Byproducts 2008

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COURSE COMPENDIUM

TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES IN THEUTILIZATION OF DAIRY BY-PRODUCTS

February 27 March 18, 2008

CENTRE OF ADVANCED STUDIES

Dair y Technology Division

NATIONAL DAIRY RESEARCH INSTITUTE

(Deemed Universit y)KARNAL 132 001 (Haryana), India

2008


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COURSE COMPENDIUM

TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES IN THEUTILIZATION OF DAIRY BY-PRODUCTS

22ndShort CourseOrganised under the aegis of

Centre of Advanced Studiesin Dairy Technology

February 27 March 18, 2008

Course DirectorDr. Vijay Kumar Gupta

CENTRE OF ADVANCED STUDIESDairy Technology DivisionNATIONAL DAIRY RESEARCH INSTITUTEDeemed University)KARNAL 132 001 Haryana), India2008


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Published by

Dr. A. A. PatelHead, Dairy Technology Division &

Director, CAS

Course Director

Dr. Vijay Kumar Gupta

Editing and Compilation


All Rights Reserved

No part of this lecture compendium may be reproduced or transmitted inany form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, includingphotography, recording, or any information storage and retrieval systemwithout the written permission from the Director, NDRI, Karnal.

Cover Design & Page Layout



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An important criterion in the economic choice of any process is the efficient utililization of

by-product that is produced along with the main product. Main by-products of dairy industry arebuttermilk, whey, ghee residue and sometimes skim milk. The techno-economic problemsassociated with the utilization of dairy by-products, especially whey, have been receiving

considerable attention and remarkable advancements have been made in processing equipmentsand techniques. In the past 25 years, whey has transformed from a waste by-product to a valued

functional co-product with the perfection of membranes and ion-exchange as well as an increasedunderstanding of whey itself. Further the market for dairy by-products as ingredient in food

products has been growing. A number of factors account for this. On the demand side, there is agrowing demand of prepared consumer foods, including ready meals, snacks and microwaveable

foods. On the supply side, more efficient, cost effective and sophisticated technologies inprocessing of dairy by-products has opened up further markets, hitherto closed.

The production of other derived by-products like casein, caseinates, co-precipitates, proteinhydrolysates, whey protein concentrates, lactose, whey beverages, low lactose powder and manyothers have prominence in advanced dairy countries and Indian dairy industry is trying to make

advancement in this direction. A number of by-products based dairies with large automatic andcontinuous manufacturing plants have been set up in India and quite a few more are in line.

Scientists of Dairy Technology Division have themselves received advance training abroadon their own or through UNDP, DAAD, NARP, DANIDA etc. programmes. They have done

extensive work in the area of dairy by-products and developed a number of new technologiessuited to Indian dairy situations that merit sharing with the teaching faculty of other Agricultural

Universities and ICAR Institutes. I am happy that they are doing so in a commendable manner byorganizing this twenty second CAS Short Course now on "Technological Advances in the

Utilization of Dairy-By-Products". The Dairy Technology Division received good response fromthe participants for this short course, as had been the case in earlier ones, which shows that theDivision and its programmes are held in high esteem by the State Agricultural Universities and

other institutions.

Scientists have deftly compiled the lecture material of their own faculty and of guestspeakers. The topic of the seminar is very important since nearly one third of the total milk

produced in the country ends up as by-products. Their utilisation is of utmost importance. Eachand every component of milk must be judiciously processed into edible form for the obvious

reason of its unique nutritional value. In this endeavour, I wish to commend the Dairy Technologyfaculty for their splendid effort first on doing the research on processing and utilisation of the by-

products, publishing the work and now compiling into lecture material, of which I am sure, all theparticipants will be proud of. It is hoped that the compendium so ably brought out by the course

organisers will serve as a reference work of immense importance to the participants of the coursein their research and teaching endeavours.

