C -1 AN I WETLANDS · developed in riparian zones, river deltas and savannah areas. Due to captured precipitation for fishpond aquaculture in the catchment areas and rice-farms occupying

Flora of Coastal Wetlands

Environmental Management & Policy Research Institute 1

CHAPTER-1

AN INTRODUCTION TO WETLANDS

Wetlands are defined as ‘lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic eco-systems

where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow

water’ Wetlands provide many services and commodities to humanity. Each wetland is

ecologically unique. They perform important functions in any landscape and are often

described as “kidneys of the landscape” (Mitch and Gosselink, 1986).

The wetlands of Karnataka are classified into inland and coastal categories, both natural and

man-made. Natural inland wetlands include lakes, ox-bow lakes, and marshes/swamps.

Man-made inland wetlands include reservoirs and tanks. Natural coastal wetlands include

estuaries, creeks, mudflats, mangroves and marshes. Man-made coastal wetlands include

salt pans Wetlands cover about 2.72 million ha, of which inland wetlands cover about 2.54

million ha and coastal wetlands cover 0.18 million ha. The area of 682 wetlands, scattered

throughout the state of Karnataka, is about 2718 sq km.

The fresh water ponds are very few along the coast, barring few medium to large ones in

advanced stages of silting, and a number of small ones where water dries up in summer or

only very little remains, many temple ponds being exceptions. Salinity tolerant species,

mainly sedges (members of Cyperaceae), some grasses, Sphenoclea, Hygrophila,

Alternanthera sessilis, Bacopa monnieri etc. persist in and around the brackish water

wetlands. Of the notable salinity tolerant sedges are Cyperus corymbosus, C. malaccensis,

Eleocharis dulcis, E. spiralis, Fimbristylis ferruginea, F. littoralis, Mariscus javanicus,

Pycreus polystachyos etc.

1.1 Kinds of wetlands: Wetlands observed during the present survey consist the

following:

1. Rice fields (both fresh water and brackish water or gazni fields)

2. Abandoned rice fields – due to brackish water ingression

3. Coastal marshes (seasonal and perennial)

4. Mangroves, estuaries, creeks, mudflats

5. Ponds/lakes

6. Reservoirs

7. Rock pools, ditches, quarries

8. Streams and rivers

9. Canals

1.2 Importance of wetlands: Wetlands play an essential part in the regulation of river

flow, they filter pollutants, acts as buffer shorelines against erosion and fertilizers and they

are spawning zones for some species of fish. Wetlands are vital to the balance of rivers and

crucial for supporting high diversity of animal and vegetable species, can only be preserved

through political resolve. They should not be merely abandoned but properly managed like

other areas.

1.3 Area under wetlands: India

According to the Directory of Indian Wetlands, India has 58.2 million ha of wetlands,

including area under wet paddy cultivation. The majority of the inland wetlands are directly

or indirectly dependent on the major rivers like Ganga, Brahmaputra, Narmada, Godavari,



Krishna, Kaveri and Tapti. Wetlands occur in all parts of India, including in Rajasthan and

Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Prasad et al., 2003).

Table 1. Area estimates of wetlands of India (in million ha)

Sl.

No.

Activity Area (in

million ha)

1 Area under paddy cultivation 40.9

2 Area suitable for fish culture 3.6

3 Area under capture fisheries (brackish and freshwater) 2.9

4 Mangroves 0.4

5 Estuaries 3.9

6 Backwater 3.5

7 Man-made impoundments 3.0

Total area of wetlands 58.2

(Source: Directory of Asian Wetlands, IUCN, 1989)

Grouping of Indian wetlands

I. Himalayan wetlands

II. Indo-Gangetic wetlands

III. Coastal wetlands

IV. Deccan wetlands

(Prasad et al., 2003)

1.4 Wetlands of Karnataka

The wetlands of Karnataka are classified into inland and coastal categories, both natural and

man-made. Natural inland wetlands include lakes, ox-bow lakes, and marshes/swamps.

Man-made inland wetlands include reservoirs and tanks. Natural coastal wetlands include

estuaries, creeks, mudflats, mangroves and marshes. Man-made coastal wetlands include

salt pans Wetlands cover about 2.72 million ha, of which inland wetlands cover about 2.54

million ha and coastal wetlands cover 0.18 million ha. The area of 682 wetlands, scattered

throughout the state of Karnataka, is about 2718 sq km (Ramachandra, 2005).

As such there has been no comprehensive account of the wetlands of coastal Karnataka,

except mangroves. The kinds of wetlands observed during the present survey are the

following:

10. Rice fields (both fresh water and brackish water or gazni fields)

11. Abandoned rice fields – due to brackish water ingression

12. Coastal marshes (seasonal and perennial)

13. Mangroves, estuaries, creeks, mudflats

14. Ponds/lakes

15. Reservoirs

16. Rock pools, ditches, quarries

17. Streams and rivers

18. Canals

1.5 Value of wetlands

Retain water during dry periods, thus keeping the water table high and relatively

stable.



Mitigate floods and trap suspended solids and attached nutrients. Thus streams

flowing into lakes by way of wetland areas will transport fewer suspended solids than

if they flow directly into lakes.

Recycling of nutrients

Purification of water

Maintenance of stream flow

Recharge of groundwater

Important feeding and breeding areas for wildlife and fish and provide a stopping

place and refuge for waterfowls.

Wetlands support high diversity of species

Buffer shorelines against erosion

Offer recreation to society

(Prasad et al., 2003)

1.6 Threats to wetlands

Wetlands are one of the most threatened habitats of the world. Wetlands in India, as

elsewhere are increasingly facing several anthropogenic pressures. Prasad et al. (2003),

quoting different sources, find various reasons for Acute and Chronic wetland losses. The

following are the various reasons for wetland losses:

Agricultural conversion

Deforestation in wetlands

Hydrological alteration

Alteration of upper watersheds

Degradation of water quality

Ground water depletion

Species introductions

1.6.1 Acute wetland losses

1. Agricultural conversion: Rice farming is a wetland dependent activity and is

developed in riparian zones, river deltas and savannah areas. Due to captured

precipitation for fishpond aquaculture in the catchment areas and rice-farms

occupying areas that are not wetlands, the downstream natural wetlands are deprived

of water. About 1.6 million ha of freshwater are covered by fresh water fishponds in

India. Rice fields and fishponds come under wetlands, but they rarely function like

natural wetlands. Of the estimated 58.2 million ha of wetlands in India, 40.9 million

ha are under rice cultivation

2. Deforestation in wetlands: Farming in mangrove areas and fisheries production,

particularly shrimp farming, have destroyed considerable area under mangroves. The

shrimp farms also cause excessive withdrawal of freshwater and increased pollution

load on water.

3. Hydrological alteration: The changes in hydrology include either the removal of

water from wetlands or raising the land-surface elevation, such that it no longer

floods. Substantial increase in irrigated farming in recent times, after an initial

increase in crop productivity, has given way to reduced to fertility and salt

accumulation in soil due to irrigated farming in arid soils.

4. Inundation by dammed reservoirs: More than 1550 large reservoirs covering

more than 1.45 million ha and over 100,000 small and medium reservoirs covering

1.1 million ha in India significantly affect hydrology and wetland ecosystems.



1.6.2 Chronic wetland losses

1. Alteration of upper watersheds: When agriculture, deforestation or overgrazing

removes soil water-holding capacity, erosion becomes more pronounced, affecting

the hydrology with adverse consequences on downstream wetlands.

2. Degradation of water quality: Water quality is directly proportional to the human

population and its various activities. More than 50,000 small and large lakes are

polluted to the point of being considered ‘dead’. Sewage, industrial pollution, and

chemicals from agricultural runoff are major polluting factors.

3. Ground water depletion: Draining wetlands has depleted ground water recharge in

numerous localities of India.

4. Species introductions: Wetlands in India support around 2400 species and

subspecies of birds. But losses in habitats due to exotic weeds such as water

hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and Salvinia have threatened the wetlands,

competing with native vegetation.

1.7 Conservation of wetlands

Wetland conservation in India is indirectly influenced by various legislative measures, the

important ones are noted below:

The Indian Fisheries Act, 1857

The Indian Forest Act, 1927

Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972

Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 & 1977

Territorial Water, Continental Shelf, Exclusive Economic Zone and other Marine

Zones Act, 1976

Forest (Conservation) Act, 1986

Coastal Zone Regulation Notification, 1991

Wildlife (protection) Amendment Act, 1991

National Policy and Macro Level Action Strategy on Biodiversity, 1990.

India is also a signatory to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands and the Convention on

Biological Diversity.

