C hapter 10

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CChapter 10hapter 10

Identifying Markets Identifying Markets and Market and Market StructuresStructures

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Gottheil - Principles of Economics, 4e

Economic PrinciplesEconomic Principles

The use of cross elasticity to define markets

The relationship between firms, industries, and markets

Market structures

The characteristics of monopoly

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Economic PrinciplesEconomic Principles

The characteristics ofmonopolistic competition

The characteristics of perfect competition

The role of advertising

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Defining the Relevant Defining the Relevant MarketMarket

Relevant market

• The set of goods whose cross elasticities with others in the set are relatively high and whose cross elasticities with goods outside the set are relatively low.

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The relevant market can be defined narrowly or broadly.

What gets included in the relevant market will be determined by this definition.

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Example: Automobiles and transportation.

• A relevant market can be narrowly defined as just the automobile industry.

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Example: Automobiles and transportation. • Transportation is a broader definition of the relevant market. It would include the automobile industry as well as all other possible forms of transportation, including taxis, buses, railways and airlines.

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1. What makes up the relevant market for oil?

• All possible sources of oil, such as Saudi Arabia and the United States.

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2. What makes up the relevant market for energy?

• Oil, hydroelectric power, coal, wood, solar and nuclear sources.

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Courts and MarketsCourts and Markets

In many cases the courts are called upon to determine what the market is.

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Example: DuPont’s relevant market.

• In 1953 the government filed suit against DuPont, charging it illegally dominated the cellophane market because it produced over 80 percent of all cellophane.

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• DuPont countered that its relevant market was not cellophane, but the broader market of flexible packaging materials.

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• By that definition, DuPont controlled less than 20 percent of the market.

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• The court decided in favor of DuPont.


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The decision of the courts is not revealed truth, but rather an impartial judgment concerning the issue of what constitutes a relevant market.

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One tool the courts use to identify the relevant market is cross elasticity of demand.

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Cross Elasticity Cross Elasticity DefinesDefines

the Marketthe MarketThe relevant market can be delineated by comparing the cross elasticities among goods within the set and outside the set.

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Cross Elasticity Cross Elasticity DefinesDefines

the Marketthe MarketIt has been suggested that when the cross elasticity (e) between two goods is greater than or equal to three, the goods can be regarded as belonging to the same market.

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EXHIBIT 1 DELINEATING THE MARKET

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Exhibit 1: Delineating Exhibit 1: Delineating the Flower Marketthe Flower Market

• Zone A is the Peace rose market.

• The cross elasticity for goods within the set is infinite – any Peace rose will be a good substitute.

• The cross elasticity for goods outside the set is zero – nothing but a Peace rose will substitute.

In Exhibit 1, what is the market for each zone?

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• Zone A and B are the rose market.

• The cross elasticity of goods within the set is relatively high (e = 25)—for most people, any rose will be a good substitute.

• The cross elasticity of goods outside the set is relatively low—for most people, only a rose will make a good substitute.


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• Zone A, B and C are the flower market.

• The cross elasticity of goods within the set is still relatively high (e = 10)—for most people, any kind of flower will be a good substitute.

• The cross elasticity of goods outside the set is relatively low—for most people, nothing but flowers will make a good substitute.


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• Zone D lies outside these markets.

• The cross elasticity of goods within the set is zero (e = 0)—fish do not substitute for flowers.


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Markets and Market Markets and Market StructureStructure

Market structure

• A set of market characteristics such as number of firms, ease of firm entry, and substitutability of goods.

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The most important characteristic that distinguishes one market structure from another is the number of producers selling in the market.

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The number of producers within a market determines:

• The control an individual producer has in the market.

• How producers respond to decisions consumers make.

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The number of producers within a market determines:

• How producers respond to decisions other producers in their market make.• How producers respond to the the market prices they face.

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EXHIBIT 2 THE MARKET STRUCTURE SPECTRUM

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Exhibit 2: The Market Exhibit 2: The Market Structure SpectrumStructure Spectrum

1. How is the monopoly market structure characterized?• Only one firm is producing goods.

• The goods have no substitutes.

• No other firm can enter the market.

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2. How is the perfectly competitive market structure characterized?• A considerable number of firms are producing goods.

• The goods are perfect substitutes.

• Firms can easily enter the market.

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3. How is the monopolistic competition market structure characterized?• Greater than a few, but fewer than a considerable number of firms are producing goods.