27th February, 2008 (Dr. Sushil Kumar)

DIRECTOR

FOREWORDFOREWORD


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Dr. A.A. Patel, CAS Director

Dr. R. S. Mann

Dr. S. K. Kanawjia

Dr. D. K. Thompkinson

Dr. V.K. Gupta, Course Director

Dr. S. K. Kanawjia, Chairman Dr. V. K. Gupta, ChairmanDr. R.R.B. Singh Dr. B. B. Verma

Dr. Latha Sabikhi Dr. A.K. Singh

Dr. R. S. Mann, Chairman Dr. D. K. Thompkinson, Chairman

Dr. G. K. Goyal Dr. Dharam Pal

Dr. A.K. Singh Mr. F. C. Garg

COMMITTEES FOR THE COURSE ORGANIZATION

ORGANIZING COMMITTEE

RECEPTION COMMITTEE TECHNICAL COMMITTEE

COMMITTEES FOR THE COURSE ORGANIZATION

HOSPITALITY COMMITTEE PURCHASE COMMITTEE


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Short Courseon

TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES IN THE UTILIZATION OF DAIRY BY-RODUCTSFEBRUARY 27 - MARCH 18, 2008

FEBRUARY 27, 2008

09.30 AM - 10.00 AM Registration

10.30 AM - 11.30 AM Inaugural function11.30 AM - 11.45 AM Inaugural tea11.45 AM - 12.45 PM Orientation and visit of the institute Dr. A. K. Singh

01.00 PM - 02.30 PM Lunch break02.30 PM - 03.30 PM Overview of production, processing

and utilization of dairy by-productsDr. V.K. Gupta

03.30 PM - 03.45 PM Discussion03.45 PM - 04.45 PM Nutritional qualities of dairy by-

productsDr. V.K. Kansal

FEBRUARY 28, 2008

10.00 AM - 11.00 AM Developments in the manufacturing

technology of caseinsDr. V.K. Gupta

11.00 AM - 11.15 AM Discussion11.15 AM - 01.00 PM Mechanisation/automation in

manufacture of edible caseinMr. S.P.S Sawhney

01.00 PM - 02.30 PM Lunch Break02.30 PM - 03.30 PM Non-food uses of caseins Dr. V.K. Gupta

03.30 PM - 03.45 PM Discussion03.45 PM - 04.45 PM Developments in the manufacturing

technology of co-precipitatesDr. R.S. Mann

FEBRUARY 29, 2008

10.00 AM - 1.00 PM Manufacture of edible acid casein(Practical)

Dr. R.S. Mann

02.30 PM - 03.30 PM Developments in the manufacturing

technology of caseinates

Dr. V.K. Gupta

03.30 PM - 03.45 PM Discussion03.45 PM - 04.45 PM Preparation of fermented beverages

from whey

Dr. D.N. Gandhi

MARCH 1, 2008

10.00 AM - 11.00 AM Developments in the use of caseinproducts in food products

Dr. V.K. Gupta

11.00 AM - 11.15 AM Discussion

COURSE PROGRAMMECOURSE PROGRAMME


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11.15 AM - 12.15 PM Bioprocessing of whey for

preparation of products of industrial

importance

Dr. D.N. Gandhi

01.00 PM - 02.30 PM Lunch break

02.30 PM - 03.30 PM Developments in the manufacture of

whey protein products

Dr. V.K. Gupta

03.30 PM - 03.45 PM Discussion

03.45 PM - 04.45 PM Functional properties of milk

proteinsDr. R.B. Sangwan

MARCH 2, 2008 SUNDAY

MARCH 3, 2008

10.00 AM - 01.00 PM Evaluation of functional proper-tiesof milk proteins (Practical)

Dr. R.B. Sangwan

01.00 PM - 02.00 PM Lunch Break02.30 PM - 03.30 PM Developments in the manufacture of

condensed whey and whey powderDr. V.K. Gupta

03.30 PM - 03.45 PM Discussion03.45 PM - 04.45 PM Technological developments in whey

based non-fermented beverages and

soups

Dr. A.K. Singh

MARCH 4, 2008

10.00 AM - 01.00 PM Preparation of fruit-whey beverage

(Practical)Dr. A.K. Singh

01.00 PM - 02.00 PM Lunch Break02.00 PM - 05.00 PM Preparation of tomato soup from whey

(Practical)

