Byron Stayskal, Elements of Ancient Greek, Aug 2012

8/13/2019 Byron Stayskal, Elements of Ancient Greek, Aug 2012

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Elements of Ancient Greek

(working prototype, introduction & chapters 1-17)

by

Byron Stayskal (Ph.D.)

Byron Stayskal, 2012(previous versions 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2009, 2010, 2011)


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a!le of "ontents

Introu!tion p. 2

"hapter #ne$ the alphabet, vo%els & !onsonants, syllabi'i!ation, a!!ents p.

"hapter %o$ a!!ent pla!e*ent, three verb patterns, the pronoun au)to/j p. 1+

"hapter hree$ the !ase syste*, thire!lension nouns, prepositions p. 2

"hapter -our$ verbs in eneral, present tense o' /I, o*ea, eponent verbs p.

"hapter -ive$ 'irst & se!on e!lension, relative pronouns p.

"hapter Si3$ verbal ste*s an prin!ipal parts, aorist tense p. 1

"hapter Seven$ i*per'e!t & 'uture tenses p. +

"hapter 4iht$ a5e!tives in eneral, 'a*ilies o' a5e!tives, use o' a5e!tives p. 2

"hapter 6ine$ per'e!t & pluper'e!t tenses, personal pronouns p. 71

"hapter en$ parti!iples present, aorist, per'e!t & 'uture tenses p. 90

"hapter 4leven$ a!tive, *ile, an passive voi!e p. 101

"hapter %elve$ the sub5un!tive *oo p. 110

"hapter hirteen$ the optative *oo p. 11

"hapter -ourteen$ !onitions parti!ular, eneral, 'uture, unreal p. 12+

"hapter -i'teen$ the i*perative *oo, ire!t an inire!t 8uestions p. 11

"hapter Si3teen$ !o*parison o' a5e!tives p. 1+

"hapter Seventeen$ the verbs fhmi/& dei=, in'initives, in'initive !onstru!tions p. 12

"hapter eains p. 10


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#ntroduction

#nflection

#n!e the :reek alphabet is learne, a strikin 'eature o' the lanuae is ho%*any enins there are 'or nouns an verbs. hese enins 'all into re!oni;able an

repeate patterns, so learnin the* is not 8uite as auntin as it 'irst appears, but even

so, there are 'ar *ore enins in :reek than in 4nlish. his reat nu*ber o' enins is

!hara!teristi! o' an inflectedlanuae, that is, a lanuae that ini!ates ho% a %or is

bein use in a senten!e by ivin it a !ertain enin. (6ot all :reek %ors, ho%ever,

take !haneable enins.)

< help'ul %ay to think o' :reek %ors that inflectis to !onsier the* as *ae up

o' t%o parts, a ste* an an enin. he ste* is that stable part o' the %or onto %hi!h

various enins are ae (verbal ste*s *ay also take pre'i3es). he ste* !arries the

basi! *eanin o' the %or, an the enin ini!ates ho% the %or is 'un!tionin in the

senten!e.

< 'e% e3a*ples o' :reek %ors, transliterate into the 4nlish alphabet, %ill

illustrate this prin!iple o' ste* = enin. #ne o' the :reek verbs that *eans >see? uses

the ste* !lep-. < !o**on enin to ini!ate that Ia* the one oin the a!tion is the

verbal enin $o. hus, the :reek verbal 'or* !lep-o*eans @I seeA. he >ste* =

enin? prin!iple %orks %ith nouns as %ell. he ste* o' the %or that *eans >!hil? is

paid-. I' the noun enin -ais atta!he to the ste* (paid), the resultin 'or* paida

ini!ates that the !hil is re!eivin the a!tion o' the verb, or, in ra**ati!al ter*s, the

%or >!hil? paidais the ire!t ob5e!t o' the senten!e. hus, the :reek senten!e !lep-opaid-a*eans @I see a !hilA (:reek oes not nee a %or 'or the 4nlish >a?, an the

enin on the verb is enouh to !onvey the sub5e!t >I?). o take another e3a*ple, i' the

noun enin -iis atta!he to the ste* paid-, then the noun 'or* paidisho%s that the

!hil is the inire!t ob5e!t o' the verb. In !o*bination %ith a verb like leg-o@I sayA, a

phrase %ith an inire!t ob5e!t is possible$ @I say to a !hil...A leg-o paid-i. ust as noun

ste*s !an take i''erent ens, so too !an verbs. In verbs, the enin >-o? o'ten !onveys

that >I? a* the sub5e!t. he verb enin $o!an then be pla!e on various ste*s to

ini!ate that @I hearA akou-o, @I sayA leg-o, or @I tea!hA paideu-o. I', ho%ever, Ia* not

the one oin the a!tion, butyouare, then a istin!t enin is use that *akes it !learthatyouare the sub5e!t o' the senten!e, su!h as in @you seeA !lep-eis, @you hearA akou-

eis, @you sayA leg-eis, or @you tea!hA paideu-eis.

I' one thinks only o' su!h !o*ple3ities, it is easy to have the i*pression that

:reek is an espe!ially i''i!ult lanuae. here are, o' !ourse, a nu*ber o' etails to

keep tra!k o'. he stuent nees to learn basi! *eanins o' %ors, parti!ular enins

that a %or *ay take, an %hat sini'i!an!e those *eanins an enins have in a


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senten!e. hese three areas, vo!abulary, 'or*s, an ra**ati!al rules, %ill be

is!usse an e*phasi;e repeately throuhout this book. It shoul, ho%ever, also

be borne in *in that :reek %as a livin, spoken lanuae. It %as learne by !hilren

'ro* their parents, an use by nor*al people in everyay situations. It per'or*e the

'un!tion o' all lanuaes, !o**uni!ation, an in that %ay it oes not i''er 'ro* the

%ay !o**only spoken lanuaes o' our o%n ay are use.

%ord rder

:reek is a parti!ularly 'le3ible lanuae, an it so*eti*es re8uires the reaer

(even *ore so the speaker or hearer) to hol the ele*ents o' a senten!e in the *e*ory

'or a loner ti*e than 4nlish speakers are use to be'ore it be!o*es !lear ho% those

ele*ents relate to one another. But asie 'ro* re8uirin a bit *ore !on!entration, every

ra**ati!al 'un!tion that %e 'in in :reek e3ists in our o%n lanuae as %ell. he

*eans are so*eti*es i''erent, but the 'un!tions are the sa*e. #'ten %hat 4nlish!o**uni!ates throuh the ordero' %ors, :reek !o**uni!ates throuh i''erent noun

enins. I' in 4nlish %e say$ >a o bites a *an? %e kno% that the o is oin the

a!tion an is the sub5e!t o' the senten!e. 4nlish %or orer also !onveys that the *an

in the senten!e is ire!tly a''e!te by the a!tion o' bitin an is, ra**ati!ally

speakin, the ire!t ob5e!t o' the senten!e. :reek, on the other han, !onveys these

sa*e ieas not throuh word orderbut throuh word endings. < :reek senten!e, 'or

e3a*ple, that e3presses the sa*e iea o' a o bitin a *an *iht be arrane in the

sa*e orer as 4nlish kuon daknei andr-a@a o bites a *anA. he :reek senten!e,

ho%ever, *iht e3press the sa*e iea %ith a very i''erent %or orer, su!h as andr-a(*an) daknei (bites)kuon (a o). he avantae that the :reek lanuae has over

4nlish is that :reek !an arrane the %ors o' a senten!e in a variety o' %ays an not

!hane the *eanin o' the senten!e. he senten!e andr-a daknei kuonstill *eans @a

o bites a *anA, but i' the orer o' the oriinal 4nlish senten!e is rearrane like the

:reek, the resultin senten!e @a *an bites a oA *eans so*ethin 8uite i''erent 'ro*

%hat the oriinal orer o' %ors intene.

he E'pectations of %ords, "lauses & entences

Cors, !lauses, an senten!es !reate !ertain e3pe!tations. < verb like @%e seeAbe!ause o' its *eanin !auses the reaer or hearer to e3pe!t a ire!t ob5e!t, su!h as @%e

see the !hilrenA. < %or like @anA !reates the e3pe!tation o' t%o parallel ieas linke

toether, an a %or su!h as @intoA see*s to %ant, even e*an, so*e kin o' ob5e!t

to !o*plete the prepositional phrase. arer units o' lanuae, su!h as senten!es an

!lauses, also !reate e3pe!tations. So*eti*es those e3pe!tations are inherent in the

ra**ar o' a lanuae. < !o*plete senten!e, 'or e3a*ple, *ust have a sub5e!t an


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verb, no *atter %hat %ors are use. ra**ati!al? or >le3i!al? (they *ay, in 'a!t, have ele*ents o' both). Chat is i*portant

is to unerstan ho% su!h e3pe!tations !an help stru!ture an arti!ulate lon,

!o*pli!ate, an elaborate e3pressions.

oer? o' the a!tion is in so*e

%ay spe!i'ie). Chile a !lause *ay !ontain other ele*ents, it *ust at least have a

sub5e!t an verb (o!!asionally either the sub5e!t or verb %ill be unerstoo 'ro*

!onte3t). < !lause *ay be inepenent (so*eti*es !alle a >*ain !lause?) or

epenent. suborinatin %or?, either a suborinatin !on5un!tion or a relative pronoun. uh? or a''G!t

b B betaF like the 4nlish >b?

g G a**aF a har >? as in >ain? or >ate?

d D eltaF like the 4nlish >?, but *ae aainst the teeth

e E epsilonF short >e? as in >e''ort? or >enery?

z Z ;etaF a >;? soun as in >raise?

h H etaF a lon vo%el soun as in >late? or >ate?

q Q thetaF an aspirate >t? as in >hot house?

i I iotaF %hen lon, as in >pie!e?, %hen short, as in >i'?

k K kappaF like 4nlish >k?l la*baF like 4nlish >l?

m ! *uF like 4nlish >*?

" # nuF like 4nlish >n?

$ % 3iF a >ks? soun, as in >a3e? or >%a3?

o & o*i!ronF a short >o? as in >on? or >o'ten?

' ( piF like 4nlish >p? but unaspirate as in >spin?

* rhoF a trille >r?

+, j - si*aF an unvoi!e >s? as in >hiss?

t . tauF an unaspirate >t? soun as in >still?, *ae aainst the teeth

u upsilonF as in >hoot? (at ti*es, tenser as in -ren!h >tu? or :er*an >Hben?)

f 0 phiF an aspirate >ph? soun as in >top hat?

1 2 !hiF an aspirate >kh? as in >ba!khoe?

3 4 psiF a >ps? soun as in >trips?

5 6 o*eaF a lon >o? as in >o%n? or >open?


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owel ounds

o%el souns are the phoneti!ally inispensable ele*ents o' any %or.

"onsonants !luster aroun vo%els, an a sinle vo%el by itsel' !onstitutes a syllable.

o%el souns in :reek !an be ivie into t%o !ateories$ si*ple vo%els (%hi!h have

lon an short values) an iphthons, %hi!h are 'or*e by blenin t%o si*ple

vo%els into a sinle vo%el soun. :reek vo%els souns are i''erent than 4nlish but

in *any %ays si*pler an *ore !onsistent. he si*ple vo%els, 'or e3a*ple, are >pure?

vo%els an have only t%o !losely relate values, %hi!h i''er only in their 8uantity an

slihtly in their 8uality, an :reek so*eti*es has t%o i''erent letters 'or lon an

short values o' the sa*e basi! vo%el soun. 4nlish, on the other han, has nu*erous

o'ten iphthoni;e values 'or a sinle vo%el letter, su!h as the >a? in the %ors >a''e!t?,

>apt?, >ate?, an >all?. he 'ollo%in table ives the 'ive pure vo%els o' :reek in their

lon an short values. hree o' the si*ple vo%els use the sa*e letter 'or both the lon

an the short 8uantities. In tea!hins te3ts, lon vo%els are so*eti*es *arke %ith astraiht line over the vo%el (the line is !alle a macron), %hile short vo%els are

enerally le't un*arke. Chen short vo%els are *arke, a s*all bo%e line stans

over the vo%el.

short vo%els lon vo%els

a as in >uh? a7 as in >'ather?

i as in >pit? or >in? i7 >ee? as in 'eet

u as in >put? u7 as in >hoot? but a tenser vo%el

e as in >e''ort? h as in >ate?o as in >on? or >o'ten? 5 as in >open? or >tone?

ee? as in 'eet

u as in >hoot?


