) plays the role of Venus.

The Act Tune, Sostenuto; Performed by the Ensemble Orchestral de L'Oiseau-Lyre & Anthony Lewis (1953)

Adonis, uncall'd for sighs; Performed by Margaret Ritchie, Gordon Clinton, Ensemble Orchestral de L'Oiseau-Lyre & Anthony Lewis (1953)

With solemn pomp let mourning Cupids bear; Performed by Margaret Ritchie, Ensemble Orchestral de L'Oiseau-Lyre & Anthony Lewis (1953)

Odes: An Ode on the Death of Mr. Henry Purcell; Performed by Russell Oberlin, Charles

Bressler, the New York Pro Musica Antiqua, Paul Maynard & Seymour Barab (1955)o This composition was written to commemorate the death of England’s greatest

native composer and Blow’s close friend/mentee, Henry Purcell. Like the earlier “semper dowland, semper dolens,” this work has helped musicologists settle the debate on how to pronounce Purcell’s name. The person who wrote the text to this piece was John Dryden -- Britain's first Poet Laureate and the English equivalent of Pietro Metastasio (the greatest librettist of the Baroque era). In it, he includes a rhyming couplet that emphasizes the first syllable of Purcell's name: “So ceas’d the rival Crew when Purcell came, They Sung no more, or only Sung his Fame.” Blow similarly places the first syllable of his name on a strong beat and the second on a weak one, meaning it forms a perfect rhyme with “reversal,” as opposed to “personnel.”

Mark How the Lark and Linnet Sing So Ceased the Rival Crew The Heav'nly Choir

Henry Purcell (1659), as I just mentioned, is, by general consent, considered to be the greatest English-born composer in history. Stage Works:

Come Ye Sons of Art (Birthday Ode for Queen Mary II) o Sound the trumpet; Performed by Kathleen Ferrier, Isobel Baillie & Gerald Moore

(1945) Kathleen Ferrier was one of England's most beloved singers of the 20th

century – in fact, the press at one point referred to as “The most celebrated woman in Britain after the Queen.” Unfortunately, however, her life was cut short by terminal breast cancer – a disease that she kept secret from the public. An especially remarkable instance of this came during what was to be her final performance. Her left femur partially disintegrated, but instead of ending the show, she enjoined fellow cast members to help her hide this from the audience. She ended up not only finishing the opera but also taking curtain calls. At her funeral, her closest colleague and mentor, Bruno Walter, famously said, “The greatest thing in music in my life has been to have known Kathleen Ferrier and Gustav Mahler—in that order." She and her soprano equivalent, Isobel Baillie, are accompanied in this recording by Gerald Moore, who was probably the most lauded piano accompanist of the century after his elder,

Coenraad V Bos. Moore was famous for pioneering the concept that the accompanist’s role could be just as important as that of the soloist – a stigma that is particularly intractable if the soloist happens to be a singer.

o Strike the Viol; Performed by Russell Oberlin, the New York Pro Musica Antiqua, Paul Maynard & Seymour Barab (1955)

o The Day That Such a Blessing Gave; Performed by Alfred Deller, Maurice Bevan & Oriana Concert Choir and Orchestra (1962)

Dido & Aeneaso Dido & Aeneas was one of the first, and remains to this day, the best, English