Dr. A.K. Singh

MARCH 5, 2008

10.00 AM - 11.00 AM Separation and application of bioactive

whey proteins

Dr. Rajesh Bajaj


11.15 AM - 12.15 PM Separation of bioactive whey proteins

(Practical)

Dr. Rajesh Bajaj

01.00 PM - 02.00 PM Lunch Break02.00 PM - 03.45 PM Separation of bioactive whey proteins

(Practical)

Dr. Rajesh Bajaj

03.45 PM - 05.00 PM Utilization of whey for the production

of microbial biomass proteinsDr.(Mrs.) Shilpa Vij

MARCH 6, 2008 HOLIDAY


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MARCH 7, 2008

10.00 AM - 01.00 AM Production of microbial biomass

proteins from whey (Practical)

Dr.(Mrs.) Shilpa Vij

01.00 PM - 02.30 PM Lunch Break02.30 PM - 05.00 PM Production of ethanol from whey

(Practical)

Dr.(Mrs.) Shilpa Vij

MARCH 8, 2008 HOLIDAY


MARCH 10, 2008

10.00 AM - 11.00 AM Demineralization of whey for use in

value added products

Dr. V.K. Gupta


11.15 AM - 12.15 PM Technology of manufacture of milk

protein hydrolysates

Dr. S.K. Kanawjia

01.00 PM - 02.30 PM Lunch break02.30 PM - 05.00 PM Preparation of eggless cake using

Whey protein concentrates (Practical)

Dr. A.K. Singh

MARCH 11, 2008

10.00 AM - 11.00 AM Developments in utilization of WPC

in dairy products

Dr. V.K. Gupta


11.15 AM - 12.15 PM Technological advances in thepreparation of whey cheeses

Dr. S.K. Kanawjia

01.00 PM - 02.30 PM Lunch break02.00 PM - 05.00 PM Manufacture of Ricotta cheese

(Practical)Dr. S.K. Kanawjia

MARCH 12, 2008

10.00 AM - 01.00 AM Preparation of soft serve ice cream

using whey protein concentrates(Practical)

Dr. G.K. Goyal

01.00 PM - 02.00 PM Lunch break02.30 PM - 03.30 PM Advances in manufacture of lactose

from wheyDr. A.K. Dodeja

03.30 PM - 03.45 PM Discussion03.45 PM - 04.45 PM Hydrolysis of lactose for application

in food industryDr. R.K. Sharma

MARCH 13, 2008

10.00 AM - 01.00 PM HPLC analysis of lactose hydrolysedproducts (Practical)

Dr. R.K. Sharma

01.00 PM - 02.30 PM Lunchbreak


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02.30 PM - 05.00 PM Immobilization of enzyme/ cells by

entrapment method (Practical)Dr. R.K. Sharma

MARCH 14, 2008

10.00 AM - 11.00 AM Ghee residue: processing, properties

and utilization

Dr. B.B. Verma


11.30 AM - 01.30 PM Preparation of chocolate burfi using

ghee residue (Practical)Dr. B.B. Verma

01.30 PM - 02.30 PM Lunchbreak02.30 PM - 03.30 PM LIBRARY


03.45 PM - 04.45 PM Utilization of whey products in dairyanalogues

Dr. A.A. Patel

MARCH 15, 2008

10.00 AM - 11.00 AM Application of buttermilk in themanufacture of value added dairy

products

Dr. Dharam Pal

11.00 AM - 11.15 AM Discussion11.15 AM - 12.15 PM LIBRARY

01.00 PM - 02.30 PM Lunchbreak

02.30 PM - 03.30 PM Application of dairy by-products inbakery and confectionery products

Dr. A.K. Singh


03.45 PM - 04.45 PM Application of dairy by-products inthe formulation of infant foods

Dr. D.K. Thompkinson


MARCH 17, 2008

10.00 AM - 11.00 AM Application of dairy by-products in

meat industryDr. R.R.B.Singh


11.15 AM - 12.15 PM Export requirements of dairy by-product plants

Mr. H.K. Mondal

01.00 PM - 02.30 PM Lunch02.30 PM - 03.30 PM Role of whey components in de-

signer dairy foods

Dr. (Mrs.) Lata Sahikhi

03.45 PM - 04.45 PM Advances in packaging of dairy by-

productsDr. G.K. Goyal

MARCH 18, 2008

10.30 AM - 11.30 PM Valedictory function


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14 Preparation of fermented beverages from whey Dr. D.N. GandhiMr. Kalpana Dixit