Lacuna: None of the coastal wetlands of Karnataka has so far met the criteria for

consideration under The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. Of the many wetlands in India,

only 68 are protected. But there are thousands of other wetlands that are biologically and

economically important but have no legal status. Estuaries of the Karnataka coast come

under the most threatened category of wetlands (Prasad et al., 2003). Indeed an action plan

needs to be prepared specially for the wetlands of coastal Karnataka because of their

heterogeneity and species richness, despite the heavy population and development pressures

the region is subjected to. Moreover, efforts have to be made to integrate even small

wetlands of varied nature, in a conservation network.



Figure 2.1. Hygrophila schulli Figure 2.2. Alternanthera sessilis

Figure 2.3. Epaltes divaricata

Figure 2.4. Sphaeranthus indicus

Figure 2.5. Ipomoea fistulosa

Figure 2.6. Cyperus haspan



References

1. IUCN, 1989. In: Scott, D.A. (ed) A Directory of Asian Wetlands, IUCN. Gland and

Cambridge.

2. Mitchel, D.S. and Gopal, B. 1990. Aquatic plant invasions in tropical fresh waters.

In: Ramakrishnan, P.S. (ed) Biological Invasions in the Tropics. International

Scientific Publications, New Delhi.

3. Mitsch, W.J. and Gosselink, J.G. 1986. Wetlands. Van Nostrand-Reinhold, New

York.

4. Prasad, S.N., Sengupta, T., Kumar, A., Vijayan, V.S., Vijayan, L., Ramachandra,

T.V., Ahalya, N., and Tiwari, A.K. 2003. Wetlands of India. In: Venkataraman, K.

(ed) Natural Aquatic Ecosystems of India, Thematic Biodiversity Strategy and

Action Plan, The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, India. Zoological

Survey of India, Chennai, pp.6-25.

5. Ramachandra, T.V. 2005. Aquatic ecosystems: conservation, restoration and

management. In Ramachandra, T.V., Ahalya, N and Murthy, C.R. (eds) Aquatic

Ecosystems: Conservation, Restoration and Management. Capital Publishing Co.,

New Delhi, pp. 26-50.



CHAPTER-2

FLORA OF THE WETLANDS OF COASTAL KARNATAKA

Under the present study undertaken along the coastal Karnataka for wetland flora, the

mangroves have been studied separately, as a category by itself, and not included in the

description of wetland species in this report. The rheophytic or river vegetation forms yet

another category and is also not dealt with here. The other kinds of coastal wetlands have

been surveyed in chosen representative localities covering all the taluks of the coast as well

as representing the heterogeneity. In fact the study was carried out as one time visit to each

locality and therefore is not a full account the wetland flora. One needs to make at least two

years of continuous efforts to prepare a full account of the wetland flora of the coast.

The flowering plants of the wetlands number over 255 species belonging to 40 families. In

addition are at least 7 pteridophytes, which are ferns and their allies. The details of the

family-wise species surveyed and their occurrence in coastal taluks are given in the next

chapter. In the present chapter notable species of the wetlands are briefly described.

2.1 Species of Wetlands

Sl.

No.

Family description Species description

1 Acanthaceae Hygrophila ringens (Syn: H. quadrivalvis): Annual to perennial

herb, Stems creeping and erect, reaching almost 1m height.

Elliptical obovate leaves, 2.5-8 cm long. Sometimes margins

crenate. Flowers in axillary whorls. Petals white with pink lines or

almost pink. Stamens 4. Fruit capsule with 8-12 seeds.

Gregarious in shallow wetlands and on stream banks.

Hygrophila schulli: Perennial rigid herbs with opposite, narrow,

lanceolate leaves and 6 strong thorns at each node. There are also

smaller axillary leaves. Flowers in axillary whorls; petals blue,

purple, rarely pink or white. Stamens 4. Fruit a capsule with 4-8

seeds (Figure 2.1)

Very common along edges of water bodies. The plant has diuretic

properties.

2 Alismaceae Wiesneria triandra: Annual herbs growing gregariously, fully or

partly submerged. Leaves in a cluster; petioles 15-60 cm long, often

spongy, bearing linear to lanceolate blade 9-16 cm long, 4-10 m wide.

Inflorescence a spike; floral axis shorter to leaves. Flowers nearly

stalkless in 5-8 whorls; the lower 2-3 whorls female; upper male or

sterile. Sepals and petals small. Stamens 3, carpels 3-4. Fruits hard

nutlets.

Rare: At Delanthabettu and Pannagiri wetlands of Mangalore taluk;

seasonal laterite rock pools of Kumta. Endemic to Southwest India.

3 Amaranthaceae Alternanthera sessilis: Spreading herb. Leaves elliptic, linear to

lanceolate. Flowers white, sessile in axillary clusters; with scaly

perianth and single seed (Figure 2.2)

Throughout the coastal Karnataka along the edges of wetlands and in

sandy places, sometimes in waterlogged places. Used as vegetable

and in medicines.

4 Amaryllidaceae Crinum viviparum: Perennial herbs with onion like bulbs. Leaves

partly or fully submerged, basal, linear, thick and fleshy.

Inflorescence umbellate on the tip of a fleshy scape. Flowers white; 3

+ 3 perianth, lobes linear; stamens 6; filaments red or purple.



Sl.

No.


Found in clear water; Kolnadu of Mulki taluk; at Malvuru of

Mangalore taluk. Rare: Endemic to Indian sub-continent.

5 Apiaceae Centella asiatica: A perennial prostrate, aromatic herb in wet places,

spreading by runners. Leaves from nodes in clusters, each on a long

petiole, 5 to 10 cm or longer. Leaf blade reniform. Flowers small in

umbels.

Widespread in shaded places; plants can withstand waterlogging.

Leaves used as potherb and medicinal.

6 Araceae Colocasia esculenta: Rhizomatous, gregarious herb. Petioles long,

leaf blade sagittate, large, upto 40 cm long, 30 cm wide. Flowers in

yellow to orange spadix.

In marshy places; tubers and leaves used as vegetables.

Cryptocoryne spiralis: Rhizomatous, perennial herb; rhizomes up

to 1 cm thick, 30 cm long. Leaves with petioles 5-8 cm long,

sheathing below; leaf blade elongate, elliptical, linear 10-20 cm

long. Inflorescence spadix; tip of spathe narrow, long and twisted.

In shallow wetlands, on wet soil. Widely distributed. Endemic to

Southwest India.

Pistia stratiotes: Free floating herb with spreading balancing roots

and rosettes of wedge shaped leaves, densely covered with hairs,

parallel veined. Inflorescence a small spadix.

Found in Nandanvana, Uppunda, Byndore. Spreads fast in water

bodies by offsets. Medicinaly used.

7 Asteraceae Eclipta prostrata (Kan, San: Bhringaraj). Prostrate to erect herb.

Leaves 1-6 cm long, opposite, toothed at margin. Flower heads

white.

Throughout the coast, in varied habitats including around wetlands

Epaltes divaricata: Small erect herb with coarsely dentate leaves,

winged stem and head inflorescences with pink to purple flowers

(Figure 2.3).

Widespread along the coast, can withstand waterlogging.

Sphaeranthus africanus: Annual herb with erect stem, lobed simple

leaves, dentate on margins, decurrent at base into wings along the

stem. Inflorescence head of heads, somewhat conical.

Coastal wetlands

Sphaeranthus indicus: Closely related to previous one but with

spinulose margins and globose inflorescence (Figure 2.4).

Vernonia cinerea: (Kan, San: Sahadevi): An erect annual herb with

ribbed, hairy stem. Leaves 1.5 to 6 cm long, with short petioles.

Flower heads pinkish violet, arranged in corymbs. Achenes with

white pappus.

Throughout the coast along edges of wetlands, in moist places, sea

beaches.

8 Campanulaceae Lobelia alsinoides: Small annual herb with prostrate and erect 3 sided,

3 winged stem, alternate, sessile, broadly ovate leaves, solitary bluish

white to violet flowers. Fruit capsule with 3 angled seeds.

Abundant in wet places.

9 Commelinaceae Amiscophacelus axillaris: A herb with fleshy stem, prostrate with

ascending branches, rooting at nodes. Leaves sessile, up t0 8 cm

long, linear lanceolate. Flowers blue-purple in axillary fascicles

arising from leaf sheath. Fruit a capsule with glossy dark brown

seeds.



Sl.

No.


Found all over moist soils and in marshy places, not common.

Medicinal.

Murdannia nudiflora: Herb with prostrate and erect stems;

branchlets reddish. Leaf sheaths glabrous with hairy margins. Leaf

blades linear below, lanceolate above. Flowers in cymes with scale

like bracts. Flowers with blue or pinkish petals; filaments with long

blue hairs. Capsule 3 sided, 3 chambered; seeds 2 in one row.