• Firms can enter the market, but without the ease allowed in perfectly competitive markets.

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4. How is the oligopoly market structure characterized?• Only a few firms are producing goods.

• Entry into the market is relatively difficult.

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Mutual interdependence

• Any price change made by one firm in the oligopoly affects the pricing behavior of all other firms in the oligopoly.

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The World of The World of MonopolyMonopoly

Monopoly

• A market structure consisting of one firm producing a good that has no close substitutes. Firm entry is impossible.

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Complete this sentence: _____ is the most important characteristic defining a monopoly.i. The size of the firm.

ii. Being the only firm.

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Complete this sentence: _____ is the most important characteristic defining a monopoly.i. The size of the firm.

ii. Being the only firm.

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Industry

• A collection of firms producing the same good.

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If only one firm firm produces a good, then the firm is the industry.

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EXHIBIT 3 A MONOPOLY’S DEMAND CURVE

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Exhibit 3: A Exhibit 3: A Monopoly’s Demand Monopoly’s Demand

CurveCurveHow does the market demand curve compare to the monopoly demand curve? • The curves are identical.

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In a monopoly market structure, it is impossible for other firms to enter the market.

Factors that contribute to impossible entry include the nature of the market, exclusive access to resources, the patent system, and acquisition.

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The Natural The Natural MonopolyMonopoly

Natural monopoly

• The result of a combination of market demand and firm’s costs such that only one firm is able to produce profitably in a market.

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EXHIBIT 4 THE NATURAL MONOPOLY

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Exhibit 4: The Natural Exhibit 4: The Natural MonopolyMonopoly

1. What happens before the Blues enter the baseball market in Exhibit 4? • The Reds charge $7 per person and draw a crowd of 40,000. The ATC is $5. The Reds’ profit = $(7 - 5) × 40,000 = $80,000.

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2. What happens after the Blues enter the baseball market and each team charges $7 per person?• Attendance is split between the Blues and Reds. With an attendance of only 20,000, the ATC climbs to $11. Losses for each team = $(7-11) × 20,000 = -$80,000.

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3. What happens when the Blues and the Reds lower the price per person to $4?• At $4 per person, attendance climbs to 35,000 per team. The ATC is $5.50. Losses for each team = $(4 - 5.50) × 35,000 = -$52,500.

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Exclusive Access to Exclusive Access to ResourcesResources

Some firms, by chance or by design, acquire exclusive access to a nonreproducible good.

New discoveries of the resource or the creation of alternatives to the resource destroy the monopoly.

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Exclusive Access to Exclusive Access to ResourcesResources

How might a monopoly on coal power as a source of energy be destroyed?• A new producer finds a new source of coal and is able to enter the market.

• Alternatives to coal, such as solar and wind power, are developed.

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The Patent SystemThe Patent System

Patent

• A monopoly right on the use of a specific new technology or on the production of a new good. The monopoly right is awarded to and safeguarded by the government to the firm who introduces the new technology or good.

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AcquisitionAcquisition

Buying out all of the competition is another way to create a monopoly market structure.

Andrew Carnegie, the first U.S. steel mogul, built his empire by consuming the competition.

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Monopolistic Monopolistic Competition and Competition and

OligopolyOligopolyMonopolistic competition

• A market structure consisting of many firms producing goods that are close substitutes. Firm entry is possible but less open and easy than in perfect competition.

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OligopolyOligopolyOligopoly

• A market structure consisting of only a few firms producing goods that are close substitutes.

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OligopolyOligopolyThe real extent of competition in an oligopoly market must be measured by the number of firms in all the industries producing close substitutes.

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EXHIBIT 5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FIRMS, INDUSTRIES, AND MARKETS

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1. How many firms are depicted in Exhibit 5?

i. 1

ii. 3

iii. 15

Exhibit 5: Relationship Exhibit 5: Relationship Between Firms, Between Firms,

Industries, and MarketsIndustries, and Markets

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1. How many firms are depicted in Exhibit 5?

i. 1

ii. 3

iii. 15—Each box represents one firm.



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2. How many industries are depicted in Exhibit 5?

i. 1

ii. 3

iii. 15



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2. How many industries are depicted in Exhibit 5?

i. 1

ii. 3—The steel industry, the concrete industry and the aluminum industry.

iii. 15



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3. How many markets are depicted in Exhibit 5?

i. 1

ii. 3

iii. 15



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3. How many markets are depicted in Exhibit 5?

i. 1—All of the firms and all of the industries are part of the construction market.

ii. 3

iii. 15



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OligopolyOligopolyProduct differentiation

• The physical or perceived differences among goods in a market that make them close, but not perfect, substitutes for each other.

