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FinalSodexoReport

ALiteratureReviewof

Wellness,WellbeingandQualityofLifeIssues

astheyimpactuponthe

AustralianMiningSector

Preparedby

ProfessorKerryCarringtonandDrAlisonMcIntosh

CrimeandJusticeResearchCentre

QueenslandUniversityofTechnology

June2013

ii

©KerryCarringtonandAlisonMcIntosh2013TherightofKerryCarringtonandAlisonMcIntoshtobeidentifiedastheauthorsofthisreportisassertedbytheminaccordancewithCopyright(MoralRights)AmendmentAct2000.TheworkiscopyrightandprotectedundertheAct.Forcorrespondence:

ProfessorKerryCarringtonHeadofSchoolofJustice,FacultyofLawQueenslandUniversityofTechnologyBrisbaneQLD4000Email:kerry.carrington@qut.edu.au

ISBN978‐0‐9874678‐2‐9

iii

Contents

Backgroundtothisreport.........................................................................................................1 

Australia’sminingboom........................................................................................................................1 

SodexoinAustralia..................................................................................................................................1 

Researchbrief............................................................................................................................................2 

Executivesummary......................................................................................................................3 

Part I: Defining the concepts of Wellness, Wellbeing and Quality of Life inAustralia........................................................................................................................................13 

1.  AustralianindexesandassessmentsofQOLandwellbeing..........................................13 

1.1  Definitionsandconceptualisations...................................................................................13 

1.2  Nationalobjectivemeasurements.....................................................................................14 

1.3  Nationalsubjectivemeasurements...................................................................................14 

1.4  Miningindustrysubjectivemeasurements...................................................................18 

1.5  Selectedminingindustrylabouranddemographiccharacteristics...................19 

Part II: Examination of how wellness and wellbeing are developed withinorganisationsinAustraliaandhowtheyimpactonemployeeandorganisationalperformance.................................................................................................................................24 

2.  Developmentandimpactofwellnessandwellbeingprograms..................................24 

2.1  WorkplacewellnessprogramsinAustralia...................................................................24 

2.2  Australia’s‘HealthyWorkers’program...........................................................................25 

2.3  Themininglifestyle:Implicationsforhealth,wellnessanddailylife................28 

2.4  FactorsaffectinghealthintheworkplaceofAustralianminingworkers........37 

2.5  Employersupportforwellnessprograms.....................................................................49 

PartIII:Determinationofwhatimpactsemployeewellnessandwellbeinghasontheperformanceofminingworkers....................................................................................57 

3.  Impactsofwellnessandwellbeingofminingemployees...............................................57 

3.1  Impactsofobesityandsubstanceuseandabuse........................................................57 

3.2  Impactsofworkerturnoverandreplacement.............................................................57 

3.3  Impactsofillnesses..................................................................................................................59 

3.4  Impactsofwellnessprogramsonminingindustryemployees............................61 

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Part IV: Summary of issues and focal factors to be considered in theminingindustry.........................................................................................................................................64 

4.Focalfactorstobeaddressedintheminingindustry............................................................64 

4.1  Changingworkforcearrangementsintheresourcessector..................................64 

4.2  Influencesofdriversofchange...........................................................................................64 

4.3  Focalfactorstobeaddressed..............................................................................................66 

Appendices...................................................................................................................................67 

Appendix1:Objectivemeasurements...............................................................................................67 

A1.1  SocialInclusioninAustralia:HowAustraliaisFaring2012..............................67 

A1.2  MeasuringWellbeing:FrameworksforAustralianSocialStatistics..............67 

A1.3  TheGenuineProgressIndicator....................................................................................68 

A1.4  TheStateoftheStates........................................................................................................68 

Appendix2:  Subjectivemeasurements........................................................................................69 

A2.1  AustralianUnityWellbeingIndex.................................................................................69 

A2.2  AustralianWorkandLifeIndex.....................................................................................78 

A2.3  Australianworkerslivingwithaticking‘timebomb’?........................................80 

A2.4  Othernationalsubjectivemeasurements..................................................................84 

Appendix3:MiningIndustrySubjectiveMeasurements...........................................................86 

A3.1  TheAustralianCoalandEnergySurvey.....................................................................86 

A3.2  SurveyofQueenslandworkforceaccommodationarrangements..................87 

Appendix4:Selectedminingindustrylabouranddemographiccharacteristics...........90 

Appendix5:ParticipatingorganisationsinPwCreport............................................................95 

Appendix6:State‘HealthyWorkers’strategy...............................................................................96 

A6.1  Queensland’sHealthyWorkersstrategyandminingindustrychallenges..96 

A6.2  OtherstateHealthyWorkersstrategies..................................................................101 

Appendix7:Reviewingthemininglifestyle.................................................................................102 

A7.1  WellbeingofFIFOs:Referencingapersonalreflection.....................................102 

A7.2  WhatmatterstoFIFO/DIDOmembersofMiningFamilyMatters?.............104 

A7.3  Otherresearchandreports...........................................................................................104 

Appendix8:Factorsandarrangementsintheworkplace.....................................................107 

A8.1  Workandhoursintheminingindustry..................................................................107 

A8.2  Chronichealthproblems................................................................................................107 

v

A8.3  Obesity....................................................................................................................................108 

A8.4  Workplacestressandmentalhealth.........................................................................109 

A8.5  Substanceabuse.................................................................................................................110 

A8.6  Tobaccosmoking...............................................................................................................112 

A8.7  Fatigue....................................................................................................................................114 

A8.8  Fitnessforwork.................................................................................................................115 

A8.9  Presenteeism.......................................................................................................................116 

A8.10  Engagementinsocial(media)activities..................................................................117 

A8.11  Potentialhealthhazardsindailywork....................................................................118 

A8.12  FatalandseveretraumaticinjuriesandPTSD......................................................119 

Appendix9:.................................................................................................................................................120 

A9.1  OccupationalHealthandSafetypracticesinAustralia.....................................120 

A9.2  Guidelinesforthedeliveryofwellnessprograms...............................................120 

A9.3  ImpedimentstoworkplacewellnessprogramsintheUS...............................121 

A9.4  Physicalandpsychosocialenvironmentconsiderations..................................122 

Appendix10:WellnessProgramsinAustralia............................................................................124 

Appendix11:Reportsdealingwithworkerturnoverandreplacement.........................133 

A11.1  NationalResourcesSectorEmploymentTaskforce(NRSET)........................133 

A11.2  KineticGroup’sreportontheQueenslandminingindustry...........................133 

A11.3  Other(dated)turnoversurveyresults.....................................................................135 

Appendix12:  Impactsofillnesses.................................................................................................137 

A12.1  Presenteeism.......................................................................................................................137 

A12.2  Mentalillnessandstress................................................................................................138 

A12.3  ‘Minor’illnessesofworkersinQueensland’sminingindustry......................138 

References.................................................................................................................................140 

vi

ListoftablesandfiguresTable1.1:SummaryofresultsforselectedtopicsassessedusingtheAUWI,2002‐12....15 Table1.2:EstimationofAustralia’sresourcessectorworkforce,2012..................................21 Table2.3:MininglifestyleimpactslinkedwithselectedAUWIsurveytopics(2002‐12)35 Table2.4:Potentialimprovementsinhealthbyriskfactorreduction,2007–08...............39 Table2.5:Productivitycost(in$million)ofobesity,2008..........................................................39 Table2.6:Productivitycost9in$million)ofsleepdisorders,2010........................................40 Table2.7:Productivitycost(in$million,dayslost)ofpresenteeism,2009‐10,2012....42 Table2.8:Productivitycost(in$millionand/ordayslost)ofstress‐relatedabsenteeismandpresenteeism,2008,2012..................................................................................................................43 Table2.9:Successfulworkers’compensationclaimratesformentalstress,2008‐09to2010‐11...............................................................................................................................................................44 Table 2.10: Estimatesof productivity cost (in days lost) throughalcohol abuse, 2001(Australia)and2012(Miningindustry)................................................................................................47 Table2.11:Estimatesofproductivitycosts($million)duetoalcohol,tobaccoandillicitdrugabuse,2004‐05,2012.........................................................................................................................48 Table2.12:Numbersofminingindustrylifestyleandworkplaceprograms.......................54 Table3.13:Estimatesof lostproductivitythroughpresenteeismandmental illnesses/stresswithintheAustralianresourcessector....................................................................................60 Table 4.14: Influences of drivers of change inworkforce arrangements in theminingindustry,Australia...........................................................................................................................................65 TableA5.15:TypesofparticipatingorganisationsinPwC(2010)survey,byindustry...95 TableA6.16:Comparativehealthbehavioursandriskfactors,Victoria,2007....................97 TableA10.17:CasestudiesoforganisationsoperatinginAustralia......................................124 TableA11.18:Reportedemployeeturnover,2007‐09................................................................133 Figure1.1:MiningindustryGVAperhourworked.Australia,2002‐2012............................22 FigureA4.1:Miningindustryemploymentnumbers,Australia,Feb1985‐Feb2012…...90 FigureA4.2:Australianminingindustry,fulltimeemploymentbystate,Feb2012.........91 Figure A4.3: Mining industry persons employed full time, hours worked per week,Australia,Feb1985‐Feb2012....................................................................................................................91 FigureA4.4:Miningindustrynumbers,fullemployment,Australia,toFeb2012..............92 FigureA4.5:Miningindustryfulltimenumbers(000s),byage,Australia,Feb2012......92 FigureA4.6:Miningindustryworkforcenumbers(000s)byoccupation,Australia,Feb2002toFeb2012.............................................................................................................................................93 Figure A4.7: Average number of full‐time mining industry workers (000s) byoccupation,Australia,Feb2008toFeb2012......................................................................................93 FigureA4.8:Genderofworkers%,Australian industries (ANZSICclassifications),Feb2012......................................................................................................................................................................94 FigureA4.9:Femaleworkers%byoccupationfor‘bluecollar’industries,Nov2011.....94 

1

Backgroundtothisreport

Australia’sminingboom

Global demand for minerals and energy products has fuelled Australia’s recentresources boom and has led to the rapid expansion of mining projects not only inremote locations but increasingly in settled traditionally agricultural rural areas. Afundamental shift has also occurred in the provisioning of skilled and semi‐skilledworkers.Thehugeacceleration in industrydemandfor labourhasbeenaccompaniedby the entrenchment of workforce arrangements largely dependent on fly‐in, fly‐out(FIFO)anddrive–in,drive–out(DIDO)non‐residentworkers(NRWs).WhileNRWsareworking away from their homes, they are usually accommodated in work camps or‘villages’ for thedurationof theirwork cyclewhicharenormally comprisedofmanyconsecutive days of 12‐hour day‐ and night‐shifts. The health effects of this form ofemployment and the accompanying lifestyle is increasingly becoming contentious.1Impactsonpersonalwellness,wellbeing andquality of life essentially remainunder‐researchedandthusmisunderstood.SodexoinAustralia

Sodexo began operations in Australia in 1982, and has since become a leader inprovidingQualityofLife(QOL)services tobusinessesacrossthecountry.2The6,000Australian employees are part of a global Sodexo teamof 413,000people. Sodexo inAustraliadesigns,deliversandmanageson‐sitetheirQOLservicesat320diversesitelocations, including remote sites.Sodexooperates in a rangeof sectors, including theminingindustry.Serviceplansaretailoredtosuittheindividualneedsoforganisations.Sodexo Remote Sites has previously conducted unpublished research among miningworkers in Australia. The results highlighted needs and expectations of Australianminingworkers.Maininsightsaboutworkers’requirementsweredirectedtowards:

contactswithclosest; warmresttimearoundproperandvariedmeals; additionalservices tohelp thembetterenjoytheir lifeonsiteand/ormake the

mostofit; organisetheirtransportation; promotecommunityliving;and findingbalancebetweenprofessionalandpersonallife.3

Thebriefforthiscurrentresearchisaimedatbuildinguponthisknowledge.

1HouseofRepresentativesStandingCommitteeonRegionalAustralia(2013)2Sodexowebsite(Availableathttp://au.sodexo.com/auen/aboutus/aboutusaus%5Caboutusaus.asp)3SodexoResearchBrief

2

Researchbrief

Expectations for quality of life and wellness and wellbeing services are increasingdramatically.It'sgettingcostlierandmoredifficulttoretainvaluableemployees.Thisisparticularly the case in the Australian mining sector. Given the level of interest inensuringhealthyworkplacesinAustralia,SodexohascommissionedQUTtoconductaliteraturereview.TheobjectivesasspecifiedbySodexoare:Objective1:TodefinetheconceptsofwellnessandwellbeingandqualityoflifeinAustraliaObjective2:To examine how wellness and wellbeing are developed within organisations inAustralia and how they impact on employee and organizational performance. Morespecifically,toreviewtheliteraturethatcouldbesourcedabout:

challengesoftheminingenvironment; themininglifestyle–implicationsforhealth,wellnessanddailylife; personalhealthandwellnessofAustralianminingworkers; factorsaffectinghealthinminesandperceivedsupportforhealthandwellness;

and the impact of employer investment in health onperceptions andbehaviourof

employees.Objective3:Todeterminewhatimpactemployeewellnessandwell‐beinghasontheperformanceof mining workers. More specifically, to review the literature that could be sourcedabout:

impactofobesity,alcohol,tobaccouseoncompanies;and linksbetweenemployeeengagementandsatisfactionandcompanyproductivity.

Accordinglythisreviewhasattemptedtoascertainwhatfactorsanorganisationshouldfocus on in order to reduce absenteeism and turnover and increase commitment,satisfaction, safetyandproductivity,with specific reference to themining industry inAustralia.The structure of the report alignswith the stated objectives in that each of the firstthreepartsaddressanobjective.PartIVsummarisesprominentissuesthathavearisenandofferssomeconcludingobservationsandcomments.

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Executivesummary

PartI:Definingtheconceptsofwellness,wellbeingandqualityoflifeinAustralia

DefinitionsandconceptualisationsInanAustraliancontext, avarietyofdefinitionsof the termswellness,wellbeingandquality of life (QOL) are generally in accord with internationally recognisedunderstandings.Thesedefinitionsacknowledge therolesof culture,environmentandresources, and the parts they play in the lives of all individuals. Clearly they implysomethingmoreencompassing than justobjectivecomponents togoodhealth in thatthey go beyond indications of specific biomarkers to incorporate psychosocialcomponents.Operationalising these terms is, however, anothermatter andone that requires evenmorenuancedinterpretationsforapplicationtotheminingindustry.NationalmeasurementsObjective measurements using economic indicators such as Gross Domestic Productandotherquantitativelymeasurementsincludingpopulationhealth,literacyandcrimestatisticsareessentiallyirrelevantforthisreview.Somesurveyswhichhaveprovidedsubjective measurements are more useful. Ones which have tested indicators ofpersonalwellbeing (PW)at anational scale andwhichhave specific relevance to theminingindustryhavesuggestedthefollowing:

NotenoughorpoorqualitysleephasnegativeimpactsonPW. Chronichealthproblemsthathaverequiredmedicaltreatments–especiallyone

producingseverephysicalpainoraseriousmentalillness–negativelyaffectPW. IndividualsinestablishedrelationshipshavehighestlevelsofPW;thisisthe

mostpowerfulindicatorofpositivePW. Internetcontactwithsolely‘virtual’friendsdoesnotalleviatinglonelinessfor

thosewholivealone. RegularexerciseandphysicalactivityimprovesfeelingsofPW. DrinkingsmallamountsofalcoholcanimprovePW;drinkingheavilycanharmit. SmokingcigarettesisassociatedwithlowPW. IncomesecurityisapowerfuldeterminantofPW. JobinsecurityisdamagingtoPW. ManyAustraliansarelivingtime‐poorlives Workingmorethan40hoursaweekcanharmPWbecauseofwork‐leisure

imbalance. PWfromthepositiveaspectsofworkarenotincreasedwhenhoursofworkare

40perweekormore.

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Greaterleisuresatisfactionisachievedwithinthosegroupswhoworklowestnumbersofhours.

Volunteeringandinter‐personalrelationshipsareessentialelementsforPWandahighQOL.

MiningindustrysubjectivemeasurementsSome insights specific to the mining industry are available from two (2) surveysconducted in Queensland. Although there are recognised deficiencies with therepresentativeness of the Queensland industry surveys, they are, nevertheless,instructive. Qualitative research addressing wellness, wellbeing and QOL issues forresourcessectorworkerscouldnotbesourcedfromotherstatesornationally.PointsofspecificinterestfromthetwoQueenslandsurveysaresummarisedbelow.

Miningindustryworkershavelowerlevelsofwork‐lifebalancethananyotherAustralianindustrygroup.

Fewerworkers in themining industryhavesomesay in startand finish timesthaninanyotherindustry.

Most mining industry workers are dissatisfied with their working hours andshifts.

Mostminingindustryworkershaveapreferenceforworkingnomorethan40hoursperweek.

Mostminingindustryworkersexperienceddifficultieswiththeirsleeppatterns. Abilitytoachieveawork‐lifebalanceandoverallQOLwerethemostimportant

influencesforresidentandFIFOs/DIDOminingindustryworkersdecidingtheiracceptanceofwork,andhenceaccommodation,arrangements.

PartII:Developmentandimpactofwellnessandwellbeingprograms

WorkplacewellnessprogramsinAustraliaDespite recognition by many Australian‐based organisations and industries of thebenefits ofworkplacewellness programs, their introduction has lagged behind someother countries. In Australia, medical costs are less directly the responsibility ofemployersandalsobenefits foremployersarenotreadilyquantified.Nevertheless, itseemsaculturalshiftisgraduallyoccurringwhichmayleadtogreatercontributionsofthe workplace to wellness and personal wellbeing. Incentives and effectivemeasurementsareregardedaskeyfactors;andgovernmentshaveamajorroletoplay.Australia’s‘HealthyWorkers’programThe Healthy Workers program within the National Partnership Agreement forPreventativeHealth (NPAPH)between the federal and state governmentshas almost$300millionbudgeted(toJune2018)tosupportworkplacehealthprogramsthatfocusondecreasingratesofoverweightandobesity;increasinglevelsofphysicalactivityandintake of fruit and vegetables; smoking cessation; and reducing harmful levels of

5

alcoholconsumption.Identified high risk or hard to reach industries and workplaces in the QueenslandHealthy Workers strategy include blue collar occupations (e.g. mining industrytechnicians and trades workers, machinery operators and drivers, labourers);regional areas of predicted high employment growth (as forecast for mining);sedentaryworkers (again, the industry’smachinery operators anddrivers areprimeexamples);andregional,ruralandremoteworkplaces(asformining).Thecomparablestrategy for Western Australia, the nation’s richest resource jurisdiction, does notaddressissuesrelevanttothisliteraturereviewasdoestheQueenslandone.Theimportanceofnon‐duplicationofexistinginitiativesintheprioritisationofselectedprogramswithin the strategy suggests an industry approachwould be viewedmorefavourably than a plethora of workplace wellness programs and strategies fromdifferentorganisations.HealthimplicationsandconcernsaboutthelifestyleofminingworkersChoicesand/orconstraintsaboutworkingarrangementsmeanthatthemininglifestylecan vary greatly from one individual to the next. Clearly lifestyle is one thing forresident(local)workerswho,attheendofeachshift,usuallygototheirhomeinatownproximatetotheworksiteandanotherforthosewhofly‐in,fly‐out(FIFO)ordrive‐in,drive‐out(DIDO).Whatisunderstoodby‘themininglifestyle’takesaccountof:

Long operational hours – 12‐hour shifts alternating between day and nightwithin extended work cycles – impact upon the lifestyle of workers and‘frontline’resourcesectorcommunities.

Non‐standard workplace arrangements including the use of FIFO/DIDO non‐residentworkers(NRWs)who,duringtheirextendedworkcycles,stayincampswhichusuallyaccommodatefromseveralhundredtoseveralthousand.

SeparationofNRWsfromfamilyandfriendsandlongdistancetravelto/fromtheworksite–‘theFIFOlifestyle’–canbeamongthemattersthatareunacceptablystressfulandtoughongoodhealthandwellbeing.

Conflictsarisefromworkarrangementsspillingintofamilylife. The risk or reality of being drawn into the mining culture of heavy drinking,

brawling,smokingcigarettesandillegaldruguse,especiallyforNRWsawayfromhome.

Physical inactivityandobesity, andother formsof riskybehaviour resulting ininjuries or illnesses (e.g. exposure to HIV, dangerous driving,) are associatedwiththeFIFOlifestyle.

ConflictsbetweenNRWsandresidentsoffrontlinecommunities.These aspects of themining lifestylehave complex and interrelated ramifications for

6

thehealthofworkers.ThesewereforcefullyillustratedintheHouseofRepresentativesStanding Committee on Regional Australia inquiry into the effects of FIFO/DIDOworkforce arrangements on regional communities. The inquiry identified as seriousconcernsforthesetypesofminingindustryworkerstheuseofalcoholandotherdrugs;poor diet and physical inactivity; increased sexually transmitted and blood borneinfections;mentalhealthissues;fatiguerelatedinjury;andanincreaseininjuryrelatedtohigh‐riskbehaviour.The inquiry heard that the FIFO lifestylewas potentially responsible for fatigue andmental health conditions linked with social isolation, depression and violence.Importantly,Recommendation8ofthereportwasthat:

...theCommonwealthGovernmentcommissionacomprehensivestudyintothehealtheffectsoffly‐in,fly‐out/drive‐in,drive‐outworkandlifestylefactorsandasaresultofthisresearchdevelopacomprehensivehealthpolicyresponseaddressingtheneedsoffly‐in,fly‐out/drive‐in,drive‐outworkers.4

Whetherthisandothersofthe21recommendationsoftheCommitteewillbeadoptedremainstobeseen.MajorconcernsaboutentrenchedsubstanceuseandabusewithintheFIFOculturewithitsconcomitantimpactsonfitnessandgeneralhealthandwellbeingwerereiteratedinmany referenced sources during this current review. Insights about a range ofadditional issues shaping the FIFO lifestyle were also disclosed for these miningindustry workers. These included the behavioural effects of night shift on sleepdeprivation andmood swings; disconnectionswith home‐life situations; relationshipstrainsandhomeconflicts;changesinphysicalhealth;andissueswithon‐sitecateringand food choices. Crew tensions and work conflicts, roster patterns, and quality inaccommodationcampconditionsalsoaffectedtheFIFO/DIDOexperienceandpersonalwellbeing.Clearlymanagingthesenseoflonelinessand/ordisplacementfromthefamilyunitisamajor issue for FIFOs/DIDOs. In frontline mining towns, NRWs can sometimesrepresent large, even majority, proportions of local area populations and havebecome the convenient and readily identified scapegoats for divisions withincommunities, deflecting attention from equivalent poor conduct of locals.Nevertheless, links between violence, social disorder and drunken men from workcamps create a climateof fear and anxiety about safety.For this andother reasonsdiscussed in this report, NRWs are often treated by local residents with suspicionwhich serves to widen the ‘us‐them’ chasm between locals and FIFOs/DIDOs andfurtherharmthesenseofwellbeingofall.4HouseofRepresentativesStandingCommitteeonRegionalAustralia(2013:100)

7

Workers have expressed reluctance to seek support for psychosocial wellbeing.Barriers includea cultureofnotdiscussingproblems; embarrassment; fearof lossofemploymentifproblemswereadmitted;aneedfortrustinthesupportperson;andtheneedforassuranceofconfidentiality.Notwithstanding identified constraints in measurements of wellness, wellbeing andQOL forAustraliaandformining industryworkers inparticular(asdiscussed inPart1), thiscurrentreportmakeslinkagesbetweensubjectivemeasurementsfromsurveyresults and aspects of themining lifestylewith its attendant implications for health,wellness and daily life. Specifically, connections have been made between negativefeelings about personal wellbeing and the influences of use of alcohol and tobacco;physical inactivity; long work hours/work cycles; loneliness and separation; anddepressionandanxiety.FactorsaffectinghealthintheworkplaceofAustralianminingworkersImpacts of obesity, alcohol and tobaccouse – key areas of interest nominated in thebrief for this project – cannot be considered in isolation because they areinterconnectedwith each other andwith a range of other health, wellness and QOLfactors.TheyarecloselyassociatedwithAustralia’sminingcultureandtheFIFO/DIDOlifestyle.Thisreviewshowsthat theyarealso intimatelyconnectedwith the long12‐hourshiftsemployeesarenowrequiredtowork,extendedworkcycleswhichfurtherexacerbates fatigue, and increasingly sedentary work, especially for blue collarworkers.Compared to most other industries, the mining workforce has a high proportion ofchronichealthproblems.These,too,areinterrelatedwitharangeofidentifiableissues.Some of these – health hazards in daily life, traumatic accidents – have long beenassociatedwithworkintheminingindustry.Others–e.g.workplacestressandmentalhealth, use of prohibited drugs, presenteeism, dangerous social media activities andposttraumaticstressdisorder–whilenotnecessarily ‘new’conditions,haveemergedasmorerecentandpressingconcernsforworkersandemployersinthisindustry.Thisreviewconsiders,inturn,whattheliteraturehastosayaboutimpactsonpersonalwellbeing of each of these workplace issues. Fatigue, long working hours and theminingcultureandlifestyleappeartobeattheheartofmostconditions.EmployersupportforwellnessprogramsManyorganisationsrecognisetherearesoundreasonsforemployerstosupporthealthand wellness programs for their employees. These reasons include their effect onreducingabsenteeismandpresenteeism;containingworkerscompensationexpenses;and enhancing organisation profile which can facilitate recruitment. Workplacewellnessprogramsarealsothoughttoimproveemployeemoraleandsatisfactionandthusreduceemployee turnover,and improve injuryandaccidentrates.These factors

8

combineto increaseproductivity–andthusprofitability–andprovideacompetitiveadvantagefororganisationswithprogressivewellnessprograms.Although many organisations support some forms of workplace health promotioninitiatives,amajorobstacletothegrowthandsustainabilityofprogramsistheinabilitytomeasure theirsuccessandthusdemonstrate,perhapsataboard level,areturnoninvestmentfromtheirimplementation.Theincentiveofreducedhealthcarecostsdoesnot carry weight here as in other countries. Without this, there may be insufficientstimulus for the identification of key performance indicators, implementation ofmeaningfulprograms,andallowanceofsufficienttimeandmonitoringfortheirreturnoninvestmenttobeassessed.Otherbarrierstotheadoptionofprogramswithintheminingindustryvarybetweenpeople,sitecultures,companies,industriesandlocations.Impedimentstoemployersupportofandemployeeparticipationinprogramshavebeenespeciallynoticedinregionalandremotelocations.Campaccommodationandcateringinfluencesfoodqualityandchoicesand,forthoseworkinglonghoursandshifts,fatigueandlackoffreetimediscouragesphysicalactivity.

Informationaboutarangeofhealthandwellbeingprogramsweresourced,summarisedandanalysed.NineresourcesectororganisationshadprogramsaimedatOccupationalHealthandSafetyworkplacecompliance.Onlysixwithlifestyleprogramscouldbesourced;thesehadbeenintroducedacross11differentworksites.Thisdoesnotnecessarilyindicatethelevelofpenetrationoflifestyleprogramsintheminingindustry.

Programswhichspecificallyaddressedalcoholconsumptionordrugusewerenotidentifiedandonlyonetargetedcigarettesmoking.Similarly,onlytworesourcesectororganisationsmentionedprogramsaddressingmentalhealthand/orstress.Reticenceintheserespectshasbeenattributedtothe‘taboo’natureofthetopicsandperceptionsthatthesemattersaretoodifficulttoaddress.

PartIII:Impactsofwellnessandwellbeingofminingemployees

EstimatesofproductivitycostsanddayslostInaddition to thespecificationsdefined in theProjectBrief for this literaturereview,theauthorsweresubsequentlyaskedtoestimatecostsspecifictotheminingindustry.

Thereisaninherentriskinpresentingestimationsbasedonnationallyaggregatedandinsomecasesincompleteorinconsistentdata.Thisespeciallyappliesforasectoroftheeconomyundergoingrapidchangeasisthecasefortheresourcessector.Forexample,numberofworkerssince2003hasincreasedbyafactorof1.5inthefiveyearsto2008and2.9inthedecadeto2013.5Nevertheless,estimationsofproductivitycostsforthemining industry (in dollars and/or days lost) have been apportioned for the most

5ABSCat.No.6291.0(February2013)

9

recent years for which data could be sourced according to estimates for workforcenumbers–miningindustryplusmining‐alliedworkers–fortheresourcessector.Theseestimates are not to be usedwithout qualifications outlined here about data quality.Specifically,itshouldbestatedthat:

All estimations of productivity cost and/or days lost are based on datasourced from publically available national data bases coupled withestimations of the size of the resource sector workforce. Due to inherentdistortions introduced by this applied methodology and also to the largenumber of variable factors which cannot be factored into estimations, theresults do not purport to represent actual productivity costs (in dollarsand/ordayslost)fortheindustry.

Someof these variable factors include the reality thatmental health or stress issues,alcohol consumption and illicit drug abuse, all substantial areas of concern, areessentiallytabootopicswhenitcomestocalculationofproductivitycostsorworkplacewellnessprograms.Thisisinpartduetoperceptionsthatthesemattersaretoodifficulttoaddress.Furthermore,drugabuseandstressarestillregardedasemergentissues.

Anadditionaldifficultypotentiallyskewingestimatesisanindustrydominatedbybluecollar workers; two out of three are Machinery operators and drivers (32.8%),Technicians and trades workers (26.2%) or Labourers (7.1%).6 Compared to otherworkers, blue collar industries have the highest prevalence of obesity, risky alcoholconsumption, smokingandphysical inactivity7 andhenceapportioningnational costsbasedsolelyonworkforcenumbersmaywellunderstateproductivitycostsformining.Similarly,theheavyweightingtowardsamaleworkforce(around87%aremales)candistortanapportionmentofcosts.

The following is a summary of estimations of productivity costs arrived at for theminingindustry.Moreinformationiscontainedintheidentifiedreportsubsections.

Costofobesity,2008:$104.4million(subsection2.4.3) Costofsleepdisorders,2010:$99.2million(subsection2.4.4) Costofpresenteeism,2009‐10:$1,023million,1.511milliondayslost

(subsection2.4.5);2012:2.265milliondayslost Costofstress‐relatedabsenteeismandpresenteeism,2008:$293.1million;

695,400dayslost;in2012:1.115milliondayslost(subsection2.4.5) Successfulworkers’compensationclaimratesformentalstress,2008‐09to

2010‐11:Males12.2hoursper100millionhoursworked;females19.6hoursper100millionhoursworked;(0.6%ofsuccessfulclaims)(subsection2.4.5)

6ABSCat.No.6291.0datacubes(February2012)7 QueenslandGovernment(2010) 

10

Dayslostthroughalcoholabuse,2012:Lowerestimateof711,600dayscosting$249.1million;upperestimateof1.962milliondayscosting$686.9million(subsection2.4.6).

Costofalcohol,tobaccoandillicitdrugabuse,2004‐05:$694.2million;2012:$2,177.5million(subsection2.4.6)

Impactsofobesityandsubstance(ab)useWiththeminingindustry’shighproportionofoverweightandobeseworkers,obesityisclearlyanissueofseriousconcern.Itincreasestheriskoftype2diabetesandislinkedwith other lifestyle issues including, but not limited to, stress and mental health,fatigue,fitnessforwork,andalcoholconsumption.The impacts on productivity of obesity, alcohol and tobacco use per se cannot beisolated. These factors are interrelated with each other and with a range of otherhealth,wellness and QOL issues. They are closely associatedwith Australia’sminingculture and the FIFO/DIDO lifestyle. Suffice to say they directly affect productivitythroughillness,presenteeism,absenteeismandworkforceturnover.ImpactsofworkerturnoverandreplacementAvailable data point to high levels of resource sector workforce turnover orreplacementdemand,especiallyforNRWs.Theprobabilityofjobseparation(turnoverand replacement) in the mining industry is relatively high compared with otherindustries and substantially higher for NRWs (estimated at least twice the rate ofresident workers). Turnover rates in the mining industry are exacerbated by therecognised ageing of itsworkforce. The average gross replacement rate (thosewholeave the sectoror retire)hasbeenassessedat around10%ayear and ishigher forblue‐thanwhite‐collarworkers.Over the past decade, turnover rates have increased. All sourced results suggestaverageturnoverratesofatleast20%andpossiblydoublethatormoreforFIFOsites.Aturnoverrateinexcessof20%isgaugedasdetrimentaltositeproductivity.Itseemsmost likely, therefore, that productivity costs atmanymine sites are exacerbated byemployeeturnover.Theselesstangiblecostsareinadditiontorecruitment, inductionand training costs of replacement employees which could be at least $500 millionannually.Impactsofpresenteeism,stressandillnessesThe cost of presenteeism is estimated to be almost four times the more readilymeasuredbutsubstantialcostofabsenteeisminAustralia.Whenaratioofoneminingindustry worker to onemining activity related worker is applied (as has been usedelsewhere), resource sector workers would have represented, in February 2013,around 6.4% of the Australianworkforce. ApplyingMedibank’s estimated average of6.5 days of lost productivity perworker due to presenteeism equates to around 3.4

11

milliondayslostperannumwithintheresourcessector.Duetorecognisedlifestyleandworkplacechallengesintheminingindustry,especiallyforFIFOs/DIDOs,thenumberofworkingdaysofproductivitylostperworkerthroughpresenteeismwouldmost likelybegreater than theaverageof6.5days.Accordingly,speculation that themining industry’s ‘share’ of the $34 billion cost of absenteeismcouldhavebeenatleast$2billionin2009‐10doesnotappearunreasonable.Mentalillnessandstressintheworkplaceisassociatedwithexcessivehoursandshiftwork. Indeed,recognitionthatexceedinga48‐hourworkingweekpresentsasdangerto psychological and physiological health is receiving growing support. Noise, healthand safety risks and high workforce turnover are among other types of workplacestressors.Stress‐relatedworkerscompensationclaims inAustraliadoubled from2004 to2008.On the basis of somewhat dated (2008) estimates, the mining industry in Australiacould be experiencing significant costs due to employees experiencing workplacestress.Thisisestimatedtoamounttoaround$1billionand1.7billionworkerdayslostperyear.Recent research has shown thatminingworkers’ wellbeingwasworse among thosewith no say over hours or shifts and/or for thosewhowanted towork fewer hours.Additionally,thestudyidentifieduseofanti‐depressants,sleepingtabletsandantacidsas a proxy for mental wellbeing. It has also been established that gastro‐intestinalproblemsarethemostprevalenthealthcomplaintassociatedwithshiftandnightwork.A causal role associated with employees having a say in working arrangements forthesetypesofillnesseshasbeenclaimed.Aninvestigationofcostofworkforceturnover,presenteeism,absenteeismandillnesstotheminingindustryishamperedbylimitationstoaccessiblematerial.Nevertheless,lostproductivityappearsconsequentialandcostly.Impactsofwellnessprogramsonminingindustryemployees.Assessingtheimpacts–thesuccessorotherwise–ofhealthandwellnessprogramsonmining industry profitability has proved difficult. Only minimal information wasavailableaboutkeyperformanceindicatorsorhow,evenif,returnoninvestmentwasdetermined.Sourcedwellnessprograms(summarisedinAppendix10)providedonlyafewcluesbecauseimpactswereeithernotindicatedorwerebasedonnon‐quantifiableoutcomes such as anecdotal improvements in awareness andmotivation; qualitativefeedback; employee participation rates; and interest from employees for ongoingparticipation.Evaluationof impactsbyindustriesotherthanminingandtheextentoftheirsuccessdidnotappeartobemoresophisticatedthanformining.

12

Sourcing literaturewhichwouldpermit the extent to be gauged towhich employeesacceptandbecomecommitted toacontinuing involvement inwellnessprogramshasalsoproveddifficult.OurresearchofAustralianprograms(Appendix10)showedthatmining organisations referenced responses such as anecdotal improvements inawareness, motivation and health, and reduction in absenteeism and self‐reportedpresenteeismtoassessworkeracceptance.Research elsewhere has established that wellness programs are associated withcommitted workforces and work environments that reflect a priority on health andsafety. Thismeans that investments in employee health extend beyond solely healthandwellnesstothefosteringoftheperceptionoftheorganisationasa‘caring’placetowork. Employees reciprocate with greater commitment to their workplace. Thisstrengthens the case for investment in workplace wellness programs due toimplications for the development of a committed workforce which, in turn, leads tolowerturnoverratesandassociateddirectandindirectcosts.PartIV:Focalfactorsidentifiedbythisreview

EmploymentrelationshipsandworkforcearrangementsinAustralia’sresourcessectorhave changed considerably in recent years, especially over the past 10 years or so.Thesehavebeenstronglyinfluencedbythehugegrowthinregionalandremoteminingoperations as a result of the resources boom, and the widespread adoption ofFIFO/DIDOworkforcesandcontractedworkersaccommodatedincamps.Part IV distils a raft of circumstances identified by this research which have beenpowering changes to workforce arrangements. This is accomplished by subjectivelyweighting three categories of drivers of change: external /whole‐of‐industry factors;workplacecircumstances;andassociatedlifestyleaspects.Presentedintableform,thissummaryisessentiallyaframeworkfromwhichminingsite‐specificinfluencescanbeidentifiedandargumentsforappropriatewellnessprogramsconstructed.Assessinginfluencesofthesefactors,circumstancesandaspectsonwellness,wellbeingandQOLis,however,complex.Thisisbecauseoftheinterconnectivitybetweencausalfactorsandhealthconditions.Withinmining,fatigueisarootcauseasarethelong12‐hour shifts, the extended cycles of day/night work, and the increasingly sedentarynatureof jobs.ForNRWs,becomingembroiled in ‘theFIFOlifestyle’presentsrisks inadditionto‘themininglifestyle’andculture.Howcan‘lifestyle’changesbeeffectedbywellness programs within extreme constraints imposed by the workplace andworkforce ‘arrangement’? Clearly more studies are needed in this largely under‐researchedarea ifhealthprogramsaddressingemployeewellness andwellbeingandforimprovingqualityoflifeofworkersaretobeotherthantokenistic.