In wet places, grassy places and gardens

Others: Murdannia semiteres (rare: at Prabhatnagar, Honavar). M.

spirata (rare: Amdalli beach, Ankola). M. vaginata (rare: Katapadi,

Udupi); M. versicolor (rare: Thondemakki, Byndoor)

10 Convolvulaceae Ipomoea fistulosa: A shrubby plant with hollow stems. Stems swell

when in water. Leaves ovate with tapering apex. Flowers large,

showy, funnel shaped, in axillary cymes. Fruit a capsule with 4 hairy

seeds (Figure 2.5).

Seen on the margins of wetlands; on dry lands and rocks; both fresh

and brackish water. Flowering throughout the year. A weed from

South America.

11 Cyperaceae Cyperus compressus: Annual with tufted culms; height 10-40 cm;

stems smooth 3-sided. Leaves with reddish-brown sheaths.

Involucral racts 2-5, unequal, the lowest overtopping the

inflorescence, up to 30 cm long. Inflorescence simple or compound;

spikes with digitate or racemose spikelets. Glumes large with

silvery margins. Stamens 3. Nuts 3-sided, dark brown to blackish.

Wet places, roadsides, in variety of habitats.

Cyperus cuspidatus: Annual with solitary or tufted stems. Leaves

do not exceed stem in length. Involucral bracts 3-6, lowest

overtopping inflorescence 2-8cm long. Inflorescence with 1 sessile

and 1-3 stalked spikelet clusters. Spikelets digitately or stellately

arranged. Glumes ending in recurved awns.

Wetlands, edges of wetlands

Cyperus difformis: A tufted annual with reddish-purple roots,

trigonous stem, up to 40 cm high. Leaves few, equal or nearly so to

the stem. Involucral bracts 2-3, longer than inflorescence.

Inflorescence a terminal cluster of stalked spikes; each spike

globose, with numerous spikelets. Easily identified by orbicular

glumes. Nuts yellowish-brown, trigonous.

Common in shallow parts of wetlands, in clumps

Cyperus haspan: Perennial or annual. rhizomatous. Culms up to 80

cm, at the base surrounded by bladeless reddish sheaths (Figure

2.6).

Cyperus pilosus: Perennial with stolon like rhizomes. Culms

solitary, 25-85 cm or more tall, triangular. Leaves shorter or longer

than stem; blades channelled below, flat towards tip. Involucral

bracts 3-5, unequal, lower ones overtopping inflorescence, up to 50

cm long. Inflorescence simple or compound, spikelets straw

coloured, tinged with red-brown. Stamens 3, nuts dark brown, 3

sided.

Wetlands and seasonally flooded places.

Cyperus tenuispica: Usually annual with slender, weak, solitary or

tufted culms, 5-40 cm tall. Leaves present. Spikelets arranged



Sl.

No.


digitately or stellately; culm leaves with blades; glumes without

silvery margins; spikelets not in spherical clusters. Nuts white and

visible between glumes.

In seasonal or perennial wetlands.

Eleocharis acutangula: A perennial with rhizome and spreading by

stolons. Stems spongy, triangular, upto 80 cm high, 2 to 6 mm

thick. Leaves absent; leaf sheaths membranous with oblique mouth.

Spikelets cylindrical, terminal, with overlapping glumes. Nuts

biconvex, dark brown.

Common in wetlands.

Eleocharis atropurpurea: Tufted annual with slender, glabrous

stem, up to 15 cm high. Spikelets terminal, single, oblong ovoid;

nuts biconvex, shining black.

Widespread in wetlands.

Eleocharis dulcis: A rhizomatous perennial, with long stolons.

Stems up to 1.5 m high, rounded outline, with longitudinal

striations and conspicuous transverse septa. Leaf sheaths

membranous with oblique apex, purplish. Spikelets terminal, up to

5 cm long, cylindrical, nuts biconvex, shining brown.

Gregarious in wetlands

Eleocharis geniculata: Annual, growing in clumps. Culms slender

but rigid, variable in height up to 40 cm. Almost spherical head of

straw coloured spikelets; perianth bristles purplish grey. Nuts dark

smooth, biconvex. Lower 2 glumes large and covering the fertile

glumes in bud. Styles 2-cleft, style base conical.

In wetlands growing in clumps in fresh and brackish water.

Eleocharis retroflexa: Annual with tufted filiform, curved culms,

deeply 5 ribbed; usually not exceeding 15 cm height. Spikelets

ovoid to globose, wider than culms; glumes loose; styles 3-cleft,

nuts 3 sided with pitted surface.

Gregarious in shallow water; but grow outside wetlands also.

Eleocharis spiralis: Perennial with short rhizome and creeping

stolons. Culms densely tufted, solid, 3-angled above. Spikelets

cylindrical, tapering above, as wide or narrower than culms; glumes

without keels. Perianth bristles equal to nut.

Wetlands including brackish water.

Fimbristylis acuminata: Perennial with short rhizomes. Nuts with

5-8 transverse ridges; cauline leaves reduced to sheaths.

Inflorescence of single spikelets.

In muddy places, marshes, rice fields.

Fimbristylis bisumbellata: Annual with densely tufted 3-sided

culms. Inflorescence paniculate; glumes ovate to orbicular. Stigmas

2, styles flat. Nuts not parallel sided, with 5-9 longitudinal stripes

on either surface.

Edge of wetlands, ricefields.

Fimbristylis ferruginea: Gregariously growing perennial. Woody

rhizome, tufted, striate, flattened culms, less than a meter in height.

Leaves basal, cauline. Inflorescence of several stalked, simple or

compound heads. Glumes ovate to orbicular, upper part pubescent.

Stigmas 2, styles flat, Nuts flattened, not parallel sided, without

transverse ridges (Figure 2.7).

Marshy places and brackish water.

Fimbristylis littoralis: Perennial with short rhizome. Stem round,



Sl.

No.


narrow towards apex, up to 120 cm. Leaves reduced to sheaths.

Inflorescence appears lateral because of a bract that appears like

continuation of stem. Nuts unequally biconvex, blackish.

Abundant in brackish water wetlands.

Fimbristylis shoenoides: Short lived with densely tufted,

filamentous culms, less than 50 cm height. Leaf sheaths

membranous; leaf blades narrow, shorter than culms. Inflorescence

of 1 terminal spikelet, with or without lateral spikelets. Glumes

ovate to orbicular. Stigmas 2, style flattened. Nuts not parallel

sided, flattened, smooth.

Wet places, grassy places, rice fields.

Fimbristylis tetragona: Annual, rarely perennial. Culms tufted, less

than 50 cm long, 4 angled to 4 winged. Leaves reduced to sheaths.

Nuts oblong to cylindrical, greater part parallel sided. Inflorescence

of a single terminal spikelt.

Shallow part of wetlands, rice fields, drains.

Fuirena ciliaris: Annual, Slender, tufted, unbranched culms, 3 or 5

sided below inflorescence; striate, hairy; leaf sheaths hairy, leaf

blades flat, very hairy. Spikelets simple, rounded, not flattened; at

least upper glumes arranged spirally. Flowers bisexual. Perianth

scales with 3-minute teeth, the central the longest. Styles not

constricted or swollen at base.

Forming small clumps or tufts in wetlands, rice fields etc.

Fuirena umbellata: Similar to previous, but larger and perennial;

rhizome with 5-angled culm. Perianth scales not stalked; perianth

apex square with the midrib slightly protruding.

Wetlands, rice fields.

Lipocarpha chinensis: Annual or perennial. Culms tufted, not

exceeding 80 cm, 0.5 to 2 mm thick. Leaf blades flat, reaching half

of stem. Inflorescence terminal, head like. Spikelets simple; glumes

arranged spirally on the rachilla. Flowers bisexual. Style not

constricted at base.

Mariscus javanicus:Rrough perennial sedge, growing in large

clumps, reaching almost 1 m or more. (Figure 2.8); also near

brackish water.

Occasional in wetlands, rice fields. Mulki and Byndoor.

Pycreus polystachyos: Plants with or without rhizomes. Tufted,

erect culms, 20-70 cm tall, 1-3 mm thick, smooth, 3-sided. Leaves

few, shorter than culm, with somewhat flat blades. Inflorescence

panicle, surrounded by 3-5 bracts. Spikelets digitate, flattened.

Spikelets falling entire from the rachis at maturity. Glumes

arranged in 2 rows with bisexual flowers in the axils. Stigmas 3.

In a variety of wetland habitats, including brackish water wetlands.

Pycreus sanguinolentus: Annual or perennial with tufted culms.

Leafy in the basal parts. Leaf sheath yellowish, tinged with reddish-

brown. Involucral bracts 2-5, lower ones overtopping inflorescence.

Inflorescence of few stalked spikes, or contracted into a dense head.

Nuts biconvex, laterally flattened with isodiametric markings on

surface.

Common in wetlands

Shoenoplectus articulatus: Annual or perennial; stems up to 80 cm

high, circular, tapering towards apex, transversely septate. Leaves

reduced to basal sheaths. Inflorescence a large, sessile head of



Sl.