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*iphthongs

here are eiht iphthons in :reek, t%o o' %hi!h, huan ui, are not as 're8uentas other iphthons. hey are$

ai as in >aisle?

au as in >kraut?

ei as in >%eih?

eu as in >e%e? or >you? (or *ore a!!urately >ehoo? run toether)

hu as in >hey you?

oi as in >oil?

ou as in >hoot?

ui as in >%e?

In aition to the eiht iphthons above, %hi!h are so*eti*es re'erre to as

>proper? iphthons, there are the so!alle >i*proper? or >lon? iphthons. I*proper

iphthons esinate vo%els that have a s*allsi;e iota pla!e ire!tly beneath the*.

Be!ause the iota is %ritten uner the vo%el, it is !alle an iota subscript. #nly three

vo%els !an take an iota subs!riptF they are$ 8, 9,8, 9,8, 9,8, 9, an::::. 4arlier in the !lassi!al perio,these iphthons %ere pronoun!e i''erently than the si*ple vo%els a, h, an 5, butlater on, even native :reek ra**arians state that 8, 9, an:%ere pronoun!e thesa*e as a, h, an 5. his te3t aopts that pra!ti!e, an so the stuent nee not try to

istinuish 8, 9, an:'ro* a, h, an 5in pronun!iation. he iota subs!ript *ust,ho%ever, al%ays be %ritten %hen it is part o' the spellin o' a %or. he 'ollo%in!hart pla!es e8uivalent souns toether on the sa*e line.

a 8 ah as in >'ather?

h 9 ei as in >ate?

5 : as in >open?

+ough and mooth reathing arks

"losely asso!iate %ith initial vo%els (vo%els at the beinnin o' a %or) are

breathin *arks. here are t%o breathin *arks, %hi!h look like raise !o**as

pointin in opposite ire!tions. hey are use to ini!ate the presen!e or absen!e o' an

>h? soun be'ore the initial vo%el. he s*ooth breathin *ark ()) ini!ates that there isno aspiration or >h? soun (e.. a);asouns like >ara?), an the rouh breathin *ark(


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"onsonants

/any !onsonants in :reek are si*ilar to those in 4nlish (>b? an bor >s? an +).here is, ho%ever, a type or !lass o' :reek soun that *akes 'iner istin!tions than the

!orresponin !lass in 4nlish. he souns that *ake up this !lass o' !onsonants are!alle >stops? or >plosives?. he ter* >stop? re'ers to the 'a!t that the soun is *ae by

brie'ly stoppin the air 'lo% at so*e point in the *outh an then releasin the pentup

air. he ter* >plosive? re'ers to the release o' breath %hi!h then >e3ploes? 'ro* the

point %here the air %as stoppe. In 4nlish, the stops or stoppe !onsonants are p, !, t,

d, k, g, an %hen they !o*e 'irst in a %or, they are al*ost al%ays aspirate, that is,

they are pronoun!e %ith an >h? soun or e3tra breath. "o*pare the soun o' >p? in

>pit? an >spit?. I' one hols the han 'airly !lose in 'ront o' the *outh an pronoun!es

the t%o %ors, one %ill 'eel a sliht pu'' o' air %ith the 'irst >p? but not %ith the se!on.

-or an 4nlish speaker, it is o'ten i''i!ult to tell the i''eren!e bet%een aspirate an

nonaspirate !onsonantsF they all ten to soun the sa*e.


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here are three letters that are so*eti*es orthoraphi!ally !on'usin 'or

beinners be!ause o' their si*ilarity in 'or* (but notin soun) to !ertain letters o' the

4nlish alphabet. he lo%er !ase nu >""""?, %hi!h has an >n? soun, rese*bles the shape o'an 4nlish >v?. he upper an lo%er !ase rho >an *?, %hi!h has a rouh or rolle >r?

soun, !an be !on'use %ith the 4nlish >p? an >P?, an the letter !hi >1111> an 2? %hi!hrepresents an aspirate >kh? soun, *ay suest the 4nlish letter >3?.

ylla!les and ylla!le *i.ision

he syllable is the *ost basi! an natural unit 'or pronoun!in a %or, an in

:reek, as in other lanuaes, a %or has as *any syllables as vo%els an iphthons.

he :reek %or di/d5mi, 'or e3a*ple, has three syllables sin!e it has the three vo%els i,5, an i. I' the souns o' :reek vo%els an !onsonants are pronoun!e !are'ully, one%ill ten to roup !onsonants %ith the riht vo%els an ivie %ors into syllables

instin!tively an o'ten !orre!tly. Sin!e, ho%ever, there %ill be a*biuous !ases, a *oreanalyti! unerstanin o' syllable ivision %ill not only help eli*inate !on'usion but

%ill also *ake !lear a 'as!inatin pro!ess o' lanuae that o'ten oes unnoti!e be!ause

it is usually per'or*e intuitively an taken 'or rante.

In orer to *ore easily is!uss syllable ivision it %ill be help'ul to think o'

vo%els an !onsonants in the abstra!t. So rather than is!uss alpha?s an epsilon?s or

kappa?s an beta?s, it is easier to speak o' ho% any vo%el or !onsonant %ill behave. o

assist %ith this pro!ess o' enerali;ation, a sinle sy*bol %ill represent any possible

vo%el soun an another sy*bol %ill stan 'or any possible !onsonant. he sy*bol >?

%ill represent vo%els an iphthons, the sy*bol >"? %ill represent !onsonants. Ciththese sy*bols, the *any possible !o*binations o' syllables !an be reu!e to three

basi! s!enarios. %o !onse!utive vo%els (not vo%els that !reate a iphthon)

!onstitute t%o syllables, an so the pattern is ivie . I' the !o*bination

" o!!urs, the syllable break !o*es bet%een the 'irst vo%el an the !onsonant, or

". I' the pattern "" o!!urs, it is ivie bet%een the t%o !onsonants (" J ").

here are t%o i*portant e3!eptions to these basi! syllable ivisions. In the

pattern "", i' the "" !onsists o' a stop ( ', b, f, t, d, q, k, g, 1) 'ollo%e byeither , l, m, or ", the t%o !onsonants are pronoun!e so !losely toether that theyusually behave as a sinle !onsonantal soun. hus, " an "llll %oul ivie " an J "llll respe!tively. he other e3!eption !on!erns the ouble !onsonants.Sin!e they a!tually represent t%o !onsonants souns, the !o*binations zzzz, $$$$, an3333 *ust be ivie ++++Jdddd, kkkk++++, an ''''++++. he basi! rules o' syllableivision are su**ari;e belo%.


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is ivie $

" is ivie $ "

"" is ivie " $ "

/"l or " is ivie $ "llllor $ "Accents

here are three a!!ents in :reek the a!ute ( /), the !ir!u*'le3 ( =), an therave ( ). here is still ebate as to the e3a!t pronun!iation o' a!!ents in an!ient:reek. 4vien!e ini!ates that the a!!ents oriinally involve pit!h an ini!ate a

hiher pit!h (a!ute), a 'allin pit!h (!ir!u*'le3), an an a5uste lo%er pit!h (rave).

Cithout a !onvin!in re!onstru!tion, ho%ever, the !onvention has be!o*e to stress the

syllable that bears the a!!ent. he pra!ti!e is aopte by this an *ost other te3tbooks.

0aradigms

< paradigmis a !onsistent, orerly listin o' the various 'or*s in %hi!h a iven

%or *ay o!!ur. < parai*, there'ore, is very use'ul in learnin the i''erent 'or*s

o' a parti!ular %or sin!e it !olle!ts the !o*binations o' ste* = enins into a loi!al

pattern. #ne e3a*ple o' a parai* is the 'ollo%in arrane*ent o' the presenttense

'or*s o' the verb @iveA. I' one observes !are'ully %hat ele*ents are e3a!tly the sa*e,

%hat ele*ents are si*ilar, an %hat ele*ents are i''erent, ea!h 'or* o' the verb 'alls

into the pattern ste* = !onne!tin vo%el = enin.

di/d5mi di/dome" di/ddi/ddi/ddi/d = 5555 = mimimimi di/ddi/ddi/ddi/d = oooo = me"me"me"me"

di/d5j di/dote di/ddi/ddi/ddi/d = 5555 = jjjj di/ddi/ddi/ddi/d = oooo = tetetete

di/d5+i dido/a+i di/ddi/ddi/ddi/d = 5555 = +i+i+i+i diddiddiddid = o/o/o/o/ = a+ia+ia+ia+i

In aition, ho%ever, to listin the 'or*s o' a single%or in an orerly %ay, a

parai* also provies a pattern 'or other si*ilar %ors. :reek %ors that >in'le!t?

(i.e. they take *ultiple enins) !an be roupe into !lasses or >'a*ilies?, an all the

%ors in a parti!ular 'a*ily roup ten to buil up their 'or*s in the sa*e or verysi*ilar %ays. hus, the pattern or >parai*? o' one representative %or !an serve as a

*oel a'ter %hi!h other %ors in the sa*e 'a*ily !an be !onstru!te. he parai* o'

di/d5mi, 'or e3a*ple, provies a pattern 'or a %hole !lass o' verbs !all >/Iverbs?, anso, i' the representative parai* di/d5miis learne %ell, other verbs that belon to the/Iverb 'a*ily are *u!h easier to learn. 4ven %hen there are variations %ithin a

parti!ular 'a*ily roup, it is ulti*ately 'ar less %ork to learn the variations as a


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eparture 'ro* a %ellestablishe parai* than to treat the* as entirely ne% an

unrelate pheno*ena.

he 'ollo%in si3'or* patterns o' three i*portant verbs illustrate the

use'ulness o' the parai*. the?) %hile :reek has t%enty'our 'or*s. he :reek %or

>the?, ho%ever, *ust be able to !orrespon %ith a noun a!!orin to its ener, %hether

the noun is sinular or plural, an a!!orin to ho% the noun is use in its senten!e. a? vo%els, %here the *as!uline an neuter !olu*ns are !hara!teri;e byvo%els that have so*e kin o' >o? soun.

he arti!le is one o' the *ost i*portant an *ost use %ors in :reek. Sin!e it

also e*ploys *any o' the vo%els an iphthons is!usse earlier in this !hapter, it

provies a use'ul pattern 'or pra!ti!in :reek vo%el souns. Chen *e*ori;in the

parai* 'or the arti!le, it is e3tre*ely i*portant to re!ite the 'or*s by ro%s beinnin

in the sinular an then *ovin to the plural. In other %ors, the parai* is re!ite

in ro%s o' three$ @o


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'a*ily? an 'ollo% the sa*e

parai*. hese 'or*s are liste aain belo% but this ti*e %ith their *eanins.

Sin!e all the present tense 'or*s o' di/d5mi, ti/qhmi, i


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1st @I pla!eA ti/qhmi ti/qeme" @%e pla!eA2n @you pla!eA ti/qhj ti/qete @you pla!eAr @he, she, it pla!esA ti/qh+i tiqe/a+i @they pla!eA

1st @I thro%A i


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ei


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a)ga'h/+eij to" 'lh+i/o" +ou 5


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"hapter wo

+ules of Accent 0lacement, hree 0atterns of er!,

eanings of the 0ronoun au)to/jau)to/jau)to/jau)to/j

Accents

ulti*a? *eans lastF

>penult? literally *eans >al*ost last? an there'ore, ini!ates the syllable ne3t to the last.