opera ever written (it is also Purcell’s only work of the genre). The primary recording that I draw upon features Kirsten Flagstad in the title role of Dido. Flagstad is often credited with saving the Metropolitan Opera from bankruptcy, and, like Joan Sutherland, hers has been called “the voice of the century.” While she is almost exclusively known as the foremost Wagnerian soprano of her generation, she didn’t begin singing dramatic roles until about decade into her professional career, as she rightly knew that every well-functioning voice starts out as a lyric one. The first point that must be understood when discussing this topic is that two things are required to sing loudly: 1. A high degree of vocal fold adduction and 2. A significant amount of subglottal pressure, or what is commonly referred to as air flow, which can only be controlled by increasing or decreasing intensity. To sing heavy roles, a perfect equilibrium must be maintained between the two registers; wherein the folds are taught to adduct in the falsetto when they want to abduct and abduct in the chest when they wish to adduct. If at any moment, more pressure is exerted against the glottis than by the glottis, the folds will blow apart and make the sound breathy and weak (though this only happens in falsetto, as the cricothyroid muscles will automatically constrict to prevent this from happening in chest). If, however, more force is applied by the glottis than against the glottis, the folds will constrict and make the voice sound harsh (though not all that loud, as the vocal tract will become occluded). Training the muscles of the larynx to maintain this very delicate equilibrium throughout the entire compass of the voice takes years and years of diligent study, and can only be achieved by increasing subglottal pressure little by little, not progressing until the muscles controlling the glottis can handle it. Whenever people label young singers as having dramatic voices, it just means that they are forcing their chest registers into the falsetto range without proper consideration for registerial coordination. This action results in an incredibly dark, wobbly, flat, and old-sounding voice whose accuracy just gets worse and worse as time progresses. Since Flagstad made the following recording when she was nearly 60 years old, you can tell that this is not how she was trained. Understanding the limits of her aging voice, however, she decided at this point in her career to return to the lyric roles of her youth, which is how this performance came about. Geraint Jones, who was one of the first recording artists of the 20th century to specialize in the baroque repertoire, is the conductor in this recording. It also bears noting that Flagstad's contract for this

run of performances was so weird, that I can’t imagine how it was legally binding. I have appended it here, though, so you can see for yourself.

Shake the Cloud from Off Your Brow; Performed by Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, The Mermaid Singers, The Mermaid Orchestra & Geraint Jones (1952)

The singer in this recording is Elisabeth Schwarzkopf – one of the preeminent sopranos of the mid-20th century. Schwarzkopf specialized in performances of Lieder and operetta but was also very well known for her Straussian and Mozartian operatic portrayals. Additionally, she participated in some of the mid-century’s most acclaimed recording projects, as she was the wife of EMI’s head record producer and founder of the Philharmonia Orchestra, Walter Legge, and he had no qualms about being overtly nepotistic. Though she starred in the premiere of Stravinsky’s most famous opera, “The Rake’s Progress,” she was known for her disdain of late 20th-century music and performers – she called contemporary opera directors criminals, present-day singers prostitutes and modern music sickening (a woman after my own heart!).

Ah! Belinda, I Am Prest; Performed by Kirsten Flagstad, Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, The Mermaid Singers, The Mermaid Orchestra & Geraint Jones (1952)

This number marks the entrance of Dido. The stark, almost ethereal contrast to the rest of the opera’s cast is in part due to the inspired, chromatic and disconsolate writing for the role, and in part due to its exponent’s marvelous interpretation.

Whence Could So Much Virtue Spring?; Performed by Anthony Lewis, Dame Janet Baker, English Chamber Orchestra, Patricia Clarke & Thurston Dart (1961)

This aria is also for the part of Dido, but this time, Janet Baker (probably the mid-late 20th century’s greatest singing-actress) performs it. Though she is better remembered for her portrayal of another Dido – the one in Berlioz’s opera, “Les Troyens,” it was this role and this recording that made her a star.

See, Your Royal Guest Appears; Performed by Kirsten Flagstad, Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, Thomas Hemsley, The Mermaid Singers, The Mermaid Orchestra & Geraint Jones (1952)

See, Your Royal Guest Appears introduces us to the character of Aeneas – a role that is filled by the baritone Thomas Hemsley in this recording.

Wayward Sisters, You That Fright; Performed by Arda Mandikian, Sheila Rex, Anna Pollak, The Mermaid Singers, The Mermaid Orchestra & Geraint Jones (1952)

This number is the first to feature the “Sorceress” and her “Witches.” Like Wagner's more famous character, "Mime," these parts are written for a "spielsinger," or someone who is able to

inflect their voice with different affects. Interestingly, the Sorceress and her Witches are not present in Virgil’s Aeneid -- the work upon which this piece’s libretto is based. They were most likely interpolated to serve as a metaphor for Catholicism – a common trope at the time.

Thanks to These Lonesome Vales; Performed by Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, The Mermaid Singers, The Mermaid Orchestra & Geraint Jones (1952)

Oft She Visits This Lov'd Mountain; Performed by Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, The Mermaid Orchestra & Geraint Jones (1952)

Elisabeth Schwarzkopf pulls triple duty in this recording and sings the roles of Belinda, “Second Woman” and “Spirit.”