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Part I:Defining the concepts ofWellness,Wellbeing andQuality ofLifeinAustralia

1. AustralianindexesandassessmentsofQOLandwellbeing

1.1 Definitionsandconceptualisations

‘Wellness’ has been defined as ‘a complex mix of environmental, occupational,intellectual, emotional, financial, physical, spiritual, cultural and socialcomponents’.1The concept of wellness may be explained, therefore, as ‘a life‐longprocessofmovingtowardsenhancingeachofthesecomponentsinyourownlife;itisastate of optimal well‐being that is oriented toward maximizing an individual’spotential’.2‘Wellbeing’ ismore elusive but the concepthas been conceptualised as comprised ofthreecomponents:

acognitiveappraisalthatone’slifewasgood(lifesatisfaction); experiencingpositivelevelsofpleasantemotions;and experiencingrelativelylowlevelsofnegativemoods.3

TheWorldHealthOrganization (WHO) defines quality of life (QOL) as ‘[i]ndividuals’perceptionsof theirposition in life in thecontextof thecultureandvaluesystems inwhich they liveand in relation to theirgoals, expectations, standardsandconcerns’.4This broad ranging concept may be affected in complex ways by physical health;psychological state; level of independence; social relationships; personal beliefs; andtheirrelationshiptosalientfeaturesoftheirenvironment.InanAustraliancontext,avarietyofdefinitionsoftheseterms–oftenassociatedwithmeasuring health conditions nationally – acknowledge the roles of culture,environment and resources, and the parts they play in the lives of all individuals.Clearly they imply somethingmore encompassing than just objective components togood health in that they go beyond indications of specific biomarkers to incorporatepsychosocialcomponents.

In the latter part of the 1990s, considerable government and academic activity wascentredroundfindingmeaningfulformsofassessingwellness,wellbeingandQOL.Thisactivity was sparked by interest in finding ways to create a better society throughimproved national wellbeing and bettering the QOL of individuals. Prior to this, thequestionofwhatmakespeoplefeelbetteroff–toexperiencewellnessandwellbeing–

1 NWIA(2011) 2 NWIA(2011)3 Diener(2009)

4 WHO(Availableat:http://www.who.int/mental_health/media/68.pdf)

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hadbeenconfined toassessing standardsof living: essentially, economicgrowthwasused togaugepolicy success.EvaluationofQOLwas subsequentlyexpanded throughtheuseof subjectivemeasurements.Beforeaddressing thesemoreuseful aspects (asfar as this brief is concerned), some brief comments on objectivemeasurements areoffered.1.2 Nationalobjectivemeasurements

QOL can be assessed both objectively and subjectively. Historically assessments inAustraliahavefocusedonobjectivemeasurements.EconomicindicatorssuchasGrossDomestic Product and other quantitativelymeasured indicators including populationhealth, literacy and crime statistics are used. A brief outline of the following fourquantitative measurements is presented in Appendix 1 but they are not consideredpertinenttothisreview:

SocialInclusioninAustralia:HowAustraliaisFaring2012 MeasuringWellbeing:FrameworksforAustralianSocialStatistics TheGenuineProgressIndicator TheStateoftheStates

1.3 Nationalsubjectivemeasurements

Subjectivemeasurementspresentasanalternativemeasureofpopulationwellbeingofhow Australians feel about life. Two national surveys based on subjectivemeasurementsthathaverelevancetothisinquiry–theAustralianWorkandLifeIndex(AWALI) and the Australian UnityWellbeing Index (AUWI) – are discussed inmoredetailin,respectively,AppendicesB1andB2.BothprovideinsightsintotheAustralianpsycheaboutanumberofcontemporaryissuesassociatedwithwellnessandwellbeingandQOLandparticularlythewaylifeandworkintersect.Especiallyrelevantaspectsinthecontextofthisliteraturereviewareoutlinedinthefollowingtwosubsections.1.3.1 AustralianUnityWellbeingIndex(AUWI)

The Australian Centre on Quality of Life uses the Australian Unity Wellbeing Index(AUWI)togaugehowsatisfactionwithvariousaspectsoflife–bothatapersonallevelandnationally–affectoveralllifesatisfactionofAustralians.The first surveywas conducted in April 2001; themost recentundertaken, the 28th,

was published inSeptember2012. Inadditiontoaddressing levelsof lifesatisfaction,eachsurveyexaminesingreaterdepthaspecifictopic.Resultsfromtenofthesehavebeen addressed for this review due to perceive relevance to employees andorganisations operating in Australia’s resources sector. These are summarised inAppendix3,withabriefsynopsispresentedinTable1.1.

15

Table1.1:SummaryofresultsforselectedtopicsassessedusingtheAUWI,2002‐12

Topic Summaryofimpactsonpersonalwellbeing(PW

Impactsofmaritalstatusonwellbeing (Weinbergand Cummins2012)

ThoseinestablishedrelationshipshavehighestlevelsofPW,followedbythosewhohavenevermarriedoraredivorced;thosegoingthroughseparationhavelowestlevelsofPW.

Quantityandqualityofsleep(Cumminsetal.2012)

Poorqualityor limited(too few)hoursofsleepcanhavenegative impactsonPW. This highlights the need for comfortable sleeping conditions includingundisturbedsleepforsufficientconsecutivehourstosuittheindividual.

Forpersonsworking‘evening’asopposedto‘day’12‐hourshifts,disturbances(e.g. noise, olfactory) can conflict with conditions for good quality sleep.Arguably interference could be worse for those living in households where‘normal’routines–thoseassociatedwithchildcare,school,houseworkandpaidworkforothersinthehousehold–continue.NRWsinworkcampscansimilarlyhavetheirsleepdisturbedifaccommodationisnotsufficientlysound‐protectedorifbehaviorofothersisnotwellmanaged.

Chronichealth(CumminsandSchafer 2011)

An illnesswhichhas requiredmedical treatments – especially oneproducingseverephysicalpainoraseriousmentalillness–producesbelownormallevelsof PW even when ongoing treatment is no longer deemed necessary. Thisappliesmoresotomalesthanfemales.

RelationshipsandtheInternet(Cumminsetal.2011)

ThePWofpeoplewholivealoneishighlysensitivetolowsocialcontact.Whiletheir wellbeing is positively linked to internet contact with family andpreviously known friends, it is not assisted by internet contact with unmetinternet friends.Suchunmetfriendsalso fail toalleviate lonelinessandfail tooffersupportintimesofneed.

This raises the question of whether NRWs living in accommodation campsmightbeclassifiedas ‘livingalone’.Theteamtheyworkwithandthepersonsthey share meals with could be crucial for PW as could the strength, evenexistence,ofa ‘home’supportnetworkwithregularcontacteasilymaintainedduringtheworkcyclesofrosters.

Physicalactivityandwellbeing:Linkswithexercise (Cumminsetal.2008)

Peoplewithstrong levelsof regularexerciseandphysicalactivitywillbenefitfromimprovementinPWtoabovenormallevels.Theconverse–i.e.lowlevelsofphysicalexerciseleadingtoadecreaseor‘dip’inPW–isimplied.

Physicalactivityandwellbeing:Linkswithdrinkingandsmoking (Cumminsetal.2008)

Drinking a small amount of alcohol each day is associated with high PW,especially for males. Drinking may be a coping mechanism for peopleexperiencing stress provided drinking sessions are not ‘heavy’. SmokingcigarettesisassociatedwithlowPW.

16

Work,wealthandhappiness:Timeatworkandnon‐work (Cumminsetal.2007)

Workingmore than40 hours a week leads to dissatisfactionwith time spentatworkandthetimeavailablebeyondwork.

Work, wealth and happiness: Perceptions of wealth and happiness (Cummins et al.2007)

PeopletendtooverestimatetheextenttowhichvariationsinincomeinfluencetheirdegreeofhappinessandPW.

IncomeSecurity(Cumminsetal.2006)

Income security is one of the most powerful determinants of PW that wasfound. Employer policies directed to increasing income securitywould likelyraisePW.

Personalrelationship(Cumminsetal.2005)

Of all sources of support, the presenceor absence of a partner has themostpowerfulpositiveeffectonPW.

Jobsecurity(Cumminsetal.2004)

Worry about losing their job is damaging to PWmore so than either worryaboutgettinganother joborworryaboutwork‐familybalance. It’s likely thatthoselookingforanotherjobwillbefunctioningpoorlyatwork.

Workstatus:Hoursworked(Cumminsetal.2002)

Insummary,the positive aspects of work– the sense of purpose it imbuesand thesocialconnectednessitencourages–canbeachievedinlesstimethan40 hours eachweek. As the number of hours increases from the minimumrequired to meet these personal needs, no greater sense of purpose will beachieved and more interpersonal contact may start to be aversive. At thispoint the work becomes routine, tedious,tiring, and ever lessenjoyable.Thetrendfornumberofwork‐hourstoincreaseisunlikelytoenhancePW.

Workstatus:Workandleisuresatisfaction (Cumminsetal.2002)

Volunteering positively engages people in inter‐personal relationships and inmeaningful anduseful activities,bothofwhichareessential elements forPWand a high QOL. Since most voluntary activities are inherently social, thisaspectmay be unattractive to some, especially some males. Importantly, thehighest levels of leisure satisfactionoccurwithinthosegroupswiththelowestnumberofworkhours.Whateverthereasonforthiscounter‐intuitivefinding,itwaspresentedasevidencethatmanypeopleareoverlyengagedinworktothedetrimentoftheirenjoymentoflifeandPW.

Workstatus:Distributionofworkhours (Cumminsetal.2002)

Peopleworkingeithervery long hours (inthesample,mainlyhomecarers) orveryshorthours(volunteersor part‐timepaid employment)were doingbestin termsof theirPW.Thepeopledoingleastwellinthisregardwerethoseinpaidemploymentwhowereworkingoverthe40hourweek.

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ThesynopsisofresultspresentedaboveforAUWItopicsselectedfortheirrelevancetotheminingindustrywillbefurtherreferencedinPartIIofthisreportbylinkingthemwithhealthandwellbeingproblemareasidentifiedfortheindustry.1.3.2 AustralianWorkandLifeIndex(AWALI)

TheAustralianWorkandLifeIndex(AWALI)isanationalsurveyofwork–lifeoutcomesamongworkingAustraliansundertakenbytheCentreforWork+LifeattheUniversityofSouthAustralia.AWALIcommencedin2007;thefifthsurveywasconductedin2012.The surveys deal with aspects of work, QOL andwellbeing bymeasuring howworkintersectswithotherlifeactivitiesasseenbyarandomlyselectedrepresentativegroupofworkingAustralians.Thelatestsurvey,AWALI2012,5offersinsightsintothewaysinwhichmanyAustralianworkersexperience conflictorat least constraintwith their allocationof timedue tointrusionfromlonghoursworked.Importantly,responsesareanalysedbyindustryandoccupationandtheimpactsofhoursspentinpaidworklifeisgauged.Results from theAUWI are further expandedupon inAppendixA2.3 by reference toPocock et al. (2012) who have argued that, in the midst of great wealth, manyAustraliansarelivingtime‐poorlives.1.3.3 Workforceparticipationandworkplaceflexibility

A survey ofworkforce participation andworkplace flexibilitywas undertakenby theABS inOctober2010 inWesternAustralia.6 It provides some insight into employees’personal work preferences and access to flexible working arrangements. Notably, agreater proportion of mining industry workers (14.5%) said that their work‐lifebalancewas‘rarelyorneverbalanced’thanforanyotherAustralianindustrygroupandlessthanathird(31.3%),fewerthaninanyotherindustry,saidtheirwork‐lifebalancewas‘alwaysbalanced’.1.3.4 WorkingTimeArrangementsSurvey

Informationabout theworkingarrangementsofemployees in theirmain job,namelystartandfinishtimesandshiftwork,wascompiledbytheABSfromaNovember2009WorkingTimeArrangementsSurvey(conductedthroughoutAustraliaasasupplementtotheABSmonthlyLabourForceSurvey).7Fewerworkers (30%) in themining industry had some say in start and finish timesthan in any other industry. This lack of flexibility was more pronounced for malesworking in this industry (only 28% had flexibility) than for females (45%).5Skinneretal.(2012)6ABS(2011)Cat.No.6210.57ABS(2010)CatNo.6342.0

18

Furthermore,theminingindustryhadthehighestproportionofmaleemployees(52%)who usually worked shift work. For women in the mining industry, 24% usuallyworkedshiftwork,thenexthighestproportionafter‘Healthcareandsocialassistance’and‘Accommodationandfoodservices’(bothat32%).1.3.5 OtherNationalSubjectiveMeasurements

Twoothernationalsurveyswhichdealwithsubjectivemeasurements–QualityofLifein Australia: An Analysis of Public Perceptions; and The Ipsos Mackay Report – aresummaries in Appendix A2.4, in part to affirm that better know ones have not beenoverlooked.1.4 Miningindustrysubjectivemeasurements

Twosurveysthatprovidesomesubjectivemeasurementsofissueswhichimpactuponwellness,wellbeing andQOLofmining industry employeeshavebeen sourced.Nonehavetargetedtheindustrynationally.Nevertheless,usefulinsightsareprovided;thesearesummariesinthefollowingtwosubsections.1.4.1 TheAustralianCoalandEnergySurvey

A2012studyofworkingarrangementsandwellbeingbyPeetzetal.8examinedimpactsof the role of shift patterns on wellbeing and health of workers employed inQueensland’s coal and energy industry in the latter part of 2011.Wehave identifiedthatthedatasetunder‐representsthefollowingcategoriesofworkers:

those working industry ‘normal’ hours of 45 hours per week or more (mostsurveyedworkedless);

FIFO/DIDOworkers; contractedworkers(92%ofthosesurveyedwerepermanentorongoingstaff); non‐unionmembers(onlyCFMEUmemberswerecontacted); thosenewtotheindustry;and potentiallydissatisfiedemployeeswhohavelefttheindustry.

Nevertheless, a clear majority of workers who did respond were dissatisfied withworking hours and shifts and experienced difficultieswith their sleeppatterns. Themajority had a preference forworking less than 41 hours perweek,with a 40 hourworkingweekmostcommonlypreferred.‘Allotherthingsbeingequal’,amajorityleanttowardsgivingupshifts.A summaryof results from this preliminaryPhaseOne survey –PhaseTwo is yet tocome–arepresentedinAppendixA3.1.

8Peetzetal.(2012)

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1.4.2 SurveyofQueenslandworkforceaccommodationarrangements

A study titledWorkforce Accommodation Arrangements in the Queensland ResourcesSector gathered the views of resources sector employees in that state regardingworkingandresidencyarrangementsinthemineralsandenergysector.9Ofcompletedsurveys, 55% were residential workers with the remainder non‐resident workers(NRWs).Basedon lengthofemployment, itwasapparent that surveyrespondentsweremorelikely to be employees who were essentially satisfied with their work andaccommodationarrangements.Thusrespondentsarenotnecessarilyrepresentativeofworkersintheindustryandtheresultsneedtobedigestedwiththisinmind.Most respondents (64%) indicated they were in preferred accommodationarrangements. Theywere asked to rate the relative importance of various factors intakingupemploymentintheresourcessector.Rankedsimilarlyasofmostimportanceindecidingtoworkatthecurrentsitewere:

accommodationarrangement(includingquality); salary; careerdevelopment; reputationofemployer;and workroster.

Themost important influencing factors indecidingaccommodationarrangements forboth residential and non‐residential respondentswerework‐life balance and overallqualityoflife.Foramoreinformativesummary,refertoAppendixA3.2.1.5 Selectedminingindustrylabouranddemographiccharacteristics

1.5.1 NumberofworkersinAustralia’sresourcessector

Itisimpossibletoquantifythenumberofworkersdirectlyemployedbytheresourcessector, letaloneidentifythosetransientnon‐residentworkers(NRWs)whofly‐in,fly‐out(FIFO),drive‐in,drive‐out(DIDO)orusesomeothermethodtotravelaway,mostlytostayincampsfortheworkcycleoftheirrosters.DataarenotcollectedaboutNRWsinany formby theAustralianBureauofStatistics (ABS)orother federalgovernmentbody.Forecastworknumbersareequallyelusive.MiningindustryworkersasidentifiedbytheABSusingtheAustralianandNewZealandStandardIndustrialClassification(ANZSIC)arelimitedtothosedirectlyconcernedwithresourceextractionfromoperatingmines,quarries,oroilandgaswells;someactivitieswhichsupportextraction;andsomeexploration.Itdoesnotincludetensofthousands

9URS(2012)

20

of others directly employed by the resources sector for activities such as surveying,constructionofnewandexpansionprojects, transportation,processing,maintenance,andworkcampaccommodation(management,catering,cleaning,securityandsoon).Thesearereferredtointhisreviewas‘mining‐allied’workers.TheAustralianfederalgovernment’sHouseofRepresentativesStandingCommitteeonRegional Australia which investigated the impacts of FIFO and DIDO workforcearrangements on regional communities were clearly frustrated by this lack ofinformationonworkers.Itreportedthat:

Akeychallengefacedbythisinquirywasthelackofnationallyconsistentdataonthescope, effect and cost of FIDO/DIDO work practices. It is very easy to identifyproblems, butwithout a real grasp on the figures involved, it is difficult to proposesolutions.ManyoftheCommittee’srecommendationsareaimedatmeetingthisgap.10

Infact,thefirstoftheCommittee’s21recommendationsinitsreport,CanceroftheBushorSalvationforourCities?Fly‐in,Fly‐outandDrive‐in,Drive‐outWorkforcePractices inRegionalAustraliawhichwas tabled in theFederal parliament on13February2013,wasthat:

...theCommonwealthGovernmentfundtheAustralianBureauofStatisticstoestablisha cross‐jurisdictional working group to develop and implement a method for theaccuratemeasurementof:

the extent of fly‐in, fly‐out/drive‐in, drive‐out workforce practices in theresourcesector;and

servicepopulationsofresourcecommunities.11For thepurposeof this review,weuseourestimationof348,500workers (includingmining‐alliedworkers)intheresourcessectorin2012asthebasisforourhypothesisof a range of potential health costs for themining industry in that year. For earlieryears, the ratio applied for mining‐allied workers to mining industry workers (thelatter as per ABS Cat. No. 6291.0 four‐quarterly averages) is 1:3. We also estimatealmost twooutof three(64.5%;224,700)ofthosedirectlyemployedbythesector in2012werenon‐residentworkers.ThesefiguresarebasedonABSstatisticsandalsoonassumptionsinformedbyourlong‐termanalysisofotherpublicdatainthisregard.Thefollowingtableprovidesrationaleforthesenumbers.

10HouseofRepresentativesStandingCommitteeonRegionalAustralia(2013:4)11HouseofRepresentativesStandingCommitteeonRegionalAustralia(2013:xix)

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Table1.2:EstimationofAustralia’sresourcessectorworkforce,2012

ANZSICminingindustryworkers Number,12monthstoFeb2013(4‐quarteraverage)12 261,400

Mining‐alliedworkers–usingratioof1:3industryworker Number,12monthstoFeb2013 87,100

Totalindustry+alliedworkers,2012 348,500 Resourcessectornon‐residentworkers(NRWs)–FIFOs,DIDOs,andsoon: ANZSICMiningindustryworkers

Number,12monthstoFeb2008(4‐quarteraverage)13 135,300 Conservativelyestimate50%wereNRWs 67,650 Number,12monthstoFeb2013(4‐quarteraverage) 261,400 Increaseoverlast5years(2008‐2013) 126,000 EstimateNRWs80%ofthisincrease 100,880

MiningindustryNRWsFeb2013 168,530Mining‐alliedNRWs–usingratioof1:3industryworkers14 56,170Totalindustry+alliedNRWs,2012 224,700TheestimateofNRWstorepresentaminimumof50%ofindustryworkersin2008isguided by knowledge of the Australian resources sector’s increasing reliance onprincipal contracting companies and third‐party contractors for all facets of projectdevelopment,operationandotherdirectlyrelatedservices.Indeed,mostsectorswithinthe industry have followed the lead set by gold mining companies in the 1980s tofavourcontractlabourandthususeofcontractorshasrisensubstantiallyoverthepasttwo decades.15 Over the boom years since 2008 when number of ANZSIC‐identifiedmining industry workers has risen by 126,000, widely recognised accommodationshortagesforpotentialresidentsinhigh‐growthminingregionssuggests(amongothermatters)thatveryhighproportions(anestimated80%)of thisgrowthwouldbe inanon‐residentworkforce.Formostresource‐richregionsofAustralia,minimalinformationontheextentanduseof contractors and the type of work they undertake is published. Some data areavailable, however, for Western Australia (WA) where, in 2008–09, contractorscomprised 56% (around 40,000) of mining personnel for that year; they haverepresentedthemajorityof thissector’sworkforce for thepastdecade.16Contractorsare usually NRWs. Although WA has been the lead state with these workplacearrangements,otherjurisdictionshaveadoptedthesepracticesalthoughtowhatextentisnotclear.Theuseofprincipalcontractorsandthird‐partycontractorsincreasesthedifficulty of sourcing numbers on workers. Furthermore, some of the contracted

12ABSCat.No.6291.013ABSCat.No.6291.014ThisslashestherecommendedKPMG(2013)ratioof1:115NRSET(2010)16DMPWA(2009)

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workersdonothaveanAustralianbase.1.5.2 Productivityintheminingindustry

ProductivitypresentsasachallengeacrosstheminingsectorinAustralia.ThelatestsetofABSdataongrossvalueadded(GVA)byhoursworkedfortheindustryshowthat,ineveryyearsince2002,mininghasproducedlessoutputperhourof labouremployedthan the previous year. By comparison, all industries combined (including mining)showasteadyupwardstrendoverthedecade(Figure1.1).

Figure1.1:MiningindustryGVAperhourworked.Australia,2002‐2012

Productivity improvement is challenging for the industry for a number of reasonsincluding:

Longleadtimesinachievingreturnsfromcapitalinvestment Thediminishingsupplyofeasilyaccessibleore Infrastructureandsupplychainissues Awide‐rangingskillsshortage

Otherinfluencesonthedownwardsproductivitytrendhavebeentheballooningintheuseofprincipalcontractorsandothersupportservices.Keyfactorswithinthisinclude:

Miners employing all resources available, regardless of cost, to exploit highpricesviarapidvolumegrowth;

Skills shortages creating an environment of ever increasing demands fromworkforces;and

Continuingtrendtowardsoutsourcingpartsoftheminingvaluechain.17

17PricewaterhouseCoopers(2013)

0.0

50.0

100.0

150.0

200.0

250.0

Jun‐1995

Jun‐1996

Jun‐1997

Jun‐1998

Jun‐1999

Jun‐2000

Jun‐2001

Jun‐2002

Jun‐2003

Jun‐2004

Jun‐2005

Jun‐2006

Jun‐2007

Jun‐2008

Jun‐2009

Jun‐2010

Jun‐2011

Jun‐2012

Mining Australia

23

As a consequence of these past practices contributing to continuing productivitydeclines, the fundamental business dynamics of the mining industry are changing.AccordingtoarecentPricewaterhouseCoopers(2013)analysis:

Nolongercanminersfocusonexpansionatanyprice–thesocalled‘volumefrenzy’–and simply rely on high commodity prices to maintain profitability and delivershareholderreturns.18

Historically,productivity in ironoremining (andhence inWA)hasperformedbetterthan coal mining. Despite this, coal‐producing NSW has been the strongest statecontributingtolabourproductivityalthoughQueensland,thebiggestproducerofcoal,hasbeenthepoorest.19As noted in this section, the mining industry has increasingly relied on embeddedcontractorsandatransientFIFO/DIDOnon‐residentworkforce.Significantculturalandbehaviouralchallengesnowexistasminingcompaniesattempt toremove large‐scale‘quickfix’highcostsupportservicesthattheindustryhasrapidlyadoptedoverthelast10years.201.5.3 Otherlabouranddemographiccharacteristics

Bothnationalandminingindustrysurveyresultspresentedherehaveemphasisedtheimpact that achievinga satisfactorywork‐lifebalancehasonwellness,wellbeingandQOL.Miningindustryworkersparticularly, itseems,areunder‐achievingthisbalance.SomeABSlabouranddemographiccharacteristicsfortheminingindustryinAustraliawill provide background and enhance appreciation of the material this review. ThefollowingfiguresarepresentedandcommenteduponinAppendix4:

Employmentnumbers,February1985‐February2012 Fulltimeemploymentbystate,February2012 Personsemployed full time,hoursworkedperweek, February1985‐February

2012 Numbersinfullemployment,bygender,toFebruary2012 Fulltimenumbers(000s),byage,February2012 Workforcenumbers(000s)byoccupation,February2002toFebruary2012 Averagenumber of full‐timeworkers (000s) by occupation, February 2008 to

February2012 Gender ofworkers%, Australian industries (ANZSIC classifications), February

2012 Femaleworkers%byoccupationfor‘bluecollar’industries,November2011.

18 PricewaterhouseCoopers(2013:2) 19PricewaterhouseCoopers(2013)20PricewaterhouseCoopers(2013) 

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Part II: Examination of howwellness andwellbeing are developedwithinorganisations inAustraliaandhow they impactonemployeeandorganisationalperformance

2. Developmentandimpactofwellnessandwellbeingprograms

Part II examines howwellness andwellbeing programs are developed, implementedand assessed in Australia, with particular reference to the resources sector, byconsidering:

Issuesandenablersfortheirgrowthandthestatusofprogramscomparedwithsomeothercountries;

theNationalPartnershipAgreementonPreventiveHealth(NPAPH)betweentheFederalandStateGovernmentswhichhasacoreaim(amongothers)tofacilitate‘HealthyWorkers’initiativesinsupportofworkplacehealthprograms;

themininglifestyle:implicationsforhealth,wellnessanddailylife; factorsaffectinghealthintheworkplaceofAustralianminingworkers;and

employersupportforhealthandwellnessprograms.

2.1 WorkplacewellnessprogramsinAustralia

2.1.1 EvolutionofworkplacewellnessinAustraliaTheevolutionofworkplacewellness inAustralia from theemployerperspectivewasresearchedin2010byPricewaterhouseCoopers(PwC)1onbehalfofMedibankHealthSolutions. It discussed ‘issuesandenablers for growthand sustainability’ ofwellnessprograms.ObservationsmadeaboutworkandtheworkplaceinanAustraliancontextaresummarisedhereas:

Employmentinafulfillingjobcanhavepsychologicalbenefitswhichflowontophysicalbenefits.

Conversely,unemployment,under‐employmentandstressfulworkingconditionscanhaveadverseimpactsonpersonalhealthandwellbeing.

Theworkplacecanaffectthephysical,mental,economicandsocialwellbeingofworkers.

Thecostofpresenteeism– thecostofnot fully functioningatworkbecauseofmedicalconditions–isestimatedtobealmostfourtimesthesubstantialcostofabsenteeisminAustralia.

Improvementstoemployeehealthcanalsobebeneficialforemployersthroughimprovedproductivity.

Theseareimportantissueswhichwillbereturnedtolater.

1PricewaterhouseCoopers(2010)

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2.1.2 Australia’scomparativestatus

Despite this recognised knowledge, adoption of workplace wellness programs inAustralia has lagged behind some other countries. The following is an outline ofapparentreasonsandfutureprospectsfromthePwCstudy:

Medical costs are less directly the responsibility of employers than in othercountries.

Aculturalshift,however,isgraduallyoccurringinAustralia. Aimsregardingwellnessareemergingbetweengovernmentsandprivatehealth

insurers(the‘payers’ofhealthcarecostinAustralia),employersandemployeesareconverging.

This is generating opportunities for and interest in the role of workplacecontributiontowellnessandpersonalwellbeing.

Thebenefitsforemployersarenoteasilyquantified. Objectives for wellness programs need to be clearly articulated and

measurements put in place before a return on investment for workplacewellnessprogramscanbedemonstrated.

Incentivesandeffectivemeasurementsareregardedaskeyfactors. Governmentshavearoleinimplementingarangeofincentiveswhichencourage

employerprogramsanddriveindividualstobecomeinvolvedinthem.2Appendix 5 lists types of organisationswhich participated in the preparation of thisreport;onlyoneof17representedtheresourcessector.2.2 Australia’s‘HealthyWorkers’program

2.2.1 TheNationalPartnershipAgreementonPreventiveHealth(NPAPH)

TheNationalPartnershipAgreement onPreventiveHealth (NPAPH)3was announcedbytheCouncilofAustralianGovernmenton29November2008.On28June2012,theNPAPHwasextendedbythreeyearstoJune2018.The NPAPH provided $932.7 million investment by the Australian Government inhealth prevention over nine years from 2009‐10. Its aim is to address the risingprevalence of lifestyle related chronic disease by laying the foundations for healthybehaviours in the daily lives of Australians through identified settings including theworkplace.Theestablishmentof infrastructure required tomonitorandevaluate theprogressofinterventionshasbeenidentifiedasakeyfeature.Thisincludestheestablishmentofan

2PricewaterhouseCoopers(2010)3DepartmentofHealthandAgeing(2012)

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AustralianNationalPreventiveHealthAgencytosupportthedevelopmentofevidenceand data on the state of preventive health in Australia and the effectiveness ofpreventativehealthintervention.2.2.2 The‘HealthyWorker’initiative

Almostonethird($294.3million;32%)ofthetotalbudgetfrom2009–10to2017–18has been allocated to the ‘HealthyWorkers’ initiativewithin the NPAPH program tosupportworkplacehealthprogramsthatfocuson:

decreasingratesofoverweightandobesity; increasinglevelsofphysicalactivityandintakeoffruitandvegetables; smokingcessation;and reducingharmfullevelsofalcoholconsumption.

Ofthisamount,upto$289.1millionwasavailabletostateandterritorygovernmentsfrom1July2011tosupporthealthpromotionactivitiesinworkplaces.Theremaining$5.2 million is to be used by the Commonwealth to develop supportive ‘softinfrastructure’. This infrastructure includes the Joint Statement of Commitment:PromotingGoodHealthatWork,aNationalHealthyWorkersPortalandtoolkit,andaframeworkforhealthpromotionprogramsinworkplaces.Oneprovisionwithintheframeworkhasbeenforeachstateandterritorytoprepareajurisdictional Implementation Plan for the Healthy Workers Initiative based on astandard template. While the state plans have, generally speaking, minimal specificreferencetotheminingindustryperse,alladoptedtheimplementationplantemplatewhich acknowledged that ‘the workforce of mining operations can be physicallyisolated, largely male and may be drawn from culturally and linguistically diversebackgrounds’.4 Each plan goes on to note that, when addressing access and equity,theseminingworkforce factors shouldbeconsidered inworkplacewellnessprogramdesign,deliveryandevaluation.Queensland’s Healthy Workers strategy, known as the Workplaces for WellnessInitiative,5 recognises some standout features of the mining industry. The reportreferences research profiling industries and occupational groups at a higher risk inthoseareaswheresupportistobefocusedwithinNPAPHworkplacehealthprograms:i.e. smoking, poor nutrition, physical inactivity and/or harmful alcohol consumption.For instance,comparedwithother industrygroups,Queenslandbluecollar industrieshavethehighestprevalenceof:

smoking(33.1%);

4SeeforexampleNewSouthWalesGovernment(2010)5QueenslandGovernment(2010)

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physicalinactivity(77.8%); overweight or obesemeasured (64.6%) and self‐reported (63.5%) Body Mass

Index(BMI);and alcoholconsumptionatincreasedlifetimerisk(35.3%).6

Inaddition,bluecollarworkershavethesecondhighestprevalenceofinadequatefruitand vegetable intake (55.9%). These prevalence estimates ofmodifiable lifestyle riskfactorsarealsosignificantlyhigherthanthenationalemployedaverage.Specifically,theHealthyWorkersstrategystatesthatfortheminingindustry:

ratesofsmokingarehigherthanfornationalandstateaverages; lifetime and single occasion risky andhighriskalcoholconsumptionarehigher

thanfornationalandstateaverages; ratesofoverweightorobesemeasurements (BMIandself‐reported)areabove

thenationalandstateaverage; ratesofphysicalactivityarelowerthantheQueenslandaverage;and rates of inadequate fruit and vegetable intake are lower than the national and

stateaverageandthethirdlowestofallQueenslandindustries.Additional elements of the Queensland plan are summarised in Appendix 6. ThisappendixalsocommentsontheSouthAustralianHealthyWorkersstrategies.AlthoughWesternAustraliahaspublisheditsstrategy,noreferencesspecifictominingindustryworkersorplanstargetingthisindustrycouldbefoundinthatstate’sstrategy.2.2.3 Potentialforparticipationfromtheminingindustry?