>ulti*a?, >penult?, an >antepenult? *ay at 'irst see*

unne!essarily te!hni!al, but in 'a!t they provie an easier an *ore e''i!ient %ay to


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esinate the syllables that *ust be analy;e in orer to eter*ine the kin an

pla!e*ent o' :reek a!!ents.

hree 3inds of ylla!les

In is!ussin the last three syllables (ulti*a, penult, antepenult) an the a!!ents

that !an be pla!e over the*, it %ill be !onvenient to represent syllables in a eneral

%ay rather than %ith spe!i'i! :reek letters. he sy*bol use in this te3t 'or the

abstra!tion o' a syllable is a !ir!le or an >o?. he last three syllables o' a %or %oul,

there'ore, be represente as >ooo?, an the eneri! syllable >o? that is a!!ente %oul

have one o' three 'or*s ( O, , Q ) epenin on %hi!h a!!ent it !arries. In aition to

the >o? sy*bol 'or the syllable o' a nor*al %or, the letter >e? %ill represent a syllable o'

a spe!ial kin o' %or kno%n as an >en!liti!? (en!liti!s ten to lose or ispla!e their

a!!ents). hus, the sy*bol >e? %oul stan 'or a onesyllable en!liti! %or %here >ee?

%oul stan 'or a t%osyllable en!liti!. -inally, the abbreviation >pro? %ill representanother kin o' %or %hi!h oes not have an a!!ent o' its o%n. Pro!liti! %ors are

al*ost al%ays onesyllable so the sy*bol >pro? !oul represent %ors like the :reek

prepositions >in? an >into? (e)", ei)j) or the :reek !on5un!tion >i'? (ei)).

owel 4uantity & Accent 0lacement

o%el 8uantity re'ers to the relative lenth or shortness o' vo%el souns an is a

istin!tion that %as a !riti!ally i*portant in an!ient :reek. he !ontrast o' lon an

short vo%els, 'or e3a*ple, is a key ele*ent in the poeti! *eters o' an!ient :reek analso helps eter*ine the a!!entuation o' :reek %ors.


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!hane to a rave a!!ent (an e3!eption %ill be treate belo%). he !ir!u*'le3 a!!ent

!an only stan on the last t%o syllables an !annot stan over a short vo%el (oo or

oo). he rave a!!ent !an only stan on the last syllable o' a %or (ooQ).

here are traitional na*es 'or the various possible pla!e*ents o' the a!!ent.

he na*es are reprou!e belo% an provie a !onvenient shorthan 'or es!ribin a

%or %hen it is a!!ente in a parti!ular %ay. In this te3t, ho%ever, %hen the te!hni!al

na*es 'or a!!ent pla!e*ent are use, they %ill usually be a!!o*panie by the

appropriate syllabi! iara* (e.. @a properispo*enon (oo) %orA). he variouspossible pla!e*ents o' the a!!ent are su**ari;e belo%.

oo5 o3ytone oo6 perispo*enon oo barytone

o5o paro3ytone o6o properispo*enon

5oo proparo3ytone

General +ules of Accent

1. Chere a!!ents *ay stan$

he a!ute a!!ent 8*ay stan on the last syllables (Ooo, oOo, ooO).

he !ir!u*'le3 a!!ent=*ay only stan on the last 2 syllables (oo, oo).

he rave 9*ay only stan on the last syllable (ooQ).

2. he !ir!u*'le3 a!!ent !an only stan over a lon vo%el or iphthon.

. Chen an a!ute a!!ent stans on the ulti*a (ooO) an is 'ollo%e by a %or in

!ontinuous narration, it is !hane to a rave (ooQ).

. Chen the ulti*a is lon,

a. the antepenult !annot be a!!ente.

b. ifthe penult is a!!ente, it *ust have an a!ute a!!ent (oOo).

. Chen the ulti*a is short,

a. ifthe penult the penult is lon, an

b. ifthe penult is a!!ente, it *ust have a !ir!u*'le3 (oo).6ote$ aian oias the last twoletters o' a %or are !ounte as short


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pecific +ules of Accent

In aition to eneral rules, !ertain spe!i'i! rules apply to !lasses o' %ors

(nouns, a5e!tives, verbs, et!.) an spe!i'i! !ases %ithin a !lass o' %ors. /any o' the

'ollo%in rules !on!ern nouns an 'in their 'ull appli!ation in later !hapters. Mere the

rules o' a!!ent are introu!e toether 'or a better overvie% an easier re'eren!e.

1. e!essive verb a!!ent.

In verbs, the a!!ent *oves away'ro* the ulti*a (to the le't) as *any syllables as

are allo%e by the eneral rules. #!!asionally, a !ontra!tion o' vo%els prou!es an

apparent !ontrai!tion to this rule. I' the antepenult (ooo) an penult (ooo) !ontra!t

an the antepenult ha an a!ute, the result is a !ir!u*'le3 on the penult (oo).

e)/luo", e)lu/ome", e)lu/ou, e)luo/mh", tima=te (tima/ete)

2. Persistent noun a!!ent.

In nouns an a5e!tives, the a!!ent re*ains, as *u!h as the eneral rules allo%,

on the syllable a!!ente in the no*inative 'or*. (he no*inative is the 'or* that %ill

be iven 'irst in vo!abulary lists an in parai*s.)

lo/goj, lo/gou oi)=koj, oi)/kou a)/"q5'oj, a)"q5/'ou

. #nesyllable nouns o' the thir e!lension.

I' a thire!lension noun is *onosyllabi! in the no*inative sinular, the a!!entis pla!e on the ulti*a in the t%osyllable 'or*s o' the enitive an ative.

kl5/3, kl5'o/j, kl5'i/, kl5='a

. #3ytone nouns (ooO) o' the 'irst an se!on e!lensions6ouns an pronouns o' the 'irst an se!on e!lension that a!!ent the ulti*a in

the no*inative !hane that a!!ent to a !ir!u*'le3 in the enitive an ative. Cors

su!h as the arti!le an the pronounau)to/j'ollo% the 'irst an se!on e!lensions.

au)to/j, au)tou=, au)t:=, au)to/" 3u1h/, 3u1h=j, 3u19=, 3u1h/"

Enclitic Accent

he ter* encliticis erive 'ro* the :reek verb >to lean on? an is so na*e

be!ause the en!liti! %or is pronoun!e so !losely %ith the pre!ein %or that it


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see*s to >lean ba!k? on it.

so*e%hat *ore involve be!ause t%o %ors *ust be taken into a!!ount in orer to

pla!e the a!!ent !orre!tly.

Chen the %or pre!ein the en!liti! is a %or %ith nor*al a!!ent (that is, it is

not a pro!liti! or another en!liti!), there are three basi! s!enarios 'or the pla!e*ent o'

en!liti! a!!ent. 1) he en!liti! thro%s its a!!ent ba!k on the pre!ein %or. 2) he

en!liti! keeps its a!!ent. ) he en!liti! loses its a!!ent entirely. %o eneral points

'urther li*it a!!ent possibilities. -irst o' all, i' a nor*ally a!!ente %or pre!ees an

en!liti!, that nor*al pre!ein %or %ill never have a rave a!!ent (ooQ). In other

%ors, a barytone %or (ooQ) be!o*es an o3ytone (ooO). Se!only, there is only one

s!enario in %hi!h the en!liti! %or %ill have any a!!ent at all, an that is %hen the

%or pre!ein the en!liti! a!!ents the penult (oOo) %ith an a!ute an is 'ollo%e by a

twosyllable en!liti! (oOo eG). I' the en!liti! is one syllable, it has no a!!ent (oOo e). It is

also i*portant to note that these rules re'er to the en!liti! an a pre!ein %or. I', 'ore3a*ple, a t%osyllable en!liti! has an a!ute a!!ent on its ulti*a (eG) an isfollowedby a

nor*ally a!!ente %or, the en!liti! *ust, a!!orin to eneral rule three, !hane its

a!ute to a rave (eG ooo be!o*es eR ooo).

Cith these eneral observations in pla!e, there are t%o possibilities le't 'or

en!liti! a!!ent. I' the a!!ent on the nor*al %or pre!ein the en!liti! stans as 'ar

a%ay 'ro* the ulti*a as possible (>e3tre*ele't? position, Ooo or oo), then that

pre!ein %or re!eives an e3tra a!!ent on its ulti*a. he en!liti! %or, o' !ourse, has

none. I', on the other han, the pre!ein %or a!!ents the ulti*a (>e3tre*eriht?

position ooO, oo, ooQ), the en!liti! %ill aain have no a!!ent an the only a5ust*ent to*ake is i' the pre!ein %or has a rave a!!ent (ooQ)F the rave a!!ent %ill be !hane

to an a!ute (ooO ee, e). he three basi! possibilities 'or a!!entin the en!liti! an its

pre!ein %or are iven in the 'ollo%in !hart.

1) oo/o oo/o ee/, eoo/o ee/, eoo/o ee/, eoo/o ee/, e "ea"i/ai ti"e/j, "ea"i/aj tij

2) o/oo o/oo/ ee, eo/oo/ ee, eo/oo/ ee, eo/oo/ ee, e a)/"q5'oi/ ti"ej, a)/"q5'o/j tij

oo=o oo=o/ ee, eoo=o/ ee, eoo=o/ ee, eoo=o/ ee, e 'loi=a/ti"a, 'loi=o/" ti

) ooo/ ooo/ ee, eooo/ ee, eooo/ ee, eooo/ ee, e o


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In all the !ases above, the en!liti! is pre!ee by a nor*ally a!!ente %or, but

an en!liti! *ay also 'ollo% %ors that o not possess their o%n a!!ent (pro!liti!s an

other en!liti!s). Chen an en!liti! is pre!ee by a pro!liti! or another en!liti!, the

en!liti! oes not itsel' have an a!!ent but lens its a!!ent to the previous %or (pr5 eor

pr5 ee). In the !ase o' !onse!utive en!liti!s an pro!liti!s, all the %ors in su!h a

se8uen!e bear an a!ute a!!ent e3!ept the last (prO G G ee).

pr5 e ei)/ tij

pr5 : : ee ei)/ 'ou/ ti/j ti"a i)/doi e)1qo/"

4n!liti! %ors enerally have ine'inite or so*e%hat >transparent? *eanins.

so*e? or >a !ertain? (tij ti), an an e3a*ple o' a>transparent? %or is the verb >to be? (ei)mi/), %hi!h si*ply links sub5e!t an prei!ate.I', ho%ever, en!liti!s are use e*phati!ally, then they re!eive an a!!ent. In the !ase o'

the verb >to be?, i' the verb is use to e*phasi;e e3isten!e, it is o'ten pla!e 'irst in its

!lause an it has re!essive (nonen!liti!) a!!ent as any other verb. hus, the 'or* o' >to

be? that is a!!ente e)/+ti*eans >there is? be!ause the 'a!t o' e3isten!e is e*phasi;erather than a si*ple e8uivalen!e bet%een a sub5e!t an a prei!ate. he parai* 'or

ei)mi/, %hi!h is slihtly irreular, is iven belo%.

Present ense o' @I a*A (en!liti! in all 'or*s e3!ept ei)=@you areA)

1st ei)mi/ e)+me/"

2n ei)= e)+te/r e)+ti/ ei)+i/

er! ;amilies

"hapter #ne introu!e a han'ul o' verbs that belon to the sa*e !lass or

'a*ily kno%n as # .er!s. In :reek, ho%ever, there is a se!on 'a*ily o' verbs kno%n

as mega .er!s,%hi!h uses i''erent enins an a i''erent syste* o' !onne!tin

vo%els. 4ven thouh these t%o 'a*ilies look rather i''erent, they both !arry out the

sa*e kins o' 'un!tions. Both types o' verb take a basi! >a!tion? iea an then spe!i'ythe sub5e!t %ith !ertain enins, %hi!h ini!ate the sub5e!t or >oer? o' the a!tion.

In aition to these t%o !learly e'ine verb roups, there are verbs !alle

deponents. Deponent verbs *iht, at 'irst, see* like they !onstitute a thir verbal

'a*ily be!ause their enins look 8uite i''erent 'ro* both /I an o*ea verbs.

6evertheless, eponent verbs o, in 'a!t, belon to either the /Iverb or the o*ea

verb 'a*ilies. he eponent verb du/"amai(I a* able), 'or e3a*ple, belons to the /I


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verb 'a*ily, an the verb e)/1omai(I !o*e, o) belons to the o*ea verb 'a*ily (In!lassi!al :reek, *ost eponent verbs are o*eaverbs).


24/212


@I set upA (@to set upA i


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preeter*ine !onne!tin vo%els, so that the enins 5, eij, ei, ome", ete, ou+iaresi*ply ae to the verb ste*. he reat avantae o' this *etho o' !on5uation is

that the sa*e pattern o' enins !an be pla!e on any presenttense verb in the o*ea

'a*ily. here is no nee to learn a spe!i'i! lonshort pair o' vo%els 'or ea!h ne% verb.