No.


ovoid spikelets, laterally near the base of the stem. Nuts trigonous,

black.

Widespread.

Shoenoplectus lateriflorus: Annual; tufted stems, 6 cm high. Leaf

sheath with or without a short blade. Spikelts in sessile clusters

towards the tip, but appear lateral because of a bract that appears

like continuation of stem. Nuts black (Figure 2.9).

Common in wetlands.

Other species: Bulbostylis puberula (at Prabhatnagar, Honavar)

(Cyperus cuspidatus -rare- at Karwar), C. elatus, C. iria, C.

malaccensis, C. procerus, C. rotundus, C. stoloniferus, Fimristylis

aestivalis, F. argentea, F. crystalline, F. dauciformis (rare- at

Karwar); F. dichotoma, F. hirsutifolia, F. microcarpa, F. monticola

(Jalvalli, Honavar), F. pubisquama, F. woodrowii, Fuirena uncinata,

Kyllinga brevifolia, Mariscus compactus, Pycreus flavidus, P.

macrostachyos, P. pumilus, P. stramineus, Rhynchospora wightiana,

Shoenoplectus subulatus,

12 Droseraceae Drosera burmanni: Small insectivorous herbs with basal rosettes of

leaves, which have spoon like leaves, reddish-green colour. Leaves

bear sensitive, sticky, gland tipped tentacles. Inflorescence from

condensed stem.

In permanently wet soils. Rare. Arasamikere, Honavar.

13 Elatinaceae Bergia capensis: Annual or perennial herbs. Stems erect or creeping,

rooting at nodes, red or pink. Leaves stipulate, sessile, blades 1.5-5

cm long, serrate, toothed. Flowers in dense axillary spikes. Sepals 5,

petals 5, white or pink. Stmaens 15 or less. Capsules globose, opening

by valves. Seeds numerous, curved.

Towards edges of wetlands.

14 Eriocaulaceae Eriocaulon spp. Perennial or annual. Stems simple. Leaves spiral

without petioles, in rosettes, or cauline; filiform in submerged forms.

Scapes simple, often twisted, enclosed at the base by a tubular sheath,

sometimes exceeding the leaves. Inflorescence a dense head

surrounded by involucre. Flowers male and female in the same head,

each with a floral bract, hairy towards the tip. Stamens 4 or 6. Ovary

2-3 loculed; stigmas 2-3. Fruit a capsule. Many wetland species found

in the genus.

Eriocaulon cuspidatum: Endemic to South-west India (Figure 2.10).

Eriocaulon dalzelli: Endemic to west coast

Eriocaulon eurypeplon: Endemic to South-west India

Eriocaulon heterolepis : Endemic to western India

Eriocaulon lanceolatum: Endemic to South-west India

Eriocaulon richardianum: Endemic to South-west India

Others: Eriocaulon cinereum (Figure 2.11), E. odoratum, E.

quinqangulare, E. setaceum, E. sexangulare (Figure 2.16), E.

xeranthemum

15 Fabaceae Aeschenomene aspera: Perennial, somewhat shrubby, trailing on

the ground or erect, up to 2 m. Stem develops spongy tissue in

water. Leaves pinnately compound, leaflets 30-50 pairs. 1.5-3 mm

wide, base asymmetrical. Inflorescence racemes. Flowers yellow.

Pod 4-6 cm long, 7-8 mm wide, flat, breaking into quadrangular 1-



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No.


seeded bits on maturity.

Perennial, in water bodies. Soft stem used for toys, sunhats,

decorative articles etc.

Aeschenomene indica: A thin, tall herb, 80 cm. Leaves pinnately

compound; leaflets 15-20, small, narrow, sensitive to touch.

Flowers yellow, 1-4 in leaf axils; petals with purple veins. Fruit a

long, slightly curved pod with 6-8 joints that separate when mature.

Distribution in marshy areas.

Geissaspis cristata: Annual or perennial. Stems diffuse or floating,

internodes pithy when stem is in water. Leaves compound with 2

pairs of obovate leaflets. Inflorescence racemes, flowers concealed

by large reniform bracts. Fruits also concealed. Fruit has 1 or two

joints between I seeded portions.

In and near wetlands, sometimes in deep water.

Others: Crotalaria gorrensis, C. lutescens, C. pallida, C. quinquifolia,

C. retusa, C. verrucosa, Desmodium heterophyllum, D. triflorum,

Smithia conferta, S. salsuginea, S sensitive, Tephrosia purpurea

16 Hydrocharitaceae Blyxa aubertii: Gregarious submerged herb with condensed stem

and flat, ribbon like radical leaves, gradually attenuate to a fine

point, up to 60 cm long. Flowers produced under water or emerge

from water.

In slow running fresh water with muddy/sandy substratum.

Hydrilla verticillata: Delicate, gregarious, submerged herb. Thin

fragile, branched stems with whorls of 3-12 sessile, linear leaves at

nodes. Flowers submerged.

Submerged in ponds, or slow running water.

Ottelia alismoides: Submerged annual plant with contracted stems;

petiole up to 50 cm or more long. Leaf blade large, flat,

longitudinally veined. Flowers bisexual on long stalks, surrounded

by a spathe of 2 united bracts, winged. Stamens 3-12. Ovary 3-10

chambered, each with numerous ovules. Seeds numerous released

in pulpy mass.

Deeper fresh water bodies still or slow flowing.

Vallisneria spiralis: Submerged plant resembling Blyxa;

distinguished by parallel sides with abruptly rounded or pointed tip.

Flowers on long stalks. Plants dioecious.

Found in fresh water, rare.

17 Hydrophyllaceae Hydrolea zeylanica: An erect or prostrate herb, rooting at nodes.

Leaves alternate, entire, elliptic lanceolate. Flowers blue in short

terminal racemes. Fruit a capsule enclosed by persistent calyx.

Occasional in drying pools.

18 Lemnaceae Wolffia neglecta: Minute floating plant, single fronds or two attached.

Rootless.

19 Lentibulariaceae Utricularia spp. Rootless, free floating plants, or fixed to substratum

by rhizoids. Leaves with capillary like branches carrying small

utricles or bladders adapted for trapping insects. Flowers attractive,

bilaterally symmetrical. Sepals 2. Petals 5. Stamens 2. Fruit a capsule.

Utricularia aurea: In tanks, pools, rice fields, along with other

aquatic plants. Petals pale yellow with reddish brown veins.

Utricularia gibba: In water bodies, entangled with other plants.

Flowers with yellow petals and reddish brown veins.



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No.


Utricularia lazulina: Small annual on wet soil; shallow rock pools

on laterite. Petals blue. Endemic to India.

Utricularia reticulata: In shallow water, and in rice fields. Flowers

large, attractive, violet veined. (Figure 2.12). Endemic to India and

Sri Lanka.

Utricularia stellaris: Planktonic with emergent flowers. Variety of

aquatic habitats. Corolla yellow, covered with gland-tipped hairs.

Utricularia striatula: Forms mats in permanently wet places.

Leaves forming a rosette at the base of he inflorescence. Flowers

small. Petals white tinged with violet with yellow patch at the base.

20 Lythraceae Ammannia baccifera: Annual. Gregarious. Stems 25-50 cm or more

in height, 4 angled. Leaves opposite, linear-lanceolate. Flowers in

axillary cymose heads. Sepal tube bell shaped, 4-5 lobed, purple

tipped. Petals minute or absent. Stamens 4, filaments red. Capsule

globose, seeds bright red (Figure 2.15)

In seasonally wet places. Medicinal

Rotala densiflora: Annual. Erect stem or creeping below; 4 angled

to 4 winged. Leaves decussate below, in whorls above; variable.

Sepal tube bell-shaped; sepals-4 or 5. Appendages in between

sepals. Petals 4-5, pink or white. Stamens 4-5.

Forming mats in shallow water.

Rotala indica: Annual with erect or decumbent stem. Leaves

decussate, with cartilaginous margins. Flowers solitary in axils or

on spike like branches. Sepals 4, petals 4, smaller to sepals;

stamens 4.

Wide range of wetlands.

Rotala macrandra: Annual to perennial. Stems creeping or floating,

40 cm or more long. Leaves decussate, orbicular. Submerged leaves

pale green to pink or red. Inflorescence compact in fruit, spike, stem

not seen in between bracts.

Coastal wetlands; flowers when the water recedes. Endemic to

South India.

Rotala malampuzhensis: Small, tufted annual with narrow leaves.

Flowers 3-5 merous. Sepals bright red.

Rare in wetlands. Endemic to South-west India; Kerala and

Karnataka coast.

Rotala rosea: Annual, with erect or creeping stems. Leaves

decussate, narrow. Floral bracts like normal leaves. Flowers sessile.

Sepals 5, rarely 4. Petals 5, rarely 4, small. Stamens 5-4. Capsule

opens by 3 valves. Seeds yellow to straw coloured.