Identified high risk or hard to reach industries and workplaces in the QueenslandHealthyWorkersstrategyinclude:

blue collar occupations (e.g. technicians and trades workers, labourers,machineryoperatorsanddrivers),manyofwhichareintheresourcessector;

regionalareasofpredictedhighemploymentgrowth[suchasthroughmining]; sedentaryworkers[includingmachineryoperatorsanddrivers]; regional,ruralandremote[mining]workplaces;and largeenterprisesacrossarangeofindustries(e.g.asfoundwithintheresources

sector).Accordingly, it seems that well‐considered and structured programs aimed atworkplacewellbeingprepared fromwithin themining industry for itsworkers couldreceive favourable consideration for funding within the stated guidelines of the

6 QueenslandGovernment(2010) 

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Queensland Healthy Workers strategy. Other states may follow this lead. Theimportance of non‐duplication of existing initiatives in the prioritisation of selectedprograms for Queensland suggests an industry approach would be viewed morefavourably rather than a plethora of workplace wellness strategies from differentorganisations.2.3 Themininglifestyle:Implicationsforhealth,wellnessanddailylife

2.3.1 Whatis‘themininglifestyle’?

Choicesabout lifestylesmeans itcanvarygreatly fromone individual to thenextbutsome generalisations of what is understood by the mining lifestyle in Australia willprovide background for the following discussion. For all types of jobs within theindustry, 12‐hour shifts rotating between night and day have become the normalthoughroster structuresvarygreatly.Twoweeksofwork followedbyoneweekofleave often applies formine site operations; for construction, four‐weekwork cyclesaretypical.Thesetypesofshiftsandrosters impactuponthe lifestyleofworkersandcommunitiesaswillbeexpandeduponlater.Clearly lifestyleisonethingforresident(local)workerswho,attheendofeachshift,usuallygototheirhomeinatownproximatetotheworksite.Conversely,thelifestyleof non‐residentworkers (NRWs), thosewho fly‐in, fly‐out (FIFOs)drive‐in, drive‐out(DIDOs),bus‐in,bus‐out(BIBOs),evenship‐in,ship‐out(SISOs),oruseacombinationofthese methods of travel from their permanent residence (although some don’t haveone) at the beginning of each work cycle of their rosters and return to at end, isdifferent.Commutingoverhundreds,evenseveralthousands,ofkilometressometimeseatsintothepreciousdaysofworkers’leavecycles.Duringwork cycles,NRWsusually stay in camps – several thousandper camp is notunusualalthoughmanyareconsiderablysmaller–althoughhotels,motelsandcaravanparksarealsoused.Thisaccommodationisprovidedbyemployersforworkcycleusealone.Whereas once these campswere found only in remote locations adjacent to amining or resource lease, increasingly they are in or near long‐established towns.NRWs and work camps often become highly contentious within communities at thefrontlineofresourcesectoractivities,especiallywherethereareclustersofcamps.WhilesomeNRWsprosper,othersfindworkandlivingarrangements,separationfromfamilyandfriends,andlongdistancetravelamongothermatters–‘theFIFOlifestyle’–unacceptably stressful and tough on good health andwellbeing. Indeed, the industryhas acknowledged that around 60‐70% of relationships fail.7 Moreover, the highturnoverrateforNRWs,(30‐60%),doublethatofotheremployees,8meansasenseofbelongingwithin theworkplace isdifficult toachieve.For thoseaway fromhome for7Ranford(2011)8KineticGroup(2012);NRSET(2010)

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the first time, especially for young singlemen, these experiences could be affirming.Alternatively, theymay be drawn into themining culture of heavy drinking and therituals of pub brawling as a way of negotiating their masculine status in the localhierarchyofmasculinities.9PopulationsoftransientNRWsareunevenlydistributedwithinresource‐activeregionsandsocialimpactsonthelifestyleoflocalresidents–miningworkersaswellasothers– are greatest where camps are concentrated. Although NRW numbers for a singlecampmayappearrelativelysmall,cumulativetotalsforaregioncanamounttotensofthousands and represent large proportions of the total population (that is, residentsplus NRWs). When variable rosters, switches between work and leave cycles andturnoverratesarefactoredin,thenumberofdifferentindividualscontinuallymovingthroughfrontlineresourcesectorcommunitiesandtheirimpactsareamplified.2.3.2 TheWindsorInquiryandFIFO/DIDOworkforcearrangements

Seriousconcernsabouthealthissuesforworkers,especiallyNRWs,inadditiontothosespecific to theworkplacepersehavebeen identified for themining industry.Notableamong sources is the House of Representatives Standing Committee on RegionalAustraliareportontheimpactsofFIFOandDIDOworkforcearrangementsonregionalcommunities and on workers. The Committee’s report title Cancer of the Bush orSalvation for our Cities? Fly‐in, Fly‐out andDrive‐in,Drive‐outWorkforce Practices inRegionalAustraliawastabledinthefederalparliamenton13February2013.10Itmakes21recommendationstogovernmentand12suggestionstoindustryonvariousissuesassociated with FIFO and DIDO working arrangements. The Committee’s chair wasIndependentMPTonyWindsorandhenceforththeirinquiryisreferredtohereastheWindsorInquiry.FactorsidentifiedbytheWindsorInquirythatimpactuponthewellnessandwellbeingofFIFO/DIDOworkersaresummarisedhere.TheCommitteewasclearlyfrustratedbythe lackof researchanddata to inform these andother issues and called for greaterfocusbygovernmentsandindustry.Indeed,Recommendation8ofthereportwasthat:

...theCommonwealthGovernmentcommissionacomprehensivestudyintothehealtheffectsoffly‐in,fly‐out/drive‐in,drive‐outworkandlifestylefactorsandasaresultofthisresearchdevelopacomprehensivehealthpolicyresponseaddressingtheneedsoffly‐in,fly‐out/drive‐in,drive‐outworkers.11

TheinquiryidentifiedthefollowingasseriousconcernsforFIFO/DIDOworkers:

theuseofalcoholandotherdrugs;9Carrington,etal.(2010)10HouseofRepresentativesStandingCommitteeonRegionalAustralia(2013)11HouseofRepresentativesStandingCommitteeonRegionalAustralia(2013:100)

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poordietandphysicalinactivity; increasedsexuallytransmittedandbloodborneinfections; mentalhealthissues; fatiguerelatedinjury;and anincreaseininjuryrelatedtohigh‐riskbehaviour.16

Only the first two of these listed impacts – substance abuse, poor diet and physicalinactivity–overlapwithfactorspreviously identified inthisreviewas impactingonthewellnessandwellbeingofmining industryworkers.With respect to theuseof alcoholandotherdrugs,theWindsorInquiry’sreportnotedthat:

PerhapsthemostcommonconcernaboutthewellbeingofFIFOworkersraisedintheinquirywastheexcessiveuseofalcoholand,increasingly,othersubstances.12

Apparently FIFOs/DIDOs caught up in ‘a culture of binge‐drinking and substanceabuse’13couldnotnecessarilyaccesscontinuedtreatmentduetotheirvariablework‐leaverosterarrangements.The Windsor Inquiry heard that the FIFO lifestyle was potentially responsible forfatigue,mentalhealthconditionslinkedwithsocial isolation,depressionandviolence.ThesewereidentifiedasseriousconcernsforFIFO/DIDOworkers.Causalfactorslinkedwithfatiguewerethe12‐hourshifts.TheinquiryfoundthatDIDOworkers driving home for three ormore hours after completing the last of their 12‐hourshiftsoftheirextendedworkcycleswasleadingtohighaccidentanddeathratesonregionalroads.Thereportwarned:

The accident rate in the Bowen Basin is particularly high, and as DIDO workforcearrangementsincreasethroughoutsouthernQueenslandandNewSouthWales,therecanbelittledoubtthatasimilartrendwilldevelopinnewminingareas.14

DIDOpracticesalsocontributedtocongestiononregionalroadsthatwerebuiltmerelytoprovidearurallink.TheCommittee’sreporthighlightedthisasoneoftheareasforcorporateactionandproposedthatmandatorybus‐in,bus‐outpoliciesbeimplementedbyresourcecompanies.DepressionandanxietywereconsistentlyraisedthroughwrittensubmissionsandtheCommittee’s public hearings as serious concerns for the health and wellbeing ofFIFOs/DIDOs. Anecdotal evidence suggested that the long working hours and workcyclesandthelocationofaccommodationvillagesorcampsinfluencedthepropensity

12HouseofRepresentativesStandingCommitteeonRegionalAustralia(2013:97)13HouseofRepresentativesStandingCommitteeonRegionalAustralia(2013:97)14HouseofRepresentativesStandingCommitteeonRegionalAustralia(2013:56)

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ofsocialisolationfortheseworkers.To help to address these issues, the Committee suggested that industry be moremindful of the placement of work camps. Highlighting this as an area for corporateaction, the report urged accommodation providers to work closely with localcommunities so that balance could be found between offsetting social isolationexperiencedbyFIFOworkersandthedesiresofcommunities.Impacts from the rise in injuries related to high‐risk behaviour and in sexuallytransmitted infections were linked in the report to the age and risk profile of FIFOworkers: most are male and many are young and single. Despite the lack of datarelating to the direct and indirect health impacts of the FIFO/DIDO lifestyle, theCommitteeindicatedthat:

...therearehealthconcernsthatarelikelytobespecifictoorexacerbatedbytheFIFOlifestylethatneedatargetedhealthpolicyfocus.Diseaseasaresultofrisk‐behaviours,alcohol and other substance misuse and depression and anxiety appear to requireparticularattention.15

TheTermsofReferenceof theWindsor Inquirydictated that itsprime considerationwas impacts of FIFO/DIDO on regional ‘host’ communities. Note that it did notspecifically consider health and QOL issues for resident (as opposed to FIFO/DIDO)mining industryworkers inhost communities.Nevertheless, theCommittee reportedthatthe12‐hourshiftsandextendedworkcycleswhicharenowstandardthroughoutthe industry also hadnegative ramifications for the lifestyleof residentworkers andtheir local communities. These included worker fatigue; erosion of family life; andinability to commit to local activities through participation and volunteering to thecleardetrimentofthecommunities.TheWindsorInquiryalsoaddressedimpactsonthehealthandwellbeingofFIFO/DIDOfamilies includingofchildrenwithaFIFO/DIDOparent.Giventhestatedobjectivesofthisliteraturereview,theseissuesandimpactshavenotbeenaddressedhere.2.3.3 FIFOs/DIDOsas‘outcasts’

Aspreviouslystatedinthisreview,FIFOs/DIDOs cansometimes represent large,evenmajority, proportions of local area populations.16As a group, they exaggerate maledominance and have little or no attachment to workplace communities. They aretransients. They are not regulated by informal social controls that traditionallycharacteriserural communities.17Concernabout‘stranger’FIFOs/DIDOsisheightenedby the greater workforce turnover rate for NRWs, up to double that of resident15HouseofRepresentativesStandingCommitteeonRegionalAustralia(2013:100)16Waller(2010);OESR(2012)17Scottetal.(2011)

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employees.18Hence their existencegives rise to suspicionandconcerns.19Thishasmanifoldconsequencesforeverydaylifeofworkersandresidentswheretheworkforce practices associated with NRWs have become emblematic of the culturalupheaval, disorder, destruction and loss being experienced by residents and whereminingisregardedastherootcause.20Thusthesettingisripeforthefosteringofsocialdivisions and tensions between NRWs and resident locals who see themselves asbearingtheburdensoftheminingboomwhilemostofthebenefitsgoelsewhere.21Insuchcontexts,thedevianceofNRWscanbeexaggerated.Thiscanonlyservetowidenthe‘us‐them’chasmbetweenlocalsandFIFOs/DIDOsandfurtherharmtheirsenseofwellbeing.22AninfluxofNRWsmeansthatmanysharedspacesbecomehighlymasculinisedplaces.Violentmale‐on‐maleassaultsfuelledby excessivealcoholconsumptionare regardedas normal given the dynamics between locals and NRWs. FIFOs/DIDOs are alsolargelyblamedfor introducing acocktail ofdrugs.23Theappliedadageof ‘workhard,playhard’meansthatpubandnightclubbrawlsarecommon.24 Sudden boosts to outsider numbers exacerbate levels of antagonism.Violent altercations are also common in some work camps although privatisedsecurity operationsusuallymeans that only themost serious offences attract publicattention.25NRWs are the convenient and readily identified scapegoats for divisions withincommunities, deflecting attention from equivalent poor conduct of locals.26Nevertheless, links between violence, social disorder and drunken men from workcamps create a climate of fear and anxiety about safety not only within localcommunities but also within affected camps. While only a small proportion ofworkersmaybetheprotagonists, flow‐oneffectsnegatively impactuponthehealth,wellbeingandQOLofmany.AsNRWsexit and re‐enter their source communities, as theymovebetweenwork‐andleave‐cycles,theymay,overtime,become‘outcasts’therealso–evenwithintheirfamilyandclose friendshipgroups–but this too is essentiallyanunder‐researchedarea.

18NRSET(2010);KineticGroup(2012)19McIntosh(2012)20Carringtonetal.(2012)21CarringtonandHogg(2011)22Carringtonetal.(2011)23Carringtonetal.(2010)24McIntoshandCarrington(forthcoming)25Carrington,HoggandMcIntosh(2011)26CarringtonandScott(2008)

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2.3.4 Otherreportsaboutthemininglifestyle

Other literaturesupportsandenlargesuponaspectsof themining lifestyle.SomearediscussedinAppendix7andbrieflyreferencedinthissubsection.AnarticlebyGoateretal.(2012)providesvaluablepersonalinsightsinto:

the behavioural effects of night shift – sleep deprivation,mood swings, healthandworksafetyissues;

disconnectionswithhome‐lifesituations; strategiesfortacklingrelationshipstrainandhomeconflicts; changesinphysicalhealth–effectsofasedentaryjob,andbypassingthegymto

socialisingatthepub; on‐site catering and food choices – lack of awareness about readily available

educational material; irrespectively, going for taste and speed of service, notnutritionalvaluesororderingahealthychoice;

alcoholconsumptionandsmokingaspartoftheminingculture; impactsofcrewtensionsandmanagingworkconflicts; impactsofrosterpatternsontheFIFOexperience; impactsofvaryingqualityinaccommodationcampconditions; feelingsofisolationanddisplacementfromthefamilyunit;and optionstoconsiderforsocialinteraction.

MiningFamilyMatters, anorganisation initially createdbya ‘miningwife’ andwhichoffersadviceandsupporttothefamiliesofFIFO/DIDOworkers,wassurveyingworkersat time ofwriting. Clearlymanaging the sense of loneliness or feelings of separationfrom family is amajor issue for FIFOs/DIDOs. Family friendly policies, the ability toeasily maintain contact with family and friends, and the quality of accommodationappear to be key factors influencing workers’ continued employment. Results whenavailableshouldbeinstructiveaboutissueswhichareperceivedasimpactinguponthelifestyleofFIFO/DIDOworkers.Other research has shown that FIFO workers, compared with mining workers wholivedlocallyasresidents,reporthigherlevelsofsleepdisturbance,27moreinterferencefromworkintheabilitytoperformsocialanddomesticactivities(suchasparticipatingin sport, attending the doctor, looking after children), an increased likelihood ofexperiencinggreaterstrainonfamily life,28 increasedtheriskofmarriagebreakdownandsuicide,29andcanaffectpsychosocialwellbeing.30

27Peetzetal.(2012)28Keown(2005)29Zillman(2012)30 Torkingtonetal.(2011) 

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Workershaveexpressedreluctancetoseeksupportforpsychosocialwellbeingduetoanumberofbarriers.31Instead,trustedfriendsorcolleaguesintheminesiteworkplacearepreferredmeansofsupport.Moreover,thosehavingthesetypesofproblemsmightnotrecognisetheirownstressandthusnotseeksupport.Expatriateplacementsincludingthoseemployedunder457visas32aremorepronetoaccidents and injuries in the workplace because they undertake high‐risk jobs thatnative‐bornpeoplearenotinclinedtodo.33OtherOccupationalHealthandSafetyissuesrelatedtoculturalandlanguagesdifferencesandmisunderstandingscanalsoarise.34Severalstudies35andreports36providerecommendations for improving theabilityofFIFO/DIDOworkerstocopewiththelifestylealthoughwhethersuchrecommendationshavebeenimplementedhasnotbeenreported.2.3.5 Linkinglifestyleimpactswithwellnesssurveys

Here we make some connections between the mining lifestyle and implications forhealth, wellness and daily life identified in this section of the reviewwith surveyedAustralian’s concepts of wellness, wellbeing and QOL. Accordingly, we referenceSection 1.3 of this review which considered a range of topics monitored using theAustralian Unity Wellbeing Index (AUWI). Specifically, where research data areavailable,linkagesaremadebetweenrelevanttopicssurveyedbytheAustralianCentreonQualityofLifeduringthedecade2002‐12andmininglifestyleissues,namely:

useofalcohol,otherdrugsandtobacco; physicalinactivity; longworkhours/workcycles; lonelinessandseparation;and depressionandanxiety.

This analysis (see Table 2.3) is restricted by the nature of the AUWI surveys whichpurporttorepresentthemajorityviewsoftheAustralianpopulationandthushavenotspecificallytargetedapopulationcohortorindustry.

31 Torkingtonetal.(2011) 32Jones(2000)33Ceranic(2012)34See,forexample,Maddison(2012)35Watts(2004);Keown(2005);Gallegos(2006);Behr(2012);Goateretal.(2012)36NottandKeenan(2012);Trivett(2012)

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Table2.3:MininglifestyleimpactslinkedwithselectedAUWIsurveytopics(2002‐12)

Mining workerQOLissues

AUWItopic Impactsonpersonalwellbeing(PW)

Useofalcohol,otherdrugsandtobacco

Physicalactivityandwellbeing:Linkswithdrinkingandsmoking

Drinking a small amount of alcohol each day isassociatedwithhighPW,especiallyformales.Drinkingmaybea copingmechanism forpeopleexperiencing stress provided drinking sessionsarenot‘heavy’.Smoking cigarettes is associated with lowwellbeing.

Physicalinactivity

Physicalactivityandwellbeing:Linkswithexercise

Peoplewithstrong levelsofregularexerciseandphysical activity will improve PW to abovenormallevels.Theconverse–i.e.lowlevelsofphysicalexerciseleadingtoadecreaseor‘dip’inPW–isimplied.

Longworkhours/cycles

Quantityandqualityofsleep

Poor quality or limited (too few) hours of sleepcannegativelyimpactPW.Forpersonsworking‘evening’asopposedto‘day’shifts, disturbances (e.g. noise, olfactory) canconflictwithconditionsforgoodqualitysleep.

Work,wealthandhappiness:Timeatworkandnon‐work

Working more than 40 hours a week leads todissatisfactionwith time spent at work and thetimeavailablebeyondwork.

Work,wealthandhappiness:Perceptionsofwealthandhappiness

People tend to overestimate the extent towhichvariations in income influence their degree ofhappinessandPW.

Workstatus:Hoursworked

The positive aspects of work – the sense ofpurpose it imbues and thesocialconnectednessit encourages – can be achieved in less than 40hourseachweek.As the number of hours increases from theminimumrequiredtomeet thesepersonalneeds,nogreatersenseofpurposewillbeachievedandmore interpersonal contact may start to beaversive.At this point the work becomes routine,tedious,tiring, and ever lessenjoyable.Thetrendfor number ofwork‐hours toincreaseisunlikelytoenhancePW.

Workstatus:Workandleisuresatisfaction

The highest levels of leisure satisfaction occurwithin those groups with the lowest number ofworkhours.Many people are overly engaged in work to thedetrimentoftheirenjoymentoflifeandPW.Volunteering positively engages people in inter‐personal relationships and in meaningful anduseful activities, both of which are essentialelementsforPWandahighQOL.Since most voluntary activities are inherentlysocial, this aspect may be unattractive to some,especiallysomemales.

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Workstatus:Distributionofworkhours

PersonsinthegroupdoingleastwellwithrespecttoPWwerethoseinpaidemploymentwhowereworkingoverthe40hourweek.

Lonelinessandseparation

Maritalstatus Those in established relationships have highestlevelsofPW;followedbythosewhohavenevermarriedoraredivorced;thosegoingthroughseparationhavelowestlevelsofPW.

RelationshipsandtheInternet

PWofpeoplewholivealoneishighlysensitivetolowsocialcontact.37PW is positively linked to internet contact withfamilyandpreviouslyknownfriendsPWisnotassistedbyinternetcontactwithunmetinternet friends. Such unmet friends also fail toalleviate loneliness and fail to offer support intimesofneed.

Personalrelationship

Of all sources of support, the presenceorabsenceofapartnerhasthemostpowerfulpositiveeffectonPW.

Depressionandanxiety

Chronichealth Anillnesswhichhasrequiredmedicaltreatments–especiallyoneproducingseverephysicalpainoraseriousmentalillness–producesbelownormallevelsofPWevenwhenongoing treatment isnolongerdeemednecessary.

IncomeSecurity Income security is one of the most powerfuldeterminants of PW. Employer policiesdirectedto increasing income security would likely raisePW.

Jobsecurity Worry about losing their job is damaging to PWmoresothaneitherworryaboutgettinganotherjob or worry about work‐family balance. Thoselooking for another job will most likely befunctioningpoorlyatwork.

Despitetheselimitations,somelifestylefactorswhichcanaffect individualhealthandwellbeing are applicable forworkers in themining industry, especially FIFOs/DIDOs.Commentsabout impactsonpersonalwellbeing in the table represent a summaryofsurveyresultsforeachidentifiedtopic.Forgreaterdetailandsources,refertoSection1.3ofthisreview.Whereasthissectionhasexploredlifestyleissuesforworkersemployedintheindustry,particularly for those who worked under FIFO/DIDO arrangements, the followingsection considers health and wellbeing issues which can be linked directly withworkplaceandworkingconditionsintheminingindustry.

37 This begs the question as towhether FIFOs/DIDOs accommodated in camps are classified as ‘livingalone’.Theteamtheyworkwithandthosetheysharemealswithoutsideworkshiftscouldbecrucialascouldthestrength/existenceofa‘home’supportnetwork.

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2.4 FactorsaffectinghealthintheworkplaceofAustralianminingworkers

2.4.1 Workandhoursintheminingindustry

Themining industry has high levels of shiftworkwithmore that 80%of employeesworking some form of shift arrangements.38 Longwork rosterswith alternating dayandnight shifts can affect rest and sleep cycles – circadian rhythms – and quality ofsleep.Lackofmotivationtoexerciseaftera12‐hourworkdaywithinarosterwithanextendedworkcyclecoupledwithpoorjudgmentsaboutnutritioncanleadtoexcessiveweight and other health issues.39 Furthermore, results from investigations into shiftworkintheminingindustryinWesternAustralianandinQueenslandhaveshownthatmanyshiftworkershaveproblemsbalancingwork,familyandsociallife.402.4.2 Chronichealthproblems

Compared to most other industries, the mining workforce has been identified byresearchersworkingwiththeindustryashavingahigh(butunquantified)proportionof chronic health problems.41Chronic illnessesmaybe caused throughexposure to arangeofphysical,chemical,biological,ergonomicandpsychosocialhazards.42Chronichealth problems can be further exacerbated by the recognised ageing of theminingworkforce, the regional and remote location of sites, and organisational issuesinfluencingworkdemands.The proportion of theworkforce experiencing chronic health problems as a result oftheiremploymentintheminingindustrycouldnotbesourced.Noristhetotalcostofchronic disease in Australia known although expenditure statistics confirm that it isexpensive.43Costsforhealthservicesforindividualchronicconditionsin2004–05werein excess of $6.5 billion and, for condition groups that contain chronic diseases (forexample,arthritisinthemusculoskeletalgroup),amountedtowellover$13billion.44Most chronic diseases have complex causality, with multiple factors leading to theironset.Theyalsousuallyhavealongdevelopmentperiod,duringwhichtheremaybenosymptom. A prolonged course of illnessmay also lead to other health complications,associatedfunctionalimpairmentordisability.Forthesereasonsalone,determiningthecomponent of aworkforcewith realised and/or potential chronic health problems isessentiallyunattainable.TheinabilitytomeasureissupportedbythisstatementbytheAIHW(2012):

38DepartmentofNaturalResourcesandMines(2001);BofingerandHam(2002);Peetzetal.(2012)39Goateretal.(2012);NottandKeenan(2012)40BofingerandMahon(2001);ABS(2011)Cat.No.6210.541ShannonandParker(2012)42 Donoghue(2004)43AIHW(2012)44AIHW(2012)

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Withmoreemphasisonthepreventionofchronicdiseaseandthebenefitspreventioninterventionscanbringtobothindividualsandthecommunity,theabilitytomeasurethese will be become increasingly important. Currently it is impossible to calculatehowmuchchronicdiseasecostsAustralians(bothfinanciallyandinotherways),andhowmuchmoneyisspentonpreventingit.45

Because conditions are interactive, usually there is no single solution to developingintervention to prevent or treat them. For example, chronic M/S conditions mayinvolve both biophysical and psychosocial health issues and the condition may beexacerbated by overweight and obesity,46 an area of particular concern for miningindustryworkers.47This industryhad thehighestproportion (76%)ofworkers aged18‐64yearsclassifiedasoverweightorobese.Riskfactorscontributingtochronicdiseaseinclude:

dailysmoking physicalinactivity riskyalcoholconsumption(forlong‐termhealth) inadequateconsumptionoffruitandvegetables,andconsumptionofwholemilk

Thesebehaviourscancontributetothedevelopmentofbiomedicalriskfactors,suchashighbloodpressure,obesityandhighcholesterol.48Potential improvementswhich couldbe accomplished in thehealthofAustraliansbyriskfactorreductionwerequantifiedbytheAustralianInstituteofHealthandWelfarefor 2007‐08 (Table 2.4). In some Australian states, the mining industry has above‐average risk factors for most of these categories and thus it would appear that thepotentialforimprovement,especiallyamongmales,wouldbegreaterthanindicatedinTable2.4.

45 AIHW(2012:13)46ShannonandParker(2012)47ABS(2008)48 AIHW(2012) 

39

Table2.4:Potentialimprovementsinhealthbyriskfactorreduction,2007–0849

Riskfactorareas

Males FemalesProportion(a) availableforimprovement

Smoking(dailyandother) 22.2 18.0Riskyalcoholconsumption 14.6 11.5Physicalinactivity 57.2 61.2PoordietWholemilkconsumption 54.1 41.5Vegetableconsumption 92.2 89.3Fruitconsumption 55.3 45.3Excessbodyweight(b)Obese 25.0 22.9Overweight 41.0 30.6Highbloodpressure 11.1 12.3

(a) Relatestotheproportionofpeopleaged15andoverforwhomimprovementisavailable.2.4.3 Obesity

In 2008, the overall cost of obesity to Australian governments was estimated to be$58.2 billion, while the total direct financial cost of obesity for the Australiancommunitywasestimatedtobe$8.3billion.Thedirectestimateincludesproductivitycostsof$3.6billion(44%),includingshort‐andlong‐termemploymenteffects,aswellasdirect financial costs totheAustralianhealthsystemof$2billion(24%)andcarercostsof$1.9billion(23%).50In 2008, the mining industry workforce was estimated to represent 2.9% of theworkforce.51 Applying this workforce proportion to the nation’s productivity lossthroughobesitysuggestsacostin2008totheminingindustryof$104.4million(Table2.5).Theabove‐averageratesofworkerobesitywhichhavebeenrecordedforworkerstheminingindustrytogetherwiththelargeincreaseinnumberofworkerssince2008(1.6timesgreaterin2012,to4.5%oftheworkforce)suggestapportionedproductivitycosts for the resources sector may be understated and most likely would haveincreasedsubstantiallyintheinterveningyears.Table2.5:Productivitycost(in$million)ofobesity,2008

Australianworkforce,2008: $millionProductivitycostofobesity52 3,600.0

Miningindustryworkforce,2008:(2.9%ofworkforce)Apportionedcost(assuming2.9%ofworkforceor217,300persons) 104.4

Thus in a mining industry setting, significant potential for workforce healthimprovement lies across a range of priorityhealth conditions including those listedabovebutalsoincludingsuchas:49 AIHW(2012) 50 AccessEconomics(2008),Nortonetal.(2011) 51 RefertoTable1.2

52 AccessEconomics(2008),Nortonetal.(2011) 

40

musculoskeletal(M/S)injuryanddisorder; sleepdisordersandfatigue;and mentalhealth.53

2.4.4 Sleepdisordersandfatigue

The term ‘fatigue’ describes a number of physical and mental states. In the miningindustry,however,fatiguethatarisesfunctionallyfromlackofsleepisakeyconcern.Arange of factors can contribute to fatigue which impacts upon performance levels,including:

timeofdayforsleep; lengthoftheshift; lengthandstructureoftherosterworkcycle; lengthoftheleavecycle; historyofwork;and lengthandtimingofbreakperiods.

Otherworkplacedemandsmayalso exaggerate thenegativeeffectsof sleep loss. Forexample, job specific factors include, but are not limited to, poor ambient lightconditions where high vigilance levels are required, high‐pressure maintenancedemandsduringpeakworkperiods;and/orinadequatebreakswithinshifts.54RecentAustralianresearchhasfoundthatproductivitylossesandworkplaceaccidentsas a result of sleep disorders which result in premature workforce separation andmortalityandabsenteeismtotalabout$3.1billionin2010.55Apportioningthiscosttotheminingindustryonthebasisofits3.2%shareoftheworkforceinthatyear(2010)points to productivity costs to the industry of around $99.2 million (Table 2.6). Ofcourse,thisestimatedoesnotallowforthehighratesoffatigueandsleepdisordersinthisindustryorthegrowthby96,500inthenumberofpersonsestimatedtobeworkingintheresourcessectoroverthepasttwoyears.Table2.6:Productivitycost9in$million)ofsleepdisorders,2010

Australianworkforce,2010: $millionCostofsleepdisorders56 3,100.0

Miningindustryworkforce,2010:Apportionedcostin2010(assuming3.2%ofworkforceor252,000workers) 99.2

53ShannonandParker(2012)54Bakeretal.(2002)55 DeloitteAccessEconomics(2011)

56 DeloitteAccessEconomics(2011) 

41

Sleepdisordersalsocontribute tootherdiseasesand injuries.Theproportionofeachconditionattributabletoasleepdisorderisasfollows:

10.1%ofdepression 5.3%ofstroke 4.5%ofworkplaceinjuries 4.3%ofmotoraccidents.57

Fatigue is a different issue (the cost of lost productivity could not be sourced forfatigue).Longworking‐timeduration–atrendthatbeganinthe1980s–isasignificantproblem forpart‐ and full‐timeworkers inAustralia.58This trend is concerninggiventhe known relationship between working time and fatigue, and the considerableeconomicandsocialcostsassociatedwithfatigue.59Increased economic cost canmanifest as a result of fatigue‐induced inefficiency. In astudyofAustralianrail cardrivers, itwas found thathighly fatigueddriversused9%more fuel than rested drivers; thiswas calculated to represent an approximate extraweeklycostof$3,512per fatigueddriver.60Thehighsocialandsafetycostsof fatiguehavebecomeincreasinglyapparent.GiventheescalatingprevalenceoflongworkhoursinAustralia–intheminingindustryinparticular–andtheseriousconsequencesoftheresultingfatigue,itisimportanttounderstandthevariousmechanismsthroughwhichfatigueresultsinimpairment.Sleep losswhichoccursduringnightshiftworkcyclescanbeattributedtobiological,social and work factors. There are also many other factors that reduce sleepopportunityincludingchangingpsychosocialexpectationsandresponsibilities,medicaldisorders,andseasonalandclimacticchanges.WellnessandwellbeingissuesassociatedwithfatigueduetolongdistancecommutingbyFIFOs/DIDOs,includingimpactsonproductivity,seeminglyhavenotbeenassessedbytheminingindustry.2.4.5 Presenteeism,workplacestressandmentalhealth

Themaincausesofpresenteeism–productivity that is lostwhenemployeescometoworkbutarenotfullyproductive–havebeenidentifiedas:

unhealthylifestyles; workerswithillnessesgoingtowork;

57 DeloitteAccessEconomics(2011)58 Campbell(2002)59SafetyInstituteofAustralia(2012)60Dorrianetal.(2006)

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allergiesandasthma;and poorwork‐lifebalanceandhighlevelsofjob‐relatedstress.61

In2009‐10,thetotalcostofpresenteeismtotheAustralianeconomywasestimatedtobe $34.1 billion (from $25.7 billion in 2005‐06).62 On average, 6.5 working days ofproductivitywerelostperemployee;thisequatedtoa2.7%decreasein2010GDP.63Ifaverageworkingdays lost isappliedtotheminingindustry, theestimatednumberofdayslostinthesameyear(2009‐10)couldhavetotaledaround1.5milliondays(Table2.7).For2012,numberofdayslostcouldhavegrowntoaround2.3millionduetotheincrease in thenumberofworkerssince2009‐10.Themining industry’sshareof thetotal costofpresenteeism in2009‐10, apportionedaccording to itsproportionof theworkforce(estimatedat3.0%atthattime)couldhavebeenaround$1.0billion(refertoTable2.7).Table2.7:Productivitycost(in$millionanddayslost)ofpresenteeism,2009‐10,2012

Australianworkforce,2009‐10:64Costofpresenteeism $34,100millionDayslostperworker 6.5days

Miningindustryworkforce,2009‐10

Apportionedcost(estimated3.0%ofworkforce) $1,023millionDayslost(estimated232,500workers65) 1.511milliondays

Miningindustryworkforce,2012Dayslostat6.5daysperworker(estimated348,500workers66) 2.265milliondays

Workplacestress isoneof themain causesofpresenteeismandabsenteeism.Stress‐relatedworkerscompensationclaimsinAustraliadoubledfrom2004to2008.Becausestresscanimpactonemployeeproductivity,workplacestressiscostingtheAustralianeconomy $14.81 billion a year. Stress‐related to presenteeism and absenteeism aredirectly costing the Australian employers $10.11 billion a year through 3.2 days perworker are lost each year.67 Medibank Private reported that these figures would beevenhigheriftheyincludedthehiddencostsassociatedwithre‐staffingandre‐trainingthat result from high staff turnover caused by stress. These findings are likely tounderestimatetheoverallcosttotheeconomybecausementalstressisalsoknowntocontributetoanumberofotherhealthconditions.68Whentheminingindustry’sproportionoftheworkforcein2008(estimatedat2.9%in61Medibank(2011)62 Medibank(2011) 63 Medibank(2011) 64 Medibank(2011) 65 RefertoTable1.266RefertoTable1.267MedibankPrivate(2008)68LaMontagneetal.2010,MedibankPrivate(2008)

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that year) is applied to the total cost to Australian employers of stress‐relatedpresenteeism and absenteeism, this could have costed around $293.1 million to theindustryin2008.Numberofdayslostcouldhavetotaledaround0.7millionsdaysand,iftherateofdayslostperworkerremainedconstant,couldhavegrownto1.1milliondaysby2012whentheresourcesectorworkforcewasestimatedtorepresent4.5%oftheAustralianworkforce(Table2.8).Anestimationofproductivitycoststotheminingindustry by 2012 in monetary terms cannot be attempted without having anunderstandingoftheincreaseinnationalcostingssince2008.Table2.8:Productivitycost(in$millionand/ordayslost)ofstress‐relatedabsenteeismandpresenteeism,2008,2012

Australianworkforce,2008:69Totalcostofstress‐relatedabsenteeismandpresenteeism $10,110millionDayslostperworker 3.2daysperworker

Miningworkforce,2008:

Apportionedcost(estimated2.9%ofworkforce) $293.1millionDayslostat3.2daysperworker(forestimated217,300workers) 0.695milliondays

Miningindustryworkforce,2012(estimated4.5%ofworkforce)Dayslostat3.2daysperworker(estimated348,500workers70) 1.115milliondays

SafeWorkAustralia’sfirstreportlookingatwork‐relatedmentalstresswaspublishedin April 2013.71 It recognises that work‐related mental stress has become a majorconcerninworkplacesinAustraliabecauseoftheimpactonindividualemployeesandthecostassociatedwithlongperiodsawayfromworkthataretypicaloftheseclaims.Consequently, mental stress claims are the most expensive form of workers’compensationclaims.Moreprofessionalsmakeclaimsthananyotheroccupationandmoreclaimsforworkpressure are made than for any other category of mental stress claims. The reportcautions,however,that:

... workers’ compensation data ... does not include any information onunsuccessful claims, any insight into the number of workers who experiencementalstressbutchoosenottoclaimworkers’compensationoronworkerswhoarenotcoveredbycompensation....dataareskewedtowardsthoseworkerswhoaremorelikelytoclaimbasedontheiroccupation,age,industryofemployer,andwheretheyhavesecureemployment.

For the mining industry which is has a majority of blue collar workers, is largelydependent on a contractworkforce and also has high turnover rates, this statementpointstothereducedlikelihoodofclaimsbeingmadebycomparisonwith,forexample,professionalswithpermanentjobs.Additionally:

69Medibank(2008)70RefertoTable1.271SafeWorkAustralia(2013:ix)

44

Academic research carried out in Australia has attempted to explore theprevalence of work‐related mental stress in Australia. However at this timeresearchbaseddatacollectionisunabletomatchtheworkers’compensationdatain termsof regularity, consistency in factorsexaminedandnational coverageofthe working population. Despite this academic research suggests that workers’compensationclaimsdataunderestimatethesizeoftheproblem.72

Thus the data cannot fully describe the actual prevalence of work‐related mentalstress, the extent of thoseworking conditions contributing tomental stressor thosemostvulnerabletoitseffects.Mental stress claimswerepresented in the SafeWorkAustralia report asnumberofclaims,percentageandfrequencyratesbysexandindustryfortheperiod2008‐09to2010‐11 (data are preliminary for 2010‐11). Average all‐industry rates of successfulworkers’compensationclaims(basedonper100millionhoursworked)were39.4formales and 81.1 for females. Median time lost for all mental stress claims was 6.1workingweeks (6.2 formales;6.0 for females).Themediandirectcost forallmentalstressclaimswas$12,700($13,400formales;$12,300forfemales).Theminingindustry,withalow0.6%ofsuccessfulclaimsovertheperiod2008‐09to2010‐11 (although 2% of all serious claims73), had the lowest rate for females(numbering 32 in total over the three years; rate of 19.6) (Table 2.9). For males(numbering 126 in total; rate of 12.2), the only industries with lower rates wereConstruction(10.8),Agriculture,forestryandfishing(9.5)andCommunicationservices(9.1).Personalandotherservicesrecordedthehighestrateforbothmales(238.5)andfemales(199.2).Thiswasoneofonly two industrieswhere the frequencyrateswerehigher formales than females; it includes occupations such as police officers; prisonofficers; guards and security officers; and fire fighters. The Health & communityservicesandEducationindustriesalsohadthehighestnumberofclaimsandalsohighfrequency rates. The cost of successful workers’ compensation claims was notidentified in thisreportandthus there isnobasisonwhichtoapportioncosts to theminingindustry.Table2.9:Successfulworkers’compensation claim rates formental stress,2008‐09 to2010‐1174

Males FemalesAustralianworkforce:

Medianall‐industriesrate(per100millionhours worked) 39.4 81.1Miningworkforce:

Miningindustryrate(representing0.6%ofsuccessfulclaims) 12.2 19.6ImportantresearchledbytheAustralasianCentreforRuralandRemoteMentalHealth

72 SafeWorkAustralia(2013:ix) 73SafeWorkAustralia(2013)MiningIndustryFactSheet74 SafeWorkAustralia(2013)

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(ACRRMH) is being conducted in the field with principal contractors in mining,construction and servicing which are operating in remote locations in WesternAustralia (notably Thiess). Preliminary results have shown that FIFO women copebetter at living the split lifestyle than men.75 It seems that, for a number of keyindicators, women better understand how to minimize the risk of mental healthproblemsassociatedwiththelifestyle,remoteworkplaces,andseparationfromfamilyandfriends.Women,howeverrepresentonly13%oftheminingindustryworkforce.76Although ACRRMH research to date clearly points to mental health as beingproblematicandatdisturbinglevelswithintheminingindustry,publishedresultsarenot expected until non‐company‐identifiable and reliable data can be compiled; thismaytakesomeyears.77Thestateofaperson’smentalhealthaffectstheirphysicalcapacitytoactinasafewayandtheirperceptionofrisk.Thisrelationshipbetweenmentalhealthandinjurycanbeself‐sustaininginthatinjurycaninfluencethementalhealthofanindividual.78Theissueofmentalhealth isarelativelynewfrontier inemployeesafety. Indeed,theunderstanding of mental health in the mining and resources sector is regarded asembryonicatbest.Similarly,theextenttowhichmentalhealthcanaffectproductivityandprofitisnotyetfullyappreciated.79The Windsor Inquiry identified mental health issues as of serious concern forFIFO/DIDO workers80 but resident workers can also suffer. Substance abuse isregarded as one of the most prevalent factors associated with workers and mentalhealth conditions.81 The increasing use of drugs within the industry can potentiallyacceleratetheprevalenceofworkerswithmentalhealthandstressissues.2.4.6 Fitnessforwork,substanceabuseandtobaccosmoking

The concept of fitness for work extends beyond the absence of illness or injury.82Indeed, drugs, alcohol and fatigue are foremost among workplace safety concernsregarding fitness for work for mining industry employers and employees.83 TheWindsor Inquiry and the Committee’s recently tabled report84 have more recentlyhelpedtobringtheseconcernstoprominence.Inspiteofthis,fewfactsareavailable.