/ost eponent verbs %ill 'ollo% the pattern o' verbs like e)/1omai(I !o*eo)an te!hni!ally belon to the o*ea verb 'a*ily. he enins omai, ei, etai, omeqa,e+qe, o"tai are ire!tly to the eponent ste*. < very 'e% eponents belon to the /I'a*ily, the *ost i*portant o' %hi!h is the verb du/"amai(I a* able). he keyi''eren!es are that the !onne!tin vo%el %ill be the sa*e throuhout, an the enin

'or the @you sinularA 'or* %ill be enin +aiinstea o' ei.

0racticing er! ;orms, "reating asic entences

So*e sinle verb 'or*s !an stan in isolation an yet provie a !o*plete thouh

very basi! iea o' a sub5e!t oin an a!tion, %hi!h re8uires no 'urther spe!i'i!ation.

#ne su!h 'or* !oul be taken 'ro* the parai* o' the :reek verb @I !o*e, oA,

e)1o/meqa (%e o), 'or e3a*ple, or e)/1etai(he, she, it oes). he verbs @I hearA an@I seeA !oul !on!eivably stan on their o%n, but their *eanins !reate the very stron

e3pe!tation that the sub5e!t %ill >hear? so*ethin or >see? so*ethin. ike%ise the verb

@I iveA al*ost e*ans that the sub5e!t >ive? so*ethin an very likely >ive?

so*ethin >to? so*eone. < verb like @I %ishA also e*ans another %or to 'ill out its

*eanin, but in this !ase the verb @I %ishA re8uires an in'initive, e.. @I %ish to oA.

eanings of au)to/j au)th/ au)to/au)to/j au)th/ au)to/au)to/j au)th/ au)to/au)to/j au)th/ au)to/

In orer to pra!ti!e !reatin the various verb 'or*s, it %ill be help'ul to have

thirperson personal pronouns. he 'or*s o' the pronoun @he, she, it, et!.A have

alreay been introu!e 'or pronun!iation pra!ti!e. Belo%, *eanins are iven 'or the

'or*s o' au)to/j. 6o *eanins are iven 'or the sub5e!t 'or*s sin!e :reek oes not usethese 'or*s to e3press @he, she, it, or theyAF instea, the verb alone an the !onte3t o' a

passae %ill i*ply the thirperson sub5e!ts.

au)to/j au)th/ au)to/ au)toi/ au)tai/ au)ta/au)tou= his au)th=j her au)tou=its au)t5=" their au)t5=" their au)t5=" their

au)t:=to hi*au)t9=to her au)t:=to it au)toi=j to the*au)tai=j to the*au)toi=j to the*

au)to/" hi* au)th/" her au)to/ it au)tou/j the* au)ta/j the* au)ta/ the*


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"hapter hree

"ase and the "ase ystem

he ra**ati!al ter* >!ase? re'ers to ho% a noun or pronoun is use in asenten!e. < noun, 'or e3a*ple, *ay 'un!tion as the sub5e!t o' the senten!e (the oer o'

the a!tion) or as the ire!t ob5e!t (the ire!t re!ipient o' the a!tion). he sub5e!t an

ire!t ob5e!t o' a senten!e !onstitute t%o i''erent !ase 'un!tions. By e3tension, >!ase?

*ay also *ean theformo' a noun that sho%s ho% the noun isfunctioningin the

senten!e. In :reek there are 'our !ases that are *arke by istin!tive noun eninsF

they are no*inative, enitive, ative, an a!!usative. Chile this *ay see* to be 8uite a

'e%, in the an!estor lanuaes to :reek there %ere eiht !ases istinuishe by

i''erent enins. (he eiht !ases are still atteste in a sister lanuae o' :reek,

na*ely, Sanskrit.) he oriinal eiht !ases are liste belo% alon %ith a brie'

es!ription o' their basi! sini'i!an!e.

henominati.eesinates the sub5e!t an all %ors areein %ith the sub5e!t.

he.ocati.eis the >!allin? !ase an is use 'or ire!t aress.

hegeniti.eis the !ase o' a noun that li*its other nouns an is !o**only use

to sho% possession.

hea!lati.esho%s separation 'ro* another noun or pronoun.

hedati.eini!ates the noun or pronoun inire!tly a''e!te, an its *ost

obvious use is as the inire!t ob5e!t.

helocati.eini!ates the pla!e or lo!ation %here so*eone or so*ethin is

'oun or %here the verbal a!tion takes pla!e.

heinstrumentalsho%s the *eans by %hi!h an a!tion is a!!o*plishe.

heaccusati.eis the !ase that li*its the verb an is pri*arily use to sho% the

ire!t ob5e!t. It *ay also ini!ate *otion to%ar so*eone or so*ethin.

In the oriinal syste* o' eiht !ases, nouns alone, si*ply by *eans o' their

enins, !oul ini!ate all the basi! %ays in %hi!h a noun !oul be use. #!!asionally

these uses %ere 'urther spe!i'ie by averbs. #ver ti*e !ertain averbs be!a*e so


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2012, Byron Stayskal2+

!losely ienti'ie %ith parti!ular !ases that they %ere reinterprete as >overnin? or

>takin? a noun in a !ertain !ase, an in this %ay prepositions !a*e into bein. Cith

ti*e an use, the oriinal !ases bean to be %orn o%n an !ertain istin!tive 'or*s

%ere lost. -or :reek, the result %as that the oriinal eiht !ases %ere reu!e to 'our

(or 'ive i' the vo!ative !ase, %hi!h o!!asionally i''ers 'ro* the no*inative, is !ounte

as a istin!t !ase).

In the reu!tion 'ro* eiht !ases to 'our, three !ase 'or*s took over the 'un!tion

o' !ases %hose istin!tive 'or*s %ere lost. he no*inative absorbe the vo!ative !ase,

the enitive !ase %as also use to e3press the ablative an so*eti*es the lo!ative

'un!tions, an the ative !ase took over the 'un!tions o' the lo!ative an instru*ental.

"onse8uently, the enitive an ative !ases in :reek have *ore istin!tive uses than

the no*inative an a!!usative.

4ven %hen !ase 'or*s isappear, !ase 'un!tion (ho% the noun is use) re*ains.

his is true o' both :reek an 4nlish. 4nlish too !an be tra!e ba!k to the Ino

4uropean parent lanuae, but %hile 4nlish has lost al*ost all its !ase 'or*s, %ith thee3!eption o' so*e pronouns, it still e3hibits the !ase 'un!tions o' :reek an its Ino

4uropean parent lanuae as %ell. ery o'ten, as !ase 'or*s isappear, prepositions

an then %or orer take over the 'un!tion o' ini!atin ho% a noun is bein use in a

senten!e. In :reek, prepositions o'ten sho% su!h relations as lo!ation an separation.

In 4nlish prepositions ini!ate lo!ation, separation, instru*ent, possession, an *u!h

o' the ti*e the inire!t ob5e!t. he no*inative an a!!usative !ase 'un!tions are

!onveye in 4nlish throuh %or orer.

he 'ollo%in !hart iven belo% is not an e3haustive es!ription o' the :reek

syste* o' !ase 'or*s. It ives only the *ost basi! !orresponen!e o' the 'our :reek!ases to si*ilar 'un!tions in 4nlish. he !hart, *oreover, only re'ers to :reek nouns

%hen they 'un!tion on their o%n, that is, %hen nouns sho% their 'un!tion throuh !ase

enins alone, not %hen the nouns are ob5e!ts o' prepositions.

"ase ame asic ;unction(s) ranslation


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um!er and Gender

he ra**ati!al ter* >nu*ber? ini!ates %hether a noun is sinular (one) or

plural (*ore than one). he noun >!hil?, 'or e3a*ple, ini!ates only one !hil, %here

>!hilren? i*plies *ore than one. In aition to sinular an plural nu*ber, an!ient

:reek also ha a ual nu*ber that ini!ate only t%o *e*bers. he ual nu*ber is

not nearly as !o**on as the sinular an plural an o!!urs *ore in the Mo*eri!

poe*s than in the :reek o' 'i'th!entury *other? is 'e*inine, the %or 'or>'ather? is *as!uline, an the reasons 'or ea!h ener are obvious. It is not, ho%ever, so

obvious %hy >'orest? (ue!lension? is also use to esinate

a !lass or 'a*ily o' nouns that share the sa*e pattern o' enins.

here are three noun !lasses or 'a*ilies, an in :reek ra**ar it is !usto*ary to

speak o' three e!lensions. here are i''erent patterns o' enins that are use 'or

ea!h e!lension, an nouns that belon to one 'a*ily o not take enins asso!iate

%ith another. here *ay be variant patterns o' enins even %ithin a parti!ular

e!lension, but these are a *atter o' s*all i''eren!es an o not obs!ure the stron

'a*ily rese*blan!e bet%een the nouns that belon to a parti!ular e!lension. -inally it

shoul be sai that the enins use in any o' the e!lensions are arbitrary. #nee!lension e3presses the iea o' ative an sinular %ith an >iiii?, another %ith an >::::?,another %ith an >9999?.


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he hird *eclension

he thir e!lension %ill be the 'irst o' the three :reek e!lensions stuie. It

!o*es in t%o variations (so*eti*es !alle reular an irreular), an its neuter 'or*s

i''er slihtly 'ro* the 'or*s use by *as!uline an 'e*inine nouns. he !hara!teristi!

enins o' this e!lension are liste belo%. he no*inative 'or* is not reaily

prei!table, an so the ste* onto %hi!h enins are ae *ust be erive not 'ro*

the no*inative sinular (the 'irst 'or*) but 'ro* the enitive sinular (e.. 'ai=j,'aid'aid'aid'aido/j). he e!lensional enin >>oj? is roppe 'ro* the enitive sinular, an thenthe other enins !an be ae to the ste* o' the enitive 'or*. Ener the

*as!uline'e*inine sinular a!!usative, t%o enins are liste >aan >". he enin>a? is *ore 're8uent, an *as!uline an 'e*inine nouns o' the thir e!lension !an beassu*e to take the alpha in the a!!usative sinular unless other%ise note.

*eclensional Endings

/as!uline & -e*inine 6euter

Sinular Plural Sinular Plural

>> ej >> aoj 5" oj 5"

i +i i +ia (") aj >> a

Besies kno%in the basi! enins, it is i*portant to have *e*ori;e !ertain

*oel nouns. he e!lension o' spe!i'i! nouns not only *akes the parai* *ore

vivi, it also points out phoneti! or orthoraphi! !hanes that o!!asionally o!!ur %hen

an enin !o*es in !onta!t %ith !ertain 'inal souns o' the ste*. In the thir

e!lension the *ost 're8uent o' su!h !hanes o!!urs in the ative plural. he si*a o'

>+i? o'ten !o*bines %ith the last letter o' the ste* an so*e%hat isuises the reular

prin!iple o' ste* = enins (e.. @'or the %o*enA tai=j gu"ai$i/'ro* gu"aikgu"aikgu"aikgu"aik+i/).It %ill also be noti!e 'ro* the list o' thir e!lension nouns that their eners!annot be prei!te 'ro* their 'or*. his is true o' *any nouns in :reek but espe!ially

those o' the thir e!lension. 43!ept %hen *eanins are so ener spe!i'i! as to

re*ove all oubt (*an, %o*an, *other, 'ather et!.), the ener *ust be learne alon

%ith the no*inative an enitive 'or*s o' the %or. o!abulary lists an i!tionaries

%ill, there'ore, ive the no*inative, enitive, an ener o' ea!h noun.