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Monopolistic CompetitionMonopolistic Competitionand Oligopolyand Oligopoly

As more firms enter a market, firm demand curves become more elastic.

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EXHIBIT 6 THE DEMAND CURVE FOR COCA-COLA: BEFORE AND AFTER SUBSTITUTES APPEAR ON THE MARKET

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Exhibit 6: The Demand Curve Exhibit 6: The Demand Curve for Coca-Cola: Before and After for Coca-Cola: Before and After

Substitutes Appear on the Substitutes Appear on the MarketMarket

1. How can Coke’s demand curve be described before substitute goods appear on the market?• Coke’s demand curve equals the market demand curve.

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2. How does Coke’s demand curve change after substitute goods appear on the market?• Coke’s demand curve shifts to the left, while the market demand curve remains at D1.

Exhibit 6: The Demand Curve Exhibit 6: The Demand Curve for Coca-Cola: Before and After for Coca-Cola: Before and After

Substitutes Appear on the Substitutes Appear on the MarketMarket

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Brand loyalty

• The willingness of consumers to continue buying a good at a price higher than the price of its close substitutes.

Monopolistic Monopolistic CompetitionCompetition

and Oligopolyand Oligopoly

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Firms in both the monopolistic competition and oligopoly market structures have strong incentives to advertise.

Advertising is a way to increase market share and make demand more inelastic.


and Oligopolyand Oligopoly

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and Oligopolyand OligopolyMarket share

• The percentage of total market sales produced by a particular firm in a market.

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EXHIBIT 7 THE EFFECT OF ADVERTISING ON THE FIRM’S DEMAND CURVE

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Exhibit 7: The Effect of Exhibit 7: The Effect of AdvertisingAdvertising

on the Firm’s Demand on the Firm’s Demand CurveCurve

Complete this sentence: After advertising, Coke’s demand curve shifts to the _____.

i. Right

ii. Left

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Exhibit 7: The Effect of Exhibit 7: The Effect of AdvertisingAdvertising

on the Firm’s Demand on the Firm’s Demand CurveCurve

Complete this sentence: After advertising, Coke’s demand curve shifts to the _____.

i. Right

ii. Left

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Perfect CompetitionPerfect Competition

Perfect competition

• A market structure consisting of a large number of firms producing goods that are perfect substitutes. Firm entry is open and easy.

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Perfect CompetitionPerfect Competition

Characteristics of perfect competition:• Goods are perfect substitutes.

• Firms have insignificant market share.

• Firms have free entry.

• Firms cannot influence price.

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EXHIBIT 8 MARKET DEMAND CURVE AND THE DEMAND CURVE FACING A FIRM IN PERFECT COMPETITION

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Exhibit 8: Market Demand Exhibit 8: Market Demand Curve and the Demand Curve and the Demand Curve Facing a Firm in Curve Facing a Firm in Perfect CompetitionPerfect Competition

1. Why is the demand curve for a perfectly competitive firm horizontal?• The perfectly competitive firm cannot influence price. Therefore, it can produce any quantity it desires and price will always remain the same.

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2. What would happen if a firm decided to charge $0.66 for potatoes in Exhibit 8?

• The quantity demanded would fall to zero.

Exhibit 8: Market Demand Exhibit 8: Market Demand Curve and the Demand Curve and the Demand Curve Facing a Firm in Curve Facing a Firm in Perfect CompetitionPerfect Competition

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EXHIBIT 9 SUMMARY SKETCH OF MARKET STRUCTURES

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Type of Market

Number of Firms

Type of Products

EntryInfluence

over Price?

Perfect Competition

Many Identical Full No

Exhibit 9: Summary Exhibit 9: Summary Sketch of Market Sketch of Market

StructureStructure

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Type of Market

Number of Firms

Type of Products

EntryInfluence

over Price?

Monopolistic Competition

Many DifferentiatedDifficult

/EasyYes


StructureStructure

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Type of Market

Number of Firms

Type of Products

EntryInfluence

over Price?

Oligopoly FewUsually

DifferentiatedDifficult Yes


StructureStructure

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Type of Market

Number of Firms

Type of Products

EntryInfluence

over Price?

Monopoly One -- Impossible Yes


StructureStructure

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C hapter 10