101

15 Bioprocessing of whey for preparation ofproducts of industrial importance

Dr. D.N. GandhiMr. Krishan Kumar

105

16 Developments in the manufacture of condensed

whey and whey powder

Dr. V.K. Gupta 109

17 Developments in demineralization of whey Dr. V.K. Gupta 116

18 Developments in the manufacture of whey

protein productsDr. V.K. Gupta 124

19 Developments in utilization of whey protein

concentrates in dairy productsDr. V.K. Gupta 131

20 Separation and application of bioactive whey

proteins

Dr. Rajesh Bajaj

Dr. R.B. SangwanDr. B. Mann

138

21 Advances in manufacture of lactose from whey Dr .A.K. Dodeja 143

22 Hydrolysis of lactose for application in foodindustry Dr. R.K. Sharma 149

23 Technological advances in the preparation ofwhey cheeses

Dr. S.K. KanawjiaMr. Hitesh Gahane

156

24 Utilization of whey for the production of

microbial biomass proteinsDr.(Mrs.) Shilpa Vij 162

25 Utilization of whey products in dairy analogues Dr. A. A. Patel 169

VI GHEE RESIDUE

26 Ghee residue: processing, properties and

utilizationDr. B.B. VermaMr. P. Narender Raju

176

VII UTILIZATION OF DAIRY BY-PRODUCTS

27 Application of dairy by-products in bakery and

confectionery products

Dr. A.K. Singh 184

28 Application of dairy by-products in the

formulation of infant foodsDr. D. K. Thompkinson 192

VIII PACKAGING OF DAIRY BY-PRODUCTS

29 Advances in packaging of dairy by-products Dr. G.K. Goyal 198

List of Course participants


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SECTION - I

INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION


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Principal Scientist

Dairy Technology Division, N.D.R.I., Karnal-132 001

1. INTRODUCTION

Skim milk, buttermilk, whey and ghee residue are the various basic dairy by-products.Each and every component of milk must be judiciously processed into edible form for theobvious reason of its unique nutritional value. However, dairy plants, particularly in India, areusually confronted with the problem of by-products utilization, especially that of whey andghee residue in an economical manner. In the past 25 years, whey has transformed from awaste by-product to a valued functional co-product. Whey technologies have grownexponentially during the past 25 years with the perfection of membranes and ion-exchange aswell as an increased understanding of whey itself.

The western dairy industry especially American and European and also of Australiaand New Zealand have been the harbingers in the utilization of by-products. They havedeveloped technologies for the utilization of by-products, developed large automated plantsand also developed users for by-products in dairy and food industry.

The production of other derived by-products like casein, caseinates, co-precipitates,protein hydrolysates, whey protein concentrates, lactose, whey beverages, low lactose powderand many others have prominence in advanced dairy countries and Indian dairy industry istrying to make advancement in this direction. It is only after economic liberalization and de-licensing of the dairy industry in 1993 that dairy by-products, which were mostly neglected bythe dairy plants earlier started receiving due attention. A number of by-products based dairies

with large automatic and continuous manufacturing plants have been set up and quite a fewmore are in line. India is still to emerge as a global player in the international scenario. A lowper capita availability of milk, higher proportion of buffalo milk, poor quality of raw milk,lack of organized manufacture of products, lack of adequate technology, high cost of newtechnologies, lack of in-house R & D, lack of proper infrastructure, lack of equipment andplants indigenously etc. are the host of problems associated with the production and utilizationof by-products in India.