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>!hil? *' >thie'? * >uar? *

(at. pl. d = +i T +i) (at. pl. ' = +i T 3i) (at. pl. k = +i T $i)

sin plur sin plur sin plur

'ai=j 'ai=dej kl5/3 kl5='ej fu/la$ fu/lakej

'aido/j 'ai/d5" kl5'o/j kl5'5=" fu/lakoj fula/k5"

'aidi/ 'ai+i/ kl5'i/ kl53i/ fu/laki fu/la$i

'ai=da 'ai=daj kl5='a kl5='aj fu/laka fu/lakaj

>boy? n >eity, o? *' >ol *an? *

(at. pl. t = +i T +i) (at. pl. " = +i T o+i) (at. pl. "t = +i T ou+i)


+5=ma +5/mata dai/m5" dai/mo"ej ge/5" ge/o"tej

+5/matoj +5ma/t5" dai/mo"oj daimo/"5" ge/o"toj geo/"t5"

+5/mati +5/ma+i dai/mo"i dai/mo+i ge/o"ti ge/ou+i

+5=ma +5/mata dai/mo"a dai/mo"aj ge/o"ta ge/o"taj

ariations within hird *eclension

In aition to the t%o basi! e!lension patterns ('ai=jan +5=ma, 'or e3a*ple),

there are so*e i*portant variations 'oun %ithin the thire!lension 'a*ily o' nouns.Chile so*e o' the ne% patterns *ay at 'irst see* 8uite i''erent 'ro* the parai* o' a

noun like 'ai=j, all still *ake use o' the basi! patterns o' enin su**ari;e in the!hart o' thir e!lension enins. Chile it is i*portant to observe an learn iniviual

i''eren!es 'ro* one variant to the other, it is even *ore i*portant to see the

unerlyin pattern share by all thire!lension nouns.

#rregular Accent

So*e thir e!lension nouns only i''er 'ro* >nor*al? 'or*s in havin aso*e%hat une3pe!te a!!ent pattern. he :reek %or 'or %o*an is gu"h/, gu"aiko/j,an sin!e the %or has *ore than one syllable in its 'irst 'or*, one %oul e3pe!t that

the a!!ent %oul persist on the penulti*ate syllable (e.., gu"ai=i=i=i=koj). Instea, itsa!!ent pattern 'ollo%s that o' thir e!lension nouns like kl5/3%hi!h have only onesyllable in the no*inative sinular. he noun gu"h/, like kl5/3, a!!ents the lastsyllable o' the enitive an ative both sinular an plural be'ore the a!!ent *oves


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ba!k to the penult in no*inative plural an the a!!usative sinular an plural. he

enins o' gu"h/, ho%ever, are entirely reular, in!luin the ative plural .

>%o*an, %i'e? '

sin plur

gu"h/ gu"ai=kej

gu"aiko/j gu"aik5="

gu"aiki/ gu"ai$i/ (gu"aik= +i T gu"ai$i/)

gu"ai=ka gu"ai=kaj

Accusati.e ingular in ="""">

In the table o' reular thir e!lension enins, the a!!usative sinular enin

'or *as!uline an 'e*inine nouns %as iven as a%ith a variant in". he alphaenin is by 'ar *ore !o**on, but there are thir e!lension %ors %hi!h use the nu

'or the a!!usative *' 'or*. In so*e !ases, su!h as in the :reek %or 'or >bir? (o)/"ij),either a!!usative enin *ay o!!ur.

AbirA *' (at. pl. iq = +i T i+i) Ara!e, 'avorA ' (at. pl. it = +i T i+i)

sin plur sin plur

o)/"ij o)/"iqej 1a/ij 1a/itej

o)/"iqoj o)"i/q5" 1a/itoj 1ai/t5"o)/"iqi o)/"i+i 1a/iti 1a/i+i

o)/"i" (o)/"iqa) o)/"iqaj 1a/i" 1a/itaj

In the 'ollo%in nouns, either an >o? or >u? vo%el is the last soun o' the ste*, an these

vo%el souns o!!asionally !ontra!t %ith the vo%els o' the !ase enin (e.. a!! plur).

Ao3, !o%A *' A'ishA *

sin plur sin plur

bou=j bo/ej i)1qu/j i)1qu/ej

boo/j bo5=" i)1qu/oj i)1qu/5"

boi;/ bou+i/ i)1qu/i; i)1qu/+i

bou=" bou=j i)1qu/" i)1qu=j


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tems with a *isappearing ylla!le

Several i*portant :reek nouns like >*an?, >'ather?, an >*other? have a ste* that

ens in Jealthouh this ele*ent is isuise in *ost o' the e!line 'or*s. he

!hallene o' this type o' noun is not the noun?s e!line enins, %hi!h look 5ust asthey o in nor*al %ors like 'ai=jor kl5/3. Instea, the i''i!ulty !o*es in prou!inthe !orre!t 'or*s o' the ste* sin!e an epsilon or eta so*eti*es appears in the ste* an

so*eti*es it is roppe. In aition, the ative plural as an alpha to the ste* be'ore

appenin the reular enin J+i.

>*an? * >'ather? * >*other? '


a)"h/ a)/"dej 'ath/ 'ate/ej mh/th mhte/ej

a)"do/j a)"d5=" 'ato/j 'ate/5" mhto/j mhte/5"

a)"di/ a)"da/+i 'ati/ 'ata/+i mhti/ mhta/+i

a)/"da a)/"daj 'ate/a 'ate/aj mhte/a mhte/aj

>#rregular> hird-*eclension ouns

In the 'ollo%in irreular nouns, the nor*al thire!lension enins are still

re!oni;able, but !ertain phoneti! !hanes have taken pla!e. he enitives ba+ile/5jan 'o/le5j%ere oriinally ba+ilh=ojan 'o/lhoj, but these 'or*s later e3perien!ea reversal o' vo%el lenth in their last t%o syllables. (Su!h a reversal is !alle

8uantitative *etathesis, an it shoul be note that their later 'or*s are easier to

pronoun!e than their earlier 'or*s.) he ative sinular in all three o' the *oel nouns

has !ontra!te, an in the neuter noun o)/ojthe enitive sinular an plural, an theno*inative an a!!usative plural have also !ontra!te. (he 'or*s o)/eojan o)e/5",o)/eaan o)/eaalso appear in an!ient :reek.)

>kin? * >!ity? ' >*ountain? n


ba+ileu/j ba+ilei=j 'o/lij 'o/leij o)/oj o)/oj o)/h o)/ea

ba+ile/5j ba+ile/5" 'o/le5j 'o/le5" o)/eojo)/ouj o)5=" o)e/5"

ba+ilei= ba+ileu=+i 'o/lei 'o/le+i o)/ei; o)/ei o)/e+i o)/e+i

ba+ile/a ba+ile/aj 'o/li" 'o/leij o)/oj o)/oj o)/h o)/ea


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he *eclension of =hip> ("au=j"au=j"au=j"au=j)

ship? in the Mo*eri! poe*s reveals that

the e!lension o' the %or preserve 'ro* an earlier perio is a!tually *ore reular.

>ship? ' >ship? ' (Mo*eri! 'or*s)

sin plur sin plur

"au=j "h=ej "hu=j "h=ej

"e/5j "e5=" "ho/j "h5="

"hi/ "au+i/ "hi;/ "h/e++i

"au=" "au=j "h=a "h=aj

he *efinite Article ( oa, an?.

:reek, on the other han, has no ine'inite arti!le. In translatin :reek, it %ill,

there'ore, be ne!essary to !onsier %hether a :reek noun %ithout an arti!le shoul betranslate %ith or %ithout the 4nlish %or >a? or >an?. "onte3t an a sense o' 4nlish

iio* %ill usually ini!ate the !orre!t translation.

!hil? or >a !hil?), it is

essential that the arti!le !an be paire %ith its intene noun an not be !on'use %ith

other nouns in the senten!e. In other %ors, the arti!le *ust be keye to its noun an

*ust be able to re'er to nouns that are sinular or plural, *as!uline, 'e*inine, or neuter,

an in any o' the 'our !ases. his pro!ess is a!!o*plishe by asso!iatin %ith the noun

a parti!ular 'or* o' the arti!le that !onveys the sa*e !o*bination o' nu*ber, ener,an !ase as ini!ate in noun?s enin. < noun, 'or e3a*ple, that is plural, 'e*inine,

an ative %oul be pre!ee by an arti!le %hose 'or* also ini!ates plural, 'e*inine,

an ative (i.e. >tai=j?). It is i*portant to note that althouh the arti!le al*ost al%ayspre!ees its noun, other arti!les an nouns *ay !o*e betweenthe arti!le an its noun.

inkin an arti!le %ith a noun by *at!hin the arti!le?s nu*ber, ener, an

!ase %ith those o' the noun is !alle >aree*ent? in ra**ati!al ter*s. hus, the basi!


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prin!iple o' the arti!le is that it *ust al%ays aree %ith the noun it *oi'ies in nu*ber,

ener, an !ase.


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he %or au)to/jhas three istin!t uses, %hi!h !an be esinate as >intensive?,>ienti!al?, an >prono*inal?. I', 'or e3a*ple, au)to/jis use in the no*inative !ase, itintensi'ies the sub5e!t. he sub5e!t *ay be an unerstoo sub5e!t pronoun, or it *ay be

an e3presse noun, but in either !ase, au)to/je*phasi;es the sub5e!t an is enerally

translate as >hi*sel'?, >hersel'?, >itsel'?, >the*selves? epenin on the nu*ber anener o' the sub5e!t.

In the obli8ue !ases (all !ases but the no*inative), %hen au)to/jarees %ith anoun it *ay be use in one o' t%o %ays. I' au)to/jis outsidethe arti!le nounphrase(prei!ate position), then it intensi'ies the noun an *ay be translate 5ust as in the

no*inative (>hi*sel'?, >hersel'?, >itsel'?, >the*selves?). I' au)to/jis insidethe arti!lenounphrase (attributive position), then it e*phasi;es the ientity o' the noun an is

translate as >the sa*e?. -inally, i' it is use in the obli8ue !ases an oes not aree

%ith a noun, then it 'un!tions as the thir person pronoun an !an be translate >his,

hi*, her, it, their, the*? epenin on the !ase an nu*ber. hus, the uses o' au)to/j

*ay be su**ari;e uner three heains.

1) In the no*inative au)to/jis intensive.

2) to'or her? (au)t9=), >to'or it?(au)t:=), >to the*? (au)toi=j, au)tai=j, au)toi=j). he a!!usative !orrespons to thirperson pronouns use as ire!t ob5e!tsF the 4nlish e8uivalents, there'ore, are >hi*?

(au)to/"), >her? (au)th/"), >it? (au)to/), >the*? (au)tou/j, au)ta/j, au)ta/).

0repositions


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on %hi!h !ase o' the noun is use. Mistori!ally, ho%ever, the i''erent !ases o' the

nouns %ere eter*ine not by the preposition, %hi!h %as oriinally only an averb,

but by the 'un!tion o' the noun in an eiht!ase syste*. #ver ti*e, the averb

raually aine a 'i3e asso!iation %ith a parti!ular !ase.

I' the *eanin o' a preposition is !onsiere in relation to the oriinal 'un!tions

o' the :reek !ase syste*, the reason %hy a parti!ular preposition takes a !ertain !ase

o'ten be!o*es !lear. he prepositionsa)'o/>'ro*? or e)k>out o'? both sho% separationan are !onse8uently asso!iate %ith the ol ablative !ase sin!e the ablative?s 'un!tion

is to sho% separation. In :reek, ho%ever, the ablative 'un!tion, has been taken over by

the enitive !ase, soa)'o/an e)kare asso!iate %ith the enitive. he preposition e)">in? !onveys the iea o' lo!ation an there'ore takes the lo!ative !ase. Sin!e the lo!ative

'un!tion is usually !o**uni!ate by the :reek ative !ase (thouh so*eti*es by the

enitive), the preposition e)"loi!ally takes the :reek ative. he a!!usative !ase is,te!hni!ally e'ine, the !ase that li*its a verbal iea an is best kno% 'or the 'un!tion

o' the ire!t ob5e!t (%hi!h li*its the s!ope o' the verb). Prepositions that sho% *otionto%ars so*ethin also li*it the s!ope o' a!tion an !onse8uently take the a!!usative.

< nu*ber o' prepositions take *ore than one !ase an usually sho% so*e%hat

i''erent *eanins epenin on %hat !ase is use. he preposition'aa/, 'ore3a*ple, *eans >'ro* the sie o'? %ith the enitive, >at or alonsie o'? %ith the ative,

an >to%ar the sie o'? %ith the a!!usative. he preposition e)'i/*eans >onto? (*otionto%ars) %ith the a!!usative an >on? (lo!ation) %ith the enitive andative !ase.