75 ACRRMH(2013) 76 ABSCat.No.6291.077 Pers.comm.DrJenniferBowers(2013),ManagingDirector,ACRRMH 78PricewaterhouseCoopers(2010)79ACRRMH(n.d.:2)80HouseofRepresentativesStandingCommitteeonRegionalAustralia(2013)81Latimer(2011)82ParkerandWorringham(c.2004)83Bakeretal.(2002)84HouseofRepresentativesStandingCommitteeonRegionalAustralia(2013)

46

SyntheticcannabisdrugssuchasKronic,SpiceandK285havebeenwidelyreportedasaserious issueatminesitesacrossAustraliawheretestshaveshownnearlyoneintenminersasusers.86 Industriessuchasmining,whereveryhighdisposable incomesarethenorm,arebeingtargetedbyillicitdrugmanufacturers.87Tobacco smoking should also present as an issue for the mining industry, not onlybecauseofitsrecognisedhealthhazardstatusbutalsobecauseitisassociatedwithlowfeelings of personal wellbeing.88 Surveys have shown rates of tobacco smoking arehigherforbluecollarworkersandforthosewhoworkinregionalandremoteareas.89Bothratesof smokingandriskyandhighriskalcoholconsumptionhavebeenfoundtobehigher in themining industry than fornational and state averages. The cultureofbinge drinking and substance abuse has also been linked to lifestyle risks forFIFOs/DIDOs.Workplacetestingregimes aimed atdetecting useof alcohol or drugscanact as a deterrentalthoughsome workplaces have more effectivecontrols thanothers. Insufficient random or blanket testing can mean that offenders do not getcaught.Industryresultsfordetectingsubstanceusebyworkersorlevelsofcompliancecouldnotbesourced.In 2001, a conservative (lower) estimate of 2.7 million work days, based on theNational Drug Strategy Household Survey results, were attributed as lost throughalcohol‐relatedabsenteeism.90Another(upper)estimateby thesameresearchersof7.4 million work days was also argued.91 Apparently workers who, infrequently oroccasionally, drank at ‘risky’ and ‘high risk’ levels accounted formore than half thisalcohol‐relatedabsenteeism.Presenteeismintheworkplaceisunderstoodtobearoundfourtimestherateofabsenteeism(althoughnotspecificallyknownforalcohol‐relatedreductions in on‐the–job productivity).92 Accordingly, the number of days of lostproductivity through presenteeism and absenteeism in 2001 has been estimated torange between 13.4 and 37.0 million days (Table 2.10). As the total Australianworkforce in 2001, averaged over four quarters, was 6.57million, this equates to alowerestimateof2.04days lostperemployeeduetoalcoholduringthatyearandanupperestimateof5.63days.Based on current workforce numbers for the mining industry of 348,500 (includingmining‐alliedworkers; refer to Table 1.2), thiswould equate to between 0.7 and 2.0million days of lost productivity within the industry from absenteeism and

85Duffy(2012)86Validakis(2012b)87Gribbin(2013b)88Cumminsetal.(2007)89DMPWA(c.2009);QueenslandGovernment(2010)90Piddetal.(2006)91CollinsandYapsley(2008)92PricewaterhouseCoopers(2010)

47

presenteeism through the excessive use of alcohol in 2012. Industry knowledge ofworkeremploymentcostswouldallowthissubstantiallossinproductivitytobecosted.Forthisexercise,aconservativeaveragecostof$350perdaylosthasbeenused(basedonABSreportsfromthe2011Census93).Accordingly, thecostofalcoholabsenteeismandpresenteeismtotheminingindustryhasbeenestimatedatbetween$249.1millionand$686.9million(refertoTable2.10).Giventhattheminingindustryisrecognisedforhigherthanaveragelevelsofriskyandhigh‐riskalcoholconsumptionbyworkers,thesenumberscouldbesignificantlyunderstatedTable 2.10: Estimates of productivity cost (in days lost) through alcohol abuse, 2001(Australia)and2012(Miningindustry)

Absenteeismdays(000s)

Presenteeismdays(000s)

Totaldays(000s)

Australianworkforce,2001:Dayslost94

Lowerestimate 2,683 10,732 13,415Upperestimate 7,400 29,600 37,000

Dayslostperworker(workforceof6.57millionpersons95)Lowerestimate 2.04daysUpperestimate 5.63days

Miningworkforce,2012:(withestimated4.5%ofworkforce):Dayslost(forestimatedat348,500workers96)

Lowerestimate 0.712milliondaysUpperestimate 1.963milliondays

Estimatedcost(at$350/day97) $millionLowerestimate 249.1Upperestimate 686.9

However, another analysis points to considerably lower costs. Australian workforcelabour costs for 2004‐05 were disaggregated by researchers to show values forabsenteeismduetouseofalcohol,cigarettes,andillicitdruguse.98Reducedon‐the‐jobproductivity due to abuse of these substances was not included in the researchers’estimatesbecauseoflackofdata.99Nevertheless,thisappearssimilartocontemporaryunderstandingof‘presenteeism’andanestimateoffourtimesthatofabsenteeismhasbeen applied here.100 Thus absenteeism and presenteeism together have beenestimatedtohavecostthenation$9.4billionin2004‐05(refertoTable2.11).Fromthesedisaggregatesandassumptions,thecostofabsenteeismandpresenteeism

93 ABS(2008,2013)Cat.No.4102.0 94Piddetal.(2006)95ABSCat.No.691.0;4‐quarterlyaverage96RefertoTable1.297RefertoABS(2013)Cat.No.4102.098 CollinsandLapsley(2008) 99 CollinsandLapsley(2008) 

100 PricewaterhouseCoopers(2011) 

48

throughtobacco,alcoholandillicitdrugabusetotheminingindustryin2004‐05,havebeenattempted.Withresourcesectorworkersestimatedtorepresentaround1.9%ofthe Australian workforce at that time, productivity costs of these types would havebeeninthevicinityof$694million(Table2.11).Intheinterveningyears,theworkforcehasgrownbya factorof2.61andworkercostshavealsoescalated(20%growthhasbeen guestimated for the purpose of this exercise101). Thus by 2013, it could beexpectedthatthesetypesofindustryproductivitycostscouldbeinthevicinityof$2.2billiondollars.This includesalcoholabusecosting$110millionand iswellbelowthelower estimate of $249 million given above, based on number of days lost. Clearlyproviding estimates for the mining industry of the cost of lost productivity throughabsenteeismandpresenteeismbasedonelusiveorconflictingdataischallenging.Theestimatesgeneratedusingthisdataneedtobeinterpretedwithcaution.Table2.11:Estimatesofproductivitycosts($million)duetoalcohol,tobaccoandillicitdrugabuse,2004‐05,2012

$million $million $millionAustralianworkforce,2004‐05:

Costinabsenteeism/presenteeism102

Alcohol(males62%) 367.9 1,471.6 1,839.5Tobacco(males83%) 779.6 3,118.4 3,898.0Illicitdrugs(males95%) 733.5 2,934.0 3,667.5

Totalcosts(males84%) 1,881.0 7,524.0 9,405.0Miningworkforce,2004‐05:

Apportionedcost(assuming1.9%ofworkforce or133,900workers)Alcohol 35.1Tobacco 74.3Illicitdrugs 584.8

Totalcosts 694.2Miningworkforce,2012(assuming4.5%ofworkforce)

Applicationofincreasesof261%/20%inworkforcenumbers/income,respectively)Alcohol 110.0Tobacco 233.2Illicitdrugs 1834.4

Totalcosts 2177.52.4.7 Otherpotentialhealthhazardsindailywork

ThetendencyofsomeminingindustryworkerstousemobiledevicessuchasiPhonesandiPadswhiledrivingplantmachineryhasrecentlybecomeaminesafetyrisk.103Infact,engagementinsocialmediaactivities–checkingFacebookandthelike–hasbeenreportedasbeingwidespreadatopen‐cutcoalminesinQueensland.Miningindustryworkersaresubjectedtoavarietyofpotentialhealthhazardsintheirnormaldailywork.Someeffectsareoftennotvisibleand,insomecases,thehazardis

101 ABS(2013)Cat.No.4102.0 102CollinsandLapsley(2008)103Herber(2013)

49

notclearlyunderstoodandisdifficulttomeasure.104Ifnotmanagedeffectively,work‐relatedinjuriesanddiseasecanoccur.Somehealthhazardsencounteredinminingnotdiscussedsofarare:

industrialdeafness; musculoskeletaldisorders; dermatitis; asbestosisandoccupationalcancers; noise; wholebodyvibration; ultra‐violetsunlightexposure; dust; workingonunevenground; manualhandling; workplacedesignincludingaccessandegress; heat/thermalstress;and polymericchemicals.105

Fatal and severe traumatic injuries continue to occur in mining. These often haveprofoundimpactsonmorale.106Post‐traumaticstressdisorderssometimesdevelopinwitnesses, colleagues andmanagers, the effects ofwhichmight not be realised untilmanyyearsaftertheevent.Managersandworkmatesoftenfeelpersonallyresponsiblefor the injuries of others, even in the absence of negligence, and face the ordeal ofgovernmentinquiriesandlegalproceedings.This section has presented a synopsis of many workplace issues relevant to bothemployersandemployeeswhoareconcernedwithaddressingworkerwellness.Thesefactorsaredealtwithmore fully inAppendix8.Wenowexplore theextent towhichAustralianemployersandthoseintheminingindustryinparticularsupporthealthandwellbeingprograms.2.5 Employersupportforwellnessprograms

2.5.1 Potentialbenefitstoindustry/employer

Theworkplacehasbeenidentifiedasoneofthemostimportantsettingswherehealthpromotioncanoccurduetothepotentialforefficiencies,successandsustainability.107A healthyworkforce has been shown to bemore productive, have reduced levels ofabsenteeismandpresenteeism,andprovidesignificantcostbenefits.108

104DepartmentofNaturalResourcesandMines(Queensland)(2012)105Donoghue(2004)106WilliamsonandFeyer(2000)107DepartmentofHealthandAgeing(2012)108ShannonandParker(2012)

50

In addition to these potential economic benefits to theemployer, those that supportworkplace health promotion initiatives demonstrate to their workersand thewidercommunity that they value their employees.109 Moreover, within the WesternAustralianprivatesector(asopposedtopublic),implementationofworkplacewellnessprogramsisthoughttohave:

improvedemployeerecruitment/attraction; improvedemployeemoraleandsatisfaction; reducedturnoverrates;and improvedinjuryandaccidentrates.110

Positiveinfluencesofsuchprogramsonhospitalcosts,healthclaimsandlifeinsurancecost has been found through research elsewhere.111While these are not necessarilydirect costs to employers in Australia as they are in many overseas countries, theywould,nevertheless, impactuponcontainmentofworkerscompensationexpensesfororganisations. Accordingly, organisations which are known to have healthy positiveworkenvironmentsandwellness initiatives reap identifiablebenefits.Thus therearesound reasons for employers to support health and wellness programs for theiremployees.Wellnessinitiativeshavebecometheexpectationofmanyemployees.112Untilthisviewbecomeswidelyacknowledgedbyemployersthroughtheadoptedandimplementedofprograms aimed at retention and motivation of staff, preferred workplaces may bedistinguished within a competitive labour market. In other words innovativeorganisationswithintheindustrymaybeabletotakeadvantageofthisdistinction.Employerperceptions aboutOccupationalHealth and Safety (OHS)practices throughhealthandwellnessprogramsandthebreadthofsuchpracticesinAustraliaarebrieflyaddressedinAppendixA9.1.Althoughitappearsmostorganisationsgenuinelysupportsome forms of worksite health promotion initiatives, there are factors whichdiscouragegrowthandsustainabilityofwellnessprogramsinAustralia.Forexample,ifobjectives are not clearly articulated and measurements put in place, a return oninvestmentforworkplacewellnessprogramscannotbedemonstrated.Thisalonecanbeamajorobstacleaswillnowbediscussed.2.5.2 Penetration,aimsandstrategiesofworkplacewellnessprograms

PricewaterhouseCoopers (2010) reported health assessment and intervention

109ShannonandParker(2012)110HooperandBull(2009:26)111Mearnsetal.(2010)112PricewaterhouseCoopers(2010)

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programswere inplace in2010 for1,500 corporateandgovernment employers andaround 400,000 employees (3.6% of the workforce).113 The sustainability of theseprogramsdependsondemonstratingareturnoninvestment(ROI)atanorganisationallevel.Thispresentschallengesforemployersandhighlightsaneedfor:

A clear and coherent strategic approach. Many programs have developedorganicallyratherthantoaddressidentifiedbusinessandhealthneedstomeetcertainobjectives.Howsuccesswouldbemeasuredislargelynotarticulated.

Effectivemeasurement.Amajorchallengeishowtomeasure.Movementsawayfrombaselineindicatorsofabsenteeism,presenteeismandpopulationriskstatusare difficult to measure and interpret. Additionally, linking changes in healthoutcomestobusinessperformancecanbeproblematicforemployers.Longleadtimesaddanotherlayerofcomplexity.

Identifying key performance indicators (KPIs) which can be used to reliably andeffectively measure improvements in worker health, participation rates andperformance appears to be a substantial barrier in Australia. If processes weredeveloped,ROIforworkplacewellnessprogramscouldbeassessed.PwCargue thatquantifying correlationsbetweenwellness initiativesandkey leadingindicatorswould be not only informative but alsopossible. The incentive of reducedhealthcarecostsdoesnotcarryweighthereasinothercountriesbecausemedicalcostsarelessdirectlytheresponsibilityofemployers.Perhapswithoutthisfactortherehasbeeninsufficientstimulusforsomeorganisations,industriesorthenationasawholetoidentifyKPIs, implementprograms,andallowsufficienttimeandmonitoringfortheirimpactonROItobeassessed.KeyaimsofAustralianworkplacewellnessprogramshavebeendirectedtowards:

Building of social capital by encouraging participation in group activities(preferablyasface‐to‐faceinteractions).

Influencing individual health behaviours and attitudes through tailoredprogramstoraiseawarenessandinvolvement.

Providing equity of access to programs across the country rather than just inurbancentres.114

Inpursuingtheseaims,strategiesadoptedbyorganisationshaveconsidered:

Designingprogramstobeuserspecificandculturallyappropriate.

113PricewaterhouseCoopers(2010)114PricewaterhouseCoopers(2010)

52

Delivering programs though multiple modalities (including face‐to‐face,telephoneandonlinesupport).

Seekingemployeefeedback(suchasthroughsurveysandsuggestionboxes). Ensuring/developingtrustaboutconfidentialitybyserviceproviderssoworkers

arenotexposedtopossiblediscrimination. Expending efforts to provide trustworthy, secure and appropriate modes of

delivery (such as a supported and safe environment for discussion of mentalhealthissues).115

Education and increasing awareness about healthy lifestyles have been identified aseffective strategies for engaging individuals in their own health.116 Notwithstandingthis, delivery methods and a holistic site‐based approach need to be appropriatelytailoredtotheworkplaceandemployercommitmenttotheprogramssupportedatalllevels of the organisation.117Otherwise, these types ofmessagesmaywellmiss theirmark.Employerinnovationhasbeenhighlightedaskeytokeepingemployeesinterestedandinvolved in wellness program participation.118 Furthermore, offering incentives toemployees isregardedas important.Notwithstanding theserealisations, itseems fewemployers have explored the use of incentives to encourage participation despiteevidencefromoverseasoftheeffectivenessofthisapproach.Some guidelines which have been offered for the delivery of wellness programs areoutlinedinAppendixA9.2.2.5.3 Obstaclestoworkplacewellnessprograms

The establishment ofprocedures tomonitor and evaluate theprogress of health andwellness intervention programs has been identified as a significant feature for thewidespread implementation of these types of programs.119 Unfortunately, lack ofreliable and accurate health informationmeans that workplace health and wellnessprograms are inadequately evaluated. This makes cost‐benefit analyses of programsthroughmeasurement of KPIs andROI difficult if not impossible.Hence benefits foremployersarenoteasilyquantified.Without‘proofofthepudding’,employersmaybereluctanttoexpendotherthantokenisticresourcesinthisdirection.Health status and performance measurements of employees achieved through pre‐employment and periodic assessment of workers have been suggested for the

115PricewaterhouseCoopers(2010)116ShannonandParker(2012);Sparrow(2006)117Goateretal.(2012),ShannonandParker(2012)118PricewaterhouseCoopers(2010)119DepartmentofHealthandAgeing(2012)

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industry.120 For this to be truly effective (given the high turnover rates within theindustry), widespread adoption and consistency in data within and betweenminingindustry employer organisations would need to be maintained. This strategy couldfacilitateanindustry‐widestudyofhealthandwellnessfactorsandcontributetowardscausations of ill‐health and workplace health and safety implications and theireconomicimpact.Someresearchersclaimthatafocusoncommunicationmethodsandhealthliteracyisessential if aworkplacegoal is to enhanceworkforce health.121This isbecause thesefactorsareassociatedwiththeacquisitionofknowledgeandthewaypeoplethink,feelandactinrelationtotheirhealthorthatofothers.Evaluatingcommunicationmethodsabout health issues in the workplace requires carefully designed, evidence basedprocedures.Appropriateidentificationofhealthliteracyindicatorsrequiresspecialisedknowledge coupled with an understanding of the mining industry context. Workerunawarenessof readilyavailable literatureaboutnutritionprovidedby theemployerservestoillustratethesematters.122Changesinattitudesaboutresponsibilitiesforhealthintheworkplacemightalsoneedtobecultivated.In2005,theUniversityofWesternAustraliaconductedananalysisofworkplace health promotion programs in that state’s workplaces.123 In this survey,barrierstoimplementinghealthprogramsintheworkplacewereidentifiedas:

lowemployeeparticipationrates; concernsoverworkscompensationorinsurancerisks;and costsinvolvedinrunningtheseprograms.124

VariousobstacleswhichhaveimpededsuccessfulimplementationofworksitewellnessprogramsintheUSandachievementofgoalsforworkplacewellnessandhealththereareidentifiedinAppendixA9.3.Boththephysicalandpsychosocialenvironmentsneedto be addressed to encourage engagement within programs.125 Some factors thatwarrantconsiderationintheserespectsarementionedinAppendixA9.4.Barrierstoadoptionofprogramswithintheminingindustryhavebeenfoundtovarybetweenpeople, sitecultures, companies, industriesand locations.126 Impediments toemployer support of and employee participation in programs have been especiallynoticedinregionalandremotelocations,incampaccommodationandcatering,andforthoseworkinglonghoursandshifts.Similarly,commonissuesthathavebeenraisedby120Goateretal.(2012)121ShannonandParker(2012);Sparrow(2006)122Goateratal.(2012)123 HooperandBull(2009) 124 HooperandBull(2009:26) 125Sparrow(2006)126Sparrow(2006)

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workerswhich hinder to their involvement include fatigue; lack of time for physicalactivity; limited healthy food choices within the camp setting; and lack of fresh,affordable,and/orgoodqualityfood.1272.5.4 Analysingminingindustrywellnessprograms

Can generalisations about the aims and strategies of Australian wellness programsidentifiedintheliteraturebeappliedtotheminingindustry?Throughinterrogationofwebsites,wehavesourcedinformationaboutarangeofhealthandwellbeingprogramsthat have been implemented in Australia. For the mining industry, we were able tosource only 25 programs in total; for other industries,we have accessed, for looselycomparative purposes, 16 programs. Summaries of these programs are provided inTableA10.17,Appendix10,fortheseheadings:

organisationname; typeofprogram; focusareasofprogram; programimpact;and ongoing/futureplans

This tablealso indicateswhether theprogramappeared tobeaimedatwellnessandQOL issues or specifically at OHS for compliance or improvement. For the miningindustry,a totalof14were lifestyleprogramsand11wereworkplaceprograms(seeTable 2.12). Although nine different organisations had implemented workplaceprograms,wecouldsourceonlysixwithlifestyleprograms;thesehadbeenintroducedacross 11 different worksites. This exploration and analysis does not necessarilyindicatethelevelofpenetrationoflifestyleprogramsintheminingindustry.Table2.12:Numbersofminingindustrylifestyleandworkplaceprograms

Numberofprograms

Numberofworksites

Numberoforganisations

Miningindustry: Lifestyleprograms 14 11 6Workplaceprograms 11 9 9Allprograms 25 18 12

Otherindustries: Lifestyleprograms 16 16 16

Lifestyle(healthandwellbeing)programsimplementedbyminingorganisationswereofthefollowingtypes:

1. Fatiguemanagement(arguablyaworkplaceprograminstead)2. Healthassessmentsandmonitoring–trackingfitnesslevels

127Sparrow(2006)

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3. Healthassessmentsandpersonalfitness4. Hygienemanagementandmonitoring5. Nutritionandexercise–whiteandbluecollarworkers6. OptimisationoftheFIFOlifestyle–forworkersandtheirfamilies7. Overallhealthandfitness–fatigue,musculoskeletaldisorders,diabetes,heart

disease,influenza,obesity,nutritionandoccupationalillnesses8. QOLimprovements–varioushealth,fitnessandeducationprograms9. Recoveryprocessofinjuredworkers–emotionalaspects;improvingQOLof

retiredworkers10. Riskmanagement‐individualhealthcoaching,physicalactivity,nutrition11. Riskmanagement–informlifestylechoices12. Riskmanagementandillnesses–sedentarylifestyles,poordiet,stress,smoking,

obesity,mentalhealth13. Riskmanagementandpresenteeism–forworkersandtheirfamilies14. Workerhealthandreducedabsenteeism.

Whileworkplacecomplianceprogramsalsoaddressworkerhealth,wegaugedthemasbeing directed more towards management of physical injuries to the exclusion ofpsychosocialissuesandimprovingQOL.Theseprogramsaddressed:

1. Hydrationissues2. Hearingconservation3. Improvingsitesafetybehaviour4. Injurymanagement5. Managementofmusculoskeletaldisorders6. Managingtheharmfuldieselparticularmatter7. Preventativestrategiesforergonomic/manualhandlingissues8. Noiseexposureforworkers9. Newstarters’injuries10. Sprainsandstrainsprevention11. Hydrocarbonlossofcontainmentevents.

Bycomparison,allprograms fororganisations linked to industriesother thanminingwereclassifiedaslifestyleones.Mostlytheseappearedtobemetropolitanbasedlargeorganisations (government, corporate and utility‐provisioning) and thusimplementation of programs arguably would be easier to manage than for miningorganisationswithadispersedworkforceinregionalandremoteareas.Typesofissuesmostcommonlyaddressedbytheselifestyleprogramsweretargetingphysicalactivity,nutrition,smokingandmentalhealth.We have presented ample evidence thatworkforce arrangements and theworkplace

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can affect the physical, mental, economic and social wellbeing of workers.128 Thisanalysis of ‘case studies’ illustrates that lifestyle and workplace programs aimed ataddressingtheseaspectsvarygreatlywithinandbetweenindustries.Employmentinafulfilling job can have psychological benefits which flow on to physical benefits.Conversely, unemployment, under‐employment and stressfulworking conditions canhaveadverseimpactsonpersonalhealthandwellbeing.Resultsfromsurveys,ongoingatthetimeofwriting,byMiningFamilyMattersintoFIFOworkerlifestyleissues129andbytheAustralianCentreforRuralandRemoteMentalHealthwhichisinvestigatingthementalhealthofworkers130mayprovide further insights intoways tobettermanagelifestyleandworkplaceissuesforworkers,especiallyFIFOs/DIDOs.In ourwide‐ranging analysis of Australianwellness programs,we could not identifyprogramswithintheminingindustrywhichspecificallyaddressedalcoholconsumptionordruguseandonlyonementionedtargetingcigarettesmoking.Althoughthisdoesnotnecessarilymean that these occupational hazards associatedwith themining cultureandlifestylewereofftheradar,theindustryhasreceivedcriticismfornothavingthesetypesoftreatmentprogramsinplace.Similarly,wefoundmentionofonlytworesourcesectororganisationswithprogramsaddressing mental health and/or stress131 although one provider of such programsadvertisedthreeprincipalcontractorstotheindustryasclients.132Veryfewworkplaceinitiatives in Australia or internationally have addressed alcohol consumption,mental health or stress issues. Reticence in these respects has been attributedelsewheretothe‘taboo’natureofthetopicsandperceptionsthatthesemattersaretoodifficulttoaddress.133The next section examines some perceived impacts ofwellness programs onminingindustryemployeesalthoughmeasurements,itseems,havebeenlargelyelusive.

128PricewaterhouseCoopers(2010)129ConsanConsulting(2013)130Delandrafft(2013)131PricewaterhouseCoopers(2010);XstrataCoalBulga(n.d.)132Assureprogramsathttp://www.assureprograms.com.au/assure/value_and_roi.php133HooperandBull(2009:41)

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Part III: Determination of what impacts employee wellness andwellbeinghasontheperformanceofminingworkers

3. Impactsofwellnessandwellbeingofminingemployees

ManyAustralian employers, including those in themining industry, providewellnessandwellbeingprograms insupportof theirworkers(forexample, seeTableA10.17).Employerswhohave theseprograms inplaceclearlyrecognise that improvements totheiremployees’healthcanalsobebeneficialfortheirorganisationsthroughimprovedproductivity.Part III assesses the available evidence about impacts of wellness and wellbeingprogramsontheperformanceofminingindustryworkers.Itthenlooksatindicationsof employee acceptance of these programs by examining links between employeeengagementandsatisfactionandcompanyproductivity.3.1 Impactsofobesityandsubstanceuseandabuse

Thisbriefhasspecificallyaskedforareviewofimpactsofobesity,alcoholandtobaccouseontheperformanceofminingindustryworkersmightbeassessed.Obesityasa lifestyle issue formining industryworkershasbeen reviewed inPart II.With its high proportion of workers – especially blue collar ones – classified asoverweightorobese,clearlythis isanissueofseriousconcern.Obesityalsoincreasesthe risk of type 2 diabetes and is linked with other mining industry lifestyle issuesincluding, but not limited to, stress andmental health, fatigue, fitness for work, andalcoholconsumption.Theliteratureabout(ab)useofalcohol(alsodrugs)andtobaccointheminingindustrywasalsoreviewedinPartII.Ratesofsmokingandriskyalcoholconsumptionarerecognisedashigherinthisindustrythanforthenationalaverage.Thereisnodefinitivedatasettodeterminetheimpactsofobesity,alcoholandtobaccouseper seon theproductivityof organisations.These issues are interconnectedwitheachotherandwitharangeofotherhealth,wellnessandQOLfactors.TheyarecloselyassociatedwithAustralia’smining culture and theFIFO/DIDO lifestyle. Suffice to saythey directly affect productivity through illness, presenteeism, absenteeism andworkforce turnover.Theseare impactsaboutwhich the literaturedoesprovidesomeclues,evensomemeasurements,withrespecttoemployeeengagementandsatisfactionandemployerproductivity,andtowhichwenowturn.3.2 Impactsofworkerturnoverandreplacement

Only limited or dated data are available concerning the resources sector workforceturnover (the replacement of people who leave their current job for another in thesame sector) or replacement demand (referring to those who leave the sector

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altogether or retire). Data that are available point to high levels, especially for non‐residentworkers(NRWs),asreferraltothefollowingsourcesshow.AsurveyconductedbytheNationalResourcesSectorEmploymentTaskforce(NRSET)showed annual turnover rates varying substantially, from 40‐90% in 2009 butmostcommonly 5‐20%.1 In the preceding year, 20‐30% turnover was most commonlyreported.Turnoverratesintheminingindustryareexacerbatedbytherecognisedageingof itsworkforce. A NRSET trend analysis for major occupations in the resources sectorpointedtoanaveragegrossreplacementrate(thosewholeavethesectororretire)ofaround 10% a year. Professionals – white collar workers – had a lower rate whichimplies a higher rate for blue collarworkers. Refer toAppendixA11.1 for additionalsummaryinformationfromtheNRSETreport.The Kinetic Group’s 2012 Annual Workforce Report of the Resources Industry inQueenslandindicatedthat:

Annual turnover was 17% overall excluding contractors and 24.4% includingcontractors.

Ofallseparatingemployees,18.4%leftwithinthefirst12monthsofemploymentatanestimatedcostof$30milliontotheindustry.

Turnoverrateforlongtermemployers(withoverfiveyears’service)was16.5%;thisraisespotentialissuesofexperiencelossandrecruitmentchurn.

The turnover burden to industry was estimated at $140 million annually fordirectcostsofrecruitment,inductionandtraining.

Turnover for non‐resident workers, at 61.5%, was more than double that ofotheremployees.

IfthecoststotheQueenslandindustryareextrapolatedtothenationalindustryandthesameturnoverratesapplied,then(basedonABSMay2012labourworkforcestatistics)the turnover burden would be around $500 million annually for the direct costs ofrecruitment, induction and training alone. This does not account for indirect costsassociatedwithmanaginglossofskills,productivityandexperience.TheKineticGroup’sreportisfurtherinstructiveabout:

theFIFO/DIDOworkforceandforecastsforthefuture; replacements(retireesandthoseexitingtheindustry);and theage(ing)ofindustryworkforceandnewrecruits.

1 NRSET(2010) 

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RefertoAppendixA11.3foradditionalsummaryinformationfromtheKineticGroup’sreport.A 2003 study2 found that turnover rates for workers directly employed by miningcompaniesrangedfrom10%to28%,withanaverageof21%.Ifcontractorshadbeenincluded intheanalysis, thentheturnoverratewouldhavebeengreater.OthermoredatedturnoversurveyresultsareoutlinedinAppendix11.3.Allresultssuggestturnoverratesofatleast20%andrising.Turnoverrateinexcessof20% are considered to be detrimental to site productivity. It seems most likely,therefore, that productivity costs at manymine sites are damaged due to employeeturnover. These less tangible costs are in addition to recruitment, induction andtrainingcostsofreplacementemployees.3.3 Impactsofillnesses

3.3.1 Presenteeism,mentalillnessandstress

Thecostofpresenteeism–thecostofnotfullyfunctioningatworkbecauseofmedicalconditions – is estimated to be almost four times the more readily measured butsubstantialcostofabsenteeisminAustralia.3ThecostofpresenteeismtotheAustralianeconomyin2009‐10wasestimatedtohavecost:

$34.1billion(from$25.7billionin2005‐06);and onaverage,6.5workingdaysoflostproductivityperemployeeannually.4

Stress‐relatedworkerscompensationclaims inAustraliadoubled from2004 to2008.Excessive work hours, noise, health and safety risks and high workforce turnover –arguably issues associated with working in the mining industry – are among thosefactorsgivenasexamplesoftypesofworkplacestressors.5Becausestresscanimpactonemployeeproductivity:

workplacestresscosttheAustralianeconomy$14.81billionin2008; 3.2daysperworkerarelosteachyearthroughworkplacestress.6

Amajorityofmining7andminingactivities‐relatedworkers8arethoughttobeNRWs

2Beachetal.(2003)3PricewaterhouseCoopers(2010)4Medibank(2011)5MedibankPrivate(2008)6MedibankPrivate(2008)7Extractionworkfromoperatingmines,somesupportactivitiesandexplorationarecountedundertheANZSICminingindustryclassification

8Workersforconstruction;surveying;transportation;processing;out‐sourcedplantmaintenancework;campoperationsincludingmanagement,cateringandsecurity;andsoon

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withthepotentialforattendantlifestylechallengesand,arguably,agreaterpropensityfor negatively affecting productivity through presenteeism and mental illnesses andstress.Table3.13summarisesestimatesoflostproductivitythroughpresenteeismandmental illnessesandstresswithin theAustralian resources sector.Refer toAppendixA12.1foradditionaldiscussion.Table3.13:Estimatesof lostproductivity throughpresenteeismandmental illnesses/stresswithintheAustralianresourcessector

Australia’sresourcessector Presenteeism

Mentalillnessandstress

Personsemployedintheminingindustry9 261,400Includingminingactivities‐relatedworkers10 348,500ShareoftheAustralianworkforce 4.3%Lostproductivityperworker11 6.5days 3.2daysDayslostperannum(inmillions) c.2.3mdays c.1.1mdaysMiningindustryestimatedshareofcost $1.5billion12 $0.6billion13

As noted elsewhere, mental illness and stress in the workplace is associated withexcessivehoursandshiftwork.Indeed,recognitionthatexceedinga48‐hourworkingweekpresentsasdangertopsychologicalandphysiologicalhealthisreceivinggrowingsupport.14 A recent study of workers in the Queenslandmining industry found thatwellbeingwasworseamongthosewith:

nosayoverhoursorshifts; thosewhowantedtoworkfewerhours;and particularlythosewhowereinbothcategories.15

Additionally,thestudyfoundthatuseofanti‐depressants,sleepingtabletsandantacidswereidentifiedasaproxyformentalwellbeing.3.3.2 ‘Minor’illnessesofworkersinQueensland’sminingindustry

A measurement of the impact of long shifts and minimal or no control over hoursworked was attempted in a recent study of mining and energy workers in theQueensland resources sector. Refer to Appendix A12.2 for additional summaryinformation.Theresearchpointedto:

Number of self‐reported minor short‐term illnesses increased as levels ofemotionalexhaustionincreased;forworkershavingnosayoverhoursworked;

9ABSCat.No.6291.010RefertoTable1.2 11 Medibank(2011) 12For2009‐10;Medibank(2011)13For2008;MedibankPrivate(2008)14Peetzetal.(2012)15Peetzetal.(2012)

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andforthosewhowantedtoworkfewerhours. Short‐term illnesses were also reported more commonly by employees who

wouldpreferaday‐timejoborwereconcernedaboutsafetyatwork.16Gastro‐intestinal problems are the most prevalent health complaint associated withshift and nightwork.17 This research claims a causal role associatedwith employeeshavingasayinworkingarrangementsforthesetypesofillnesses.Productivitycanbeseverelyimpactedataworksitewhenworkersflyinginfortheirextendedwork‐cycle–or,lessso,ifanentireshift–succumbstoacontagiousillnesssuchasgastro‐enteritis.Aninvestigationofcostofworkforceturnover,presenteeism,absenteeismandillnesstotheminingindustryishamperedbylimitationstoaccessiblematerial.Nevertheless,lostproductivityappearsconsequentialandcostlyandcouldjustifytheinvestmentbyemployers in counteracting wellness programs. The following section considers theimpactofsuchprogramsonminingindustryworkers.3.4 Impactsofwellnessprogramsonminingindustryemployees.

3.4.1 Limitstoavailablematerial

There is, unfortunately, limited research in Australia (and elsewhere) of the cost toemployers of employee health and wellbeing. This limits the degree to whichmeasurementsorestimatesofimpactsuponproductivityofwellnessprogramscanbeofferedandtheeffectsorextentofemployeeengagementinthemcanbeindicated.Part of the reason for this lack of research is that surveying and/or interviewingworkers, management and executives in the mining industry presents a range ofdifficulties. Nevertheless, unless longitudinal studies over a number of years areundertakenwhichpermitcomparativemeasurementsof theeffectivenessofwellnessprograms to be attempted, quantifying impacts of programs on performance of theminingworkforceandworkeracceptanceofthemwillremainelusive.3.4.2 (Lackof)measurementbyKPIsandROI

As already noted, assessing the impact – the success or otherwise – of health andwellnessprogramsonmining industryprofitabilityhasproveddifficult.OnlyminimalinformationwasavailableaboutKPIsorhow,even if,ROIwasdetermined.Examplesfromwebsitesforminingorganisations,governmentorindustryreports,andprovidersof serviceswere accessed for the following (formore information, refer toAppendix10):

16Peetzetal.(2012)17Peetzetal.(2012)

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Program impactwas ameasurement ofmovements inbodymass index, bloodpressure,cholesterol,absenteeismandinjuryratesatoneminesite.