Behold, Upon My Bending Spear; Performed by Thomas Hemsley, Kirsten Flagstad, Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, The Mermaid Singers, The Mermaid Orchestra & Geraint Jones (1952)

Stay, Prince; Performed by Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, Thomas Hemsley, The Mermaid Orchestra & Geraint Jones (1952)

Come Away, Fellow Sailors; Performed by David Lloyd, The Mermaid Orchestra & Geraint Jones (1952)

This number is the only one in the opera for the character of “First Sailor.” David Lloyd, who sings it here, was one of the earliest Welsh singers to gain international notoriety.

See the Flags and Streamers Curling; Performed by Arda Mandikian, Sheila Rex, Anna Pollak, The Mermaid Singers, The Mermaid Orchestra & Geraint Jones (1952)

Your Counsel All Is Urged in Vain; Performed by Kirsten Flagstad, Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, Thomas Hemsley, The Mermaid Orchestra & Geraint Jones (1952)

But Death, Alas! I Cannot Shun; Performed by Kirsten Flagstad, The Mermaid Singers, The Mermaid Orchestra & Geraint Jones (1952)

But Death, Alas! I Cannot Shun is sometimes subsumed under the title of “Dido’s Lament,” but it is technically a separate number, as it includes a chorus.

When I Am Laid in Earth; Performed by Marian Anderson & Kosti Vehanen (1939)

If you ask me, When I am Laid in Earth represents the absolute zenith of Purcell's craft (it also happens to be the aria that got me interested in classical music, and so holds a special place in my heart). In it, there is an incredibly famous example of a passus duriusculus (meaning a chromatic descending line spanning the interval of a fourth) in its basso ostinato (meaning the aria is structured around a repeating baseline, in effect making it a chaconne or passacaglia). The singer in the recording that I have selected is Marian Anderson -- the possessor of a voice that Arturo Toscanini said was “heard once in a hundred years.”

Though she was not overtly political, she was, nonetheless, one of the most important musical figures in the civil rights movement, as she achieved an unprecedented level of fame for a black singer at the time (perhaps only equaled by her predecessor, Sissieretta Jones). By the end of her career, Anderson had amassed a Presidential Medal of Freedom (the first musician to be so honored, along with Pablo Casals and Rudolf Serkin), a Kennedy Center Honors, a National Medal of Arts and a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. She was also a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, was featured on a commemorative US postage stamp, was the first black person to ever perform at the Metropolitan Opera and was appointed a Goodwill Ambassadress and a delegate to the UN Human Rights Committee by the US State Department. As if that wasn't enough, she also sang at the inaugurations of presidents Dwight Eisenhower and JFK, as well as at the March on Washington. Nowadays, however, she is chiefly remembered for her historic recital at the Lincoln Memorial. This concert came about because the Daughters of the American Revolution refused to let her sing at Constitution Hall. Outraged, First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt resigned her membership and persuaded her husband to direct the Secretary of the Interior to, instead, organize an open-air concert for Anderson in front of the Lincoln Memorial. 75,000 people lined the national mall in attendance, and the 5-song performance was broadcast to an audience of millions on the radio.

With Drooping Wings; Performed by The Mermaid Singers, The Mermaid Orchestra & Geraint Jones (1952)

With Drooping Wings concludes the opera. It is the only exclusively choral number in my curation of this work (I also did not include solely instrumental movements).

Dioclesian: Since from my dear Astrea's sight; Performed by Alfred Deller, Gustav Leonhardt & Leonhardt Baroque Ensemble (1954)

o Interestingly, Alfred Deller, like Benjamin Britten, thought Purcell to be the most proficient setter of English verse in history. The harpsichordist in this recording, Gustav Leonhardt, was, along with Nikolaus Harnoncourt, one of the most influential conductors of early music in the mid-late 20th century. Though I cannot stand either of them (Harnoncourt’s idiotic writings are chiefly responsible for the musical world’s profound misconceptions about performance practice in the Baroque era), they were at least more talented than their modern counterparts: Christopher Hogwood and John Elliot Gardiner.

King Arthuro King Arthur is one of Purcell’s greatest masques.