(Be'ore the ative !ase e!isively took over the lo!ative !ase the enitive !ase %as also

use to sho% lo!ation, an e)'i/preserves both possibilities.)

here are, as %ell, prepositions %hose use has been !onsierably e3tene 'ro*their oriinal literal sini'i!an!e, so it is less obvious %hy they !a*e to take a !ertain

!ase an !onvey a parti!ular *eanin. Cith this type o' preposition, it is, there'ore,

espe!ially i*portant to *e*ori;e the parti!ular !ase or !ases asso!iate %ith the

preposition an the i''erent *eanins asso!iate %ith i''erent !ases.

he 'ollo%in list o' prepositions is by no *eans e3haustive, but it oes present

so*e o' the *ost 're8uently use prepositions in :reek. he list arranes prepositions

a!!orin to the nu*ber o' !ases they !an take or >overn?. he 'irst three roups o'

prepositions !an only be 'ollo%e by one !ase (enitive, ative, or a!!usative). he ne3t

roup o' prepositions !an take either o' t%o !ases (enitive or a!!usative), an the last

roup !an take any one o' three !ases (enitive, ative, a!!usative). I' a preposition !an

take *ore than one !ase, it %ill enerally have i''erent *eanins epenin on the

parti!ular !ase o' the %or overne by the preposition. (Di''erent *eanins o' the

preposition %hi!h are ue to i''erent !ases are separate %ith a ba!kslash @ @, but

i''erent *eanins o' the preposition %ith the sa*e !ase are separate by !o**as.)


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preposition !ase(s) *eanins

a)'o/ %geniti.e 'ro*e)k @ out o', 'ro*

e)" %dati.e in

a)"a/ %accusati.e upei)j @ into, to'o/j @ to, to%ar

dia/ %geniti.e, accusati.e throuh on a!!ount o'u


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"hapter ;our

er!s in General

he verb *akes a state*ent about the sub5e!t o' the senten!e an ini!ates ana!tion or state asso!iate %ith that sub5e!t. hat a!tion or state, *oreover, !an be

spe!i'ie a!!orin to tense, voi!e, *oo, nu*ber, an person.

enseini!ates the ti*e o' the a!tion an o'ten ini!ates %hether the a!tion is

si*ple, !ontinuous, or !o*plete. here are seven tenses in :reek$ present,

i*per'e!t, aorist, 'uture, per'e!t, pluper'e!t, an 'uture per'e!t (the 'uture per'e!t

is 8uite rare).

oicesho%s %hether the sub5e!t is a!tin or a!te upon, that is, %hether the

sub5e!t is oin the a!tion or re!eivin the a!tion o' the verb.

oodini!ates %hether the a!tion o' the verb is !onsiere as real or potential,

a!tual or possible.

um!erini!ates %hether the sub5e!t is sinular (one person or thin a!tin) or

plural (*ore than one person or thin a!tin).

0ersonsho%s %hether the sub5e!t is speakin (>I? or >%e?), is spoken to (>you? or

>you? plural), or is spoken about (>he, she, itF they?).

< verbal 'or* *ay be 'inite, that is, li*ite in person an nu*ber, or it *ay be

an in'initive, %hi!h *eans that it oes not ini!ate person an nu*ber. In 4nlish

in'initives are usually pre!ee by the %or >to? (to ive, to o, et!.). In :reek, present,

aorist, 'uture, an per'e!t in'initives take the enins >>>>"ai"ai"ai"ai, >>>>aiaiaiai, >>>>e"aie"aie"aie"ai, >>>>+qai+qai+qai+qai,,,, or >>>>ei"ei"ei"ei".

er! ;amilies

In :reek there are t%o basi! !lasses or 'a*ilies into %hi!h verbs !an be ivie,

# .er!san omega .er!s('or pra!ti!al reasons, as *entione in "hapter %o, a thir

'a*ily is ae, na*ely, deponent .er!s, verbs su!h e)/1omaiandu/"amai). he /Iverb an o*eaverb 'a*ilies are na*e a'ter the enin o' the 'irst 'or* o' the present

tense (lu/5an di/d5mi, 'or e3a*ple).


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aorist tenses) an even here they have si*ilarities. he !hart belo% reprou!es the

pattern o' presenttense enins 'or the t%o basi! verb 'a*ilies plus eponent enins.

# er!s 6666er!s *eponent er!s

mi me" 5 ome" mai meqaj te eij ete +ai (ei) +qe+i a+i ei ou+i tai "tai

# .er!s

e!hni!ally the ste* o' /I erbs ens in a vo%el (%hi!h is easily vie%e as a

!onne!tin vo%el). he /I verb?s !hara!teristi! enins (mi, j, +i, me", te, a+i) areae ire!tly to this ste* vo%el. I ive? >I pla!e? >I thro%?

di/d5mi di/dome" ti/qhmi ti/qeme" io? or >e? vo%el bet%een the ste* o' the verb anthe verbal enin. hese >the*ati! vo%els? (oe) so*eti*es appear isuise be!ausethey have been lenthene, but the basi! pattern o' the the*ati! vo%els is re!oni;able.

he reat avantae o' o*ea verbs is that the sa*e pattern o' enins !an be pla!e


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on any present tense verb in the o*eaverb 'a*ily. here is no nee to learn a spe!i'i!

lonshort pair o' vo%els 'or ea!h ne% verb. Belo% are the the*ati! vo%els alone.

sinular plural

1st oooo oooo2n eeee eeeer eeee oooo

In the t%o 'ollo%in e3a*ples o' o*ea verbs in the present tense, the 'irst, lu/5,has reular o*eaverb enins ae to a ste* that happens to en in a vo%el. he

se!on verb, 'e/m'5, takes the sa*e enins an as the* to a ste* that ens in t%o!onsonants. he ste* *akes no i''erent in the enins use.

>I loose? >I sen?

1st lu/5 lu/ome" 'e/m'5 'e/m'ome"

2n lu/eij lu/ete 'e/m'eij 'e/m'ete

r lu/ei lu/ou+i 'e/m'ei 'e/m'ou+i

*eponent er!s

Deponent verbs take their o%n set o' enins that look 8uite i''erent 'ro*

either o*ea or /I verbs, an !onse8uently, they %ill 'or pra!ti!al purposes be treateas their o%n 'a*ily. /ore pre!isely, ho%ever, verbs like du/"amai@I a* ableA belonsto the /I verb 'a*ily, an verbs like e)/1omai@I !o*eoA belon to the o*ea verb'a*ily. I a* able? >I !o*e, o?

1st du/"amai du"a/meqa e)/1omai e)1o/meqa

2n du/"a+ai du/"a+qe e)/1ei e)/1e+qe

r du/"atai du/"a"tai e)/1etai e)/1o"tai

"ontract er!s

"ontra!t verbs are si*ply a variety o' o*ea verb. he 'eature that

istinuishes the* is that their verbal ste* ens in an >>>>aaaa, >>>>eeee, or >>>>oooo, an, ue to theirste* vo%els, these verbs are kno%n as alpha, epsilon, or o*i!ron !ontra!t verbs.


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"ontra!t verbs take e3a!tly the sa*e enins as reular o*ea verbs, but be!ause

!ontra!t verbs en in a vo%el, that vo%el al*ost al%ays contracts%ith the vo%els o' the

personal enins. his !ontra!tion o' ste* vo%els %ith the vo%els o' the enins

o!!urs al*ost e3!lusively in the present an in one o' the past tenses (the i*per'e!t). In

other tenses, !ontra!t verbs !on5uate like nor*al o*ea verbs.

he 0resent ense of "ontract er!s

< 8ui!k lan!e at the !ontra!te 'or*s o' the present tense *ay leave the

i*pression o' !o*ple3ity. < !loser look, ho%ever, reveals a si*ple unerlyin pattern,

%hi!h is base on the pattern o' the*ati! vo%els that !hara!teri;es o*ea verbs.

43!ept 'or the 'irst person sinular (%hi!h al%ays has an >5=), there are only t%opossible !ontra!tions 'or ea!h type o' !ontra!t verb. In alpha !ontra!t verbs, 'or

e3a*ple, the !onne!tin vo%el bet%een ste* an enin is either an >aor an >5(the

alpha?s so*eti*es have a subs!ript). In epsilon !ontra!t verbs, e3!ept 'or the very 'irst'or* (>5), only the iphthons >ei an >ou are possible. In o*i!ron !ontra!ts, a'terthe initial >5, only the !ontra!tions >oi an >ou %ill be 'oun. hus, three pairs o'vo%els su**ari;e the !ontra!tions possible in ea!h type o' verb$

1) aaaa@5555'or alpha !ontra!ts,

2) eieieiei@ouououou'or epsilon !ontra!ts an

) oioioioi@ouououou'or o*i!ron !ontra!ts.

-urther*ore, i' a bo3 is ra%n ra%n aroun 2nsinular, rsinular, an 2nplural

'or alpha an epsilon !ontra!t verbs an aroun 2nan rsinular 'or o*i!ron

!ontra!ts, it %ill be !lear that the 'irst vo%el o' the !hara!teristi! vo%el pair is inside the

boxan the se!on !hara!teristi! vo%el o' the pair is outside the box.

>I beet, prou!e? >I love? >I 'ill, 'ul'ill?

Present ge""5= ge""5=me" fil5= filou=me" 'lh5= 'lhou=me"

ge""8=j ge""a=te filei=j filei=te 'lhoi=j 'lhou=te

ge""8= ge""5=+i filei= filou=+i 'lhoi= 'lhou=+i

ariants of "ontract er!s

So*e alpha !ontra!t verbs (za/5) take an >hin the se!on an thir sinular anse!on plural instea o' the *ore !o**on >a. 43!ept 'or this !hane o' >a to >hthe


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verb !on5uates like the verb ge""a/5. 4psilon !ontra!t verbs %ith a sinle syllableste* ('le/5) only !ontra!t their enins %ith the ste* vo%el %hen the !ontra!tionresults in the iphthon >ei. #ther%ise the verbal enins are si*ply ae to theste* vo%el >e, an the t%o vo%els are le't as separate, un!ontra!te syllables.

>I live? >I sail?

Present z5= z5=me" 'le/5 'le/ome"

z9=j zh=te 'lei=j 'lei=te

z9= z5=+i 'lei= 'le/ou+i

"ontract *eponent er!s

"ontra!t verbs, as pointe out in a previous !hapter, are si*ply a variety o'o*ea verbs. he 'eature that istinuishes the* is that the the*ati! vo%el o' reular

enins (5, eij, ei, et!.) !ontra!ts %ith the 'inal vo%el o' the verbal ste*. "ontra!teponents unero the sa*e pro!ess, but it is the the*ati! vo%el o' the eponent

enins (omai, ei, etai, et!.) that !ontra!ts %ith the 'inal ste* vo%el. Belo% areiven e3a*ples o' alpha, epsilon, an o*i!ron !ontra!t eponent verbs.

'eia/omai>I try? fobe/omai>I 'ear? e)"a"tio/omai>I oppose?

'ei5=mai 'ei5/meqa fobou=mai fobou/meqa e)"a"tiou=mai e)"a"tiou/meqa

'ei8= 'eia=+qe fobei= fobei=+qe e)"a"tioi= e)"a"tiou=+qe'eia=tai 'ei5="tai fobei=tai fobou="tai e)"a"tiou=tai e)"a"tiou="tai

#nfiniti.es

he %or >in'initive? *eans not li*ite or boune. he li*its re'erre to are

those o' person, nu*ber, an spe!i'i! ti*e.


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'or*. he !ase o' an in'initive is so*eti*es ini!ate by a pre!ein arti!le, an su!h

in'initives are kno%n as arti!ular in'initives.