Fitnesslevelsweretrackedatoneminesitethroughfollow‐upassessments. ROIwasoperationalisedatoneminesiteasareductioninriskstatus(numberof

workers carrying risk factors) thatwas associatedwith increasedproductivity(self‐reportedpresenteeism).

KPIs(notidentified)weremeasuredatanotherminesiteandresultsmonitored Workerscompensationexperiencewasassessedatoneminesite. One‐offresultsfromaweight‐losschallengeweremeasuredatoneminesite.

Mostly,however,impactswereeithernotindicatedorwerebasedon:

anecdotalimprovementsinawarenessandmotivation; qualitativefeedback(includinginsurveys); employee participation rates includingmandatory attendance at seminars and

educationalevent;and interestfromemployeesforongoingparticipation.

Twoorganisationsindicatedthatsuccessinearlierprogramsresultedintheirongoingextension into otherparts of the company but, in themain, intentions for furtheringwellness programs were unstated. Evaluation of impacts by industries other thanminingandtheextentoftheirsuccessdidnotappeartobemoresophisticatedthanformining.3.4.3 Employeeacceptanceofwellnessprograms

Difficulties have also been experiencedwith gauging the extent to which employeesacceptandbecomecommittedtoacontinuinginvolvementinwellnessprograms.OurresearchofwellnessprogramsinAustralia(summarisedinAppendix10)showedthatminingorganisationsassessedworkeracceptancebasedonarangeoffactorsincluding:

anecdotal improvements in awareness andmotivation for embracingnutritionandexerciseprograms;

reductioninself‐reportedpresenteeism; individualresultsfromweightlosschallenges; highparticipationratesinprogramsoffered; anecdotalimprovementsinhealth;and reducedabsenteeism.

Despitetheseshortcomings,thereappearstobelittledoubtthatwellnessprogramscanhavewide‐rangingconsequences for thebenefitofbothemployeesandemployersasthefollowingillustrates.

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3.4.4 Linksbetweenemployeeengagementandcompanyproductivity

Research in the UK has established that wellness programs are associated withcommitted workforces and work environments that reflect a priority on health andsafety.18Specifically,Mearnsetal.’s(2010)researchhasfoundthathealthinvestmentpractices–wellnessprograms–arepositivelyrelatedto:

safetycompliance; worksitecommitment; healthclimate;and safetyclimatethroughtheprioritytheorganisationplacesongeneralemployee

wellbeing.This means that investments in employee health extend beyond solely health andwellness to the fostering of the perception of the organisation as a ‘caring’ place towork.Employeesreciprocatetothisperceivedconcernfortheirwellbeingwithgreatercommitment to their workplace. Higher workplace commitment was found inorganisationswithhigherlevelsofinvestmentsinwellnessprogramsandpractices.These results point to an increased safety climate and reduced turnover beingachievable through an increased focus on workforce health and wellbeing. This isbecausehigherlevelsofcommitmentensuefromaworkforce(perceivedtobe)treatedwithconsiderationandconcern for theirwellbeing.Whileestablishinganentrenchedsafety environment was important for safety compliance and reduced injuries andillnesses, investment in healthwasmore important forworksite commitment.19 Thisstrengthens the business case for investment in workplace health initiatives andwellnessprogramsduetoimplicationsforthedevelopmentofacommittedworkforcewhich,inturn,leadstolowerturnoverrates.

18Mearnsetal.(2012)19Mearnsetal.(2012)

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Part IV:Summaryof issuesand focal factorstobeconsidered intheminingindustry

4.Focalfactorstobeaddressedintheminingindustry

4.1 Changingworkforcearrangementsintheresourcessector

EmploymentrelationshipsandworkforcearrangementsinAustralia’sresourcessectorhave changed considerably in recent years, especially over the past 10 years or so.These changes have been strongly influenced by the huge growth in regional andremote mining operations as a result of the resources boom, and the widespreadadoptionofFIFO/DIDOworkforcesandcontractedworkersaccommodated incamps.Changehasalsobeencharacterisedbyanincreasingproportionofworkersemployedinlesssecurebutmoreflexibleformsofemployment.Thehealtheffectsonemployeesof these workplace changes and associated lifestyle transformations, especially forFIFOs/DIDOs, are becoming increasingly contentious even though they are largelyunder‐researchedandthusmisunderstood.1This reviewof the literatureaboutwellness,wellbeingandQOL issuesandprogramswith relevance toemployers andemployees in themining industryhas attempted toascertain factorsanorganisationshould focuson inorder toreduceabsenteeismandturnoverand increase commitment, satisfaction, safetyandproductivity.Many issueshavebeenidentifiedas influencingthesefactors,somemoresothanothers,butmostareinterconnectedwithmultipleothersandhencecannotbeaddressedinisolation.4.2 Influencesofdriversofchange

Anumberofprominent featuresclearly influencemining industryworkers’health inAustralia. For some, the drivers are global ‘external’ orwhole‐of‐industry forces; forothers, ‘internal’ organisational and workplace/worksite arrangements are the maindeterminants;insomeinstances,lifestylechoicesandconstraints,whetherathomeorin accommodation camps, can be forceful.Often, though, there are overlaps betweenthedifferenttypesofdrivers.The followingTable4.14 illustrates thisby identifyingarangeofchangingworkforcearrangements for mining industry workers and then nominating adjudged levels ofinfluences from (a) external/whole‐of‐industry factors, (b) internal workplaceconditionsand/or (c) lifestyledriversofchange.An indicationof theextent towhicheach type of driver has influence, compared with others, on an issues has beenattempted by using a ‘dot’ scalewhere no dots implies nil orminimal influence andthreesuggestverystronginfluence.Thisapproachhasfacilitatedtheextentofdifferinginfluencestobedistilled.

1 HouseofRepresentativesStandingCommitteeonRegionalAustralia(2013) 

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Table 4.14: Influences of drivers of change inworkforce arrangements in theminingindustry,Australia

Changingarrangementsandworkforcecircumstances2

Driversofchange

External/industry

Work‐place

Life‐style

Massiveincreasesinemployeenumbers– atriplingoverthepastdecadealone

…

Almosttwo‐thirdsareblue‐collarworkerswithgreaterriskfactorsthanothers

…

Longoperationalhours–12‐hourshiftsinextendedworkcycles–havebecomethenorm

.. … .

Workersexperiencefatigueduetoshiftworkandthestructureofrosters

.. … .

Switchingbetweenday‐andnight‐shiftsaffectaworker’scircadianrhythmandabilitytostayhealthy

.. … .

Associatedincreasedemployerdemandsfornon‐standardworkplacearrangements

. …

Arrangementsfortravelto/fromwork(especiallyforNRWs)candirectlyandindirectlyaffecthealth

… ..

LeisuretimeforNRWsduringleavecyclescanbereducedbyshiftworkandtravelarrangements

… ..

Increasedflexibilitytoallowforadjustmentinproductiondemands

.. …

Intensifyingorganisationdemands

. …

ForNRWs,isolation,disorientationfromhomeandfriends

. … ..

ForNRWs,stressaboutwhat’shappeningathome,suchasnotbeingabletohelpwithproblems

. … ..

Conflictsarisingfromworkspillingintofamilylife

… ..

Theseconflictshavebeenassociatedwithsicknessleaveandpoorphysicalandmentalhealthinworkers

… ..

Elevatedpsychosocialworkloadsleadtomanyemployeesfacingmentalratherthanphysicaldemands

… ..

Atthesametime,theworkingenvironmentisbecominglessphysicallyactive

.. …

Theglobalfinancialcrisishascontributedtodecliningmentalhealthduetogreaterjobuncertainty

…

Thedetrimentaleffectsofperceived jobinsecurity(injury,sickness,absence,poorsleep,psychologicaldistress...)

.. …

Thethreatofdownsizinghasalsobeenassociatedwithstress,sicknessabsence,musculoskeletalpainandinjury.

.. …

Otherfactorscausingjobdissatisfactionscanaddtostressandpoorproductivitythroughpresenteeism

… .

Personalwellbeingdirectlyandindirectlyimpactsuponinjury.

… …

Obesityandphysicalinactivityareassociatedwithincreasedworkplaceinjury

… …

Otherriskfactors(alcohol,tobacco,illegaldruguse)arealsoassociatedwithincreasedworkplaceinjury

. .. …

2LooselybasedonPricewaterhouseCoopers(2010)butlargelyinformedbythiscurrentliteraturereview

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Heavydrinkingandothersubstanceabuse,especiallyduringtheworkcycle

. .. …

Mostworkersareinregional/remoteareaswhichalsoincreasedthelikelihoodofhigherlevelsofriskindicators

… … …

QualityofcampaccommodationforFIFOs/DIDOsvariesconsiderably,canpromotepoornutrition/eatinghabits

. … …

Thepresenceofchronicconditionsalsocomplicatesandslowsrehabilitationandrecoveryfrominjury.

… …

Thestateofaperson’smentalhealthaffectstheirphysicalcapacitytoactinasafeway

… …

Otherformsofriskybehaviour(e.g.exposuretoHIV;dangerousdriving)areassociatedwiththeFIFOlifestyle.

.. …

Importantly,thisrelationshipbetweenmentalhealthandinjuryisbi‐directional

… …

Ahighlevelofworkplacestressisacostlyburdenforemployers(bothdirectlyandindirectly)

… … …

4.3 Focalfactorstobeaddressed

Table4.14presentsacomprehensivelistofissuesandinfluencesasdriversofchangeandcultureintheminingindustryinAustralia.Thestrengthofthedriversuponeach‘circumstance’willmost likelyvary fromoneworksite,oneregional/remote location,onestate,oneorganisation,tothenext.Therefore,thetableisessentiallyaframeworkfrom which site‐specific influences can be identified and arguments for appropriatewellnessprogramsconstructed.Assessingtheinfluenceorstrengthofthedifferentimpactsofworkforcecircumstancesand arrangements upon wellness, wellbeing and QOL is, however, complex. This islargelybecauseoftheinterconnectivitybetweencausalfactorsandconditions.Fatigueisa root causeasare the long12‐hourshifts, theextendedcyclesofday/nightwork,and the increasingly sedentary nature of jobs, especially for blue collarworkers. Fornon‐resident workers, feelings of isolation and other elements of ‘the FIFO lifestyle’present risks in addition to ‘the mining lifestyle’ and its culture of heavy drinking,smokingandothersubstanceuses.Howcan lifestylechangesbeeffectedbywellnessprograms within the extreme constraints imposed by workplace and workforce‘arrangement’?Thiscurrentresearchhasillustratedthatthereareseriousconcernsaboutthehealthofminingindustryemployees,especiallythosewhoareFIFOs/DIDOs.Strategiesoutlinedunder the federal and state governments’ National Partnership Agreement forPreventativeHealthfavouranindustry‐wideapproachto‘HealthyWorkers’programs.Clearly more studies are needed in this largely under‐researched area if healthprogramsaddressingemployeewellnessandwellbeingandforimprovingqualityoflifeofworkersaretobeotherthantokenistic.

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Appendices

Appendix1:Objectivemeasurements

This appendix summarises four frameworks for measuring quantitative indicatorswhichhavebeenusedinAustraliainthepursuitofqualityoflifeassessment.A1.1 SocialInclusioninAustralia:HowAustraliaisFaring2012

TheAustralianSocial InclusionBoardwas formed inMay2008 toadvise theFederalGovernment on social inclusion in Australia. Their reports present a statistical view(measured using a compendium of headline indicators) of the nature and extent ofdisadvantage and social inclusion in Australia as a way of reviewing Australia’sprogress.The latestandsecondreport in2012 indicated fewsignificantchangessince the firstedition was published two years previously.1 Three out of four Australians (75%)reportedtheyweresatisfiedwiththeirlifeasawhole,higherthantheOECDaverageof63%.ThereportalsodiscussedvariationsinotherindicatorsadjudgedasrepresentativeofQOLandwellbeingincludingratesof:

employment, long‐term unemployment, persistent family joblessness(improvements);

children in jobless families(14%ofallchildrenunder15years; fourthhighestamongOECDnations);

proportions of thepopulationwithin specified age‐rangeswith secondary andtertiaryqualifications(increasing);

incomeinequality(steadilyincreasing); housingavailability(easingforlow‐incomegroup); repeathomelessness(improving); self‐reportedhealth(with85%‘good’,thisishigherthantheOECDof68%); multipleandentrencheddisadvantages(toohigh);and lifeexpectancy(highandincreasing).

These indicatorsare forAustraliaasawholeandassuchhaveminimalmeaning thatcan be assumed or attributed to employee or organisational performance in theresourcessector.Hencetheyaredeemedessentiallyirrelevantforthisreview.A1.2 MeasuringWellbeing:FrameworksforAustralianSocialStatistics

1AustralianSocialInclusionBoard(2012)

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Since2002, theAustralianBureauofStatistics (ABS)haspublishedselectedstatisticsabout society, the economy and the environment to provide insights into nationalprogress. These factors addressing national performance are brought together asMeasures of Australia’s Progress (MAP). This research, based on about 15 headlineindicators and a range of background indicators, is confined to objective indicators.MAPreportsareoflimitedrelevanceforthisreview.A1.3 TheGenuineProgressIndicator

TheAustralia Institute introducedtheGenuineProgress Indicator (GPI) in1997.ThecompositeGPIwas constructedusing a range of economic, social and environmentalindicatorstomeasurechange in thenation’swellbeingthatwasmorecomprehensivethanGDP.TheGPIforAustraliahasnotbeenupdatedsince2000.A1.4 TheStateoftheStates

TheStateoftheStateswasanannualreportpublishedbytheEvattFoundationfor14years,from1994.Usingkeyindicatorsundertheheadingsofsocial,environmentalandeconomic,itaimedtomeasuretheperformanceofeachstategovernmentandtodrawattentiontopoliciesatthesub‐nationallevel.Theserieswasconcludedin2007becausetheFoundationbelievedthat:

its main objectives had been met: the international financial credit rating agencieshave been discredited world‐wide, and now no Australian government would everconsider running for re‐election without presenting polices that address the triplebottomlineofsocial,economicandenvironmentalobjectives.2

2EvattFoundation,online

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Appendix2: Subjectivemeasurements

A2.1 AustralianUnityWellbeingIndex

The Australian Centre on Quality of Life uses the Australian Unity Wellbeing Index(AUWI) tomonitor thewellbeing of Australians’ satisfactionwith various aspects oftheir lives and overall life satisfaction in Australia. Accordingly it comprises twonumbers: thePersonalWellbeingIndexandthe National Wellbeing Index.The latterwillnotbefurtherreferencedinthisreview.The first surveywas conducted in April2001; themostrecentundertaken, the 28th,

waspublishedinSeptember2012.Eachsurveyinvolvesatelephoneinterviewwithanew sample of 2,000Australians selected to represent thegeographicdistributionofthe national population. A standard set of demographic questions and other survey‐specificquestionsarealsoasked.Additionally,eachsurveyexaminesingreaterdepthaspecifictopic.SometopicsareofrelevanceinthisreviewduetotheirlinkswiththeconceptsofwellnessandwellbeingandQOLforAustraliansworkingintheresourcessector.Thesetopicsarepresentedunderthefollowingreportheadlines:

Impactsofmarriageonwellbeing(Nov12) Quantityandqualityofsleep(Apr12) Chronichealth(Sep11) Relationshipsandtheinternet(Apr11) Physicalactivityandwellbeing(Aug08) Work,wealthandhappiness(Apr07) Incomesecurity(May06) Personalrelationships(Sep05) Jobsecurity(Oct04) Workandleisure(Sep02)

These topics have been selected having in mind that contemporary workforcearrangements for theresourcessectorare largelydependenton fly‐in, fly‐out (FIFO),drive–in, drive–out (DIDO) and other forms of non‐resident workers (NRWs) whomostly stay in accommodation camps during the work cycle of rosters. They spendmoretime‘away’than‘athome’;thatis,moretimelivingawayfromtheirhouseholds,families and communities than embedded within them. Thus consideration of anexpanded range of lifestyle issues additional to those traditionally associated withemployeeworkplacewellnessandemployerorganisationalinfluencesseemsessentialfortheminingenvironment.Summarised results for each selected special topic are now presented in thechronologicalsequenceinwhichthesurveyswereconducted,beginningwiththemostrecentonmaritalstatus.

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A2.1.1Impactsofmaritalstatusonwellbeing1

Married people (even if not for the first time) exhibit the highest personalwellbeing(PW),followedbythoseindefactorelationships

ThelowestPWisreportedbyseparatedpeople,thosewhoarecomingtotermswiththedissolutionoftheirmarriage

Thewellbeing of divorced people is no different frompeoplewho have neverbeenmarried.Adivorcemaysignifysomeresolutiontotheirmaritalproblems,andalongertimeforadaptation

Remarried people report significantly higher wellbeing than those who arenevermarried,separatedordivorced.Thissuggeststhatthebestwaytorecoverfromthedropinwellbeingexperiencedthroughseparationordivorceis tore‐marry

Thewellbeingofwidowsfallsjustbelowthenormalrange The wellbeing of married people varies only slightly over the course of their

marriageandisalmostalwaysatthetopof,orabove,thenormalrangeforPWInsummary,thoseinestablishedrelationshipshavehighest levelsofPW,followedbythosewhohavenevermarriedor aredivorced; those going through separationhavelowestlevelsofPW.A2.1.2Quantityandqualityofsleep2

There appears to be a relationship between average hours of sleep and PW,such that PW increases with increasing hours of sleep. This is true until 10hoursofsleep,atwhichpointPWfalls below thenormal range.

PWismostadverselyaffectedforpeoplewhosleepfourhoursor less ina24‐hourperiod

Under challenging sleep conditions, PW for females is less affected than formales

Ingeneral,thelongerittakestofallasleep,thelowerisPW. PWscoresarehighestforpeoplewhosleepthroughthenightwithoutwakingor

whowakejustonce Those who report (remembered) bad dreams or nightmares have lower PW

althoughstillinthenormalrange. Mostwithrememberedbaddreamshave themonlyrarely.Peoplewho report

thattheyhavebaddreamsonceaweekormore,however,oftenhavePWbelowthenormalrange.

Insummary,poorqualityorlimited(toofew)hoursofsleepcanhavenegativeimpacts

1WeinbergandCummins(2012)2Cumminsetal.(2012)

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on PW. This highlights the need for comfortable sleeping conditions includingundisturbedsleepforsufficientconsecutivehourstosuittheindividual.For persons working ‘evening’ as opposed to ‘day’ 12‐hour shifts, disturbances (e.g.noise, olfactory) can conflict with conditions for good quality sleep. Arguablyinterference couldbeworse for those living inhouseholdswhere ‘normal’ routines–those associatedwith child care, school, housework and paidwork for others in thehousehold–continue.NRWsinworkcampscansimilarlyhavetheirsleepdisturbedifaccommodationisnotsufficientlysound‐protectedorifbehaviorofothersisnotwellmanaged.A2.1.3Chronichealth3

PersonswhohaveeverhadtovisitadoctoronaregularbasishavePWbelownormalrange.

PersonswithaseriouspsychologicalconditionthatcausesthemtovisitadoctoronaregularbasishavePWthatislowerthanforpeoplewhohavehadaseriousmedicalconditionorinjury.

Thewellbeingofmale is lower than thatof females,whetherdue to a seriousmedicalcondition,aninjury,orapsychologicalcondition.

Indicationsarethatmanypeopledonotfullyadapttotheirmedicalconditionorinjury.

PWfallsbelowthenormalrangewithageneralphysicalpainratingatorbelowa self assessment of ‘three out of ten’. Thatmakes this type of pain themostpowerfulnegativeinfluenceonPW.

In summary, an illness which has required medical treatments – especially oneproducing severe physical pain or a seriousmental illness – produces below normallevelsofPWevenwhenongoingtreatmentisnolongerdeemednecessary.Thisappliesmoresotomalesthanfemales.A2.1.4RelationshipsandtheInternet4

Maleswhodonotusetheinternethavebelow‐normalPW.Thisdoesnotapplytofemalesunlesstheydonothaveinternetaccesstofamily.

ThePWofpeopleunder76yearsisloweriftheydonotusetheinternet. ThePWofpeoplewholivealoneishighlysensitivetolowsocialcontact. ThePWofthosewhohavelosttouchwiththeirfamilyisextremelylow. Personalcontactismorepowerfulasasourceofsupportthaninternetcontact. Theweakestformofsupportcomesfromunmetinternetfriends. Asincomerises,supportfromapartnerrisesbutsupportfallsfromotherfamily

3CumminsandSchafer(2011)4Cumminsetal.(2011)

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andallinternetgroups.Thissuggestedincreasingnuclear‐familyself‐sufficiencyasincomerises.

ThereisastronglevelofnegativeassociationbetweenlonelinessandPW.Insummary,thePWofpeoplewholivealoneishighlysensitivetolowsocialcontact.Whiletheirwellbeingispositivelylinkedtointernetcontactwithfamilyandpreviouslyknownfriends, it isnotassistedbyinternetcontactwithunmetinternetfriends.Suchunmetfriendsalsofailtoalleviatelonelinessandfailtooffersupportintimesofneed.This raises the question ofwhether NRWs living in accommodation campsmight beclassifiedas‘livingalone’.TheteamtheyworkwithandthepersonstheysharemealswithcouldbecrucialforPWascouldthestrength,evenexistence,ofa‘home’supportnetworkwithregularcontacteasilymaintainedduringtheworkcyclesofrosters.A2.1.5Physicalactivityandwellbeing:Linkswithexercise5

StrongactivityisassociatedwithabovenormalPW.Whethertheactivitycauseshighwellbeingorhighwellbeingcausesstrongactivityisuncertain.

ExercisingforthreedayseachweekwasassociatedwiththemaximumbenefitforPW.Exercisingmorefrequentlyconferrednoadditionalbenefit.

The normal dip in PW for people in themiddle age range does not occur forthosewhoexercisesixorseventimeseachweek.

Involvementwithgroups,ofitself,isweaklyassociatedwithhigherPW.Itistheexercise component, undertaken either with or without a group, which isstronglyassociatedwithhighwellbeing.

In summary, people with strong levels of regular exercise and physical activity willbenefitfromimprovementinPWtoabovenormallevels.Theconverse–i.e.lowlevelsofphysicalexerciseleadingtoadecreaseor‘dip’inPW–isimplied.A2.1.6Physicalactivityandwellbeing:Linkswithdrinkingandsmoking6

Peoplearemorelikelytodrinkeverydayiftheyaremalesandonhighincomes.MaleswhodrinkeverydayhaveabovenormalPW.FemaleswhodrinkeverydayhavenormallevelPW.

Not drinking alcohol during the ages of 36‐65 years disadvantages PW. Thereason for this isuncertainbut couldpossiblybe linked to coping.Middleagecanbeastressfulperiodof lifeduetomanagingfamilies,workandmortgages.Perhaps the consumption of alcohol during this time is an important copingstrategyformanypeople.

NotdrinkingalcoholdisadvantagesthePWofpeoplewhoaredivorcedorwho

5Cumminsetal.(2008)6Cumminsetal.(2008)

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aresoleparents. ThereisnosystematicchangeinmalePWasthenumberofdrinkspersession

exceedsthree.FemalePWfallsatmorethanthreepersession. ThePWofthemarriedgroupsurveyeddecreasedwithmorethanthreedrinks

persession.Oneexplanationwasthattheheavydrinkingwasassociatedwithadysfunctionalrelationship.

Current smokers have lower PW. Thiswasmore likely associatedwith socio‐economicstatussincepeoplelivingindifficultcircumstancesaremorelikelytosmoke.

Insummary,drinkingasmallamountofalcoholeachday isassociatedwithhighPW,especially for males. Drinking may be a coping mechanism for people experiencingstressprovideddrinkingsessionsarenot‘heavy’.SmokingcigarettesisassociatedwithlowPW.A2.1.7Work,wealthandhappiness:Timeatworkandnon‐work7

Femaleshavehighersatisfactionwithworkthanmales. Satisfactionwith amount of time available away fromwork is also higher for

females. Bothgendersexpresslesssatisfactionwiththe timeavailableawayfromwork

whentheyhavechildren.Theimpactisgreaterformalesthanforfemales. Satisfaction with the amount of time available away from work decreases

whenpeoplespendmorethan30hoursatwork. Itthenfallsagainwhenpeoplespendmorethan50hoursatwork.

Satisfactionwithamountof timespentatworkdecreasesfor femalesonce thenumber of work hours exceeds 40. For males this does not occur until thenumberofworkhoursexceeds45.

Work satisfaction significantly increases after 56 years. This may reflect areal choice ofwork/non‐work, a decision to keep working because they liketheirjob,andthegeneralriseinsubjectivewellbeingthatoccursafterthisage.

Insummary,workingmore than 40 hours a week leads to dissatisfactionwith timespentatworkandthetimeavailablebeyondwork.A2.1.8Work,wealthandhappiness:Perceptionsofwealthandhappiness8

Projectedhappinessdoesnotvarywithincome. Peoplewith low incomes overestimate the power of doubling their income to

increasetheirhappiness. Females rate their projectedhappinesswith double income as higher than do

7Cumminsetal.(2007)8Cumminsetal.(2007)

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males. Single parents and people who are divorced show the largest disparity

between actual andprojected happiness of all groups. This is realistic giventhepowerofmoneyto increasetheiractualhappiness.

Peoplewhohaveseparatedshowalowdisparitybetweenactualandprojectedhappiness.Theyseemtorecognisethatthemajordeficitintheirlivesisnotsomuchthelackofmoneybuttheabsenceofagoodpartner.

People grossly overestimate the power of halving their income to decreasetheirhappiness.Thisvaries littlebetweenthedemographicgroups.

Howstronglypeopleagreewitheither‘youlike to own as many possessionsas you can possibly afford’ or ‘you admire people who havemoremoneythanyoudo’hasminimalsystematiceffectonPW.

In summary, people tend to overestimate the extent to which variations in incomeinfluencetheirdegreeofhappinessandPW.A2.1.9IncomeSecurity9

EvensmalldegreesofincomeuncertaintyareassociatedwithreducedPW. Thepeoplemostseverelyaffectedarethosewhohaveanincomecertaintyself‐

assessedaslessthan‘sixoutoften’. Livingwithapartnerbuffers theeffectsof incomeuncertaintybuteveryoneis

adverselyaffectedwhenthelevelofincomecertaintydropsbelowsix. The distress people feel in relation to income uncertainty reduces PWmore

powerfullythandoesstrongphysicalpain. The PW of males who do not earn money is more adversely affected than

it is forfemales. Not earningmoney severely affects thePWof peoplewho are separated.This

probablyreflectstheiruncertainfinancialfuture.Insummary,income security is one of the most powerful determinants of PW thatwas found.EmployerpoliciesdirectedtoincreasingincomesecuritywouldlikelyraisePW.A2.1.10 Personalrelationship10

The strongest source of personal support is from a partner. Support from apartnertakestimetomaturebeforeremainingstableandhigh.

LowlevelsofsupportfromallsourcesareworseforPWthannosupportatall. Under conditions of low support, the three sources that also provide the

strongest supportwhen they are operatingwell (partner, general friends, and

9Cumminsetal.(2006)10Cumminsetal.(2005)

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professionals)arethemostdamagingtoPW. Peoplewhohavenevermarriedhavefewersourcesofsupportthanpeoplewho

have a partner.Moreover, the sources that they do have yield less supportthan theydo forpeoplewhoaremarried.

MalePWismuchlessinfluencedbythedegreeofsocialsupportthanisthePWoffemales.

The support that people gain from ‘professionals’ (as distinct from ‘workfriends’) increases markedly with age. This exemplifies the increasingimportanceofgoodprofessionalrelationshipsforolderpeople.

In situationswhere personal involvement is discretionary(nopartner),malesexperiencelowerlevelsofsupportthanfemales.

Lowsupportfromanyonesourcepredictslowsupportfromallothersources. For people who have separated, the only source of support that impacts

significantly on their PW is partner support. Thus, peoplewho are separatedremain highly dependent on their partner (current or past) tomaintain theirwellbeing.

In summary, of all sources of support, the presence or absence of a partner has themostpowerfulpositiveeffectonPW.A2.1.11 Jobsecurity11

WorryaboutlosingtheirjobisdamagingtoPWmoresothaneitherworryaboutgettinganotherjoborworryaboutwork‐familybalance.

PW cannot be measured through health. Even though full‐time retired andvolunteershavelowerthannormalhealthsatisfaction,theirPWwasabovethe‘normal’range.

Peoplewhowerefull‐timeemployedandyetlookingforworkhavelowerthannormalPW.Itislikelythatthesepeoplewillbefunctioningpoorlyintheirjob.

Insummary,worryaboutlosingtheirjobisdamagingtoPWmoresothaneitherworryabout getting another job or worry about work‐family balance. It’s likely that thoselookingforanotherjobwillbefunctioningpoorlyatwork.A2.1.12 Workstatus:Hoursworked12

Thefiveworkcategorieswere:paidemployment,familyandhouseholdcare,voluntarywork, study and nowork.All of thework statusgroups had levelsof PWwithin thenormativerange.

WorkhourshadlittleimpactonoverallPWbutthoseworking20hoursorless

11Cumminsetal.(2004)12Cumminsetal.(2002)

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and over 60 hours (in the sample, mostly home carers) showed highersatisfaction with work, and those working 41‐60 hours less satisfactionwithworkhours.

Longerworkhoursalsoimpactedonsatisfactionwithleisure,especiallyleisuretime.

Those aged 26‐55 were much less satisfied with work and leisure than bothyounger and older people, probably reflecting the work and family pressuresexperiencedbythisagegroup.

Insummary,the positive aspects of work– the sense of purpose it imbues and thesocialconnectednessit encourages–canbeachievedin less timethan40hourseachweek.As the number of hours increases from the minimum required to meet thesepersonalneeds,nogreatersenseofpurposewillbeachievedandmore interpersonalcontact may start to be aversive.At this point the work becomes routine, tedious,tiring, and ever less enjoyable. The trend for number of work‐hours to increase isunlikelytoenhancePW.A2.1.13 Workstatus:Workandleisuresatisfaction13

Volunteers stood out from other workers in having the highest levels of PW.Mostlyagedover55,morelikelytobefemale,andworkedfor20hoursorlessaweek,theyenjoyedhighlevelsofsatisfactionwiththeirlives,workandleisure,health,senseofcommunityconnectionandreligionorspirituality.

Peoplewhowork41‐60hourseachweekhadrelativelylowlevelsofPW. Ifpeoplewouldprefertowork less thanaregular40hourweek,and theyare

being required to work even longer hours due to financial or work‐placecircumstances,theirPWislikelytosuffer.

The highest levels of leisure satisfactionoccurredwithinthosegroupswiththelowestnumberofworkhours.

Many people are overly engaged in their work to the detriment of theirenjoymentoflife.

Insummary,volunteeringpositivelyengagespeopleininter‐personalrelationshipsandinmeaningfulandusefulactivities,bothofwhichareessentialelementsforPWandahigh QOL. Since most voluntary activities are inherently social, this aspect may beunattractivetosome,especially somemales.Importantly,the highest levels of leisuresatisfaction occur within those groups with the lowest number of work hours.Whatever the reason for this counter‐intuitive finding, it was presented as evidencethatmanypeopleareoverlyengagedinworktothedetrimentoftheirenjoymentoflifeandPW.

13Cumminsetal.(2002)

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A2.1.14 Workstatus:Distributionofworkhours14

People working just over the 40‐hour week are the least satisfied with thenumberofhourstheywork.

Thelongerhoursthatpeoplework,thelesssatisfiedtheyarewiththeamountoftimetheyhave for their leisure.This trend stops at 41‐60 hours since there isno differencebetweenthisgroupandpeopleworking61+hours.

There is little evidence that people working more than 60 hours each weekare suffering in terms of their PW.Note, however, thatmost of these in thesurveywerehomecarers.None of the major indicatorshad themasdifferentfrom the otherwork groups and the only decrementwas in the quantityandquality of their leisure time. This, however, is compensated by them havinggreatersatisfactionthanat leastsomeof the lowerwork‐hourgroups in termsofsatisfactionwiththeirjob,theirhealth,andtheirreligion/spirituality.Overall,thisgroupseemstobeputtingahugeeffortintotheir(homecarer)workandgettingsuitablyrewarded.

People doing least well on several measures of PW are those working 41‐60hours, and 83% of this group was in paid employment. It seems likely thatmanypeople in thisgroupareworkingover the40 hour week for additionalmoney or work‐place requirements, rather thanthroughchoice.

Peopleworkingfrom1‐20hourseachweekhavethehighestlevelsofpersonalwellbeing.

Peopleworkingfrom41‐60hoursperweekhavethelowestlevelsofwellbeing.Mostareinpaidemploymentandaged36‐55years.

People working 61+ hours per week have normative levels of personalwellbeing. They were predominantly females aged 26‐45 years caring fortheir family, and have very high levels of satisfaction with their personalrelationships.

In summary, people working either very long hours (in the sample, mainly homecarers) or very short hours (volunteers or part‐time paid employment) were doingbestintermsoftheirPW.Thepeopledoingleastwellinthisregardwerethoseinpaidemploymentwhowereworkingoverthe40hourweek.ThesynopsisofresultspresentedaboveforAUWItopicsselectedfortheirrelevancetotheminingindustrywillbefurtherreferencedinPartIIofthisreportbylinkingthemwithhealthandwellbeingproblemareasidentifiedfortheindustry.

14Cumminsetal.(2002) 

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A2.2 AustralianWorkandLifeIndex

A2.2.1‘TheBigSqueeze’

The AWALI is a national survey of work–life outcomes among working AustraliansundertakenbytheCentreforWork+LifeattheUniversityofSouthAustralia.Thiswasthe fifth AWALI surveywith previous ones carried out in the four consecutive years2007‐10.TheAWALIsurveysmeasurehowworkintersectswithotherlifeactivitiesasseenbyarandomlyselectedrepresentativegroupofworkingAustralians:2,887forthe2012survey.1This section summarises selected results fromAWALI 2012. It dealswith aspects ofwork,QOLandwellbeingandthus ispertinenttothisreview.TitledTheBigSqueeze:Work, Life and Care in 2012,2 this publication offers insights into theways inwhichmanyAustralianworkersexperienceconflictoratleastconstraintwiththeirallocationoftimeduetointrusionfrom(toomany)longhoursworked.A2.2.2Work‐lifeinterferenceandoutcomesfortheminingindustry

Widespreadwork‐lifeinterferencehasremainedpersistentsincethefirstsurveywithlittlepositivechangeinAustralians’work‐lifeoutcomes,onaverage,overthefiveyeartimeframe.3 Particular groups have been shown to be consistently more affected.Importantlyforthisreview:

Workers in themining industry have theworst work‐life outcomes, probablyreflectingtheirlongaverageworkinghours.

Onaverage,work‐lifeinterferenceworsensashoursofworklengthen;it’smuchworseformenandwomenworking45+hoursperweek.

Managers and professionals have worse work‐life interferences than otheroccupations.

Moreover:

longhoursandapoorfitbetweenactualandpreferredworkinghoursarebothassociatedwiththeworsework‐lifeoutcomes;and

mostofthosewhoworklonghourswouldprefernotto.

A2.2.3Joboverloadandworkintensification

Many surveyed workers experienced job overload and high levels of workintensification.Jobsthatoverloadworkersandcreatetimepressuresarenotgoodforhealthastheyincreasethelikelihoodofstress,burnoutandpoorphysicalhealth,and

1Skinneretal.(2012)2Skinneretal.(2012)3Skinneretal.(2012)

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negatively affect relationships with family and partners.4 AWALI 2012 measures ofwork intensification–workpressures, frequencyofworkingathigh speed, and tightdeadlinesandworkoverload–affected30‐40%oftheworkforce‘often’.TheseperceivedratesofworkintensificationforAustraliansarehigherthanmeasuredin Europe using similarmeasures.5 Higher rates ofwork intensification on all of themeasuresmentionedaboveareassociatedwithworsework‐lifeinteraction.A2.2.4Working(toomany)longhours

Many men (more so than women) work long hours, most of them reluctantly, andexperiencehigh levelsofwork‐life interference.Their levelsofwork‐life interferencehaveremainedessentiallystableoverthepastfiveyears.InAWALI2012:

28.0% of surveyed men worked long hours (48+ hours a week) (9.7% ofwomen);and

therewaslittleindicationthattheselonghourswereworkedbychoice.