Shepherd, shepherd, leave decoying; Performed by Gerald Moore, Isobel Baillie & Kathleen Ferrier (1945)

What pow'r art thou; Performed by Klaus Nomi (1982) What pow'r art thou, or “The Cold Song,” is one of Purcell’s most

famous arias, largely due to its crossover appeal. Written for the part of the "Cold Genius," and taken from the “Frost Scene,” this number may very well have been inspired by the “Great Frost of 1683–84,” as King Arthur was written just a few years afterward. The Great Frost marked the coldest period on record in England’s history -- the Thames was completely frozen over for two months, with the ice sheet reaching nearly a foot in depth! The singer in this recording, Klaus Nomi, was a new-wave rock musician that was active during the 1970’s, and it was he who first brought this song into the popular sphere. Nomi maintains a cult following to this day, partly because of his club-kid-esque stage aesthetic, partly because he is one of the only countertenors of the vernacular tradition, and partly because of the tragic circumstances surrounding his death. You see, he was one of the very first public figures to die as a result of AIDS-related complications. In fact, at the time of this live performance's taping, he was showing signs of Kaposi's sarcoma, which he hid by donning a 17th-century ruff. Surprisingly, this is, from a technical standpoint, the best recording of the Cold Song, even though its performer is a pop musician (this aria has an unfortunately pallid discography).

Fairest Isle; Performed by Heather Harper, Philomusica of London & Anthony Lewis (1959)

This is the second most popular aria from King Arthur. Heather Harper was one of Britain’s foremost singers of the mid-late 20th century.

The Fairy Queeno The Fairy Queen is Purcell’s second most lauded composition for the stage. The

primary recording that I draw upon was the first that was made of this masque, though it is of excerpts, rather than the complete work.

Come Let Us Leave the Town; Performed by Phyllis Curtin, Paul Tibbetts, Daniel Pinkham & Cambridge Festival Orchestra (1953)

Entrance at Night; Performed by Phyllis Curtin, Daniel Pinkham & Cambridge Festival Orchestra (1953)

Hush No More; Performed by Paul Tibbetts, Daniel Pinkham & Cambridge Festival Chorus and Orchestra (1953)

Ye Gentle Spirits of the Air Appear; Performed by Russell Oberlin & the New York Pro Musica Antiqua (1955)

Oberon’s Birthday; Performed by Phyllis Curtin, Daniel Pinkham & Cambridge Festival Chorus and Orchestra (1953)

Hail Great Parent; Performed by Daniel Pinkham & Cambridge Festival Chorus and Orchestra (1953)

Winter; Performed by Paul Tibbetts, Daniel Pinkham & Cambridge Festival Chorus and Orchestra (1953)

Thrice Happy Lovers; Performed by Alfred Deller & Walter Bergman (1968)

O let me weep – “The Plaint;” Performed by Phyllis Curtin, Daniel Pinkham & Cambridge Festival Orchestra (1953)

Hark! the echoing air; Performed by Kathleen Ferrier & Phyllis Spurr (1957)

The Indian Queeno This work was left incomplete at the time of Purcell’s death, but it nonetheless

contains some memorable numbers. Trumpet Overture; Performed by Roger Voisin, John Rhea, The Kapp

Sinfonietta & Emanuel Vardi (1960) The performer of this well-known showpiece for the trumpet is

Roger Voisin – one of the mid-20th century’s most celebrated trumpeters.

Let us wander, not unseen; Performed by Gerald Moore, Isobel Baillie & Kathleen Ferrier (1945)

I Attempt from Love’s Sickness to Fly; Performed by John Brownlee & Virginia Harper

John Brownlee made his operatic debut during Nellie Melba’s farewell performance (what a way to start a career). He went on to star as the baritone leads in the first ever recordings of Le Nozze di Figaro and Don Giovanni.

The Tempest: Arise, Ye Subterranean Winds; Performed by Norman Allin (1929)o Though this aria's authorship has historically been attributed to Purcell, recent

musicological evidence has shown that his pupil most likely composed it. The singer in the recording that I have selected is Norman Allin, and, from a functional perspective, it is one of the most impressive renditions of Purcell’s music ever committed to disc. Allin was among England’s greatest singers of the early-mid 20th century: he starred in the inaugural performance of the now-famous Glyndebourne Festival, premiered work by Gustav Holst and Ralph Vaughan-Williams and was a favorite of the most talented English conductor ever recorded, Henry Wood.