;ormation of 0resent ense #nfiniti.es

In 4nlish, the in'initive is enerally *arke %ith the %or >to? pre!ein the

a!tual in'initive 'or*. In :reek the enins 'or the present in'initive, that is, the

in'initive 'or*e 'ro* the ste* o' the present tense, are -"ai, >ei", an >+qai. /I

verbs atta!h the in'initive enin >"aito the short value o' the 'inal ste* vo%el (e..tiqe/"ainot tiqh="ai). #*ea verbs, atta!h the enin >ei"to the verbal ste*, that is,the part o' the verb that re*ains on!e the >5enin is roppe 'ro* the present tense'or*. /ost o' the ti*e, the Jei"enin is 8uite !lear, but in !ontra!t verbs the Jei"!ontra!ts %ith the ste* vo%els a, e, or o, an the result is Ja=", Jei=" , an Jou=" . Inthe !ase o' eponent verbs, the in'initive enin is J+qai. Esually, the Jomaienin o'the verb is roppe, an then a !onne!tin vo%el epsilon an J+qaiare ae to theeponent ste*. he verb du/"amai, ho%ever, has a !onne!tin alpha instea o' anepsilon. Deponent !ontra!t verbs 'ollo% the reular pro!eure (ste* = e= +qai), butthe epsilon !ontra!ts %ith the ste* vo%el to prou!e Ja=+qai, Jei=+qai, an Jou=+qai.In spite o' the unusual !onne!tin vo%els, ho%ever, the *arker o' a eponent in'initive

( J+qai) is 8uite !lear.

/I erbs #*ea erbs Deponent erbs

present ste* present ste* present ste*

= short vo%el = "ai"ai"ai"ai = ei"ei"ei"ei" = (e) = +qai+qai+qai+qai

dido/"ai lu/ei" du/"a+qai

tiqe/"ai fe/ei" e)/1e+qai

i


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ter* >!o*ple*entary in'initive?. "ertain verbs ten to take or re8uire in'initives.

erbs, 'or e3a*ple, that e3press a >*oe? o' a!tion (su!h as ne!essity or esire) %ithout

spe!i'yin a parti!ular a!tion, use the in'initive to e3plain %hat is ne!essary or esire.

hese >*oal? verbs, there'ore, !o*ple*ent their *eanins %ith in'initives. #ther

verbs, su!h as >bein? or >are? have *eanins that all but re8uire 'urther spe!i'i!ation.

er!s aking "omplementary #nfiniti.es

So*e verbs, be!ause o' their *eanins, routinely take !o*ple*entary in'initives.

< 'e% e3a*ples are$ e)qe/l5>I %ish?, 'eia/omai>I try?, du/"amai>I a* able?, ankeleu/5 >I !o**an, orer?. he verbs e)qe/l5, 'eia/omai, andu/"amaisi*ply takethe in'initive to 'ill out the iea o' %hat the sub5e!t >%ishes?, >tries?, or >is able? to o.

he verb keleu/5, on the other han, al*ost al%ays has an a!!usative o' the person!o**ane as %ell as the in'initive to sho% the a!tion !o**ane. he verbs e)qe/l5

an keleu/5belon to the o*eaverb 'a*ily so 'ollo% the pattern o' a verb like lu/5.

>I %ish? >I !o**an?

1st e)qe/l5 e)qe/lome" keleu/5 keleu/ome"

2n e)qe/leij e)qe/lete keleu/eij keleu/ete

r e)qe/lei e)qe/lou+i keleu/ei keleu/ou+i?

he verbs du/"amai>I a* able?, bou/lomai>I %ish?, an 'eia/omai >I try? all !an be

!lasse as eponentsF du/"amai, *ore pre!isely, is a /Iverb eponent, %hilebou/lomaian 'eia/omaibelon to the o*eaverb 'a*ily. he verbs bou/lomaian'eia/omai, there'ore, both take enins e3a!tly like e)/1omaithouh the !onne!tinvo%els o' >I try? look i''erent be!ause'eia/omaiis also an alpha!ontra!t verb.

>I a* able? >I %ish?

1st du/"amai du"a/meqa bou/lomai boulo/meqa

2n du/"a+ai du/"a+qe bou/lei bou/le+qe

r du/"atai du/"a"tai bou/letai bou/lo"tai

>I try? 'eia/omai

1st 'ei5=mai 'ei5/meqa

2n 'ei8= 'eia=+qe

r 'eia=tai 'ei5="tai


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"hapter ;i.e

wo ew *eclensions

"hapter hree introu!e a !lass o' nouns kno%n as the thir e!lension.Cithin this !lass o' nouns there are variations, but all thir e!lension nouns use the

sa*e or very si*ilar enins. 'a*ily rese*blan!e? a*on thir e!lension

nouns is the ne!essity o' 'inin the ste* in the enitive sinular. :reek, ho%ever, has

t%o other istin!t !lasses or 'a*ilies o' nouns that take patterns o' enins 8uite

i''erent 'ro* those o' the thir e!lension. thir e!lension? %oul

i*ply, these t%o other noun roups are !alle >'irst e!lension? an >se!on e!lension?.

econd *eclension

Se!one!lension nouns ten to be *as!uline or neuter thouh there are also

!o**only use 'e*inine nouns in this e!lension. he enins o' the se!on

e!lension are !hara!teri;e by vo%els an iphthons that have an >o? soun in the*,

an this pattern o' enins looks al*ost e3a!tly like the enins o' the *as!uline an

neuter 'or*s o' the e'inite arti!le. "? an the no*inative an a!!usative plural al%ays en in a short >a?.

Regular Second Declension

>house? * >roa? ' >i't? n


oi)=koj oi)=koi o


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sa*e as reular se!one!lension nouns e3!ept that enins o' !ontra!t nouns o'ten

bear the !ir!u*'le3 a!!ent %here a nor*al o3ytone (ooO) %oul have an a!ute.

Contract Second Declension

>*in? * >bone? n

sin plur sin plur

"ou=j "oi= o)+tou=" o)+ta=

"ou= "5=" o)+tou= o)+t5="

":== "oi=j o)+t:== o)+toi=j

"ou=" "ou=j o)+tou=" o)+ta=

;irst *eclension

-irste!lension nouns are *ostly 'e*inine, but there is an i*portant subroup

o' nouns that are *as!uline an sho% sliht i''eren!es in their no*inative an

enitive sinulars. he enins o' the 'irst e!lension are !hara!teri;e by an >h? or an>a? vo%el an look like the enins o' the 'e*inine e'inite arti!le. In the plural, 'irste!lension enins have a>s throuhout e3!ept 'or the enitive plural, %hi!h is al%ays>5="an is al%ays !ir!u*'le3e (histori!ally a !ontra!tion o' Ja/5").

In the sinular, ho%ever, a 'irst e!lension noun *ay have all h>s, all a>s, or bothh>s an a>s. he variation epens on the last letter o' the ste* an is 8uite easy toprei!t. I' the ste* ens in , e, or ithe noun %ill have all a>s in the sinular. I' theste* oes not en in , e, or i, an the no*inative ens inh, then all the sinularenins %ill have hvo%els. I' the ste* oes not en in , e, or i, but the no*inativeens in a, then the no*inative an a!!usative %ill have a>s, an the enitive anative sinular %ill have h>s. he three nouns belo% %ill serve as e3a*ples o' ea!h o'the three vo%el patterns that !an o!!ur in 'irste!lension sinular 'or*s.

Regular First Declension

>%oo? ' >lan? ' >sea? '


u


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Contract First Declension

"ontra!t nouns o' the 'irst e!lension are not very nu*erous or 're8uent. Chen

they o!!ur, ho%ever, they present no i''i!ulty be!ause their enins are e3a!tly like

reular 'irste!lension nouns e3!ept 'or a !ir!u*'le3e ulti*a %here nor*al nouns

have the a!ute. < 're8uent !ontra!t noun in the sinular is the noun >earth?, %hi!h is

gh=, gh=j, g9=, gh=". #thers are +ukh=('i tree '), m"a=(*ina '), anhj>ou. I' the ste* oes en in e, i, or , the 'irst t%o 'or*s %ill be >aj >ou.

>!iti;en? * >youn *an? * Mer*es * (!ontra!t)sin plur sin plur

'oli/thj 'oli/tai "ea"i/aj "ea"i/ai ti*e %ithin %hi!h? an event happens. hus, >in the niht? !an be

e3presse in :reek %ith the enitive >th=j "ukto/j?. he ative !ase is use to e3pressa >point o' ti*e? or the >ti*e %hen? an event takes pla!e. >#n the thir ay?, 'or

e3a*ple, is renere as >t9=ti/t9 h'or three hours? is, there'ore, renere in :reek

as >tei=j 5


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here are, ho%ever, spatial e3pressions that rely solely on !ase an o not use

prepositions. o e3press e3tent o' spa!e :reek uses the a!!usative o' %ors that i*ply

istan!e or *easure*ent. In a senten!e su!h as @Me thro%s the stone t%enty 'eetA,

t%enty 'eet ini!ates ho% 'ar the stone %as thro%n an is there'ore put in the

a!!usative$ it? in its 'or*s an al%ays has a rouh breathin.he no*inative, *as!uline, sinular 'or* o' the relative has a si*a (o


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%ith its ante!eent in nu*ber an enerF its !ase, ho%ever, is eter*ine by its

'un!tion in its o%n !lause, e..$nom pl f acc pl f

@the %o*en %ho* %e see....A ai


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he thir person pronoun (au)to/j, au)th/, au)to/) !orrespons to the 4nlish >he?,>she?, >it?, an >they? in their various !ases. he obli8ue 'or*s o' au)to/jusually o notre'er ba!k to the sub5e!t o' the senten!e but rather to other person(s) or thin(s) that are

notthe sub5e!t. I' a thir person pronoun oes re'er to the sub5e!t (>hi*sel'?, >hersel'?,>itsel'?, >the*selves?), the 'or*s o' the :reek re'le3ive e!hil?, but 'ai=j tij,%hi!h uses the ine'inite a5e!tive, *eans >so*e !hil? or >a !ertain !hil?. I', ho%ever,

the 'or*s o' tij tio not *oi'y a noun but instea stan alone, then they are beinuse as ine'inite pronouns %hi!h !orrespon to su!h 4nlish e3pressions su!h as

>so*e one?, >so*ethin? or >a !ertain one?, >a !ertain thin?. he senten!e o


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the ine'inite is liste in a parai*, all t%osyllable 'or*s are a!!ente on the ulti*a,

an onesyllable 'or*s are iven no a!!ent at all.

Indefinite Pronoun/Adjective

Sinular Plural

*, ' n *, ' n

no* tij ti ti"e/j ti"a/

en ti"o/j ti"o/j ti"5=" ti"5="

at ti"i/ ti"i/ ti+i/ ti+i/

a!! ti"a/ ti ti"a/j ti"a/


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"hapter i'

er!al tems and 0rincipal 0arts

erbal 'or*s are !reate or conjugatedby ain enins to a verbal ste*.erbal enins li*it the *eanin o' the verb by spe!i'yin the person an nu*ber o'

the sub5e!t. he ste* o' the verb, on the other han, spe!i'ies the tense o' the verb, that

is, the ti*e anor the kin o' a!tion that the verb !onveys. hus, to !on5uate verbs in

i''erent tenses, one *ust be a!8uainte %ith the i''erent ste*s o' a iven verb.

erbal ste*s are erive 'ro* a verb?sprincipal parts. he ter* esinates the

han'ull o' sele!te 'or*s o' the verb 'ro* %hi!h all the other 'or*s o' the verb !an be

!reate. 6or*al :reek verbs typi!ally have si3 prin!ipal parts, %hi!h !onsist o' the

'irstperson sinular 'or*s o' the 'ollo%in tensevoi!e !o*binations$ 1) present a!tive,

2) 'uture a!tive ) aorist a!tive, ) per'e!t a!tive, ) per'e!t *ilepassive, +) aorist

passive. /any verbs, ho%ever, %ill not have all si3 prin!ipal parts, an in eponent

verbs the than +thprin!ipal parts have a!tive *eanins.