2. SKIM MILK AND ITS BY-PRODUCTS

Skim milk is a by-product obtained during the manufacture of cream. It is rich in

solids-not-fat content and has high nutritional value. In dairy plants, it is mostly utilized eitherin standardization for the manufacture of main dairy products or preserved by removingmoisture in spray dried form. The skim milk when utilized in either of these two forms orconsumed as liquid is not considered a by-product. It is regarded as a by-product only when itis either not economically utilized or utilized for derived by-products like casein and relatedproducts, co-precipitates, protein hydrolysates etc.

OVERVIEW OF PRODUCTION, PROCESSING AND

UTILIZATION OF DAIRY BY-PRODUCTS

OVERVIEW OF PRODUCTION, PROCESSING AND

UTILIZATION OF DAIRY BY-PRODUCTS


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2.1 Casein and caseinates

Casein has a long history of technical use in industries producing paper, textile, paint,leather, rubber etc. Edible casein and caseinates are also long established dairy by-productsfinding use in many dairy and food products. The world production of caseins/caseinates ishard to define due to lack of a significant data. However estimation could be about 3.5 lakh

tonnes. The large producers are New Zealand (1.4 lakh tonnes), Netherlands (80,000 tonnes),and Germany (24,000 tonnes). The world market of casein/caseinates used in the foodindustry fluctuates between 2 to 2.5 lakh tonnes. The biggest importer of casein is UnitedStates of America, where food casein demand can be estimated at 20,000 tonnes per year andcaseinates demand at 27,000 tonnes per year. About 20% of this demand is for nutraceuticalapplications. A lot of casein is utilized for the manufacture of imitation cheese. The secondbiggest importer is Japan.

Production of edible casein is an economically feasible proposition, only when thewhey thereby produced is efficiently and economically utilized. This has been one of the mainreasons why edible casein was not produced seriously in India before 1995. Most of the

requirement of this by-product, even for industrial uses, was met through import. During thelast 12 years, there has been an entry of a few large automatic and continuous manufacturingplants in India for the manufacture of edible casein, lactose and whey protein concentrates.Presently, most of the casein produced is being exported, but eventually with the assuredIndian market, the product would be diverted for internal consumption also.

The production of soluble form of casein, i.e., caseinates has not picked up in India.The economic constraints for the production of spray dried caseinates are their high dryingcost, low bulk density and high packaging, storage and transportation costs.

2.2 Co-precipitates

The manufacture of co-precipitates has several advantages like increased yield andflexible functional properties and higher nutritional value over that of casein. However, eventhough its production was standardised in sixties and seventies,it has never been commerciallyexploited to any great extent. A poor solubility, especially of the higher calcium co-precipitates, is a particular limitation in its functionality.

2.3 Milk protein hydrolysates

Today protein hydrolysis has assumed a new dimension in the food industry. Proteinhydrolysates find extensive use in nutritional, dietetic and formulated foods, where a pre-digested form of protein is needed. Protein hydrolysates are boon to the people who aresuffering from protein allergy or stomach disorders and to those who require easily digestiblefoods. In India, there lies a great scope for making improvement in the quality of the proteinhydrolysates being prepared.

3. BUTTER MILK

Buttermilk is the by-product obtained during the manufacture of butter. Sweet creambuttermilk resembles skim milk in gross chemical composition and is usually admixed withbulk of skim milk for further spray drying or even product manufacture in dairy plants. Desi


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buttermilk, on the other hand, has long been an important domestic beverage in India. It hashigh nutritive and therapeutic value. It also finds its way in the preparation of a host of itemssuch as kadhi, dhokla and idli. Also a number of federations and private plants sell salted andspiced buttermilk in 200 ml pouches (Goel and Choudhary, 1996). Surat-based Sumul doesbusiness out of selling buttermilk (chhach) in and around the city. "Sumul chhach" in 500ml

packs reaches practically very nook and corner of Surat, covering over 850 retail outlets. Inthe summer, sales average around 45,000 litres a day (Gupta, 1997).