Rotala rotundifolia: Perennial; sometimes annual. Stems rooted and

floating, 40 cm or more long. Leaves deccusate, or in 3’s, variable.

Submerged leaves large, tinged with red or purple. Floral bracts

smaller than leaves. Inflorescence racemes, becoming elongate

while fruiting so that axis exposed in between. Sepals 4, petals 4,

bright rose. Capsule opens by 4 valves.

Submerged or partly floating

(See Figures 2.13 and 2.15 for Rotala spp).

21 Menyanthaceae Nymphoides hydrophylla: Annual to perennial herb. With short

rhizome. Flowering shoots resemble petioles, up to 85 cm long.

Petioles up to 2.5 cm long. Floating leaves almost orbicular. 4-13

cm long, sometimes with purplish blotches; deeply cordate to



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hastate at base. Nerves prominent beneath. Flowers bisexual or

female, in umbel like clusters. Petal tube with a ring of glandular

hairs above; throat yellow, or white. Petal lobes pure white, 5-6

with a longitudinal crest along the centre. Stamens within petal

tube. Capsule with yellowish white seeds. Seeds with tubercles

(Figure 2.17).

Deeply rooted in mud. Roots produce new shoots. Leaves used

medicinally.

Nymphoides indica: Petal lobes fimbriate or with or with cotton like

hairs. Flowers bisexual.

Annual or perennial. Found in fresh and brackish water. Leaves

medicinal.

Nymphoides parviflora: Leaves dimorphic. Basal leaves in rosettes,

submerged. Fertile leaves not in rosettes, floating, each associated

with an inflorescence. Flowers bisexual, anthers yellow. Petal lobes

3-5 mm long; margins toothed.

Rare in coastal wetlands.

22 Nymphaeaceae Nymphaea nouchali: Rhizomatous with floating leaves. Leaf blades

large, smooth or bluntly dentate with long petioles; reddish purple

underside. Anthers with terminal appendages. Sepals purple

streaked, persistent in fruit, day flowering. Day blooming (Figure

2.18).

Common in wetlands. Medicinal and food value.

Nymphaea pubescens: Rhizomatous with floating leaves. Lower

surface of variable colour, pubescent; margin sharply dentate.

Anthers without appendages; sepals with white veined, decaying in

fruit. Night blooming.

Rhizomes and roots as vegetable. Plant parts medicinal.

23 Onagraceae Ludwigia adscendens: Annual or perennial, prostrate, ascending or

floating herb. Oblong leaves. Bunches of spindle-shaped, white,

spongy, floating roots. Petals creamy white, 5. Stamens 10.

Gregarious in shallow water-pools. Floating spindle shaped roots

characteristic.

Ludwigia hyssopifolia (Syn: L. linifolia): Annual, tall herb (5 – 300

cm), woody at base. Leaf blades lanceolate to oblong. Floating

roots white, spongy, thread like. Petals 4, rarely 5, yellow. Stamens

twice the petals. Capsules inflated above.

In all wetlands or on dry mud.

Ludwigia octovalvis: Stems up to 4m tall, shrubby. Leaf blades

linear, subovate, narrowing at base. Capsule uniform from top to

bottom, ribbed. Stamens twice the petals (Figure 2.19).

Widespread in wetlands.

Ludwigia perennis: Annual herb, up to 1 m., woody at base. Leaf

blades elliptical to lanceolate. Sepals, petals 4-5. Petals yellow.

Stamens equal to petals. Seeds in several rows in each cell.

Ludwigia prostrata: Annual herb, 10-60 cm tall, reddish tinged.

Leaf blades elliptical. Stamens equal to petals. Sepals, petals 4-5.

Petals yellow. Capsule 4 angled. Seeds in one row in each cell.

24 Poaceae Echinocola colonum: An annual, up to 60 cm in height. Leaves 10-

20 cm long. Ligule absent. Inflorescence a raceme of 8-20 sessile

spikes. Spikelets paired. Grains plano-convex.

Wet soils and shallow wetlands.



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Eragrostis unioloides: Annual or perennial. Panicles with ovate to

oblong spikelets, each 6-40 flowered, glumes tinged with purple.

Very common close to wetlands.

Isachne miliacea: Annual or perennial. Erect or creeping. Common

in wetlands, sometimes turf forming.

Ischaemum indicum: Annual or perennial, creeping to erect.

Reaching maximum size of 1 m. Leaf blade with pseudo-petiole.

Spikelets both sessile and stalked.

In variety of wetland habitats and outside.

Ischaemum mangaloricum: Grass reaching over 1m, with swollen

culms.

Confined to wetlands.

Leersia hexandra: Perennial with stolon. Culms attaining 1.5 m.

Longer when floating in mats. Inflorescence a panicle; spikelets 1

flowered.

Used as fodder, close to Oryza in structure.

Oryza rufipogon (Wild rice): Anthers yellow or brown, spikelets

detaching when mature (Figure 2.20)

Common weed in rice fields, also in wet places, ponds, rice fields.

Oryza sativa (Rice): Anthers white or yellow; spikelets persisting

when ripe.

Panicum repens: Perennial. Irregularly shaped deeply rhizomes

present. Aerial shoots 30-100 cm tall. It is a fodder and a weed

difficult to eradicate.

Paspalidium flavidum: Tufted perennial or annual. Lower raceme

shorter than internode. Found in wetlands and elsewhere.

Paspalidium punctatum: A perennial aquatic grass, up to 120 cm

high. Inflorescence of 3 to 8 spike like racemes, arranged

alternately. Spikelets in 2 rows.

Marshy areas and shallow water.

Paspalum scrobiculatum: Usually perennial. 10-120 cm long

culms. Inflorescence of 2 spreading spike like racemes. Spikelets

without fringe of long white hairs. Glumes glabrous.

Saccharum spontaneum (wild sugarcane): Rhizomatous perennial

forming dense clumps, with sugarcane like panicle. Culm without

sugar. Good soil binder and used for sugarcane breeding (Figure

2.21).

Sacciolepis indica: Annual 20-70 cm or more in height, tufted.

Inflorescence spike like panicle, up to 6 cm long. Often found in

wetlands and also outside.

Sacciolepis interrupta: Annual or often perennial. Culms reaching

almost 150 cm long. Basal part inflated and hollow, over 1 cm

thick. Panicle interrupted below.

Other species noted: Arundinella leptochloa, Brachiaria miliformis,

Cynodon dactylon, Cyrtococcum sp., Digitaria ciliaris, Eragrostis

major, Ischaemum rugosum, I. tumidum, Oplismenus burmanni,

Oryza sativa var. nivara, Paspalidium geminatum, Paspalum

vaginatum, Sacciolepis myosurroides, Sporobolus virginicus, Zoysia

matrella etc.

25 Polygonacae Polygonum glabrum: An erect or decumbent glabrous herb, with

reddish stem. Leaves lanceolate, acuminate at apex. Flowers

pinkish in terminal racemes.



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No.


Rare: Shallow parts of wetlands.

Species such as Polygonum barbatum, P. chinense (Figure 2.22) are

only sparingly associated with coastal wetlands. They are

commoner in the interior fresh water wetlands.

26 Pontederiaceae Monochoria elata: Large perennial. Flowers almost regular.

Inflorescence overtopping leaves. Rare.

Monochoria vaginalis: Annual or perennial. Flowers almost

regular. Inflorescence contracted, borne below the leaves, almost

umbellate.

27 Rubiaceae Dentella repens: Delicate herb forming mats. Leaves small in pairs.

Flowering nodes alternating with flowerless ones.

On drying mud around wetlands, in marshy places.

Hedyotis brachypoda: Although a herb of drier habitats, many

times this is found close to wetlands. Stems, peduncles and pedicels

glabrous. Flowers not more than 2 in a cyme.

In wet places and on drier land. Sometimes in 1 m deep water.

Hedyotis diffusa: Annual to perennial. Stems floating erect or

prostrate, with small bristle like hairs. At least some flowers in 3 or

more flowered cymes.

Other Rubiaceae members sometimes found near wetlands are Anotis

foetida, Borreria articularis, B. mauritiana, B. ocimoides, Hedyotis,

ciliaris, H. corymbosa (Figure 2.23) H. cuspidata, H. trinervia and

Spermacose verticillata.

28 Scrophulariaceae Bacopa floribunda: Annual herb with 4 sided erect stem. Ring of

lacunae present in stem. Flowers pedicillate, 1-3 in leaf axils.

Sepals hairy.

Bacopa hamiltoniana: Same characters as previous, but flowers

sessile and solitary.

Bacopa monnieri: Stems creeping with erect branches. No ring of

lacunae. Pedicels present, sepals not hairy (Figure 2.24).

Forming mats in marshy places. Tolerates brackish conditions.