1) pres a!t 2) 'ut a!t ) aor a!t ) per' a!t ) per' *ipass +) aor pass

di/d5mi d5/+5 e)/d5ka de/d5ka de/domai e)do/qh">I ive? >I %ill ive >I ave? >I have iven? >I have been iven? >I %as iven?

lu/5 lu/+5 e)/lu+a le/luka le/lumai e)lu/qh">I loose? >I %ill loose? >I loose? >I have loose? >I have been loose? >I %as loose?

lei/'5 lei/35 e)/li'o" le/loi'a le/leimmai e)lei/fqh">I leave? >I %ill leave? >I le't? >I have le't? >I have been le't? >I %as le't

file/5 filh/+5 e)fi/lh+a 'efi/lhka 'efi/lhmai e)filh/qh"I love I %ill love I love I have love I have been love I %as love

gi/g"omai ge"h/+omai e)ge"o/mh" ge/go"a gege/"hmai e)ge"h/qh"I be!o*e I %ill be!o*e I be!a*e I have be!o*e I have be!o*e I be!a*e

de/1omai de/$omai e)de$a/mh" >> >> >>>I re!eive? >I %ill re!eive? >I re!eive?

bou/lomai boulh/+omai >> >> bebou/lhmai e)boulh/qh"I %ish I %ill %ish I have %ishe I %ishe

e)/1omai e)leu/+omai h)=lqo" e)lh/luqa >> >>>I o? >I %ill o? >I %ent? >I have one?


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er! ;amilies


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o nor*al verbs, but they o so %ith a i''erent set o' enins. he presenttense o'

eponent enins %ill be 'a*iliar 'ro* the verbs du/"amai an e)/1omai. ike nor*al/I an o*ea verbs, eponent verbs also *ake the istin!tion bet%een pri*ary an

se!onary tenses an !onse8uently take i''erent sets o' enins to 'or* their aorist

tenses. Pri*arytense eponent enins 'or both /I an o*ea verbs are mai, +ai,mai, +ai,mai, +ai,mai, +ai,

taitaitaitai @meqa, +qe, "taimeqa, +qe, "taimeqa, +qe, "taimeqa, +qe, "tai. Se!onary tense eponent enins are mh", +o, to,mh", +o, to,mh", +o, to,mh", +o, to, @meqa,meqa,meqa,meqa,+qe, "to+qe, "to+qe, "to+qe, "to.

Chile eponents o' both !lasses o' verb use the sa*e enins, they i''er in their

'or*ation in t%o %ays. Deponent /I verbs have one !hara!teristi! vo%el be'ore the

eponent enins an use onlythe short version o' that vo%el. #*ea verbs, on the

other han, use a set pattern o' the*ati! vo%els (o, e, eo, e, eo, e, eo, e, e @o, e, oo, e, oo, e, oo, e, oor aaaa aaaa) bet%een theste* an enins. he other %ay in %hi!h eponent o*ea verbs i''er 'ro* eponent

/I verbs is that o*ea eponents e3hibit a !ontra!te 'or* in the se!on person

sinular. he 'ull enin +ai, there'ore, be!o*es eieieieior 9999(e =+ai) in the present, 5555in

the 'irst aorist (a =+o), an ououououin the se!on aorist (e =+o).

#-.er!s 6666-.er!s

Presentmai meqa omai omeqa

+ai +qe ei (9) e+qe

tai "tai etai o"tai


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(e)5ta/5 e)5th/+5 h)o/mh"). Both e)/1omaian e)5ta/5are only partiallyeponent an are, there'ore, so*eti*es !alle >se*ieponents?. he verb de/1omai, onthe other han, has only eponent 'or*s (de/1omai de/$omai e)de$a/mh"). Prin!ipalparts, there'ore, not only ini!ate %hether a parti!ular verb !hanes ste* 'ro* one

tense to another an %hether the verb has a 'irst or se!on aorist, but prin!ipal partsalso ini!ate %hether a verb has eponent 'or*s an in %hat tenses those 'or*s o!!ur.

er!al Aspect and the Aorist ense

:reek tenses o' the ini!ative *oo not only esinate a ti*e o' a!tion, but they

also !o**uni!ate a !ertain kind of action. he present tense, 'or e3a*ple, an the past

tense !alle the >i*per'e!t? !onvey a!tion that is !ontinuous, onoin, repetitive, or

in!o*plete. he tenses kno%n as the per'e!t an pluper'e!t, on the other han,

esinate an a!tion that is !o*plete or 'inishe. his iea o' kindor mannero' a!tion

!onveye in the verb tense is kno%n as the verb?s aspect, that is, ho% the a!tion o' theverb >looks? or >appears?. I*per'e!t aspe!t *eans that the verbal a!tion is un'inishe or

onoin. Per'e!t aspe!t ini!ates that the verbal a!tion is 'inishe or !o*plete.

In aition to the tenses that ini!ate >per'e!t? or >i*per'e!t? aspe!t, there is the

aorist tense, %hi!h sho%s no aspe!t at all. he aorist ini!ates a verbal a!tion %ithout

i*plyin %hether that a!tion is !o*plete or in!o*plete. hus, the aorist tense, in

eneral, !o**uni!ates a si*ple a!tion, an the aorist ini!ative, in parti!ular, sho%s a

si*ple a!tion in past ti*e. he tense is very !o**on an is o!!asionally !alle the

>5unk tense? be!ause o' its everyay use 'or unaorne narration. Chere the i*per'e!t

tense liners over the a!tion an *arks the verbal a!tion as so*ethin onoin, theaorist tense si*ply states that the a!tion took pla!e.

he aorist ini!ative sho%s a!tion in the past an is, there'ore, a se!onary tense.

he aorists o' 5verbs !an be 'urther ivie into t%o !lasses a!!orin to the patterno' enins they take. he t%o !lasses are kno%n as >'irst aorist? an >se!on aorist?.

he enins asso!iate %ith 'irst aorists are !hara!teri;e by alpha !onne!tin vo%els

(a, aj,e,ame",ate,a") %hile se!on aorists enins !learly sho% the the*ati!vo%els asso!iate %ith o*ea verbs ( o",ej, e, ome", ete,o").

he aorist tense in /I verbs is !onstru!te so*e%hat i''erently than in o*ea

verbs but is o'ten !alle a >se!on aorist? sin!e it is 8uite istin!t 'ro* 'irst aorists. (It

shoul, ho%ever, be note that so*e /I verbs o not sho% the !hara!teristi!ally /I

verb 'or*ation in the aorist but instea borro% 'or*s 'ro* the 'irst aorist o' o*ea

verbs). he surest uie to kno%in %hether a verb takes a 'irst or se!on aorist is its

pri!ipal parts. I', 'or e3a*ple, the thir prin!ipal part ives a 'or* like e)/lu+aore)/'em3a, then it is a 'irst aorist verb, an its aorist tense %ill only take 'irst aorist


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enins. I' the thir prin!ipal part is ei)=do"or e)/li'o", then it is a se!on aorist an%ill only take se!on aorist enins.

Augmenting the Aorist ense

In the aorist tense, /I verbs an o*ea verbs not only take se!onary enins,

but they also augmentthe verb ste*. e? is !alle a syllabi! au*ent. I' the verb beins %itha vo%el, that initial vo%el is usually lenthene. he lenthene vo%el is kno%n as a

te*poral au*ent. he 'ollo%in provies a list o' vo%els %ith their usual au*ente

values.

abe!o*es h ibe!o*es i aibe!o*es 9 ebe!o*es h ube!o*es u aube!o*es hu e be!o*es ei oibe!o*es : obe!o*es 5

It shoul also be note that i' a verb has a prepositional pre'i3, the au*ent is usually

ae to the ste* an not to the beinnin o' the verb. hus, a)'oktei/"5 in the aoristbe!o*es a)'e/e/e/e/ktei"a.

;irst- and econd-Aorist ;orms of 5555-er!s

In !on5uatin aorist 'or*s, it is i*portant to !he!k the thir prin!ipal part to

eter*ine, 'irst o' all, %hether the verb in 8uestion has a 'irst or se!on aorist an,

se!only, to eter*ine %hether the aorist ste* has unerone une3pe!te !hanes.

Se!on aorists al*ost al%ays !hane their ste*s, o'ten 8uite ra*ati!ally. -irstaorist

ste*s are *ore !onsistent, but even they !an vary reatly 'ro* the oriinal ste*. he

thir prin!ipal part also *akes !lear %hat the au*ent 'or a parti!ular verb %ill be.

First Aorists

-irst aorists are istinuishe by a>s in the personal enins an the !losekinship o' their aorist ste* %ith the present. he eneral pro!eure 'or 'or*in a 'ully

reular 'irst aorist is to take the ste* o' the 'irst prin!ipal part, au*ent the ste*, a

the su''i3 >+>,an then a the enins a, aj, e, ame", ate, a". he su''i3 >+>in!o*bination %ith !ertain souns uneroes phoneti! an orthoraphi! !hanes.


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(/any o' these !hanes are alreay 'a*iliar 'ro* the is!ussion o' the ative plural

'or*s o' thir e!lension nouns.)

labial stops (', b, f) = + T 3ental stops (t, d, q, z) = + T +palatal stops (k, g, 1) = + T $li8uis (l, m, ", ) = + T

In !o*bination %ith the last roup o' letters, the >+>isappears entirely %hen aeto a li8uiF thus, the enins (a, aj, e, ame", ate, a") see* to be ae ire!tly to theste*. -irst aorists %ith li8ui ste*s not only rop the +>, but they also ten tolenthen the vo%el o' the aorist ste*.

lu/5 e)/ =lu =+ = a T e)/lu+a

'e/m'5 e)/ = 'em' =+ =a T e)/'em3a

'ei/q5 e)/ = 'eiq =+ =a T e)/'ei+a

le/g5 e)/ = leg = + =a Te)/le$a

me/"5 e)/ = me" = + = a T e)/mei"aV

he 'ollo%in are e3a*ples o' the 'irst aorist verbs lu/5, 'e/m'5 an me/"5!on5uatein the all persons sinular an plural in the aorist tense.

aor o' lu/5 @I loose@ aor o' 'e/m'5 @I sent@ aor o' me/"5 @I re*aine@

e)/lu+a e)lu/+ame" e)/'em3a e)'e/m3ame" e)/mei"a e)mei/"ame"

e)/lu+aj e)lu/+ate e)/'em3aj e)'e/m3ate e)/mei"aj e)mei/"ate

e)/lu+e e)/lu+a" e)/'em3e e)/'em3a" e)/mei"e e)/mei"a"

Second Aorists

he se!on aorist i''ers 'ro* the 'irst aorist in t%o notable %ays$ 1) the se!onaorist ini!ates its tense throuh a !hane in the ste* itsel', an 2) the se!on aorist

takes the sa*e the*ati! vo%els an enins as the i*per'e!t tense (o", ej, e, ome",ete, o"). Sin!e i*per'e!t an se!on enins are the sa*e, the se!on aorist ste* hasto be istin!tive. he ste* o' the se!on aorist is erive 'ro* the thir prin!ipal part

an is o'ten 8uite istin!t 'ro* the present ste*Wthe aorist ste* is usually shorter


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(lamba/">5, e)/>lab>o"). So*eti*es, ho%ever, the se!on aorist ste* i''ers 'ro*that o' the present tense by only one letter (lei/'>5, e)/> li' >o").

aor o' lei/'5 @I le't@ aor o' lamba/"5 @I took@ aor o' e)/1omai @I !a*e@

e)/li'o" e)li/'ome" e)/labo" e)la/bome" h)=lqo" h)/lqome"

e)/li'ej e)li/'ete e)/labej e)la/bete h)=lqej h)/lqete

e)/li'e e)/li'o" e)/labe e)/labo" h)=lqe h)=lqo"

Aorist #nfiniti.es of 5555-er!s

>>>aiaiaiaito the aorist ste*Fthus, the enin -+ai+ai+ai+ai('inal si*a an the in'initive enin) is a !o**on *arker o' a'irst aorist in'initive. he syllable be'ore the enin -aiaiaiaire!eives the a!!ent.

lu=+ai 'e/m3ai mei="ai

Se!on aorists, on the other han, a the enin >>>>ei"ei"ei"ei", %hi!h is, o' !ourse, thesa*e enin as is use 'or the presenttense in'initive o' o*ea verbs. %o 'eatures o'

the se!onaorist in'initive prevent it 'ro* bein !on'use %ith the present in'initive.

he ste* o' the se!on aorist i''ers 'ro* that o' the present, an the se!on aorist

in'initive pla!es a !ir!u*'le3 enin on the in'initive enin (-ei="ei="ei="ei=").

labei=" li'ei="

to? an the verbal iea.


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In the !onte3t o' *any :reek senten!es, either a present or an aorist t

Documents

Byron Stayskal, Elements of Ancient Greek, Aug 2012