AWALI2012showedthatmostAustralianworkersfeelthattheygavesufficientortoomuchtimetopaidwork.This isespeciallythecaseformenandwomenworkingfull‐time,and thoseworking longer hours in particular. Since 2007, AWALI surveyshaveconsistently revealed strong preferences for shorter hours among many workingAustralians.Indeed:

mostmenworkinglonghours(72.0%cent)wouldprefertoworkatleasthalfa

dayless;and fathersarethegroupmostlikelytoprefertoworkat leasthalfaday less:half

saytheywouldliketodoso.Work‐lifeinterferenceathighlevelswasnotonlyamongthoseworkinglonghours,ormorethantheywouldlike,butalsothosewhodidnotgetflexibilitywhentheyrequestit. As in previousyears,mostworkersworking long hourswant towork less (takingaccountoftheeffectontheirpaypackets)butmanyappeartohavedifficultyreducingtheirhours.6AWALI2012includeddataonsizeoffirms.Workersinlargerfirmshadhigherwork‐lifeinterferencethanthoseinsmallerfirms.TheresultsfromALAWI2012andearliersurveysweredrawnuponbyPococketal.(2012)intheirrecentbooktowhichwenowreturn.

4Skinneretal.(2012)5Skinneretal.(2012)6Skinneretal.(2012)

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A2.3 Australianworkerslivingwithaticking‘timebomb’?

The following section expands upon some concepts and findings published in TimeBomb:Work,RestandPlay inAustraliaToday.7 Theauthors,BarbaraPocock,NatalieSkinnerandPhillipaWilliams,warnthatmanyAustraliansarelivinga ‘timebomb’astheyjugglejobs,homecommitmentsandcommunitylife.ItexpandsuponresearchbytheUniversityof SouthAustralia’sCentre forWork+Lifeand fleshesout theAWALIsurveysreviewedabove.Insodoing,itarguesthat,inthemidstofgreatwealth,manyAustraliansarelivingtime‐poorlives.A2.3.1ImpactsonQOLandworkplaceabilities

Pococketal.’sresearchhasledthemtoexhortthatthe‘bigsqueeze’ontheimportantpersonal resource of time affects not only people’s QOL and wellbeing in theworkplaces, in households and in communities but also their ability as workers toincrease skills and qualifications.This time bomb can, they suggest, be diffused byacknowledgingandcountingthecostsincurred,weighingupworkanditslargereffectsandconsciouslydecidingwhatisenoughwork,decentwork,andamore‘balanced’life.

Agoodjobisalsoonethatfitswithourlivessothatwehavetimeforrestandrecovery(includingsleep),whicharenecessaryforourhealth,safetyandproductivity.8

TheQOLargument isused topay attention to conflicts that arisebetweenwork andotherlifeactivities.WorkisimportantbutPocockatal.(2012)contendthatAustralianworkersthinkthattherearealsootherthingstobeexperienced,enjoyed,attendedtoandachievedinlife.GeneralsupportforthisargumentcanbefoundintheAWALI2012survey9whereonethirdofAustralianssaidtheywouldliketoworkfewerhours,evenif it means less money. Furthermore, one in seven mining industry workers whorespondedtotheWAABSsurveymentionedinsubsections1.2.5–ahigherproportionthaninanyotherindustry–saidtheirwork‐lifeactivitywasrarelyorneverbalancedandforoverhalfoftheremainder,work‐lifeinterferencemeantthatbalancewasonlyachieved‘sometimes’.10A2.3.2Unhealthyworkingsituationsandpatterns

Identified standouts in Australian workplaces for creating unhealthy workingsituations/patternsinclude:

thenatureofworkdemands(essentially,workplaceflexibility);togetherwith level(lack)ofcontrolworkershave;and

7Pococketal.(2012)8Pococketal.(2012:46)9Skinneretal.(2012)10 ABS(2011)Cat.No.6201.5 

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thesupportivenessoftheworkculture.11Pococketal.contendthatwork,initself,isnotalwaysasocialgood.Ifwhathappensinthe workplace causes workers to become fatigued and over‐worked, there can beimplications forsocialwellbeing.Thiscanbecomemagnified if thestretchedworkersliveincommunitieswhereothersaresimilarlystretched.Atthesametime,householdsand communities can shape what happens at work, the outcomes for workers,workplaces and the fortunesof employers12 and thusproblemsexperiencedathomecanbereflectedasnegativitiesintheworkplace.A2.3.3Stressorsfromdiverseworkingandcommutingpatterns

Whatused to be the ‘standard’workingweek inAustralia of nine to five,Monday toFriday, has givenway to extremely diverseworking patterns. This applies especiallywithintheresourcessectorwhere12‐hourshiftswithinextendedrostershavebecomethe norm. Moreover, patterns of travel to and from work can be time ‘wasted’ incommuting.13 For those employed as fly‐in, fly‐out workers, complex long‐distancetravel patterns over hundreds, often several thousands, of kilometers, involvingcar/busaswell as air travel canofteneat intopreciousdaysoffwithin limited leavecycles.In an effort to reduce travel time, large numbers of non‐residentworkers and theirfamilies relocate to cities (e.g.Perth,BrisbaneandMackay)or smaller centres.Whilethis type of mobility can be associated with better work opportunities and positivechange, it can also introduce other stressor such as the need to establish newcommunityrelationships,oftenintheabsenceofextendedfamilysupport.14A2.3.4Factorsshapingoutcomesfromwork

Incomefromworkis importanttoindividualsandtheirimmediatefamiliesandmanytakepleasure, identityandskillsfromtheir jobs. However,anumberofotherfactorsshapeoutcomesfromworkandaffectwhatAustralianworkers‘takehome’fromwork.Theseinclude:

hoursandflexibilityofworkingtime; characteristicsofthejob; theworkplaceanditsculturesandnorms; theindustrieswithinwhichpeoplework;and theconditionsandregulationsofthelargerlabourmarket.15

11Pococketal.(2012:52)12Pococketal.(2012:13)13Pococketal.(2012:13)14Pococketal.(2012)15Pococketal.(2012:16)

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Forworkplaces,householdsandcommunitiestoberesilientinAustralia,peopleneedtobemoreadaptablesothattheythatcannavigatechangesanddefusefeelingsoftimepoverty.Moreover,thepromotionofequalityofopportunitiesoverpeople’slife‐cyclesleadstohigherlevelsofindividualandsocialwellbeing:

While we experience social or community exclusion individually, living in unequalsocieties affects all: it gets under the individual and social ‘skin’, shaping a society’shealth,economy,safetyandmobilityaswellasitssustainability.16

Pococket al.maintain that awell‐functioning socio‐ecological systemofwork, familyandcommunitywouldhave:

...strong,healthyandinclusivecommunities;productiveworkplaceswithlowlevelsofturnover,absenteeism,injuryandillness,highlevelsofworkerwellbeing,satisfactionand engagement’ and high levels of family wellbeing, coherence and support (forinfants,children,teenagers,andadults).17

A2.3.5Importantmattersaffectingqualityofwork

The ability to control how the different domains of this socio‐ecological system fittogetherontermsthatallowapreferredmixofjobsfamilyandcommunityrelationsisnotavailabletomany.Thusifpeoplecanfeelgoodabouttheirjob,itcancompensatefor imperfectbalance.Oneof themajor factors influencing this is thequalityofworkincluding job security, demands and fairness.18 Other aspects of the workplaceidentifiedasimportantinclude:

thenatureofsupervision; workplaceculture; theextentofflexibility; theabilitytochangeworkingtimeandplace; thepredictabilityofworkingtime;and thehoursofwork.

Consequences of overwork can includehighhealth and productivity costs. These areoften hidden from public view but are privately experienced and privately andpublicallypaidfor.19Pococketal.discusstheimportanceofwork,care,restandplaytheoreticallyandalsoas these aspects have been found to impact upon Australianworkers though results

16Pococketal.(2012:17)17Pococketal.(2012:22)18Pococketal.(2012:28)19Pococketal.(2012:27)

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fromtheAWALIsurveys.TheyremindusthattheAustralianworkers’campaignforaneight‐hourdaywasbasedonequalhoursoflabour,recreationandrest.Thisprincipal,although largely unachievable in contemporary Australia, has, they maintain, beenbackedbypsychologicalresearch.Furthermore,accordingtoeffort‐recoverytheory:

... people have a fundamental psychological need to rest and recover after exertion.This applies not only to physical effort, but tomental effort aswell.Our bodies andmindsneedabreakafteraperiodofwork,regardlessofwhetherweworkinanoffice,factory, construction site or classroom. Failure to rest and recover can create anegative feedback loop, in which we become increasingly exhausted and fatigued,tryingtopushourselvestoworkwithoutbeingfullyrestedandrefreshed.20

A2.3.6Howmuchworkistoomuch?

We will return to these themes later on but, in the meantime, this introduced thequestionofhowmuchworkistoomuch?

InAustralia, theNationalEmploymentStandardsestablish38hoursasthemaximumweeklyhours plus ‘reasonable’ requests towork longer hours.What is ‘reasonable’?TheInternationalLabourOrganisation(ILO)defines48+hoursas ‘verylong’andtheEuropean Parliament’s Working Time Directive places an upper limit on weeklyworkinghoursof48hoursforworkersintheEuropeanUnion,includingovertime.Forthepurposesofstatisticalcollection,theABSdefines50+hoursas‘verylong’.21

Pococketal. (2012)acknowledgethat thecomplexitiesandnuancesofreal lifemeanthat it is not possible to identify an absolute and universal benchmark of longworkhours beyond which health, safety and wellbeing is severely compromised foreverybody.Rather, theeffectofhoursworkedonhealthandotheroutcomesdependsonarangeofcontextsincluding:

thedemandsofthejob; whenthehoursareworked(dayorevening/night); whetherworkinglonghoursextendsoverafewdays,weeks,monthsorlonger; whereandwhat‘home’istoworkers;and demandsonthemduringtimeoff.

A2.3.7Potentialimpactsfromworkinglonghours

Thefollowingsummaryofsomepotentialimpactsfromworkinglongshours22maybeofrelevancetoanindustrysectorwhichisconcernedaboutwellnessandwellbeingofemployees.Ingeneral,workinglonghours(irrespectiveofdefinition):

20Pococketal.(2012:30)21Pococketal.(2012:31)22Pococketal.(2012:31‐32)

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increases the risk of a range of mental health issues (e.g. burnout, stress,depression);

are deterrents to physical health (e.g. cardiovascular disease, cancer, work‐relatedinjuries,sleepproblems,immuneandgastrointestinaldisorders);

affect thequalityof close relationshipswithpartners, children, familyandourwidersocialcircle;

influence the likelihood ofworkers to smoke, consumemore alcohol, exerciseless,andhaveunhealthyweightgain;and

regularlyworkingovertimeofmorethanfivehoursaweekIncreasestheriskofmortality(particularlyforwomen).

A2.3.8Healthandproductivityimpactsfromwork‐lifeconflict

Pocock et al. point to a recent study in theNetherlands23which found thatwork‐to‐family conflict was related to both higher cholesterol and body mass index. Ofadditional relevance, more positive work‐family balance was found to be related toimprovedhealthoutcomesincludingweightlossandlowercholesterollevels,aswellasimprovedworkplaceoutcomessuchaslowerabsenteeism.24Therearealsodisadvantagesforemployerslinkedwithemployeesworkinglonghours.Theseinclude:

increasedabsenteeismandlowerproductivity;and lesssatisfiedandcommittedworkers;whichleadsto workersbeingmorelikelytoleavetheirjobs;and negative impactson fatigueandsleepinesswhich can translateasaccidentsat

workandtravellingtoandfromwork.25Importantly, Australian and international studies have shown that, regardless of thelengthofworkhours, if theydonot fitwithaperson’sworking timepreferences, therisk of stress and burnout, poor physical health, family wellbeing and decreasedsatisfactionwithone’sjobandlifeingeneralcanbeamplified.26

A2.4 Othernationalsubjectivemeasurements

A2.4.1QualityofLifeinAustralia:Ananalysisofpublicperceptions

A1999Newspoll survey gaugingpublic perceptions of 1200 adult Australians foundthat 75% of Australians rated ‘being able to spendmore timewith your family andfriends’ asvery important in improving theirpersonalQOL,while66%rated ‘having

23Pococketal.(2012:46)24 Van Steenbergen and Ellemers (2009) in Pocock et al. (2012) 25 Pocock et al. (2012: 42, 47) 

26 Pocock et al. (2012: 33, 47) 

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less stress and pressure in your life’ as very important. Only 38% rated as veryimportant‘havingmoremoneytobuythings’.Insteadofnarrowly focusingonmaterialprogress,Australianswere seekinga betterbalance between economic welfare, social equity and environmental sustainability.Qualitative surveys were explaining a growing tension between values and lifestylewhich was heightened by ‘the promotion of a fast‐paced, high‐pressure, hyper‐consumerlifestyle’27onwhicheconomicperformancedependedA2.4.2TheIpsosMackayReport

Discussion about concepts of wellness and wellbeing and QOL in Australia mightappear incomplete without at least passing reference to social commentator andpsychologistHughMackay.Mackayisrecognizedasapioneerofsocialresearchandtheuseof focus groups inAustralia to explorewhatdrivesAustralians and is of concernand importance to them. His influence extends to the government, education andcorporate sectors. In addition to The IpsosMackay Report quarterly research series(previouslyTheMackayReport),heistheauthorofanumberofbookswhichdealwithAustralians’thoughtsandopinionsbutnonearefurtherreferencedforthisreview.Thebooklistconsistsof:

WhatMakesUsTick?(2010) AdvanceAustralia...Where?(2007) TurningPoint(1999) Generations:BabyBoomers,theirParents&theirChildren(1997) ReinventingAustralia(1993)drewon60individualreports

MackayhasarguedthatAustraliahasplentytobedisappointedaboutintermsofQOLandwellbeing.Hehashighlighted themoodofdisengagementby thepopulation, therise of unbridled materialism, and the ways in which levels of debt that can’t besustainedhavebeenembraced.

27Eckersley(1999:ix)

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Appendix3:MiningIndustrySubjectiveMeasurements

A3.1 TheAustralianCoalandEnergySurvey

PhaseOneofthislongitudinalstudyofworkingarrangementsandwellbeing1examinedtheimpactoftheroleofshiftpatternsonwellbeingandhealthof2566workers(and1915partners)whoweremembersof theConstruction,Forestry,MiningandEnergyUnion (CFMEU)andemployed inQueensland’s coal andenergy industry in the latterpartof2011.Peetzetal.reportedthatresultswhencomparedagainstparalleldatasourcedfromtheAWALI survey closely mirrored those findings. We caution that care be taken withinterpretationofresults,however,duetoouridentifiedbiasinthesample.Forinstance,thereport(unlessotherwiseidentified)statesthat:

Respondentsweremostlylong‐termindustryworkers;45%hadworkedintheindustryforatleast20years.

Only 130 (5%) of respondents had worked in the industry for less than twoyearsatthetimeofthesurvey.

The numbers employed in coal mining alone grew by a massive 24,300(65%)inthetwoyearsimmediatelybeforethesurvey.2

Importantly, the survey was limited to members of the industry union (theCFMEU).

Onlyabout60%ofcoalminingemployeesaremembersoftheunion. 92% of those surveyed were permanent or ongoing staff (i.e. not contracted

workers). MostFIFO/DIDOworkersarenowcontracted.3

Insummary, thedatasetunder‐representspotentiallydissatisfiedemployeeswhohaveleft the industry and also FIFO/DIDO workers. Furthermore, workers new to theindustry (many of whom would be FIFOs/DIDOs) were particularly under‐represented.Alsonotableisthatmostresourcesectoremployees(around60%according torecentABSdata4)nowworkmorethan45hoursperweekandyetthemedianhoursworkedbysurveyrespondents, at44.5hours,waslessthanthis.Thisfurtherbegsthequestionof industry representativeness of the survey respondents. This is not a criticism ofmethodologybut ratheran illustrationof thedifficulties inaccessingmining industryemployeesforthistypeofresearch.1Peetzetal.(2012)2ABSCat.No.6291.03Carringtonetal.(2011)4ABSCat.No.6291.0 

87

Theauthorscaution that their report ispreliminary innatureasPhaseTwo isyet tocome. Nevertheless, worker responses reported to questions about preferred andactualhoursindicatedthat:

Themajorityofworkers(61%)preferredtoworklessthan41hoursperweek. Themostcommonpreferencewasfora40hourworkingweek. Some50%wereworkingmorehoursthantheywouldprefer,evenaftertaking

intoaccounttheeffectthatareductioninhoursworkedwouldhaveonincome. Thesurveywaslikelytounderstatethegapbetweenemployeepreferenceand

theactualhoursworkedforthosewhohaveenteredtheindustry.Withreferencetoshiftsandsleep:

During work cycles, workers were experiencing uncharacteristic levels oftirednessclearlylinkedtotheirshiftwork.

58%experienceddifficulties fallingasleepbetweensuccessivenightshiftsand42%felttheyneeded‘alotmore’sleeporweregetting‘nowherenearenough’.

62%experienceddifficultieswhentheirshiftchanged. Duringshiftchanges,29%saidtheyneededagreatdealmoresleep. 39%haddifficultysleepingbetweendayshiftsbutonly18%felttheneedfora

lotmoresleep. Duringleavecycles,only34%experienceddifficultiessleepingwith8%wanting

alotmoresleep. 37%ofrespondentsadmittedusingalcoholtohelpthemsleep.

In summary, a clear majority was dissatisfied with working hours and shifts andexperienceddifficultieswiththeirsleeppatterns.Amongthoseworkingshifts,therewerecomplexreactionsaboutwhethertheywantedto abandon shiftwork altogether and go back to day jobs. Less than one in three ofthose working 12.5 hours or more per shift did not wish to give up shift work. Onbalance,however,amajoritythoughtthattheadvantagesoftheircurrentarrangementsoutweighed thedisadvantages.Nevertheless, ‘all other thingsbeingequal’, amajorityleanttowardsgivingupshifts.Theseoutcomeswouldreflectthebiasinthesurveytorepresentattitudesof‘survivor’populationsofthisworkforce.A3.2 SurveyofQueenslandworkforceaccommodationarrangements

A study titledWorkforce Accommodation Arrangements in the Queensland ResourcesSectorwhichwascommissionedbytheQueenslandResourcescouncil(QRC)inAugust2011 gathered the views of resources sector employees regarding working and

88

residency arrangements in the minerals and energy sector.5 The study was largelydependent on distributed survey forms to gather data fromwithin the Bowen Basin(coalmining), theSuratBasin (coal seamgas)and theNorthWestMineralsProvince(centredroundMtIsa).Of2,250completedsurveys,55%(1,241)wereresidentialworkerswiththeremainder(1,009) non‐resident workers (NRWs). Minimal difference was reported indemographyandfamilycharacteristics(85%wereinarelationship;46%didnothavedependent children) or the time spent in the resource sector between residentialrespondentsandthosewhowereNRWs.Greaterthan60%ofbothresidentialandnon–residentialrespondentshadbeeninthesector for fiveyearsormore. In the fiveyears fromthebeginningof2012(when thesurveys were returned), mining industry employment in Queensland had grown by27,100 or 76%.6 Clearly, therefore, survey respondents were more likely to beemployees who were essentially satisfied with their work and accommodationarrangements. Indeed, most respondents (64%) did indicate theywere in preferredaccommodationarrangements.Thusrespondentsarenotnecessarilyrepresentativeofworkersintheindustryandtheresultsneedtobedigestedwiththisinmind.Thevoiceofthosewhochoosetoexittheindustryduetodissatisfactionis,ofcourse,difficulttocapture.Most of the anticipated growth in Queensland – an almost doubling in operatingemploymentfrom2011to2020–isexpectedtobeincoalminingfromtheBowenandGalileeBasins.Expandingworkforcesintheseandotherregions,especiallyinWesternAustralia,andtheconcomitantadditionalstrainonalreadystrugglingaccommodation,services and infrastructure may add to the difficulty in attracting workers to theselocationsandthedisturbancestofrontlinelocalcommunities.Thesurveyresultsforrespondentsshowedthat:

The accommodation arrangement was important or very important inemployment decisionmaking to 82%of residentialworkers and 70%of non‐residentialworkers.

Around60%ofNRWswereaccommodatedincampsclosetotheirworksites. 40% of residential and non‐residential respondents were in their preferred

accommodation arrangements and had taken the job because their preferredarrangementswereavailable.Theimplicationisthatifpreferredarrangementswerenotavailable,theywouldnotchoosetoworkintheresourcessector.

20%ofNRWrespondentswantedtochangetoresidentialstatus;beingableto

5URS(2012)6ABSCat.No.6921.0

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makethechangewasimportantforthem. 15% of NRW respondents stated they were in non‐preferred accommodation

arrangements. 61% of non‐residential respondents rated their accommodation as good or

excellent. 19%ofnon‐residentialrespondentsratedtheiraccommodationaspoororvery

poor.Respondentswereaskedtoratetherelativeimportanceofvariousfactorsintakingupemployment in the resources sector. Ranked similarly as of most importance indecidingtoworkatthecurrentsitewere:

accommodationarrangement; salary; careerdevelopment; reputationofemployer;and workroster.

Thesesurveyfindingsweresupportedbytheviewsexpressedin14interviewswithHRpersonnelwhowereresponsibleforrecruitmentandemployeemanagement.Viewsonaccommodation arrangements and issues thatmight influence recruitment decisionswerealsosought.Themost important influencing factors indecidingaccommodationarrangementsforbothresidentialandnon‐residentialrespondentswere:

work‐lifebalance;and overallqualityoflife.

Both residential and non‐residential respondents also ranked the following highly,althoughtheformergroupplacedmoreemphasisonthem:

qualityofaccommodation; suitsfamilyarrangement;and allowsinvolvementinfamilylife.

Demand for employees in the resources sector is outstripping supply. Employees,especiallythosenewtothesector,arebecomingmorediscriminatingintheirchoicesofemployerandemploymentconditions.

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Appendix 4: Selected mining industry labour and demographiccharacteristics

Due to the emphasis given to the influence that hours worked has on wellness,wellbeing and QOL in both Skinner et al. (2012) and Pocock et al. (2012), a briefanalysisofsomeABSlabouranddemographiccharacteristicswhichhaverelevanceinthis review are presented in Appendix F. Figures have been created using statisticsavailableinABSlabourforcedatabases.TherehasbeendramaticgrowthinemploymentintheAustralianminingindustrysincearound themid‐2000s.Most of this growth is in full‐time employment (FigureA4.1).Parttimeemployeesrepresentonlyabout3%ofthetotalminingworkforceidentifiedwithin the ANZSIC industry classifications.1 The classification for mining excludeworkers directed employed for resources sector activities such as surveying,construction, transportation, processing, maintenance, work camp accommodation,catering,cleaningandsecurity.

FigureA4.1:Miningindustryemploymentnumbers,Australia,Feb1985‐Feb2012

Source:AfterABSCat.No.6291.0Specifically, full‐time employment has grown by over 80% in the five years fromFebruary 2007 (132,900 workers) to February 2012 (242,500 workers). LatestavailableABSdataforFebruary2013showafurtherincreaseto259,600persons.2Mostemploymentgrowthover thepast fiveyearshasbeen inWesternAustraliaandQueensland.FigureA4.2showsthedominanceofthesetwostates,WesternAustraliainparticular.GrowthhasalsobeenstronginNewSouthWales.

1 ABSCatNo.6291.0 

2 ABSCatNo.6291.0 

0.0

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Fulltime Parttime Total

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FigureA4.2:Australianminingindustry,fulltimeemploymentbystate,Feb2012

Source:Source:AfterABSCat.No.6291.0From1985to2012,theproportionofminingindustryemployeesworkinga‘standard’week of 30‐39hours (or less) hasdeclined from50%of the industry’sworkforce to30%(FigureA4.3).Duringthesameperiod,theproportionworking50hoursormorehasrisen from20%to53%. Indeed,byNovember2012,70%of themining industryworkforceworked40hourormoreperweek.Thisupwardtrendinnumberofhoursworkedhasbecomeemphasisedovertheyearssince2005.

Figure A4.3: Mining industry persons employed full time, hours worked per week,Australia,Feb1985‐Feb2012

Source:AfterABSCat.No.6291.0

0.0

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WA Qld NSW Vic SA NT Tas ACT

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1‐29hrs 30‐39hrs 40‐49hrs 50hrs+

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Although thenumberof females in the industryhas risen in recent years, it remainsdominatedbymales(FigureA4.4).InFebruary2012,85%offull‐timeemployeesweremales.

FigureA4.4:Miningindustrynumbers,fullemployment,Australia,toFeb2012

Source:AfterABS(2102,Cat.No.6291.0)Ageingoftheminingworkforcehasbeencitedasonereasonforthecomparativelyhighlevelsofworkforceturnover3andalsoofchronichealthproblemsbycomparisonwithother industries.4 A largemajority ofworkers (at least 85%) aremales. Figure A4.5showsthataround26,000(11.2%)ofmalesareaged55yearsormore.

FigureA4.5:Miningindustryfulltimenumbers(000s),byage,Australia,Feb2012

Source:AfterABS(2102,Cat.No.6291.0)FigureA4.6showsminingindustryworkforcenumbersbyoccupationforthetenyearstoFebruary2012.Australia‐wide,mostworkerswereeitherMachineryOperatorsand

3Beachetal.(2003);KineticGroup(2012);NRSET(2010)4ShannonandParker(2012)

0.025.050.075.0100.0125.0150.0175.0200.0225.0250.0

Feb‐1985

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0.0

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15‐24 25‐34 35‐44 45‐54 55andover

Males Females

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DriversorTechniciansandTradeWorkers.Numbersinthese‘bluecollar’occupationshaverisenconsiderablysincethemid‐2000s.

FigureA4.6:Mining industryworkforcenumbers (000s)byoccupation,Australia,Feb2002toFeb2012

Source:AfterABSCat.No.6291.0Whiletherehasbeenanincreaseoverrecentyears inthenumberofmining industryemployees in all occupations, the upward trend has been more magnified for thedominant blue collar occupations than for the traditionalwhite collar professions asshowninFigureA4.7.

FigureA4.7:Averagenumberoffull‐timeminingindustryworkers(000s)byoccupation,Australia,Feb2008toFeb2012

Source:AfterABSCat.No.6291.0The mining industry is dominated bymalesmore so than other industries with theexception of the construction industry (Figure A4.8). The proportion of constructionworkers directly employed by the resources sector has, over recent years, been

0

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Professionals Managers

Clerical&AdministrativeWorkers Labourers

0102030405060708090

MachineryOperators&Drivers

Technicians&TradesWorkers

Professionals Managers Clerical&Administrative

Workers

Labourers

Feb‐08 Feb‐09 Feb‐10 Feb‐11 Feb‐12

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assessedashighowingtotheresourcesboomandtherushtodevelopneworexpandexistingmineralsandenergyprojects.Numberscannot,however,beidentified.

FigureA4.8:Gender ofworkers%,Australian industries (ANZSIC classifications), Feb2012

Source:AfterABSCat.No.6291.0Industries with traditionally large proportions of males are also those with largenumbers of blue collar workers. Figure A4.9 illustrates the representation of femaleworkersinthemainoccupationsforminingcomparedwithotherselected‘bluecollar’industries with large numbers of male workers. With the exception of Clerical andAdministrationWorkers,femaleworkersintheminingindustryarecomparativelylow.

FigureA4.9:Femaleworkers%byoccupationfor‘bluecollar’industries,Nov2011

Source:AfterABSCat.No.6291.0

0.010.020.030.040.050.060.070.080.090.0100.0

Males Females

0.010.020.030.040.050.060.070.080.090.0100.0

MachineryOperators&Drivers

Technicians&TradesWorkers

Professionals Managers Clerical&AdminWorkers

Labourers Total

Mining Construction Transport,Postal&W'housing

Manufacturing Electricity,Gasetc.Services Agriculture,Forestry&Fishing

WholesaleTrade Total

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Appendix5:ParticipatingorganisationsinPwCreport

In the preparation of its 2010 report on the evolution of workplace wellness inAustralia, PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) consulted with 17 participatingorganisationsintothecurrentstateofworkplacewellnessinAustralia.TableA5.15liststhe diverse types of organisations; only one – Rio Tinto –was representative of themining/resourcessector.Many tended towardshavingmetro‐centricor ‘whitecollar’typesof operationsand thuswereat oddswith the resources sectorwith its activitybaseinregional/remotelocationsandwheremost jobsare‘bluecollar’.Nevertheless,thereportisinstructiveandsupportiveofotherfindings.1TableA5.15:TypesofparticipatingorganisationsinthePwC(2010)survey,byindustry2

AcademicResearch 1BusinessCouncil 1ChamberofCommerce 2Construction 1ConsumerProducts 1FinancialServices 4IndustryGroup 1InformationTechnology 1Mining/Resources 1Pharmaceutical 2StatutoryAuthority 1Telecommunications 2

Somehuman resources representatives of theparticipating companies took the viewthat wellness initiatives, rather than being a differentiator, have become theexpectationofmanypotentialemployees.Untilthisviewbecomeswidelyadoptedandimplemented, however, programs aimed at retention and motivation of staff candistinguish preferred employers within a competitive labour market such as thatexperiencedintheminingindustry.

1 See, for example, DMPWA (c. 2009); Queensland Government (2010) 

2 PricewaterhouseCoopers (2010) 

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Appendix6:State‘HealthyWorkers’strategy

A6.1 Queensland’sHealthyWorkersstrategyandminingindustrychallenges

Thisstate’splanincludesamixoftargetedstrategiesandarangeofcentralisedsupporttools for workplace wellness with specific references to this industry. The reportreferences research profiling industries and occupational groups at a higher risk inthoseareaswheresupportistobefocusedwithinNPAPHworkplacehealthprograms:i.e.smoking,poornutrition,physicalinactivityand/orharmfulalcoholconsumption.A6.1.1Bluecollaroccupations

TheQueenslandHealthyWorkers strategy notes that identified high risk or hard‐to‐reach industries and workplaces included blue collar occupations in the miningindustry: i.e. technicians and trades workers, labourers, machinery operators anddrivers.Hencethesebecometargetedworkers.Compared with other industry groups, Queensland blue collar industries have thehighestprevalenceof:

smoking(33.1%); physicalinactivity(77.8%); overweight or obesemeasured (64.6%) and self‐reported (63.5%) Body Mass

Index(BMI);and alcoholconsumptionatincreasedlifetimerisk(35.3%).1

Inaddition,bluecollarworkershavethesecondhighestprevalenceofinadequatefruitand vegetable intake (55.9%). These prevalence estimates ofmodifiable lifestyle riskfactorsarealsosignificantlyhigherthanthenationalemployedaverage.Specifically,theHealthyWorkersstrategystatesthatfortheminingindustry:

ratesofsmokingarehigherthanfornationalandstateaverages; lifetime and single occasion risky andhighriskalcoholconsumptionarehigher

thanfornationalandstateaverages; ratesofoverweightorobesemeasurements (BMIandself‐reported)areabove

thenationalandstateaverage; ratesofphysicalactivityarelowerthantheQueenslandaverage;and rates of inadequate fruit and vegetable intake are lower than the national and

stateaverageandthethirdlowestofallQueenslandindustries.These findingshavebeen supportedelsewhere.Forexample, significantvariations in

1 QueenslandGovernment(2010) 

97

thehealthbehavioursofprofessionals(generallyhigherqualifiedworkers)comparedto non‐professionals (blue collar workers such as machinery operators and drivers)wereobserved inthePwCreport.2 Italsorecountedthat,overall,bluecollarworkerstendtoexhibitpoorerhealthbehavioursandexperiencegreaterriskfactorsthanbothprofessionals (white collar workers) and the general population. The summary ofresultsfromthe2007VictorianPopulationHealthSurvey3(TableA6.16)illustratethis.TableA6.16:Comparativehealthbehavioursandriskfactors,Victoria,20074

Victorianpopulation Professionals

Non‐professionals

State‐wide

Riskyorhigh‐riskdrinkers–short‐termharm 47.7 52.2 Currentsmokers 13.5 24.6 19.9Dailyfruitintakelowerthanrecommendedlevels 50.1 40.0 45.7Self‐reportedexcellent/verygoodhealth 53.9 42.7Psychologicaldistress–moderatelevels 20.0 27.0

Identified higher health risks for blue collar workers is especially relevant for themining industry as illustrated in Appendix D by the high proportion of machineryoperatorsandtechniciansandtradeworkers.A6.1.2Regionalandremoteworkers

The report notes, furthermore, that prevalence ofmodifiable lifestyle risk factors forworkersoutsideBrisbaneare consistentlyhigher than for workers from this capitalcity.Inparticular,workers outside Brisbanehad higherlevelsof:

smoking(Brisbane:20.6%;balanceofstate:27.9%); physicalinactivity(Brisbane:73.8%;balance of state: 75.9%); overweight or obese measured BMI (Brisbane: 55.5%; balance of state:

60.3%);and alcohol consumption at increased lifetime risk (Brisbane: 23.5%; balance of

state:27.6%).Higher levels of almost all risk indicators (obesity, physical activity, smoking,consumption of alcohol, cholesterol) point to higher risk of cardiovascular disease,Type2diabetesandchronickidneydiseaseinregionalandremoteareas.Miningindustryworkersaremostlyemployedinregionalandremoteareas.Moreover,identifiedhigh‐riskindustriesandareasinthestateincluderegionalareasofpredictedhighemploymentgrowth.Notably,continuedandnewresourceexplorationandmining

2 PricewaterhouseCoopers(2010) 3DepartmentofHumanServices(Victoria)(2008)4 DepartmentofHumanServices(Victoria)(2008) 

98

are anticipated as drivers of large employment growth in this state. Estimates ofworkforcenumbers aredifficult to quantify and vary but a range of reports thatwehavesourcedshowthat:

November 2012 workforce statistics for the mining industry indicate 73,400persons,approximately4.4%oftheQueenslandworkforce,wereemployedfull‐timewithintheminingindustryforoperationalactivities;5,6

inMay2012,theneedfor39,600additionaloperatingworkersinQueenslandby2020wasforecastbytheindustry;7

In November 2012, developers were committed to 22 new or expansionresourcesprojectsinQueenslandvaluedat$78.4billion;8and

Numerous other projects are in the pipeline, currently undergoing feasibilitystudiesorawaitingfinalinvestmentdecisions.9

A6.1.3Sedentaryworkers

Irrespective of an individual’s level of physical activity, there is emerging evidencesuggesting that sedentary behavioursmay be an independent risk factor for chronicdiseases such as Type 2 diabetes.10 This emerging evidence has implications forworkplaceswith a large proportion of theirworkforce in essentially sedentary roles.This classification can apply to both white (e.g. office) and blue (e.g. machineryoperatorsanddrivers)collarworkersintheminingindustry.

A6.1.4Deliveryideas

Targeted implementation of workplace wellness initiatives (workplace‐based healthpromotionprograms)intheQueenslandHealthyWorkersplan11willinclude:

encouragement for settings to implement holisticworkplace health promotionto reduce chronicdiseaselifestyleriskfactorsfacilitatedthroughWorkplacesforWellnesssupportworkersandmatchedfundingsupportschemes;

targeted delivery of evidence‐based workplace wellness initiatives such as PitStopMen’sHealthProgramandtheSustainableFarmFamiliesProgram;

facilitated access to workplace specific health support services (e.g.Workplace Quit SmokingProgram);and

5ABSCat.No.6261.06Notethesestatisticsexcludesmanytensofthousandsofworkersestimatedforotherregionalresourcesector activities such as surveying, construction, transportation, processing, maintenance, work campaccommodation,catering,cleaningandsecurity.7URS(2012)8BREE(2012)9BREE(2012)10QueenslandGovernment(2010)11QueenslandGovernment(2010)

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equitable access to workplace‐based health promotion support tools andresources (e.g. Workplaces for Wellness webportal, Workplaces for Wellnessrecognition scheme, 10,000 Steps Workplaces program and Get HealthyInformationandCoachingService).

A6.1.5Envisagedoutcomes

The activity of adapting, implementing and evaluating best‐practiceworkplace‐basedprogramsandpolicieswithtargetedindustries,workplacesandemployeegroupsaimstobuildthecapacityofemployerstoimprovetheirworkers’healthandwellbeingandtoencouragetheseworkerstomakehealthylifestylechoices.The Queensland Healthy Workers plan envisaged that short‐term outcomes wouldinclude:

engagement with key industry, workplaces and employee groups to increasereadinessforsustainedcommitmenttoworkplacewellness;

implementation of best‐practice workplace wellness initiatives in a range ofhard‐to‐reachandhigh‐riskworkplaces;and

increased Workplaces for Wellness webportal usage and recognition schemeparticipationbyworkplaces.

Otherspecificshort‐termoutcomesforworkersmayinclude:

increased understanding and identification of risk factors for lifestyle‐relatedchronicdiseases;

increased access to health information, support services and evidence‐basedworkplacewellnessinitiative;and

increasedawarenessofphysicalactivityopportunitieswithintheworkplaceandcommunity, smoking and harmful alcohol consumption cessation supportservices,andhealthyeatingrecommendations.