Dopatrium junceum: Annual 10-40 cm tall, usually smaller. Lower

leaves larger, upper very small. Flowers in pairs on the axis. Petals

pink to blue or purple. Lower flowers almost sessile (Figure 2.25)

Limnophila heterophylla: Annual or perennial. Submerged leaves

very dissected. Aerial leaves entire. Flowers almost sessile.

Found in fresh or brackish water

Limnophila indica: Submerged leaves pinnatisect, in whorls. Aerial

leaves in opposite pairs. Flowers pedicillate.

In a variety of aquatic habitats.

Limnophila repens: Decumbent or erect herbs. Leaves in decussate

pairs sessile or nearly so. Flowers solitary in leaf axils.

Leaves smell and taste somewhat like lemon. Plant widespread in

wetlands.

Others: Angelonia zeylancia, Limnophila gratissima, Lindernia

anagallis, L. antipoda, L. ciliata, L. crustacea, L. hyssopoides, L.

manilaliana, L. oppositifolia, L. pusilla, L. rotundifolia, L. tenuifolia,

L. viscose, Microcarpaea minima, Peplidium maritima, Scoparia

dulce, Torenia lindernioides etc.

29 Sphenocleaceae (or Sphenoclea zeylaica: Annual. Stem swollen and pithy at base. Up to 1



Sl.

No.


Campanulaceae) m or more tall. Leaves alternate, simple. Inflorescence a dense,

terminal spike. Sepals united to the ovary. Petals greenish-white.

Ovary semi-inferior. Fruit capsule with numerous minute seeds

(Figure 2.26).

Seasonally submerged, other times emergent, or on edges of wetlands.

Found also in brackish water.

30 Typhaceae Typha angustata: Tall, perennial, rhizomatous herbs; up to 3.5 m

high. Leaves distichous. Leaves long, linear. Inflorescence a

cylindrical 15-25 cm long spike. Female heads in fruit light cinnamon

coloured. Seeds small dispersed by numerous light capillary hairs

(Figure 2.27).

In shallow water, forming gregarious patches

31 Xyridaceae Xyris pauciflora: Small herb with corm like stem base. Leaves

radical, linear with sheathing base. Inflorescence a simple terminal

bracteate head. Bracts overlapping, persistent. Flowers yellow.

On wet soils, and near wetlands



Figure 2.7. Fimbristylis ferruginea Figure 2.8. Mariscus javanicus

Figure 2.9. Shoenoplectus

lateriflorus

Figure 2.10. Eriocaulon cuspidatum

Figure 2.11. Eriocaulon cinerea

Figure 2.12. Utricularia

reticulata

Figure 2.13. Rotala sp.

Figure 2.14. Ammannia baccifera

Figure 2.15. Rotala sp

Figure 2.16. Eriocaulon sexangulare Figure 2.17. Nymphoides parviflora

Figure 2.18. Nymphaea

nouchali



Figure 2.19. Ludwigia octovalvis Figure 2.20. Oryza rufipogon

Figure 2.21. Saccharum

spontaneum

Figure 2.22. Polygonum chinense

Figure. 2.23. Polygonum glabrum

Figure. 2.24. Monochoria

vaginalis

Figures 2.25. Hedyotis corymbosa

Figure 2.26. Bacopa monnieri

Figure 2.27. Dopatrium

junceum

Figure 2.28. Sphenoclea zeylanica Figure 2.29. Typha angustata



References

1. Bhat, K.G. 2003. The Flora of Udupi District. Indian Naturalist, Chitpady, Udupi.

2. Biswas, K. and Calder, C.C. 1937. Handbook of Common Water and Marsh Plants

of India and Burma. Health Bulletin No. 24, Malaria Bureau No. 11, Manager of

Publications, Delhi.

3. Cook, C.D.K. 1996. Aquatic and Wetland Plants of India. Oxford University Press,

Delhi.

4. Cooke, T. 1901-1908. The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay. Taylor and Francis,

London.

5. Prasad, V.P., Mason, D., Marburger, J.E. and Kumar, C.R.A. Illustrations of Some

Wetland Plants of India. Salim Ali Institute for Ornithology and Natural Histroy,

Coimbatore.



CHAPTER – 3

WETLANDS OF COASTAL KARNATAKA: SALIENT FEATURES

Coastal Karnataka extends over 320 kilometers. The hill ranges of the Western Ghats run

rather close to the coast, especially in Uttara Kannada district. The coast is intersected by 14

west-flowing rivers, which arise in the Western Ghats, in addition to several smaller rivers.

The coastal low lands are much influenced by the marine tides, which rise in the estuaries of

these rivers and rivulets and several more creeks. The torrential rains, which exceed over

3000 mm per annum, swamp the coast especially during the June to October period. Low

lying areas are flooded with fresh water this time, and the salinity of the brackish water

coastal marshes is substantially reduced so that the coastal lowlands become excellent

habitats for aquatic herbs. This floral richness is also shared by rice fields, temporary pools,

ditches and even depressions in the laterite hills, and a number of small and medium ponds.

As the rains taper off by mid October, the amount of fresh water declines. The lowlands are

often subjected to tidal surges that run through the river mouths and creeks for several

kilometers interior. This causes increase in salinity in many of the coastal water bodies, and

their surroundings causing decline of plants intolerant of salinity. By the time several

sensitive herbs would be in advanced stages of flowering and fruiting. Their seeds remain

unharmed for several months until the South-west Monsoon arrives in early June. Many

others also perennate through vegetative propagules such as rhizomes, rootstocks etc.

The fresh water ponds are very few along the coast, barring few medium to large ones in

advanced stages of silting, and a number of small ones where water dries up in summer or

only very little remains, many temple ponds being exceptions. Salinity tolerant species,

mainly sedges (members of Cyperaceae), some grasses, Sphenoclea, Hygrophila,

Alternanthera sessilis, Bacopa monnieri etc. persist in and around the brackish water

wetlands. Of the notable salinity tolerant sedges are Cyperus corymbosus, C. malaccensis,

Eleocharis dulcis, E. spiralis, Fimbristylis ferruginea, F. littoralis, Mariscus javanicus,

Pycreus polystachyos etc.

Even the rock pools on the barren lateritic hills teem with plant life during the rainy season,

and form important habitats for several species of Utricularia., Eriocaulon, and the rare

Wiesneria triandra, endemic to South-west India. Isoetes, a rare pteridophyte, as far as

coastal Karnataka is concerned, was located in a temporary pond in the sandy coast of

Kasarkod in Honavar. The fresh water ponds and other fresh water bodies are important

habitats for Hydrilla verticillata, Nymphaea spp., Nymphoides spp., Blyxa aubertii, Ottelia

alismoides etc. The exotic water weeds Eichhornia crassipes, Pistia stratiotes, Salvinia spp,

have not made notable invasions into the coastal waters of Karnataka, unlike in the

neighbouring Kerala.

3.1 True hydrophytes of fresh water habitats:

3.1.1 Free floating: These float on water surface and their roots are not attached to the

substratum. Ex: Pistia stratiotes, Salvinia spp., Azolla spp., Wolffia spp. etc. These have

poor root system or if roots are well developed they are used mainly for balancing. All plant

parts are soft and spongy.

3.1.2 Rooted floating: These plants are attached to the substratum by roots and their

leaves are often floating. Of these are the lotus, Nelumbium speciosum, the water lily,



Nymphaea nouchali, N. pubescens, Nymhoides spp., Marsilia spp. etc. These have long

petioles, their floating leaves are usually large. All plant parts are spongy and soft.

3.1.3 Submerged rooted and suspended: Usually this category does not have aerial parts

except perhaps flowers and fruits. To this belong Blyxa aubertii, Vallisneria spiralis,

Hydrilla verticillata, Utricularia gibba, Ottelia alismoides, Isoetes sp., Myriophyllum spp.

etc. The leaves of these plants are narrow, long and ribbon like as in Vallisneria, or narrow

linear as in Hydrilla, or finely dissected capillary like as in Utricualria, or quill like as in

Isoetes. These plants have extremely tender plant parts and have no supporting woody

tissues.

3.1.4 Amphibious hydrophytes (Emergent): Lots of plants, which are habitually not

aquatic plants, can tolerate inundation for days or weeks together. These are intermediate

between aquatic and terrestrial habitats; many of them are even true land plants. Some of

the intermediate species, often referred to as “amphibious plants,” found along coastal

Karnataka, are Hygrophila schulli, Colocasia esculenta, Cryptocoryne spiralis, Epaltes

divaricata, Commelina spp., Murdannia spp., Cyperus spp, Fimbristylis spp., Eriocaulon

spp., Aeschenomene spp., Ammannia spp., Rotala spp., Ludwigia spp., Echinocola spp.,

Sacciolepis spp., Oryza spp., Polygonum spp., Limnophila spp., Lindernia spp., Typha spp.,

Xyris spp. etc. Compared to true water plants these are stronger plants. They do not have

such delicacy or sponginess in their structure and often are furnished with the woody

sclernchyma tissue to varied degrees.