Sacred Works: Funeral Sentences & Music for the Funeral of Queen Mary; Performed by Geraint Jones

and the Geraint Jones Orchestra and Singers (1957) o This set of music contains some of Purcell’s greatest choral and instrumental

writing. March Man That is Born of Woman Canzona Thou Knowest, Lord

This piece was played at Purcell’s own funeral and has featured in every British state burial service since the time of its composition.

March Instrumental Collections:

Fantasies and In Nomineso These pieces were written by Purcell when he was about 20 years old, and

constitute some of the last compositions ever written for this medium (the violin had already begun gaining prominence at the time, thus rendering the viola de gamba obsolete). The first two recordings in this section are of versions arranged for string ensemble by the British composer Peter Warlock and feature the groups for which he reorchestrated them.

Fantasia No. 7 in 4 parts, Z. 738; Performed by the Griller Quartet The Griller Quartet premiered works by the composers Ernest

Bloch, Darius Milhaud, Arnold Bax, and, as is evidenced by this recording, Peter Warlock.

Fantasia No. 11 in 4 parts, Z. 742; Performed by the Pasquier Trio Fantasia in 5 parts, Z. 745 - "Upon One Note;" Performed by the Zorian

String Quartet and Benjamin Britten (1946) This work is so named because there is one voice in it that,

throughout the composition’s entirety, plays only one note. Benjamin Britten fulfills said role in this recording, for, though he was not proficient on the viola, he was a great admirer of the instrument. His fellow performers comprise the Zorian Quartet -- a string ensemble that premiered works by several prominent English composers, including him.

Songs: In Guilty Night (Saul and the Witch of Endor); Performed by Alfred Deller, Anna

Shuttleworth, Maurice Bevan, Robert Elliott & Honor Sheppard (1968) o This is a fascinating piece of music that seems to defy classification. It is perhaps

best described as a short, quasi-operatic chamber scena, complete with arias, recitatives, duets, and trios, all condensed into the span of about 9 minutes.

Now that the Sun Hath Veiled his Light – “An Evening Hymn;” Performed by John Langstaff, David Soyer & Herman Chessid (1952)

o Like “When I am Laid in Earth,” this song is structured around a ground bass. Tell me, some pitying angel - “The Blessed Virgin’s Expostulation;” Performed by Isobel

Baillie & Arnold Goldsborough (1941) o This work is an astoundingly virtuosic, not to mention dramatic, arioso (meaning

a quasi-recitativic aria). For those who don’t know: recitative is a style of music wherein the singer is asked to speak at various notated pitches. This form of writing differs from the aria in that its primary purpose is to convey plot, rather than a musical idea. As a result, recitatives have very sparse accompaniment, meant only to serve as a guide for chord changes/modulations. They also do not contain thematic material -- in other words, they have no form other than that which is dictated by the prose to which they are set.

From silent shades and the Elysian groves – “Mad Bess of Bedlam;” Performed by Kathleen Ferrier & Phyllis Spurr (1949)

o Musicologists frequently refer to Mad Bess of Bedlam as the archetypal "Mad Song." This English subgenre of the art song literature arose from a 17th-century cultural fascination with insanity -- a phenomenon that is almost solely attributable to the Bethlehem Royal Hospital. Not only did this psychiatric facility establish every conceivable trope of the horrifying state of mental health care pre- "The Moral Treatment Movement,” but its nickname, “Bedlam,” actually entered into the nomenclature and became a word used to denote chaos or madness. Getting back to the matter at hand though; two factors most likely contributed to the emergence of this fad: 1. Bedlam was famous for treating its patients like zoo animals, allowing citizens to ogle and even harass them, granted they donate to the hospital first (at this time in history, people thought that sin caused mental illness, supposedly absolving them of any responsibility). This consideration, coupled with the fact that some of London's most prominent theatres were located nearby, sparked and fanned the flames of public interest. Playwrights realized that they could make money by writing about madness, and once this happened, poets and composers were not far behind. While the “Mad Song” subgenre has a rather deplorable history, it has yielded some riveting music. This concession that I just made highlights one of the things that infuriates me so much about the postmodernist argument that the cannon is racist and patriarchal: if I can put aside the context in which these pieces were written and enjoy them for their purely aesthetical content, then surely anyone can do the same. Regardless, like Schubert’s masterpiece, Der Erlkönig, the singer in Mad Bess of Bedlam switches off between several voices: a narrator, Bess in a lucid state, and Bess in a psychotic state. Instead of Der Erlkönig, however, which uses different tessituras to differentiate between the speakers, Purcell uses varying musical textures and word-painting to achieve the same effect (though, of course, Schubert employed these techniques as well).