Theplanenvisagedthatmedium‐termoutcomeswouldinclude:

an increased number of Queensland workplaces valuing and addressingworkplace wellness through supportive policy, cultural and physicalenvironments;

enhancedlinkagesbetweenhealthservicesandworkplaces;and increased healthy lifestyle awareness, knowledge, skills for Queensland

workerswithin key industries.Medium‐termoutcomesmayalsoincludeincreasedpositivehealthylifestylebehaviourchange by individual workers resulting in reduced smoking prevalence and harmful

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alcohol consumption, and increased fruit and vegetable consumption and physicalactivitylevels.Envisaged long‐term outcomes would include:

an increase in sustainable individual workerhealthylifestylebehaviours; areducedriskofworkersdevelopinglifestyle‐relatedchronicdisease;and workplaces with sustainable investment in evidence‐based workplace health

promotionprograms,strategiesandpolicies.A6.1.6Strategyrationale

TherationaleforQueensland’sHealthyWorkersstrategywasbasedon:

nationalandinternationalevidencepointingtoworkplacesasahighlyeffectivesettingforpromotinghealthandwellbeingandpreventingchronicdisease;

best practice health promotion advocating the effectiveness of targetedworkplace health promotion initiatives that consider the specific needs,differencesandchallengesofworkergroups;and

the Queensland Government also prioritising collective efforts in order toachievethegreatestgainsinworkerhealthoutcomes.

Thekeyprocessusedtodeterminepriorityworkergroupswasassessmentofemergingevidencethatidentifies:

specific workplace groups with a greater prevalence of chronic disease riskfactors;

hard‐to‐reachworkers/workplaces;and industriesandsectorsemploying large proportions of theworkforce.

Additional considerations included workplace groups with high proportions of theworkforce comprising of broader priority population groups such as those from lowsocio‐economic backgrounds, people from culturally and linguistically diversebackgroundsandAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanders.A6.1.7Prioritisingworkplacewellnessprograms

TheQueenslandStrategyidentifiedfivecoreprinciplestohelpguidetheprioritisationofeffortandselectionofworkplacewellnessprogramsandpoliciesincluding:

evidenceofeffectiveness; costeffectiveness; thepotentialforsignificanthealthgainwithintheshorttomediumtimeframe;

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conducivenesstoapartnership/sharedresponsibilityapproach;and non‐duplicationofexistinginitiatives.

A suite of evidence‐based workplace wellness initiatives have been identified forexpansion, further development and/or implementation with the selected priorityworkgroups.A6.2 OtherstateHealthyWorkersstrategies

TheSouthAustralianImplementationPlanforHealthyWorkersInitiative12additionallypointed out that mining industry workers have increased risk to their health fromalcoholconsumptionatthefollowinglevels:

66.2%risky(nationalaverage47.2%;SouthAustralianaverage48.6%); 59.2%highrisk(nationalaverage32.7%;SouthAustralian32.1%);and 38.1%increasedlifetimerisk(nationalaverage23.8%;SouthAustralian20.7%).

Although Western Australia has published its strategy, no references specific tominingindustryworkersorplanstargetingthisindustrycouldbefoundinthe88‐pagedocumenttitledWesternAustralianHealthPromotionStrategicFramework2012‐2016:Working Together to Promote Health and Prevent Chronic Disease and Injury in ourCommunities.13

12SouthAustralianGovernment(2010)13DepartmentofHealth(WesternAustralia)(2012)

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Appendix7:Reviewingthemininglifestyle

ThisappendixpresentsmaterialsourcedinadditiontothatpresentedinSection2.4ofthemainreport.A7.1 WellbeingofFIFOs:Referencingapersonalreflection

Thissectiondrawsupontheexperiencesofonepersonduringtwoandahalfyearsofemployment as a contracted FIFOmachinery operator at differentmine sites, underdifferentshiftconditionsandacrossdifferentoperatingcrews.1PresentedattheEighthAUSIMMOpenPitConferenceinPerthinSeptember2012,thispaperappearsuniqueintheinsightsitoffersintothelifestyleofoneindividual.Although the viewpoint presented is a personal account, the experiences are alsoexplored from an epistemological perspective and thus the article manages toimpartiallydiscuss,basedonthesefirst‐handaccounts,issuesthatmaybeencounteredbyFIFO/DIDO initiateswho areperhapsunprepared for thedemandsof this typeofwork and its lifestyle.Becauseof thepotential for bias in the existing, albeit limited,literaturewhichessentiallyrepresentsattitudesof ‘survivor’FIFO/DIDOpopulations,2thisaccountimportantlyaddsbalanceandinformspotentialworkers,theiremployersandtheindustry.Thearticleprovidesvaluablepersonalinsightsinto:

the behavioural effects of night shift – sleep deprivation,mood swings, healthandworksafetyissues;

disconnectionswithhome‐lifesituations; strategies for tackling relationship strain and home conflicts (not all of which

workedforRickandhiswife); changesinphysicalhealth–effectsofasedentaryjob,andbypassingthegymto

socialisingatthepub; on‐site catering and food choices – lack of awareness about readily available

educational material; irrespectively, going for taste and speed of service, notnutritionalvaluesororderingahealthychoice;

alcoholconsumptionandsmokingaspartoftheminingculture; impactsofcrewtensionsandmanagingworkconflicts; impactsofrosterpatternsontheFIFOexperience; impactsofvaryingqualityinaccommodationcampconditions; feelingsofisolationanddisplacementfromthefamilyunit;and optionstoconsiderforsocialinteraction.

1Goateretal.(2012)2Arnold(1995)

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ClearlyRickandhiswifeexperiencedarangeof issuesdirectlyattributedtohisFIFOworkandlifestyle.In18months,Rick’sweightescalatedfrom85kgto110kg.ForRick:

... groupexerciseorgymaftera12.5hourshift is likeofferinganotherhourofworkafteralong,mentallyfatiguingday.Thus,theuseoftheseservicesissubjecttoworkerfatigue.Insteadofexercise,Rick,likemanyothers, looksforwardtosittingdownandsocialisingattheendofthedayatthepub.3

For his wife, major concerns revolved around the entrenched drinking and smokingFIFO culture, with its concomitant impacts on his fitness and general health andwellbeing.The authors concluded by making a number of observations and recommendations.Thesearesummarisedasfollows:

Appropriate information should be provided to workers on outcomes ofscientific research into the plausible impacts of FIFO/DIDO work on health,wellbeingandlifestyle.Suchinformationshouldbeappropriatelydeliveredandincludethelimitationsanduncertaintyofcurrentresearchinthisarea.

TheresilienceofNRWsandtheirfamiliescouldbestrengthenedbyprovidinganinformation pack. Social media could be used to promote communicationbetween family and friendsand tomonitor the ‘heartbeat’ ofworkforcehealthandwellbeing.

Rostersandday‐nightshiftsshouldbeconstructedsothatanacceptablework‐lifebalancecanbeachieved.

On‐sitegymsareunlikelytopromoteworkerhealthintheabsenceofaholisticsite‐basedapproachtohealthpromotionthatistailoredtothevarietyofrosters,shiftcycles,jobroles,andindividualneedsofNRWs.

Extendtheconceptof‘fitforwork’beyondthephysicalactionsrequiredforjobroles or tasks by incorporating consideration of food and lifestyle choices thatmaynegatively influenceworkerhealthortheabilitytosustaintheFIFO/DIDOlifestyle.

Overcome barriers to research on health andwellbeing ofworkers bymakingpre‐employment and periodic health assessments consistent within, andbetween,miningcompaniesandthedataavailabletoindependentresearchers.4

ParallelsmaybedrawnbetweentheissuesfacedbyRickandhiswifeandthoseraisedbyMiningFamilyMatters,anorganisationinitiallycreatedbya‘miningwife’andwhichoffersadviceandsupporttothefamiliesofFIFO/DIDOworkers,towhichwenowturn.3Goateretal.(2012:35)4Goateretal.(2012:38‐39)

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A7.2 WhatmatterstoFIFO/DIDOmembersofMiningFamilyMatters?

InJanuary2013,MiningFamilyMattersteamedupwithFoxtelforBusinesstopromotea survey on the impacts of separation and isolation on families and workforceretention.5 The survey was ongoing at time of writing and hence no results areavailable.Nevertheless,manyofthequestionsaskedareinstructiveaboutissueswhichareperceivedasimpactinguponthelifestyleofFIFO/DIDOworkers.Forexample,thesurveyasksworkerstoindicatetheirlevelofagreementwiththefollowingstatementsastotheimpactofFIFO/DIDO:

Ifeelasenseofseparationandlonelinessmostofthetime. Imisstheregularfamilyactivities. IhaveadaptedwelltotheFIFO/DIDOarrangements. TherelationshipwithmyfamilyisstrainedbecauseIamawaysomuch. My family and I have worked successfully at managing the FIFO/DIDO

arrangements. Thesenseofseparationandlonelinessissogreatitwillimpactonmydecisionto

stayworkingunderFIFO/DIDOarrangements. The sense of separation and loneliness impacts on my ability to work

productively.Additionally, the survey asks workers to indicate their level of agreement with thefollowingstatementsaboutthethingsthattriggerasenseofseparationandlonelinesswhenawayfromyourfamily:

Beingaloneatnight. Lackofcontactwithfamilyandfriends. LackofaccesstoentertainmentoptionsIhaveathome. NothavingthedailyroutinesthatIhaveathome. LackofaccesstorecreationoptionsIhaveathome. Missingfamilyroutines. Notknowingwhathappensinmyhomearea(localcommunity).

Clearlymanagingthesenseoflonelinessorfeelingsofseparationfromfamilyisamajorissue for FIFOs/DIDOs. Family friendly policies, the ability to easilymaintain contactwith family and friends, and the quality of accommodation may be key factorsinfluencingworkers’continuedemployment.SurveyresultsmaybeworthyofaccessingthoughMiningFamilyMatterswhentheybecomeavailable.A7.3 Otherresearchandreports

Other research has shown that, comparedwithminingworkerswho lived locally as

5ConsanConsulting(2013:online)

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residents,FIFOworkers reporthigher levelsof sleepdisturbance,6more interferencefromworkintheabilitytoperformsocialanddomesticactivities(suchasparticipatingin sport, attending the doctor, looking after children) and an increased likelihood ofexperiencinggreaterstrainonfamilylife.7Accordingtosomereports,theFIFOlifestyleputssignificantpressureonthefamilylifeof workers and increases the risk of marriage breakdown and suicide.8 Although itseemsmanyemployersareofferingoptionsforconfidentialcounsellingforemployeesand are putting in place some strategies to address the nuances ofmanaging a FIFOworkforce,workersmaybeslowintheiracceptanceanduseoftheseservices.A research project exploring how FIFO/DIDO lifestyle affected the psychosocialwellbeing of mining industry workers9 found that awareness of support in theworkplace (such as Employee Assistance Programs) varied and use of such serviceswas generally bypassed. Instead administration staff and nurses or medics (generalpractitioners)werecalledon forsupportalthoughsomeexpresseduncertaintyabouttheroleofnursesandmedicsinprovidinghelpregardingmentalhealthissues.Instead,trusted friendsorcolleagues in theminesiteworkplacewereconsideredapreferredmeansofsupport.Expatriateplacements includingthoseemployedunder457visasarealsocommoninmining but only limited research into the associated psychosocial hazards could belocated.10 Internationalresearchshowsmigrantworkersaremorepronetoaccidentsand injuries in theworkplacebecause theyundertakehigh‐risk jobs thatnative‐bornpeoplearenotinclinedtodo.11OtherOccupationalHealthandSafetyissuesrelatedtoculturalandlanguagesdifferencesandmisunderstandingscanalsoarise.12WorkerssurveyedforaprojectbasedinaQueenslandcoalminingareaoftenexpressedreluctance to seek support for psychosocial wellbeing with the following barriersidentified:

cultureofnotdiscussingproblems; embarrassment; fearoflossofemploymentifproblemswereadmitted; aneedfortrustinthesupportperson;and theneedforassuranceofconfidentiality.13

6Peetzetal.(2012)7Keown(2005)8Zillman(2012)9Torkingtonetal.(2011)10Jones(2000)11Ceranic(2012)12See,forexample,Maddison(2012)13Torkingtonetal.(2011)

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Moreover, Torkington et al. (2011) observed that those having problems might notrecognisetheirownstressandthusnotseeksupport.Australianmalesareclassicallyportrayalofasexceptionallyproud,stoic,self‐reliantmenof fortitudewhoseeaskingfor help as a sign of weakness. This resoluteness to self‐reliance often means thattroublingissuestendtoremaininternalized.14Several other studies15 and reports16 provide recommendations for improving theability of FIFO/DIDO workers to cope with the lifestyle although whether suchrecommendationshavebeenimplementedhasnotbeenreported.

14Carringtonetal.(forthcoming)15Watts(2004);Keown(2005);Gallegos(2006);Behr(2012)16NottandKeenan(2012);Trivett(2012)

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Appendix8:Factorsandarrangementsintheworkplace

This appendix elaborates upon factors in theworkplacewhich have the potential toaffect thehealthofAustralianmining industryworkers,synopsesofwhichhavebeenpresentedinSection2.5.A8.1 Workandhoursintheminingindustry

Themining industry has high levels of shiftworkwithmore that 80%of employeesworkingsomeformofshiftarrangements.1Longworkrosterswithalternatingdayandnightshiftscanaffectrestandsleepcycles–circadianrhythms–andqualityofsleep.Lack of motivation to exercise after a 12‐hour work day within a roster with anextendedworkcyclecoupledwithpoorjudgmentsaboutnutritioncanleadtoexcessiveweight and other health issues.2 Furthermore, results from investigations into shiftworkintheminingindustryinWesternAustralianandinQueenslandhaveshownthatmanyshiftworkershaveproblemsbalancingwork,familyandsociallife.3The12‐hourshiftsandlongworkcycleshavelargelycomeaboutbecauseofindustryemphasisonlabourandcapitalutilisation.Thecoalindustryinparticularexperienceda cost‐price squeeze on profitability during the 1990s.4 The federal government’sProductivity Commission inquiry during 2007 into productivity in the miningindustrynotedthat:

… working hours grew strongly in the 1980s and 1990s and by 1997 miningrecordedboththelongesthoursprofileofanyindustryandthemostrapidincreaseinweeklyhours(HeilerandPickersgill201,p.23).Theintroductionof12‐hourshiftswasakeyfactor…5

Moreover,extendedshiftswerebettersuitedtoFIFO/DIDOarrangementsasitwasnotefficient to have workers travelling long distances to work ‘normal’ rosters withinwhatused tobe ‘standard’ eight‐hour shifts.Althoughtheoriginallystatedintentioninanumberofminingindustrieswasfortheseworkingarrangementstoapplysolelytominesoperatinginremotelocationsadjacenttoaminingorresourcelease,withinafewshortyears,12‐hourshiftsbecamethe industrystandardacrossall typesofminesites(refertoFigure1.3).A8.2 Chronichealthproblems

Compared to most other industries, the mining workforce has a high proportion of

1DepartmentofNaturalResourcesandMines(2001);BofingerandHam(2002);Peetzetal.(2012)2NottandKeenan(2012)3BofingerandMahon(2001);ABS(2011)Cat.No.6210.54Toppetal.(2008)5Toppetal.(2008)

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chronic health problems.6 Parameters outlined in the Queensland Healthy Workerstrategyforidentifiedhighriskorhardtoreachindustriesandworkplacessupportthisassertion (refer to subsection 2.3.1).7 Chronic health problems can be furtherexacerbatedby:

theageingoftheworkforce; regionalandremotelocationofsites;and organisationalissuesinfluencingworkdemands.

Raising awareness among the workforce of health issues is being promoted bygovernments and by some organisations as an important strategy for addressingchronic health problems. In a mining industry setting, significant potential forworkforce health improvement lies across a range of priorityhealthconditionssuchas:

cardiovasculardisease; musculoskeletal(M/S)injuryanddisorder; obesity; sleepdisorders; fatigue;and mentalhealth.8

All conditions listed in this section are interactive suggesting that there is no singlesolutiontodevelopinginterventiontopreventoftreatthem.Forexample,chronicM/Sconditions may involve both biophysical and psychosocial health issues and thecondition maybeexacerbatedby overweightandobesity.9A8.3 Obesity

An ABS publication based on the 2004‐05 National Health Survey highlights thepotentialofexcessbodyweighttobeahealthconcernforminingindustryworkers.10Thisindustryhadthehighestproportion(76%)ofworkersaged18‐64yearsclassifiedasoverweightorobese.Thisincreasestheriskoftype2diabetesforemployeesintheindustry.11Ifleftundiagnosed,diabetescanaffectvisionandcauselethargywithdirectimplicationsforsafetyandproduction.Moreover, the occupationwith the highest proportion of overweight or obese adultsaged 18‐64 years was production and transport workers (63%). Our analysis of

6ShannonandParker(2012)7QueenslandGovernment(2010);ABS(2011)Cat.No.6210.58ShannonandParker(2012)9ShannonandParker(2012)10ABS(2011)Cat.No.4710.011Trute(2013)

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February2012ABSdatashowedthatamajority(atleast59%)ofpersonsintheminingindustry were employed in production processes: 33% as machinery operators anddriversand26%astechniciansandtradeworkers.12This furthertriggersalarmbellsaboutthepropensityforobesityinthisindustry.A8.4 Workplacestressandmentalhealth

Workplacestress,oneof themaincausesofpresenteeismandabsenteeism,hasbeendefinedbytheWorldHealthOrganisationas:

... the response people may experience when presented with work demands andpressuresthatarenotmatchedto theirknowledgeandabilitiesandwhichchallengetheirabilitytocope.13

Ithasbeendescribedas‘anemotionalexperienceassociatedwithnervousness,tensionandstrain,broughtaboutbyfactorsrelatedtowork’.14According toMedibank Private, stress‐relatedworkers compensation claims doubledfrom 2004 to 2008. Excessive work hours, noise, health and safety risks and highworkforceturnover–arguablyissuesassociatedwithworkingintheminingindustry–areamongthosefactorsgivenasexamplesoftypesofworkplacestressors.15Becausestresscanimpactonemployeeproductivity:

workplacestressiscostingtheAustralianeconomy$14.81billionayear; stress‐related to presenteeism and absenteeism are directly costing the

Australianemployers$10.11billionayear;and 3.2daysperworkerarelosteachyearthroughworkplacestress.16

Conceivably, then, the mining industry is experiencing significant costs due toemployeesexperiencingworkplacestress.Aspreviouslynoted,work‐lifeconflictshavebeenassociatedwithstressleaveandpoorphysicalandmentalhealthinworkers.Elevatedpsychosocialworkloadscanalsoleadto many employees facing mental and emotional demands. The state of a person’smentalhealthaffectstheirphysicalcapacitytoactinasafewayandtheirperceptionofrisk.Thisrelationshipbetweenmentalhealthandinjurycanbeself‐sustaininginthatinjurycaninfluencethementalhealthofanindividual.17

12ABSCat.No.6291.0datacube13WHO(2007:onlline)14Kalia(2002)15MedibankPrivate(2008)16MedibankPrivate(2008)17PricewaterhouseCoopers(2010)

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Theissueofmentalhealth isarelativelynewfrontier inemployeesafety. Indeed,theAustralasianCentreforRuralandRemoteMentalHealth(ACRRMH)believesthat:

Theunderstandingofmentalhealthintheminingandresourcessectorisembryonicatbest.Similarly, theextenttowhichmentalhealthcanaffectproductivityandprofit isnotyetfullyappreciated.18

WellbeingandlifestylesurveyshavebeenconductedbytheACRRMHduring2012and2013 with the support of a number of mining industry organisations.19 Results areimminentandshouldhelptoraiseawarenessaboutmentalhealthofworkers.ACRRMHhaveflaggedthatresultsshowdifferencesinworkers’mentalhealthbasedon:

organisationalattitudesandpolicies; whethercrewsoperateunderground,abovegroundorinconstruction;and shiftsandrosters.20

Although results may present challenges for the industry, they may also permitworkplace and lifestylepolicies and environments to be developed to bettermanageandsupportemployees.The Windsor Inquiry identified mental health issues as of serious concern forFIFO/DIDO workers21 but resident workers can also suffer. Substance abuse isregarded as one of the most prevalent factors associated with workers and mentalhealth conditions.22 The increasing use of drugs within the industry can potentiallyacceleratetheprevalenceofworkerswithmentalhealthandstressissues.In our wide‐ranging analysis of Australian wellness programs (refer to subsection2.6.7), we found mention of only two resource sector organisations with programsaddressingmental health and / or stress23 although one provider of such programsadvertised as clients three principal contractors to the industry.24 Reticence in thisrespecthasbeenattributedelsewheretothe‘taboo’natureofthetopicandperceptionsthatthesemattersaretoodifficulttoaddress.25A8.5 Substanceabuse

Allegationsaboutsubstanceabuseintheminingworkforce,particularlyofalcoholanddrugs, with serious consequences for health and wellbeing has received limited

18ACRRMH(n.d.:2)19Delandrafft(2013)20Delandrafft(2013)21HouseofRepresentativesStandingCommitteeonRegionalAustralia(2013)22Latimer(2011)23PricewaterhouseCoopers(2010);XstrataCoalBulga(n.d.)24Assureprogramsathttp://www.assureprograms.com.au/assure/value_and_roi.php25HooperandBull(2009:41)

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attentionbyindustryoracademics,althoughseetheworksofCarringtonandherteampreviously referenced in this current review. The hundreds of submissions to andpublichearings for theWindsor Inquiryand theCommittee’srecently tabledreport26havemorerecentlyhelpedtobringtheselegitimateconcernstoprominence.Inspiteofthis,fewfactsareavailableandtheindustryappearsreticenttopubliclyacknowledgeor discuss the extent of the problem. Nevertheless, themedia has recently begun topursue this aspect of the dark side of the mining industry. For example, ABC RadioNational broadcast a series of three reports during March 2013.27 A report on theMiningFamilyMatterswebsitecanvasessomeofthecomplexitiesandrealitiesofdruguseandalcoholabuseintheindustry.28We have previously noted (subsection 2.3.1) that, for the mining industry inQueensland, both rates of smoking and risky andhigh risk alcohol consumption arehigher than for national and state averages. The culture of binge drinking andsubstanceabusehasalsobeenraisedwithreference to,specifically, lifestylerisks forFIFOs/DIDOs.Thisdoesnotmeanthatresidentworkersareuntarnished–or, indeed,that all, even most, mining industry workers drink too much alcohol or use illegaldrugs.Substanceabusedoes,however,remainthe‘elephantintheroom’whenitcomesto discussing health and safety issues despite this being one of the most prevalentfactors affecting workers with mental health conditions29 and fitness for work (seesubsection2.5.8below).In our analysis of wellness programs in the Australian mining sector (refer tosubsection2.6.7),wewereunabletofindanysystematicreviewsdealingwithalcoholor drug intervention programs in theworkplace.The lack of findings to support theimplementationofsuchinitiativesaspartofaworkplacehealthpromotionprogramisconsistentwithfindingsinotherreportsreviewedforthiscurrentstudy.Alargetwo‐year nationalworkplace health initiative in theUnited Kingdom30 reported very fewinitiativeswereimplementedtoaddressalcoholconsumption,mentalhealthorstressissuesforthefollowingpotentialreasons:

These health issues were viewed by the project co‐ordinators and the workplacemanagementas ‘more sensitive’ and ‘taboo’ topics, and theywere perceived as toodifficult to address. The evaluation report concluded that a lack of experience andknowledge amongst the project coordinators largely explained their reluctance toincorporatemoreinitiativesintheseareas.31

Itseems, therefore, that thereare fewexamplesof industry inAustraliaorelsewhere

26HouseofRepresentativesStandingCommitteeonRegionalAustralia(2013)27Gribbin(2013a,2013b,2013c)28Martin(n.d.)29Latimer(2011)30IdentifiedinHooperandBull(2009)31HooperandBull(2009:41)

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meaningfully dealing with substance abuse as health and wellness issues for theirworkers.Workplace testing regimes aimed at detecting use of alcohol or drugs and therebyassistingwith health and safety issues on site can act as a deterrent although someworkplaces havemore effectivecontrols thanothers.Althoughsomeminesiteshavezerotolerancetodrugsandalcohol,insufficientrandomorblankettestingcanmeanthatoffendersdonotgetcaught.With the support of the industry, stricter regulations and more advanced testingprocedures on synthetic drugs were signalled in 2012 so that resources companiescouldcrackdownontheiruse inmines.32Cannabinoids likeKronichavebeenwidelyreportedasaseriousissueatminesitesacrossAustraliawheretestshaveapparentlyshowed that nearly one in ten miners used Kronic.33 However, a new cannabinoidsknown as ‘Venom’, allegedly favoured by mine workers, was being marketed inWesternAustraliabytheendof2012.34InQueensland,syntheticcannabisdrugssuchasSpiceandK2(alsosoldasBliss,BlackMamba,BombayBlue,Blaze,Genie,Zohai,JWH‐018,‐073,‐250,YucatanFire,SkunkandMoonRocks35)areamongthebetterknownbrands that are available.According to theQueenslandPoliceDrugSquad, industriessuchasmining,whereveryhighdisposableincomesarethenorm,arebeingtargetedbyillicitdrugmanufacturers.36A8.6 Tobaccosmoking

Tobacco smoking should also present as an issue for the mining industry, not onlybecauseofitsrecognisedhealthhazardstatusbutalsobecauseitisassociatedwithlowfeelingsofpersonalwellbeing.37WehavepreviouslynotedthatratesoftobaccosmokingarehigherinQueenslandforbluecollarworkersandforthosewhoworkawayfromthecapitalcity.Similarlyhighresultshavebeenmeasuredforworkers in themining industry inWesternAustralia.Until recently, mine workers were subjected to statutory initial and periodic health(Minehealth)assessments.Minehealth results from the late2000s showed that the smoking ratewas35.5% formalesand32.6%forfemales.Areductioninsmokingrateswasobserved,however,inmining employees who had more than one Minehealth assessment. Nevertheless,smokingratespersistedataround27%forbothgendersbythethirdassessment.Blue

32Duffy(2012)33Validakis(2012b)34Validakis(2012a)35ThePartnershipatDrugfree.org(onineathttp://www.drugfree.org/drug‐guide/k2‐spice)36Gribbin(2013b)37Cumminsetal.(2007)

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collarworkersintheindustry(36.7%formales’firstassessmentand29.4%forfemalebaseline results) were more likely that while collar workers to smoke at ratesexceedingthenationalaverageof17.5%.38ObjectivesofMinehealthassessments carriedoutby the state’sDepartmentofMinesandPetroleum(DMPWA)wereto:

assessthehealthstatusofallminingindustryemployeesoraregularbasis; analysecollecteddatatodetectadversehealtheffectsattheearliestopportunity; enableappropriateandtimelycorrectiveactionstobetakeninorderto

safeguardandthehealthandwellbeingofminingindustryemployees;and providedataforfutureepidemiologicalstudies.39

In January 2013, the DMPWA announced, without warning, the cessation of theMinehealth assessmentswith effect from the next day. TheDMPWA stated that twocomprehensive epidemiological studies of the database conducted in 2010 and 2012hadshownthattheseassessmentsneitherpreventednordetectedillhealthatanearlystage.40 The Minehealth surveillance programhad been regarded by others as avaluable risk managementemployer tool for the mining industry.41 Its demise isunfortunate and, indeed, untimely given government initiatives under the NPAPHscheme.Inrecognitionoftobaccosmokingasasignificanthealthriskfactorforchronicdisease,legislationprohibitsAustralianworkersfromsmokingwithinworkplacebuildings.Forsafety reasons, theQueenslandCoalMiningSafetyandHealthActmakes it illegal forundergroundmineworkerstolightacigarettewhileworkingunderground,withthoseprosecuted for infringement subject to severe penalties. Inmost states, legislation isalso progressively being introduced to severely limit the exposure of workers toenvironmentaltobaccosmokeintheirworkplace(suchasinhotels,clubsandalfrescofoodareas).Thisdoesnot alwaysmean,however, that the law is enforced.TheFIFOworker,Rick(whoseexperienceswefirstdiscussedinsubsection2.4.3)revealedthat,inhisworkplace:

The hardest part of quitting smoking is being surrounded by other smokers.Whilesmoking has always been banned in all machines, some people have continued tosmoke in them, which have caused a lot of complaints from those who are non‐smokers.42

38DMPWA(c.2009)39DMPWA(c.2009)40DMPWA(2013)41KineticHealth(2013)42Goateretal.(2012:36)

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One initiative to deal with this was the potential to make the whole mine pit non‐smoking.Atthetime,smokingwasrestrictedtothepitwheretheoperationalmanagingcompany has jurisdiction. Smoking restrictions in other areas frequented by minerswhosmoke,suchasoutsidethewetmess43attheendoftheday,couldbeimplemented.AsGoateretal.(2012)pointedout:

Thecurrentchoicethatminershavetomakebetweensocialisingandbeingexposedtopassivesmokeisconsideredbysomenottobeinthebestinterestsoftheworkforce.44

RatesofsmokinginAustraliaaresteadilydecreasingovertime.45Nevertheless,peopleliving on outer regional and remote areas aremore likely to be daily smokers thanpeoplelivinginotherpartsofthecountry.46Moreover,smokinghaslongbeenpartofthemine culture as has becomeworker fatigue due to shiftwork and long hours towhichwenowturn.A8.7 Fatigue

The term ‘fatigue’ describes a number of physical and mental states. For example,physical fatiguecanarise fromexertionorexposure toheat.Mental fatigue canarisefrom periods of high mental activity. In the mining industry, however, fatigue thatarises functionally from lack of sleep is a key concern and, accordingly, is addressedseparatelyhere.Fatigue causes a reduction in alertness and performance skills. Hours‐of‐workinvolving longshiftsand/ornightworkwithinextendedworkcyclescansignificantlylimit the opportunity for sleep and recovery in each 24‐hour period. This is becauseshiftworkdisruptsthebodyclockwhichisprogrammedforactivityduringthedayandsleepatnight.47Thusarangeof factorscancontributetofatiguewhichimpactsuponperformancelevels.Theseinclude:

timeofdayforsleep; lengthoftheshift; lengthandstructureoftherosterworkcycle; lengthoftheleavecycle; historyofwork;and lengthandtimingofbreakperiods.

Otherworkplacedemandsmayalso exaggerate thenegativeeffectsof sleep loss. Forexample,jobspecificfactorsincludebutarenotlimitedto:

43Workcampcanteensellingalcohol44Goateretal.(2012:36)45ABS(2011)Cat.No.4841.046ABS(2011)Cat.No.4841.047Bakeretal.(2002)

115

poorambientlightconditionswherehighvigilancelevelsarerequired; high‐pressuremaintenancedemandsduringpeakworkperiods;and/or inadequatebreakswithinshifts.48

We have previously referenced research49 which has indicated that shift workersobtain significantly less sleep than non‐shiftworkers and the quality of that sleep isalsosignificantlyreduced.Sleeplossduringnightworktypicallyequatestoonetothreehoursperday.50Thissleeplosscanbeattributedtobiological,socialandworkfactors.Therearealsomanyotherfactorsthatreducesleepopportunityincluding:

changingpsychosocialexpectationsandresponsibilities; medicaldisorders;and seasonalandclimacticchanges.

Researchhasalsofoundthattheeffectsoncognitivepsychomotorperformanceof10‐26 hours of sustained wakefulness are similar to the effects of moderate alcoholconsumption. Importantly, researchers have demonstrated that one night of sleepdeprivation produces performance impairment greater than the currently acceptablelevelofbloodalcoholconcentrationsfornon‐commercialdriving.51A2000studyintoworkingtimearrangements intheAustralianminingindustrywithparticular reference to occupational health and safety was conducted in recognitionthat:

Theeffectsofextendedshiftsonworkers’exposuretoambientfactors,suchasnoise,dust,heat,vibrationandchemicalagentsappeartobelargelyunknownor,iftheyareknown, heavily under‐reported. The attendant issues of fatigue and long distancecommutinghavehealth,safetyandsocialimplicationsthatwarrantfurtherstudy;nottomentiontheimpactoffatigueonproductivity.52

Ourreviewof the literaturesuggests thatnotmuchhaschangedsincethisstudywasconducted. Wellness and wellbeing issues associated with fatigue, especially ‘FIFOfatigue’,arestillwaitingtobeaddressedbytheminingindustry.A8.8 Fitnessforwork

Fitnessforworkhasbeendefinedas:

48Bakeretal.(2002)49Forexample,Peetzetal.(2012)50Bakeretal.(2002)51Bakeretal.(2002)52Heileretal.(2000)

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...thecapacityofanindividualtoperformtheirjobsafelyandcompetently.Fitnessforduty policies are introduced in workplaces to enforce the duty of care of both theemployer and employee. Provision of a safe work environment, which includesensuring thatallworkersarecapable, is the responsibilityofboth theemployerandindividualemployees.53

Ifaworkerisfoundtohavemedicalproblemsorimpairmentsrelatedtodrugs,alcoholor fatigue, that person is considered unfit for work. This means that the concept offitness for work extends beyond the absence of illness or injury.54 Indeed, drugs,alcoholandfatigueareforemostamongworkplacesafetyconcernsregardingfitnessforworkforminingindustryemployersandemployees.55In New South Wales, Queensland and Western Australia, legislation provides forspecific obligations relating to fitness for work. These provisions generally oblige amine operator to develop and implement a fitness forwork programwhich includesmeasures to eliminate or control risks relating to fitness for work, namely, theconsumptionofdrugsandalcohol,fatigueandmedicalassessments.56Whilemineoperatorsshouldensurethatdrugandalcoholtestingregimesformpartofthesafetymanagementsystematthemine,MiningSafetyLawinAustraliastatesthat:

... this should be done in consultation with the workforce and workforcerepresentativestoavoiddisputesandensurethatanappropriatetestingregimecanbeeffectivelyimplemented.57

Alcoholanddruguseistargetedinfitnessforworkpoliciesbecausethesesubstancesarewellknownto impairthecapacityofanemployeetoperformtheir jobsafelyandeffectively. Where substances affect performance, both the employee and theircolleaguesareplacedatincreasedrisk.Fitness for work policies generally incorporate a testing protocol for either thepresence of prohibited substances in bodily fluids, or the performance impairmentassociatedwith the use of prohibited substances and/or fatigue.Many organisationsalready have in place policies aimed at detecting alcohol and drug use or guidelinesprohibitingtheirusewithoutnecessarilyidentifyingthemas‘fitnessforwork’policies.Notallareeffectiveindetectionorasdeterrents.

A8.9 Presenteeism53Bakeretal.(2002)54ParkerandWorringham(c.2004)55Bakeretal.(2002)56Poteri(2012)57Poteri(2012)

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Medibank58definespresenteeismas:

Theproductivity that is lostwhenemployeescometoworkbut,asaconsequenceofillness or other medical conditions, are not fully productive. Employees who workwhenillaremorepronetoinjuryand,ifcontagious,increasetheriskofpassingonanillnesstootheremployees.

Medibankhascategorisedthemaincausesofpresenteeismas:

unhealthylifestyles; workerswithillnessesgoingtowork; allergiesandasthma;and poorwork‐lifebalanceandhighlevelsofjob‐relatedstress.