Trees and woody plants such as Pandanus spp., Pongamia pinnata, Ficus spp., Holigarna

arnottiana etc. that may be in close association with the wetlands are excluded from the

purview of this report, as they are not truly wetland species. Also excluded are the

mangroves, as they have been dealt with separately in another report. Rheophytes, the plants

associated with river courses for a separate category as such, although some plants might

commonly occur along the rivers as well as in the wetlands dealt with here, They too have

been excluded.

The details of the localities where the wetland flora has been studied and the type of

wetlands and the number of species observed at the time of the one time survey are given in

the Table 3.1. The talukwise distributions of wetland species are given in Table 3.2.

Table 3.1. Details of wetlands studied for flora (macrophytic) in coastal Karnataka Dist Taluk Locality Village/town Remarks

D. Kannada Mangalore 1. Ullal Ullal 36 sp. Seasonal wetland

2. Malvuru Malvuru 53 sp. Semi-permanent

3. Madhya Madhya 32 sp. Semi-permanent

4. Pannagiri Soorinje 36 sp. Semi-permanent

5. Delanthbettu Siboor 33 sp. Semi-permanent

6. Kantige Chalar 43 sp. Semi-permanent

Mulki 7. Kinnigati Kinnigati 34 sp. Abandoned rice fields

8. Kolnadu Mulki 36 sp. Semi-permanent

9. Mulki Mulki 42 sp. Abandoned rice fields

Udupi Udupi 10. Padubidri Padubidri 48 sp. Semi-permanent

11. Enguddi-1 Katapadi 36 sp. Semi-permanent

12. Enguddi-2 Katapadi 38 sp. Semi-permanent

13.Nerige Kadavur 42 sp. Seasonal wetland

14. Uppur Kalyanpur 43 sp. Seasonal wetland

Kundapur 15. Angalige Angalige 38 sp. Seasonal wetland



16. Kambadkona Kambadakona 45 sp. Seasonal wetland

17. Nandanvana Uppunda 40 sp. Semi-permanent

18. Kalshanka Bijoor 32 sp. Seasonal wetland

19. Durme Durme 37 sp. Semi-permanent

20. Edathribail Edathribail 43 sp. Semi-permanent

21. Paduvari Paduvari 56 sp. Semi-permanent

22. Tondemakki Tondemakki 32 sp. Seasonal wetland

U. Kannada Bhatkal 23. Shirali Shirali 33 sp. Seasonal wetland

24. Sanbhavi Bengre 13 sp. Temp. water pool

25. Devikan Kaikini 07 sp. Temp. water pool

Honavar 26. Nilekere Gunavanti 17 sp. Small pond

27. Gunavanti Gunavanti 22 sp. Semi-permanent

28. Apsarkonda Kasarkod 13 sp. Seasonal pools

29. Kasarkod Kasarkod 09 sp. Seasonal pools

30. Arolli Ghat Arolli 07 sp. Seasonal rock pool

31. Prabhatnagr Honavar 17 sp. Small pond

32. Jalvalli-Karki Jalvalli 20 sp. Small pond

33. Arsamikere Chandrani 23 sp. Large pond

34. Karki Karki 25 sp. Seasonally brackish

35. Badgani Haldipur 28 sp. Seasonally brackish

Kumta 36. Nagoor Cross Mirjan 21 sp. Seasonally brackish

37. Holegadde -1 Holegadde 20 sp. Seasonally brackish

38. Holegadde-2 Holegadde 9 sp. Seasonally brackish

39. Alvekodi Alvekodi 23 sp. Seasonally brackish

40. Kalave Santaguli 20 sp. Small pond

41. Heggerikere Bargi 13 sp. Small pond

42. Madangiri Madangiri 7 sp. Seasonal pool

43. Hosur-1 Hosur 20 sp. Small pond

44. Hosur-2 Hosur 19 sp. Small pond

Ankola 45. Taktageri Taktageri 9 sp. Seasonal pool

46. Hunsagi Taktageri 5 sp. Small pond

47. Jangodu Janagodu 7 sp. Small pond

48. Amdalli Mudga 16 sp. Seasonal beach pool

Karwar 49. Chitakula Chitakula 29 sp. Seasonal wetland

50. Hankon Gopshitta 18. sp. Reservoir

51. Sailwada Sailwada 24 sp. Large tank



Table 2.1: Wetland vegetation of coastal Karnataka Sl.