The Knotting Song; Performed by John Coates and Gerald Moore (1928)o In this recording, you can make out the sensitivity and dynamic control that

allowed John Coates to excel in the art song repertoire, as well as the stentorian declamatory skills that made him the most lauded British Heldentenor of the last one hundred years. His accompanist for this piece, Gerald Moore, famously credited Coates with being the single most formative influence on his musical career.

If Music Be the Food of Love; Performed by Jon Vickers & Richard Woitach (1974)o This recording is from a live recital featuring Jon Vickers – one of the mid-late

20th century’s greatest tenors. He was especially renowned for the emotional intensity of his performances, as is evidenced here. Benjamin Britten edited this version of If Music Be the Food of Love-- something that he frequently did to the work of Purcell, who was his musical idol.

I Love and I Must; Performed by Russell Oberlin & the New York Pro Musica Antiqua (1955)

The Queen Epicedium (Incassum, Lesbia, incassum rogas); Performed by Peter Pears & Benjamin Britten (1947)

o Like his Music for the Funeral of Queen Mary, this is another composition that Purcell wrote to commemorate the queen's death, “Epicedium” meaning "funeral ode." At the time that he wrote this piece, public interest in the songbook was mounting, as sheet music was just starting to become commercially available on a large scale. Because most middle-to-upper class Europeans back then were amateur musicians, there was a considerable number of people who wanted to acquire collections of short works that they could play in their homes. Purcell astutely recognized that writing a song about the death of Queen Mary II, who was a beloved figure at the time, could present a financial coup for him in this burgeoning industry, proving once and for all that he had no qualms whatsoever about capitalizing on tragedy. Benjamin Britten arranged the version of Incassum, Lesbia, Incassum Rogas that you hear in this recording. Purcell was his musical idol, and he frequently edited performance editions of his work.

Not all my Torments can your Pity Move; Performed by John Vickers & Richard Woitach (1967)

On the Brow of Richmond Hill; Performed by Astra Desmond (1928)o Astra Desmond was one of England’s greatest contraltos of the early-mid 20th

century and frequently performed with the composers Edward Elgar and Ralph Vaughan-Williams.

O Solitude, my Sweetest Choice; Performed by Alfred Deller, Wieland Kuijken & William Christie (1979)

o O Solitude is similar to Dido's Lament, in that Purcell structured it around a ground bass. This time, however, the bass line is entirely diatonic, meaning the piece’s potential harmonic structure is relatively limited. Purcell was able to overcome the possible monotony imposed by this structure by including several accidentals in the vocal line, forcing the soloist, rather than the accompanist, to drive the modulation. The recording that I have selected is one of Alfred Deller’s last. Though his interpretation is very moving, you can hear that his chest voice had atrophied by this point in his career: his diction is muddled and falsetto constricted, both of which affect his intonation.

Stript of their green; Performed by Isobel Baillie & Gerald Moore (1942) I’ll Sail Upon the Dog-star; Performed by John Brownlee & Virginia Harper Let the Dreadful Engines; Performed by Maurice Bevan & Walter Bergman (1968)

o Maurice Bevan was Alfred Deller’s favorite baritone collaborator. From Rosy Bow'rs; Performed by Alfred Deller, Wieland Kuijken & William Christie Retir'd from Any Mortal's Sight; Performed by Astra Desmond (1928) Music for a While; Performed by John Shirley-Quirk, Martin Isepp & Ambrose Gauntlett