Medibank (formerly Medibank Private) has been assessing the current state ofpresenteeismsince2007.Itsmostrecentreportestimatedthat:

in 2009/10, the total cost of presenteeism to the Australian economy wasestimatedtobe$34.1billion(from$25.7billionin2005‐06);

onaverage,6.5workingdaysofproductivityarelostperemployeeannuallyasaresultofpresenteeism;and

presenteeismequatedtoa2.7%decreasein2010GDP.59Thecostofpresenteeismfortheminingindustryhasnotbeenestimatedbutsomeofthe main causes (such as unhealthy lifestyles and poor work‐life balance) havepreviouslybeenidentifiedasproblematicforworkerswithinthisindustry.A8.10Engagementinsocial(media)activities

Asenseofconnectedness,ofbelongingtoacrew,ateam,aminesite,anorganisation,acommunity, even to an industry canbehard to achievewhenmanywork tasks– forinstance,plantandmachineryoperation–aresolitaryinnatureandmaybeperformedinageographicallyremoteenvironment.60Evencribmealsduringashiftareconductedwithcrewmemberswhichmeansthereislimitedopportunitytointeractwithothers.EngagingandconnectingcanbeevenmoredifficultforFIFOs/DIDOsaccommodatedinworkcamps.Asagroup, theyhave littleornoattachment toworkplacecommunitiesand activities; nor are they regulated by informal social controls that traditionallycharacterise rural communities. Hence theirexistenceoftengives rise to suspicionandconcerns.6158Medibank(2011)59Medibank(2011)60NottandKeenan(2012)61McIntosh(2012)

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ThesefactorstogetherwithNRWs’separationfromfamilyandfriendsmayaddtothetendencyofminingindustryworkerstoengageinsocialmediaactivities.Useofmobiledeviceswhileoperatingvehiclesorothermobileplanthasrecentlybeenreportedasaminesafetyrisk.62Several serious or high potential, narrowly avoided incidents directly caused byworkersusingmobiletechnologywereapparentlybeinginvestigatedinQueenslandinearly2013.UseofmobiledevicessuchasiPhonesandiPadsandinteractiononsocialmediahasbeenreportedasbeingwidespreadatopen‐cutcoalminesinthatstate.TheallegationsarethatsomeworkershavebeencheckingsiteslikeFacebookwhiledrivingbulldozers,graders,dumptrucksandexcavators.Thiscouldbecomeasignificantsafetyconcern given increasing levels of engagement in socialmedia activities size and thesizeandgrossweightsofequipmentmovingaroundonminesite.A8.11Potentialhealthhazardsindailywork

Duetotheinherentnatureofthework,miningindustryworkers,especiallythosewhoworkunderground,aresubjecttoanumberofpotentialhealthhazardsintheirnormaldaily work. The consequences of continual exposure to health hazards may beprogressiveandnotrealiseduntilitistoolate.Theeffectsareoftennotvisibleand,insomecases,thehazardisnotclearlyunderstoodandisdifficulttomeasure.63If health hazards are notmanaged effectively, work‐related injuries and disease canoccur.Somehealthhazardsencounteredinminingnotdiscussedsofarare:

industrialdeafness; musculoskeletaldisorders; dermatitis; asbestosisandoccupationalcancers; noise; wholebodyvibration; ultra‐violetsunlightexposure; dust; workingonunevenground; manualhandling; workplacedesignincludingaccessandegress; heat/thermalstress;and polymericchemicals.64

62Herber(2013)63DepartmentofNaturalResourcesandMines(Queensland)(2012)64Donoghue(2004)

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A8.12FatalandseveretraumaticinjuriesandPTSD

Fatigueinrelationtoshiftworkintheminingindustryhasbeensubjecttoconsiderableinvestigationandhasbeendiscussedelsewhereinthiscurrentreview.Moreover,sleepdeficits which are sometimes experienced in locations with extremely hot weatherconditionshavebeenshowntocauseimpairmentsofcognitiveandmotorperformanceamongdriversfromotherindustries.65Fatigue,sleepdeprivationandotherhealthandwellbeingfactorsthatcanimpingeuponperformanceintheworkplaceneedconstantsurveillanceandappropriatemonitoringstrategiesandinitiativessothataccidentsandinjuriesmightbeaverted.Unfortunately, fatal and severe traumatic injuries continue to occur inmining.Theseoftenhaveprofound impactsonmorale.66Post‐traumatic stressdisorders sometimesdevelopinwitnesses,colleaguesandmanagers.Theeffectsmightnotberealiseduntilmanyyearsaftertheevent.Managersandworkmatesoftenfeelpersonallyresponsiblefor the injuries of others, even in the absence of negligence, and face the ordeal ofgovernmentinquiriesandlegalproceedings.

65Bakeretal.(2003)66WilliamsonandFeyer(2000) 

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Appendix9:

A9.1 OccupationalHealthandSafetypracticesinAustralia

OccupationalHealthandSafety(OHS)inAustraliaispresentedbySafeWorkAustraliaas a key issue for not onlyAustralian employers but also forworkers and thewidercommunity.1 OHS legislation is aimed at ensuring employers have legal obligationsand responsibilities to take all reasonable steps to protect employee health, safetyandwelfareatworkbyprovidingandmaintainingaworkingenvironmentthatissafefor employees and without risk to health.2 Although it appears most organisationsgenuinely support some forms of worksite health promotion initiatives, unions,employeesandgovernmentshave,inthepast,expressedconcernsthat employersmayseek to improve productivity and workplace moral through the delivery of healthpromotion at the expense ofbasic OHS issues.3SafeWorkAustraliawhichsupportstheNationalOHSStrategy2002‐2012hasputpaidtothisbydeclaringthat:

A good OHS practice not only provides a safer working environment but improvesworker morale and productivity. By pursuing good OHS practices businesses facefewer workplace injuries and benefit from higher employee retention rates andenhancedcorporate image.Thisreducesthecostsassociatedwithproductiondelays,recruitingnewstaffandreplacingequipment,andavoidstheresultinguncertaintyandworkloadpressureplacedonco‐workers.BusinessesthatstrivetoimprovetheirOHSperformancecreatesaferworkplaces.Thisbenefitsnotonlyemployersandemployeesbutalsotheirfamilies,theircommunitiesandtheAustralianeconomy.4

A9.2 Guidelinesforthedeliveryofwellnessprograms

An Australian company delivering wellness programs and services within the localmining industry has stated that, from their experience, programswhich provide thegreatestlevelsofsuccessforemployersare:

constructedaroundanorganisation’sspecifichealthneeds; addressapparentbarrierstochange; arerelevanttotheparticipant;and provideregularfollow‐upandmeasurementofhealthindicators.5

Otherguidelinestoorganisationsinclude:

Successisoptimisedbyconductingtheprograminasupportiveenvironment.

1SafeWorkAustralia(2009)2GaukrogerandKenney(2003)3Bellingham(1991)4SafeWorkAustralia(2009:3)5Scanes(n.d.) 

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Withoutmanagementsupport,awellnessprogramislikelytogainlittleexposureand,inturn,lowparticipation.

Involvingemployeesisparticularlyimportantinthedevelopmentalstageoftheprogram.

Ensuretheprogramisrelevanttoanorganisation’sneeds. Consideropportunitiesforemployeestobephysicallyactiveintheworkplace. Considerthefacilitiesthatareavailableforemployeestobeactivewithinthe

confinesoftheworkcampandinthecommunity. Ensureagoodrangeofhealthyfoodchoicesatworkandincamp

accommodation. Considerpromotionalmaterialstoencouragehealthfoodchoice. Assistthecommunitytoaccesshealthierfood.6

A9.3 ImpedimentstoworkplacewellnessprogramsintheUS

In theUnited States, the2004NationalWorksiteHealthPromotionSurvey7 reportedvarious obstacles impeded successful implementationofworksitewellness programsandachievementofgoalsforworkplacewellnessandhealth.Thefivemainoneswere:

lackofemployeeinterest(for63.5%); insufficientstaffresources(50.1%); inadequatefunding(48.2%)whichwasresponsiblefor… failuretoengagehigh‐riskemployees(48%);and theinabilitytoelicitthesupportofuppermanagement(38%).

ReasonsemployeesinthisUSsurveyavoidedworkplacewellnessprogramsandhealthpromotionincluded:

theycostmoney; theprogramswereofferedatinconvenienttimes; thepurposefortheprogramwasnotclearlyexplained; childcarewasnotprovided; commuteissueswerenotprovidedforbytheprogram; thebenefitstothecompanyandhowthesedirectlyaffecttheemployeeswasnot

explained; lowerlevelmanagementcouldnotconveytheadvantagesoftheprogramtothe

employeesundertheirauthority; employeeswereangryanddistrustfuloftheemployer;

6Scanes(n.d.)7Linnanetal.(2008) 

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wellness and health programs were pushed up the priority list ahead ofunhealthydailyworkconditions;and

employees felt forced to relinquish control over their own health risks to thecompanyresultinginaperceivedviolationoftheirrights.

A9.4 Physicalandpsychosocialenvironmentconsiderations

Addressing both the physical and psychosocial environment is important. Physicalenvironmentalfactorsreferto:

theworksite’sergonomiccapabilitiesandsystems; cateringfacilities; accesstohealthcareprofessionalsandspecialists;and healthandfitnessservicessuchasgymnasiumsandorganisedsport.8

Ifthebasicsinexerciseequipmentfacilitiesarenotavailable,thisnotonlygivespeopleonemoreexcusenottobeactivebutalsosupportstheassumptionthattheiremployerdoes not care enough about them to provide these facilities. Organisations that doprovidesuchfacilities improvetheirpublic imagebydemonstratingaconcernforthewelfare of their employees and, in turn, this has a flow on effect of improved staffrecruitmentandretention.9Thepsychosocial environment relates tosocialandpsychological factors suchas:

asupportivemanagementnetwork; encouragementandacknowledgmentoftheemployee’sideasandissues;and asenseofappreciationthroughpayreviews,incentiveschemesandemployee

benefits.10

Other environmental factors that are thought to increase engagement within aprograminclude:

Theuseofpositive imagesofmeninmarketingmaterialsandsuitablereadingmaterials.

Usingpresentersthathaveextensiveexperienceworkingwithmalesfrombluecollarindustries.

Usingpremisesthat are easilyaccessible,witheasycar parking.Men generallyhave a lowtolerance levelandwillgiveupifaccessing theprogramvenue istoohard.

8Sparrow(2006)9Sparrow(2006)10Sparrow(2006) 

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Provideservicesoutsidenormalworkinghours.Menwhoworklongworkinghoursfinditdifficultto accesshealthprograms,and it is easierfor mentoaccessprogramson weekendsorduringevenings.

Minimisepowerdifferencesbetween theprogrampresenterandparticipants.

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Appendix10:WellnessProgramsinAustralia

TableA10.17:CasestudiesoforganisationsoperatinginAustralia

Organisationname

Typesofprograms

Focusareasofwellnessprogram/s

Programimpact/performanceindicators(returnoninvestment) Ongoing/futureplans *

ResourcesectororganisationsAlcoaWorldAluminaAustralia1

‘RoadtoSilence’program

ExpansionofitsHearingConservationProgram

Significantreductionsinworkplaceoccupationalnoiseexposure

1

ArgyleDiamonds2

Thermalstressprogramtoimproveworkerawarenessofhydrationissues

Multidimensionalprogramincludedphysiologicalmonitoring,environmentalmonitoring,refrigeration/ventilationcontrols;andtraining.

Highlysuccessful;thenumberofclinicallydehydratedpersonneldecreasingfromapeakof14%inNovember2010to0.3%inMarch2011

1

Barminco3 DieselEmissionsManagementProgram

Arangeofnewworkpracticesandtechnologiesbasedonthemostrecentscienceregardingemissionsmonitoringandtreatment.

Barmincobelievesithasgonesignificantlybeyondjustregulationscomplianceformanagingtheextremelyharmfulfinedieselparticularmatter

1

BarrickGold4 HealthandWellbeingProgram

‘White’and‘bluecollar’workerstargetedHealthassessmentsandriskmanagementstrategy

Anecdotalimprovementsinawarenessandmotivationforembracingnutritionandexerciseprograms

Successofinitial6monthprogramresultedintheprogrambeingextendedtoanongoingbasis

2

*1=Workplaceprogram;2=Lifestyleprogram

1CMEWA(2013)2CMEWA(2013)3CMEWA(2013)4CorporateBodiesInternational(c.2011a)

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Organisationname

Typesofprograms

Focusareasofwellnessprogram/s

Programimpact/performanceindicators(returnoninvestment) Ongoing/futureplans *

Resourcesectororganisations(continued)BHPIronOre5 Identify

aspirationsandneedsofFIFOs

ConsultFIFOemployeesandtheirfamiliestoidentifytheservicesandprogramsthattheiremployeesandtheirfamiliesseektoenablethemtooptimisetheirFIFOlifestyle.

2

Boral6 BWellProgram Onsitehealthassessments,quarterlyeducationalseminarsandotherresourcesforemployeesandtheirfamilies

Measurementframeworkusesworkerscompensationexperience,mandatoryattendanceatseminarsandeducationalevent,andROI.ROIisoperationalisedas:Areductioninriskstatus(no.ofworkerscarryingriskfactors)thatisassociatedwithincreasedproductivity(self‐reportedpresenteeism)

2

ChevronAustralia7

SprainsandStrainsPreventionProgram

Targetingthepreventionofmusculoskeletaldisordersonemployeesintheofficeandsiteenvironments

Resistancetrainingimprovedthestrengthofmuscles,tendons,ligamentsandbones‐elementsessentialinreducingindividuals’personalriskofasprainorstrain.

1

RioTinto8 Screening,assessingandmanagingarangeofhealthrisksandillnesses

Sedentarylifestyles,poordiet,stress,smoking,obesity,mentalhealth

Measurementofcoreperformanceindicatorsandmonitoring(resultsnotindicated)

Initiallythreebusinessunitswerepilotingthestrategyovertwoyearstomeasureimpacts

2

*1=Workplaceprogram;2=Lifestyleprogram

5CreatingCommunitiesPtyLtd(2012)6Boral(2002)7CMEWA(2013)8PricewaterhouseCoopers(2010)

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Organisationname

Typesofprograms

Focusareasofwellnessprogram/s

Programimpact/performanceindicators(returnoninvestment) Ongoing/futureplans *

Resourcesectororganisations(continued)RioTintoCoalAustralia9

AchieveHealthProgram

Deliversprogramssuchasskincancerchecks,healthassessments,personalfitnessandwellbeingplansforemployees

>1100employeeparticipantsin2011fromBengalla,MountThorleyWarkworth,KestrelMine,HailCreekMineandBrisbaneCorporateoffice

Programcontinuingtobeembeddedacrossallsites

2

FatigueManagementFramework

Toreducetheriskoffatigue‐relatedincidentsoccurring

Implementedin2012 2

ErgoanalystProgram

Preventativestrategiesforergonomic/manualhandlingissues

ImplementedatallsitesinJanuary2012

Ongoing 1

NoiseReductionStrategyActionPlan

Noisereductionexposureforworkers

Aimistomeet16%noiseexposurereduction,from2008baseline,by2013

Continuingimplementation

1

Medgate Toconsistentlymanagehygieneinformation

ImplementedofHygieneandMedicalmodulesatallsitesinJanuary2012

2

SiteSafetyAccelerationProgram

Toimprovesafetybehaviour IntroducedatMountThorleyWarkworth–withpromise

TobeimplementedatClermontMinein2012

1

RioTintoKestrelCoal10

AchieveHealthProgram(2010launch)foremployeesandtheirfamilies

Riskmanagementstrategy(includingindividualhealthcoaching),physicalactivity,nutrition

Successseeminglygaugedonlevelsofparticipationandindividualresultsfromtheweightlosschallenge>70%initialsignupHighestparticipationratesofallRioTintositesin2010

Viewedasasolidplatformfromwhichtoexpandtheprogram

2

*1=Workplaceprogram;2=Lifestyleprogram

9RioTintoCoalAustralia(2012)10CorporateBodiesInternational(c.2011b)

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Organisationname

Typesofprograms

Focusareasofwellnessprogram/s

Programimpact/performanceindicators(returnoninvestment) Ongoing/futureplans *

Resourcesectororganisations(continued)Santos11 Healthand

WellbeingStandard

Emphasisonhealthriskpreventionstrategiesencouragesemployeestoself‐manageandmakeinformedchoicesabouttheirlifestyles

2

WesTrac12 NewStarterSafetyMentors

Trialprogramtoassigneachnewstartertoanexperiencedsafetymentor.

Resultedinasteepreductionininjuriesinnewstartersandanew‐foundsenseofresponsibilityforthementors.

1

WoodsideEnergyLtd13

LossofContainment(LOC)ReductionProgram

Unifiedorganisationalapproachtoincidentanalysis,standardisedreporting,improvementplanning,andworkforcetrainingandengagement

Overthelastthreeyears,sustainablereductioninhydrocarbonLOCeventshavebeenachievedacrossitsoperatingfacilities.

1

XstrataCoalBlakefieldSouthu/gmine,NSW14

Healthimprovement–16‐weekhealthchallenge

18%improvementinBMI17%improvementinbloodpressure9%reductionincholesterolSomeimprovementsinabsenteeismInjuryrate‘trackingwell’

2

XstrataCoalBulgaCoalComplex(surface&u/g),NSW15

SafeCoalprogram:encouragehealth,fitness,wellbeingofemployeesandcontractors

Fatigue,musculoskeletaldisorders,diabetes,heartdisease,influenza,obesity,nutritionandoccupationalillnesses

2

*1=Workplaceprogram;2=Lifestyleprogram

11Santos(n.d.)12CMEWA(2013)13CMEWA(2013)14Healthymineworkersleadstolessinjuries(2012)15XstrataCoalBulga(n.d.)

128

Organisationname

Typesofprograms

Focusareasofwellnessprogram/s

Programimpact/performanceindicators(returnoninvestment) Ongoing/futureplans *

Resourcesectororganisations(continued) SustainingPeople

ProgramVoluntaryhealthassessments,accesstogymfacilities,educationsessions

Trackingfitnessthroughfollow‐upassessments.

2

StressManagementProgram

Injurymanagementandsubsidisedtreatmentssuchasmassageandosteopathictherapy

1

XstrataCoalTahmoor16

ErgonomicsandCommunicationProgram

Musculoskeletaldisorders Pilotprogram 1

XstrataCoal,Mangoola17

HealthandWellnessProgram

Improveemployeequalityoflifethroughvarioushealth,fitnessandeducationprograms

2

XstrataCopper18

WesleyResearchInstituteMedicalResearchProgram‐$0.9millioninfunding

Assistinginjuredworkersthroughvariousemotionalaspectsoftheirrecoveryprocess;andimprovingtheongoingqualityoflifeformineworkersaftertheyretire

2

*1=Workplaceprogram;2=Lifestyleprogram

16DepartmentofTrade&Investment,MineSafety(NewSouthWales)(2012)17XstrataCoal(2011)18TheWesleyResearchInstitute(2012)

129

Organisationname

Typesofprograms

Focusareasofwellnessprogram/s

Programimpact/performanceindicators(returnoninvestment) Ongoing/futureplans *

Non‐resourcesectororganisationsACTGovernmentHealth19

MyHealthStaffHealthandWellbeingProgram

Reducingtheriskofchronicdisease(bysurveyingnutrition,physicalactivity,alcoholconsumption,healthyweight,smokingandmentalhealth)

Evaluationhasbeenincorporatedbutnoresultstodate(earlystagesofprogram)

2

ActewAGL20 ACTiveHealthandWellnessProgram(2006)

Evaluateabsenteeism,presenteesim,sickleaveandinjuryrates,staffcostsandscopeforimprovementAssesseffectsonstaffofsmoking,poorfoodchoices,lackofphysicalactivity...AssessstaffinterestinpersonalhealthstatusAssesscorporatedesiretoprovidebenefits

2

DepartmentofWater(WA)21

HealthandLifestyleprogram(2007)

Regularseminars;quarterlyhealthinitiatives;workplacehealthexposandcoordinatedevents;one‐on‐oneconsultationsintheworkplace;staffencouragedtoadopthealthbehaviours;nutritionaladviceandsupportforhealthyeating;‘ClimbtotheTop’stairclimbingchallenge;‘VirtualracearoundAustralia’;Annualvoluntaryhealthchecks

Positivequalitativefeedbackfromemployeesincluding:Anopportunityformeetingandsocialisingwithworkcolleagues;Goodincentivesandmotivationto‘getbacktoexercise’;Perceptionsofgoodimpactonmorale;Morealertandhealthyworkersbeingmoreproductive;Improvedemployeeperceptionsofmanagementconcernsforemployees.

2

*1=Workplaceprogram;2=Lifestyleprogram

19ACTGovernment(2012)20ActewAGL(2012)21HooperandBull(2009)

130

Organisationname

Typesofprograms

Focusareasofwellnessprogram/s

Programimpact/performanceindicators(returnoninvestment) Ongoing/futureplans *

Non‐resourcesectororganisations(continued)DepartmentofConsumerandEmploymentProtection(WA)22

‘WorkSafeWorkWell’pilotwellnessprogram

Arangeofwellnessinitiativesincluding:Lunchtimefitnessclasses,meditationsessionHealthyheartchecks

A‘comprehensiveevaluation’indicatedthatalargeproportionofthepilotcentre’sworkforce(WestCentre)hadparticipatedandtherewasconsiderableinterestforongoingparticipation.‘...employerseducate,encourage,andenablestafftoleadhealthier,activelifestyles.’

2

DepartmentofPoliceandEmergencyManagement(DPEM)23(TasmanianPolice)

ExertimeProgram(2010)SoupProgram

Improvehealthyeatinghabitsandphysicalactivitylevels

Measureddecreasesinbloodpressure,cholesterolandtriglyceridesReductioninnumberofmusculoskeletalcomplaintsandwork‐relatedsorenessReportedincreasesinphysicalandmentalhealth

2

King&WoodMallesons24(lawfirm)

Relax,revive,refresh

RaisingawarenessthroughseminarsHealthchecksandscreeningGymmembershipandonsiteclasses

Anecdotally,improvedstaffengagementandretention

2

22HooperandBull(2009)23DPEM(Tasmania)(n.d.)24King&WoodMallesons(2012)

131

Organisationname

Typesofprograms

Focusareasofwellnessprogram/s

Programimpact/performanceindicators(returnoninvestment) Ongoing/futureplans *

Non‐resourcesectororganisations(continued)Non‐resourcesectororganisations(continued)

Physicalactivity,participatingincommunityevents,mentalhealthawareness,promotinginterpersonalrelationships,varioushealthpromotionactivities/sessions

Monitoringoftrendsinhoursworked,absenteeism,worksatisfactionshowsimprovementsinallareas

2

NAB25 Mentalhealthawarenessprogram

Improvingwellbeingofindividualsandproductivityamongpeopleandworkplace

2

RamsayHealthCare26

Aworkplacehealthprogram(2002onwards)

Nutrition,smoking,exercise,healthpromotion,volunteerprograms

Datacollectedonstaffturnover,absenteeismandlosttimethroughinjuryshowimprovementsinallareas

2

StGeorgeBank27

Awellnessprogram

Linkedtodrivingemployeeengagementandhencepositiveeffectsonperformance

Onlinesurveys,stafffeedbackandparticipationrateswerebeingusedtomeasuretheprogram’simpact

2

SydneyWater28 Aworkplacehealthprogram

Exercise,smoking,generalhealthpromotion

Staffturnover(employees<oneyear’sservice)declinedfrom18%in2007‐08tofewerthan9%in2008‐09Absenteeismdeclinedfrom7.2daysofsickleavein2005‐06to5.9daysin2008‐09

2

25PricewaterhouseCoopers(2010)26RamsayHealthCare(n.d.)27PricewaterhouseCoopers(2010)28SydneyWater(n.d.)

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Organisationname

Typesofprograms

Focusareasofwellnessprogram/s

Programimpact/performanceindicators(returnoninvestment) Ongoing/futureplans *

Non‐resourcesectororganisations(continued)Synergetic29(softwareco.)

Aworkplacehealthprogram

Promotesphysicalactivity Nothingmeasured;positiveemployeefeedback

2

UnileverAustralia30

IgniteUProgram Physicalhealth(throughnutrientandexercisecomponents)andmentalhealth

Individualsareassessedafteraninitial6monthsintheprogram

2

UnisysAustralia31

LivingWell@Unisys(2007launch)

Targetedhydration,physicalactivity,nutritionandstrength&resilience(stressmanagement)

Employeesimprovedtheirhealthandwellbeingbyanaverageof5.7%Included11%improvementinstress8.8%improvementinriskbehaviour4.2%improvementinnutritionROIof$4.13:1inreducedabsenteeism;$17.5:1inreducedpresenteeism

2

UrbanContractors(civilworks)32

Ahealthandwellbeingprogram

Teamleadership,goalsettingandpersonaldevelopment

Difficulttomeasureasnobaselinedataandthisapproachhasalwaysbeenpartoftheculture

2

Vodophone33 vWell101 Personalhealthcoachingforemployeeswithhighhealthrisks

Overallhealth/wellbeingimprovedby18%(lowestcomponentwasimprovementinjobsatisfactionmeasuredat1.7%);selfreportedworkeffectivenessimprovedby5.7%;absencereducedby0.4daysperemployee(from10.8days);ROIwascalculatedat$8.111:1(inclGST)

2

*1=Workplaceprogram;2=Lifestyleprogram

29Synergetic(n.d.)30HealthCareAustraliaOnline(2010)31SpringboardHealthandPerformance(n.d.)32UrbanContractors(2012)33SpringboardHealthandPerformance(n.d.)

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Appendix11:Reportsdealingwithworkerturnoverandreplacement

A11.1NationalResourcesSectorEmploymentTaskforce(NRSET)

The federal government‐appointedNationalResources SectorEmploymentTaskforce(NRSET) commented in their 2010 final report that the probability of job separation(turnoverandreplacement)intheminingindustrywasrelativelyhighcomparedwithotherindustriesand,basedonanecdotaladvicereceivedinsubmissions, turnoverforNRWswashigherthanforotherworkers.A survey conducted by the NRSET asked companies questions about their annualturnoverratesoverthethreeyears2007‐09.TableA11.18isasummaryofresponsesfrom20companies.TableA11.18:Reportedemployeeturnover,2007‐091

Year Rangeofreportedturnover Mostcommonlyreportedannualturnover2007 0‐40% 5‐20%2008 1‐85% 20‐30%20092 40‐90% 5‐20%Clearlysectorturnoverratesvarysubstantially.OnelargeresourcescompanyadvisedtheTaskforcethatturnoverfor itsFIFOworkerswasdoublethatofotheremployees,upto30%ayear.Turnoverratesintheminingindustryareexacerbatedbytherecognisedageingof itsworkforce. In its submission to the NRSET, the federal government Department ofEducation,EmploymentandWorkplaceRelationsestimated7%ofthe2010workforcewouldretire fromthemining,oilandgassectorsoverthe fiveyearsto2015and6%over the next ten years.3 In total, around 16,000 were expected to retire by 2015,including 2,700 professionals. A NRSET trend analysis for major occupations in theresources sector pointed to an average gross replacement rate (thosewho leave thesector or retire) of around10%a year. Professionals –white collarworkers – had alowerratewhichimpliesahigherrateforbluecollarworkers.A11.2KineticGroup’sreportontheQueenslandminingindustry

Arguablyamoreinformativesource,albeitforQueenslandalone,istheKineticGroup’s2012AnnualWorkforceReportof theResources Industry.Thisprovidesananalysisofsurveyed workforce data from individuals representing 56% of that state’s miningindustry workforce during 2010‐11.4 The results are from 35,371 workers who

1NRSET(2010)2The2009valuesfor‘range’and‘mostcommonlyreported’werereversedintheNRSETreporttowhatisshownhere;thosevaluesappearedimprobable.

3NRSET(2010)4KineticGroup(2012)

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respondedtothesurvey.Most(69%)werecurrentemployeesasatJuly2011;17%hadlefttheirplaceofemploymentduring2010‐11;and14%werenewlyrecruitedduring2010‐11.The Kinetic Group’s analysis of survey results indicated the following for turnover(including those leaving the industry and retirements and thusmeaning separation)andretentioninQueensland’sminingindustry:

Annual turnover was 17% overall excluding contractors and 24.4% includingcontractors.

Of all separating employees, 18.4% left within the first 12 months ofemployment;estimatedcosttoindustrywas$30million.

Turnoverrateforlongtermemployers(withoverfiveyears’service)was16.5%;thisraisespotentialissuesofexperiencelossandrecruitmentchurn.

The turnover burden to industry was estimated at $140 million annually fordirectcostsofrecruitment,inductionandtraining.

Turnover for non‐resident workers, at 61.5%, was more than double that ofotheremployees.

IfthecoststotheQueenslandindustryareextrapolatedtothenationalindustryandthesameturnoverratesapplied,then(basedonABSMay2012labourworkforcestatistics)the turnover burden would be around $500 million annually for the direct costs ofrecruitment, induction and training alone. This does not account for indirect costsassociatedwithmanaginglossofskills,productivityandexperience.WithregardtoNRWs,thereportnotedthat:

Almostonethirdof‘current’employeeslivedmorethan300kmfromtheirplaceofwork.Theyseparatedattwicetherateofthosewholivedcloser.

ForecastssuggestthatNRWswillincreasebyupto5,000by2014. Anyadditionalminingworkforcecould compriseup to75%NRWs,with some

minesoptingfora100%non‐residentworkforce.Onreplacements(retireesandthoseexitingtheindustry):

Anestimated10,095employeeswereexpectedtoleavetheindustryoverthefiveyearsto2015.Thisrepresents21.4%ofallseparatingemployeesintheindustry.

Thismeans that 18.2%of employmentnumberswill need tobe replacedwithemployeesnewtotheindustrywhowillrequireeducationandtraining.

Workforcereplacementsarecontributingsignificantlytoindustrycosts.Onageandnewrecruits:

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The industry workforce is ageing, and new entrants to the industry are older

thantheexistingworkforce. Almostonethirdofnewrecruitsare50yearsorolder. 22% of employees are aged over 50 years with 3.2% over 60 years and

retirement‐eligible.Thereportfurtherpointedoutthat:

Highstaffturnoverisamajorrisktotheindustry’sfuturegrowth. High staff turnover represents a significant tangible cost to organisations in

termsofrecruitment,inductionandtrainingcosts. There are also less tangible costs associated with managing loss of skills,

productivityandexperience.A11.3Other(dated)turnoversurveyresults

A2003reportonWorkforceTurnover inFIFOMiningOperations inAustraliabyBeachet al.5 presented findings from a study ofworkforce turnover in a sample of remotemining operations in Australia. In this study, ‘turnover’ referred to any employeemovement that created a vacancy on site. The study did not include contractors asturnoveramongthiscohortofworkers–mostlikelyhigherthanforothers–wasnotregularlymonitored,possiblydueinparttothedifficultyintrackingsuchmovements.The study found that therewas substantial variation in turnover rates between andwithinFIFOminesites(aswasalsosuggestedinthe2010NRSETreport).Ratesrangedfrom10%to28%,withanaverageof21%.Thisoutcomewasslightlygreaterthanthe2012KineticGroupsurveyresultsof17%forQueenslandbutbelowthe24.4%whencontractedworkerswereincluded.Itislikelythat,ifcontractorshadbeenincludedintheBeachetal.(2003)analysis,theturnoverratewouldhavebeengreater.A2002surveyoftheWesternAustralianmineralsindustrybytheMiningOccupationalSafetyandHealthAdvisoryBoardfoundthattheaveragelengthofserviceatmineswas5.1yearswhichindicatesanaverageannualturnoverrateatthetimeof19.6%inthatstate’smines.6Itseems,therefore,thatallresultssuggestturnoverratesofatleast20%butupto60%andmorethandoubletheaveragesforotherindustries.Overthepastdecade,turnoverrateshaveseeminglyincreased.Beachetal.(2003)commentedthattherewasgeneralconsensus among mine managers that a turnover rate in excess of 20% wasdetrimentaltositeproductivity.Itseemsmostlikely,therefore,thatproductivitycosts

5Beachetal.(2003)6Beachetal.(2003)

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atmanyminesitesaredamageddue toemployee turnover.These less tangiblecostsareinadditiontorecruitment,inductionandtrainingcostsofreplacementemployees.

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Appendix12: Impactsofillnesses

A12.1Presenteeism

Thecostofpresenteeism–thecostofnotfullyfunctioningatworkbecauseofmedicalconditions – is estimated to be almost four times the more readily measured butsubstantialcostofabsenteeisminAustralia.1Medibank’sreportonthecostofpresenteeismto theAustralianeconomy in2009‐10aresummarisedas:

thetotalcostwas$34.1billion(from$25.7billionin2005‐06); onaverage,6.5workingdaysofproductivitywerelostperemployeeannuallyas

aresultofpresenteeism;and presenteeismequatedtoa2.7%decreasein2010GDP.2

Presenteeism for themining industry has not been separately costed. Estimating theminingindustry’scontributioncannotsimplybeachievedbyapportionmentbasedonnumber of workers. In the first instance, numbers directly employed cannot bedeterminedfrompublisheddata.Althoughemploymentinminingdoubledoverthelastfiveyears(to259,200full‐timeworkers),thisrepresentedonly3.2%oftheAustralianworkforce.3Thesestatistics,however,needfurtherclarification.Onlyextractionworkfromoperatingmines,somesupportactivitiesandexplorationarecountedunder theANZSIC mining industry classification. Workers for construction, surveying,transportation,processing,out‐sourcedplantmaintenanceandworkcampoperationsincludingmanagement,cateringandsecurityarenotincluded.4Ifaratioofoneminingindustryworkertooneminingactivityrelatedworkerisused–as was recently applied by KPMG5 – then resource sector workers would representaround6.5%of the totalAustralianworkforce. Applying the average6.5days of lostproductivityperworkerdue topresenteeismequates toaround3.4milliondays lostperannumwithintheresourcessector.Secondly, some of the main causes (such as unhealthy lifestyles and poor work‐lifebalance) are recognised as being especially problematic for workers within theindustry.A largemajorityofminingactivityrelatedworkersare thought tobeNRWswiththepotentialforattendantlifestylechallengesand,arguably,agreaterpropensityfornegativelyaffectingproductivity throughpresenteeism.Consequently, thenumberofworkingdaysofproductivitylostperworkercouldbegreaterthantheaverageof6.5

1PricewaterhouseCoopers(2010)2Medibank(2011)3ABSCat.No.6192.04McIntosh(2012)5KPMG(2013)

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days.Moreover,speculationthattheminingindustry’s‘share’ofthe$34billioncostofpresenteeismcouldhavebeenatleast$2billionin2009‐10appearsreasonable.A12.2Mentalillnessandstress

Stress‐relatedworkerscompensationclaims inAustraliadoubled from2004 to2008.Excessive work hours, noise, health and safety risks and high workforce turnover –arguably issues associated with working in the mining industry – are among thosefactorsgivenasexamplesoftypesofworkplacestressors.6Becausestresscanimpactonemployeeproductivity:

workplacestressiscostingtheAustralianeconomy$14.81billionayear; stress‐related to presenteeism and absenteeism are directly costing the

Australianemployers$10.11billionayear;and 3.2daysperworkerarelosteachyearthroughworkplacestress.7

On the basis of the somewhat dated estimates given above, the mining industry inAustralia could be expected to be experiencing significant costs due to employeesexperiencing workplace stress. Using the assumptions outlined above, this couldamounttoaround1.7billionworkerdayslostperyearandanestimatedcost(in2008dollars)ofabout$1billion.Asnotedaboveandelsewhere inthiscurrentreview,mental illnessandstress in theworkplace isassociatedwithexcessivehoursandshiftwork. Indeed,recognition thatexceeding a 48‐hour working week presents as danger to psychological andphysiological health is receiving growing support.8 A recent study of workers in theQueenslandminingindustryfoundthatwellbeingwasworseamongthosewith:

nosayoverhoursorshifts; thosewhowantedtoworkfewerhours;and particularlythosewhowereinbothcategories.9

Additionally,thestudyfoundthatuseofanti‐depressants,sleepingtabletsandantacidswereidentifiedasaproxyformentalwellbeing.A12.3 ‘Minor’illnessesofworkersinQueensland’sminingindustry

Arecent studybyPeetzetal. (2012)whichaddressed the influenceofhoursworkedandshiftpatternsonminingandenergyworkers in theQueenslandresourcessector(summarisedinPartI,subsection1.2.3)isreturnedtohere.ThisreferstoWave1ofa

6MedibankPrivate(2008)7MedibankPrivate(2008)8Peetzetal.(2012)9Peetzetal.(2012)

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proposedlongitudinalstudy.ResultsfromWave2couldbeexpectedtomakeafurthercontribution towards causations of ill‐health and workplace health and safetyimplications.FortheminingindustryinQueensland,ameasurementoftheimpactoflongshiftsandminimalornocontroloverhoursworkedhasbeenattemptedinthisrecentresearchbyPeetz et al. (2012). Looking atminor short‐term illnesses such asheadaches, flu andabdominalpain:

Number of minor short‐term illnesses reported by respondents increased astheirperceivedlevelsofemotionalexhaustionincreased.

Short‐term illnesses were also reported more commonly by employees whowereconcernedaboutsafetyatwork.

Short‐term health problemswere reported higher amongworkerswhowouldprefer,allotherthingsbeingequal,togiveupworkingshiftsandgetaday‐timejob.

Thosewhoreportedhavingnosayovertheirhoursreportedanaverageof1.83illnesses,1.15 timesmore than theaverageof1.59among thosewhoreportedhavinggreatersay.

Workerswhowanted towork fewerhours reported an average of 1.85 short‐termillnesses,1.14timesmorethanthe1.61amongstthosewhowerecontentwiththenumberofhourstheywereworking.

Amongstthosewhowantedtoworkfewerhoursandclaimednosayovertheirhours,theaveragenumberofshort‐termillnesseswasashighas1.98.10

Number of short‐term illnesses reported by respondents increased as theirperceivedlevelsofemotionalexhaustionincreased.

It hasbeenestablished that gastro‐intestinalproblems are themostprevalenthealthcomplaint associatedwith shift and nightwork.11 This research claims a causal roleassociatedwith employees having a say inworking arrangements for these types ofillnesses.Basedon these findings, costsofminor illnesses couldbeestimatedbyorganisationswithreferencetotheirHRsummaryrecordsofabsenteeismthroughillnessandtheirworkforcearrangementsforemployees.

10Peetzetal.(2012)11Peetzetal.(2012)

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