No. Species Family MNG MLK UDP KNP BHT HNR KMT ANK KRW Remarks

1 Hygrophila ringens Acanthaceae P P P P P

2 Hygrophila schulli " P P P P P P P P P Diuretic

3 Sesuvium portulacastrum Aizoaceae P

4 Wiesneria triandra Alismaceae P P Endemic - SW India; Rare

5 Alternanthera sessilis Amaranthaceae P P P P P P P P Vegetable, medicine

6 Crinum viviparum Amaryllidaceae P P Endemic- India

7 Centella asiatica Apiaceae P P P P P P Food, medicine

8 Colocasia esculenta Araceae P P P P P P Food, medicine

9 Cryptocoryne spiralis " P P P P P P P P Medicine

10 Pistia stratiotes " P Weed, medicine

11 Ageratum conizoides Asteraceae P P P Medicine

12 Cyathocline sp " P P Medicine

13 Eclipta prostrata " P P P P P P Medicine, black dye

14 Emilia sonchifolia " P Medicine

15 Epaltes divaricata " P P P P P P Medicine

16 Grangea maderaspatna " P P Pain relief

17 Sphaeranthus africanus " P P P P P P P P P

18 Spilanthus paniculata " P P P Toothache, sore throat

19 Vernonia cineria " P P P Medicine

20 Coldenia procumbens Boraginaceae P P Rheumatism, boils

21 Lobelia alsinoides Campanulaceae P P P P P P P

22 Sphenoclea zeylanica " P P P P P P P

23 Amiscophacelus axillaris Commelinaceae P P P P

24 Commelina diffusa " P P P P P P P Burns, itches, boils

25 Commelina hasskarlii " P

26 Murdannia nudiflora " P P P P Asthma, piles

27 Murdannia semiteres " P

28 Murdannia spirata " P

29 Murdannia vaginata " P

30 Murdannia versicolor " P

31 Murdannia sp " P

32 Evolvulus nummularius Convolvulaceae P Medicine

33 Ipomoea fistulosa " P P Serious weed

34 Ipomoea sepiaria " P

35 Ipomoea triloba " P

36 Ipomoea sp " P

37 Bulbostylis puberula Cyperaceae P

38 Bulbostylis sp " P

39 Cyperus cuspidatus " P

40 Cyperus compressus " P P P P P P

41 Cyperus difformis " P P P P P P P P

42 Cyperus elatus " P

43 Cyperus halpan " P P P P P P P P

44 Cyperus iria " P P Roots in medicine, for mats

45 Cyperus malaccensis " P Medicine, fodder, weaving

46 Cyperus pilosus " P P P P

47 Cyperus procerus " P Stems for cordage

48 Cyperus rotundus " P Food, medicine, fragrance

49 Cyperus stoloniferous " P

50 Cyperus tenuispica " P P P P P P P

51 Cyperus sp " P P



52 Eleocharis acutangula " P P P P P P P

53 Eleocharis atropurpurea " P P P P P

54 Eleocharis dulcis " P P P P P P Weaving

55 Eleocharis geniculata " P P P P P P

56 Eleocharis retroflexa " P P P P P P

57 Eleocharis spiralis " P P P P

58 Fimbristylis acuminata " P P P P P P P

59 Fimbristylis aestivalis " P

60 Fimbristylis argentea " P

61 Fimbristylis bisembellata " P P P

62 Fimbristylis crystallina " P

63 Fimbristyls dauciformis " P Endemic SW India

64 Fimbristylis dichotoma " P P Fodder, mats

65 Fimbristylis ferruginea " P P P P P P P

66 Fimrbistylis hirsutifolia " P Endemic, SW India

67 Fimbristylis littoralis " P P P P P P P

68 Fimbristylis microcarpa " P

69 Fimbristylis monticola " P

70 Fimbristylis pubisquama " P

71 Fimbristylis shoenoides " P P P P P P P

72 Fimbristylis tetragona " P P P P P

73 Fimbristylis woodrowii " P Endemic, India

74 Fimbristylis sp. " P P P P

75 Fuirena ciliaris " P P P P P P P P P

76 Fuirena umbellata " P P P P P P

77 Fuirena uncinata " P P

78 Kyllinga brevifolia " P Medicine

79 Lipocarpha chinensis " P P

80 Mariscus compactus " P

81 Mariscus javanicus " P P

82 Pycreus flavidus " P

83 Pycreus macrostachyos " P P

84 Pycreus polystachyos " P P P P P P P

85 Pycreus pumilus " P P

86 Pycreus sanguinolentus " P P P

87 Pycreus stramineus " P P P

88 Pycreus sp " P

89 Rhynchospora wightiana " P

90 Scleria sp " P

91 Schoenoplectus articulatus " P P P P P P P P

92 Shoenoplectus lateriflorus " P P P P P P P P P

93 Shoenoplectus subulatus " P P

94 Shoenoplectus sp " P

95 Drosera burmanni Droseraceae P Medicinal, insectivorous

96 Bergia capensis Elatinaceae P P P P

97 Eriocaulon cinereum Eriocaulaceae P P P P P

98 Eriocaulon cuspidatum " P P P Endemic, S. India

99 Eriocaulon dalzelli " P Endemic, W. coast

100 Eriocaulon eurypeplon " P P P Endemic, W. India

101 Eriocaulon heterolepis " P P Endemic, W. India

102 Eriocaulon lanceolatum " P Endemic SW India

103 Eriocaulon odoratum " P P

104 Eriocaulon quinqangulare " P

105 Eriocaulon richardianum " P P Endemic SW India



106 Eriocaulon setaceum " P P

107 Eriocaulon sexangulare " P P P P P P

108 Eriocaulon xeranthemum " P P P P

109 Eriocaulon sp " P P P P P

110 Euphorbia hirta Euphorbiaceae P Medicine

111 Euphphorbia thymifolia " P

112 Phyllanthus debilis " P Medicine, for jaundice

113 Phyllanthus reticulatus " P P P

114 Phyllanthus simplex " P

115 Aeschenomene aspera Fabaceae P P P Decorative articles

116 Aeschenomene indica " P P P P Manure, fodder

117 Crotalaria gorrensis " P

118 Crotalaria lutescens " P

119 Crotalaria pallida " P

120 Crotalaria quinquifolia " P

121 Crotalaria retusa " P P P

122 Crotalaria verrucosa " P

123 Derris trifoliata " P

124 Desmodium heterophyllum " P P

125 Desmodium triflorum " P P P

126 Geissaspis cristata " P P P P P P P P P

127 Smithia conferta " P P

128 Smithia salsuginea " P P

129 Smithia sensitiva " P P P P

130 Tephrosia purpurea " P

131 Canscora decussata Gentianaceae P

132 Exacum pedunculatum " P

133 Hoppea fastigata " P P

134 Blyxa aubertii Hydrocharitaceae P P P P P P P

135 Hydrilla verticillata " P P P P

136 Ottelia alismoides " P

137 Vallisneria spiralis " P P

138 Hydrolea zeylanica Hydrophpllaceae P P P P P P Vegetable, medicine

139 Pogostemon erectum Lamiaceae P Endemic S India

140 Wolffia neglecta Lemnaceae P Endemic Indian S. continent

141 Utricularia aurea Lentibulariaceae P P P

142 Utricularia gibba " P P

143 Utricularia lazulina " P Endemic India

144 Utricularia reticulata " P P P P P P P

145 Utricularia stellaris " P Endemic India-Sri Lanka

146 Utricularia striatula " P

147 Utricularia sp " P P P P P

148 Mitrasacme indica Loganiaceae P P

149 Ammannia baccifera Lythraceae P P P P P

150 Rotala densiflora " P P P

151 Rotala indica " P P P P

152 Rotala macrandra " P P P P P Endemic S India

153 Rotala rosea " P P P P P

154 Rotala rotundifolia " P P P

155 Rotala sp " P P

156 Melastoma malabathrum Melastomaceae P P

157 Nymphoides hydrophylla Menyanthaceae P P P P Medicine

158 Nymphoides indica " P P P

159 Nymphoides parviflora " P P P



160 Nymphoides sp " P

161 Ficus hispida Moraceae P

162 Nymphaea nouchali Nymphaceae P P P P P P P P Medicine, food

163 Nymphaea pubescens " P Medicine, food

164 Ludwigia adscendens Onagraceae P

165 Ludwigia hyssopifolia " P P P P P P P

166 Ludwigia octovalvis " P P

167 Ludwigia perennis " P P P P

168 Ludwigia prostrata " P

169 Ludwigia repens " P

170 Ludwigia sp " P

171 Pandanus fascicularis Pandanaceae P P P P P P

172 Passiflora foetida " P

173 Arundinella leptochloa Poaceae P

174 Brachiaria miliformis " P

175 Cynodon dactylon " P P P Fodder, medicine

176 Cyrtococcum sp " P

177 Digitaria ciliaris " P

178 Echnochloa colonum " P Fodder

179 Eragrostis major " P

180 Eragrostis unioloides " P P P P P P P P P

181 Isachne miliacea " P P P P P P P P Fodder

182 isachne sp " P P P

183 Ischaemum indicum " P P P

184 Ischaemum mangaloricum " P P P P P

185 Ischaemum rugosum " P P Fodder

186 Ischaemum tumidum " P

187 Ischaemum sp " P

188 Leersia hexandra " P P P P P P Fodder; WR of rice

189 Oplismenus burmanni " P

190 Oplismenus compositus " P

191 Oryza rufipogon " P P P P P P WR of rice

192 Oryza sativa " P Rice plant

193 Oryza sativa var. nivara " P WR of rice

194 Panicum repens " P P P P P Fodder, WR of millet

195 Paspalidium flavidum " P P P P Fodder, millet

196 Paspalidium geminatum " P P

197 Paspalidium punctatum " P Fodder

198 Paspalum scrobiculatum " P P P P P Millet

199 Paspalum vaginatum " P WR of millet

200 Paspalum sp " P

201 Pseudoechinocola sp " P

202 Saccharum spontaneum " P P P WR of sugarcane

203 Sacciolepis indica " P P P

204 Sacciolepis interrupta " P P P P Fodder

205 Sacciolepis myosuroides " P P

206 Sporobolus virginicus " P

207 Zoysia matrella " P

208 Polygonum barbatum Polygonaceae P

209 Polygonum glabrum " P Vegetable, medicine

210 Monochoria elata Pontederiaceae P P

211 Monochoria vaginalis " P P P P P Vegetable, medicine



212 Acrostichum aureum Pteridophyte P P P

213 Ceratopteris thalictroides " P P P P P P P Vegetable

214 Isoetes sp " P Endemic

215 Marsilia coromandelina " P P

216 Marsilia minuta " P

217 Marsilia sp " P P P P

218 Salvinia sp " P P Serious weed

219 Anotis foetida Rubiaceae P

220 Borreria articularis " P

221 Borreria mauritiana " P

222 Borreria ocimoides " P

223 Dentella repens " P P

224 Hedyotis brachypoda " P P P P P P P P Medicine

225 Hedyotis ciliaris " P

226 Hedyotis cuspidata " P

227 Hedyotis diffusa " P P P P P P P

228 Hedyotis trinervia " P P

229 Spermacose verticillata " P P P

230 Angelonia zeylanica Scrophulariaceae P

231 Bacopa floribunda " P

232 Bacopa hamiltoniana " P P P

233 Bacopa monnieri " P P P P P P Nerve tonic, skin lotion

234 Buchnera hispida " P

235 Centranthera indica " P

236 Dopatrium junceum " P P P P

237 Limnophila gratissima " P

238 Limnophila heterophylla " P P P P P

239 Limnophila indica " P

240 Limnophila repens " P P P P P P P P

241 Lindernia anagallis " P Medicine

242 Lindernia antipoda " P P P

243 Lindernia ciliata " P P P P

244 Lindernia crustacea " P P P P P Medicine

245 Lindernia hyssopoides " P P P

246 Lindernia manilaliana " P Endemic SW India

247 Lindernia oppositifolia " P P Medicine

248 Lindernia pusilla " P P P P P P

249 Lindernia rotundifolia " P P

250 Lindernia tenuifolia " P P

251 Lindernia viscosa " P P

252 Lindernia sp " P P

253 Microcarpaea minima " P P P P P P

254 Peplidium maritima " P

255 Scoparia dulcis " P

256 Torenia lindernioides " P

257 Melochia corchorifolia Sterculiaceae P P P

258 Waltheria indica " P

259 Corchorus aestuans Tiliaceae Fibre

260 Corchorus capsularis " P P Fibre

261 Typha angustata. Typhaceae P Weaving, medicine

262 Xyris pauciflora Xyridaceae P P P P

Note: Taluk-wise presence of vascular plants (flowering plants and pteridophytes)

Abbreviations: MNG = Mangalore; MLK = Mulki; UDP = Udupi; KNP = Kundapur; BHT =

Bhatkal; HNR = Honavar; KMT = Kumta; Ank = Ankola; KRW = Karwar

Documents

C -1 AN I WETLANDS · developed in riparian zones, river deltas and savannah areas. Due to captured precipitation for fishpond aquaculture in the catchment areas and rice-farms occupying