(1966)o Music for a While is Purcell’s single most famous song. Though he initially

composed it for John Dryden’s play, Oedipus, its text has a universal appeal, as it references music’s profound effect on humankind. To truly understand Dryden’s

thoughts on this subject, however, we must go back to ancient Greece. You see, when Pythagoras created the diatonic musical scale, he realized that intervals could be expressed numerically -- for instance, a fifth vibrates at (approximately, depending upon the tuning system) 1.5 times the speed of its root, making the ratio between the two notes’ frequencies 3:2. He believed that because one can represent music in purely mathematical terms, and that because the laws which governed the movement of celestial bodies were seemingly arithmetical, that heavenly bodies must, therefore, create music. Later philosophers such as Aristotle used this theory to make sense of human-made music’s effect on people -- they believed that when it was in concordance with the "Musica Universalis" (or music of the spheres), that it would inspire katharsis in the subject. It should be noted, however, that all of this is predicated upon a geocentric model of the universe, wherein the cosmos looks like several concentric spheres, the innermost one being earth and the rest containing other planets and stars suspended in the "aether," all moving by divine will. Now, one could easily convince me that music is governed by hidden naturalistic, mathematical laws, but to say that they would have any bearing whatsoever on astronomy has no logical basis whatsoever, not to mention that I think everyone who I just mentioned drastically overestimated the scope of music’s power over us. Remember, I am firmly in the camp of Emmanuel Kant, who believed that the pleasure that aesthetically literate people derive from art has naught to do with our emotions or predilections. Rather, it arises from nothing more than a “free play” with our cognitive faculties of imagination and understanding, perpetually referred back to the object, rather than onto ourselves. But I digress, as Dryden believed in the Pythagorean theory of music when he wrote the text to this piece. The performer in the recording that I have selected is John Shirley-Quirk -- one of Benjamin Britten and Michael Tippett’s favorite baritones.

Sweeter Than Roses; Performed by Russell Oberlin & the New York Pro Musica Antiqua (1955)

o Sweeter than Roses is Purcell’s second-most frequently performed song, after Music for a While.

Nymphs and Shepherds; Performed by the Hallé Orchestra, the Manchester Children's Choir & Sir Hamilton Harty (1929)

o Hamilton Harty was one of England’s best conductors of the century, and this recording is perhaps his most famous. Though he admirably directs the choir in it, this disc is better known for the heartwarming circumstances surrounding its creation, rather than its aesthetical content. At the time, musical education was not a universal guarantee for children in the public-school system. In an attempt to right this sad state of affairs and give underprivileged kids the opportunity to make music, Hamilton Harty, in collaboration with Manchester’s education chiefs, convened a choir of some two hundred and fifty schoolchildren. Not only did participation in this chorus make a tremendous impact on the lives of the kids involved (a third of whose parents didn’t even have an income), but it encouraged other endeavors of the kind. After all, with only a years-worth of

once-a-week rehearsals, children that had absolutely no musical training made this recording, which went on to sell over a million copies soon after its release!

When night her purple veil had softly spread; Performed by Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, the Alberni String Quartet and Benjamin Britten (1965)

o Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau was one of the most versatile and influential vocalists of the mid-20th century. Time Magazine dubbed him “The World’s Greatest Lieder Singer,” and a 1999 UK critic’s poll ranked him as the second-best singer of the last 100 years, after the tenor Jussi Bjorling. Though he had a lovely voice, most of the praise awarded to him stems from the way that he used it, as his interpretive abilities were especially remarkable. In fact, one could make the case that in this regard, his legacy was almost as significant Maria Callas', Joan Sutherland's, Enrico Caruso's, or Feodor Chaliapin's. Fischer-Dieskau was also one of Benjamin Britten’s close collaborative partners, as the former often wrote pieces for the latter, and they frequently performed in recital together. Now, aside from having an incredibly storied professional career, Fischer-Dieskau also had a fascinating personal life. Many people don’t realize that he was a direct descendant of the person for whom Johann Sebastian Bach wrote his "Peasant Cantata." Additionally, during his imprisonment in an American POW camp during WWII, he subsisted by performing lieder for his fellow soldiers (don't worry -- he was drafted into the German army and held no allegiance to the Nazis). Lastly, Fischer-Dieskau made his professional debut as a last-minute substitute in Brahms' requiem, singing his part without any rehearsal! As in the case of the Queen’s Epicedium, Benjamin Britten edited this version of “When Night Her Purple Veil had Softly Spread.”

Keyboard Works: Keyboard Suite No. 7, Z. 668: I. Almand, “Bell-barr;” Performed by Thurston Dart (1952)

o The Bell-Barr is probably Purcell’s most famous composition for the keyboard, though this is undoubtedly not the genre for which he was best known.