4. WHEY AND ITS BY-PRODUCTS

Whey is a dilute, highly perishable greenish yellow fluid and the largest by-product ofthe dairy world produced during the manufacture of cheese, casein, chhana, paneer, chakkaand co-precipitates Its composition and acidity varies widely (Table 1). It contains about halfof the total solids of milk, and is a source of precious nutrients like lactose, whey proteins,minerals and vitamins. Whey proteins, though present in small quantity, have high proteinefficiency ratio (3.6), biological value (104) and net protein utilisation (95) and are next only

to egg protein in terms of nutritive value (Renner, 1990). Further, being a rich source oflactose, whey is a good fermentation media for a number of fermented products. In manyapplications, lactose in whole or deproteinised whey is hydrolysed to glucose and galactose,thereby increasing its sweetness. Such lactose hydrolysed syrups, generally after condensing,are mostly utilised in sweet confectionery products and in ice cream. The market for wheyproducts is estimated at about $ 6.5 billion in sales globally. Future growth is expected to beled by the industrys increasing focus on nutritional products, particularly in the dietary, sportsand clinical segments of the market.

Table 1. Composition of different whey systems

Constituents Cheddar cheese Acid casein Rennet casein Chhana and

paneer

Co-precipitates

Total solids (%) 7.0 7.0 6.8 6.5 6.2Fat (%) 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.1Protein (%) 0.9 1.0 1.0 0.4 0.3Lactose (%) 4.9 5.1 5.1 5.0 5.1Ash (%) 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.6T.A. (%) 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.3

The continuing annual growth in the production and consumption of the cheese andcoagulated milk products represents the generation of extremely large additional quantities ofwhey because of the huge base. The current world production of whey is estimated at about165 million tonnes. Cheese whey accounts for nearly 95% of total whey. In India, the majorsource of whey is from the production of chhana and paneer. In the absence of systematicsurveys/statistics, the predicted value for whey production is estimated at 5 million tonnes perannum. In view of the low solids content of whey, there has been a gross lack of interest in itsutilisation compared to other fluid by-products of dairy industry.

Utilization of whey has been of a great concern in the dairy industries engaged inmanufacturing of cheese and coagulated milk products. The techno-economic problemsassociated with the utilisation of whey have been receiving considerable attention andremarkable advancements have been made. For more than 25 years, a virtual explosion of


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papers and reports has appeared about whey and its by-products, by and for scientists inindustry and academia. Whey proteins, together with lactose, have provided an excellent areafor research. Today, modern industrial processing techniques such as ultrafiltration (UF),reverse osmosis (RO), new drying methods, hydrolysis, electrodialysis, ion-exchange,fermentation and protein fractionation, among others, have converted whey into a major source

of ingredients with differing functional and nutritional properties, that could be used in variousbranches of food and dairy industry. The global market for whey derivatives is growing at anaverage of around 10% annually. The predominant driving force behind the development ofwhey utilisation has been stringent regulations imposed by the environmental pollutionagencies all over the world. Other aspect relates to economic return from whey, whichcontains almost half the solids of original milk. Food manufacturers are increasingly viewingwhey products as an ideal means of achieving added value.

Despite significant gains in the amount of whey being processed, a large amount ofcurrent whey production still is disposed of as raw whey. Much of this represents productionof small plants, where the cost of purchasing, processing as well as the subsequenttransportation and handling clearly exceeds the value of any whey product that might be

produced. In small plants, the choice remains some form of disposal, be it municipal treatment,spreading raw whey on local farm lands for its nutrient value or feeding to local livestock.Further, acid whey, because of high mineral content and low pH pose considerable difficultiesin utilization and, therefore, mostly remain unutilized.

4.1 Condensing and drying

By far the single largest use of whey solids on global basis is in the form of whole drywhey and it continues to grow. This is whole whey that has been condensed and spray dried assuch or after blending with certain other liquid ingredients. These powdered whey products aremarketed as commodity ingredients for a variety of food and animal applications. The feed

industry may be the largest consumer of dried whey and whey products.Considerable advancements have been made in condensing and drying equipments for

energy conservation and for the production of better quality product. A significant trend in thelast two decades has been the increasing interest in reverse osmosis for removing water fromwhey. Small plants concentrate whey by RO for shipment to the larger plants. Medium sizedplants concentrate whey by evaporation for large drying plants. Large plants concentrate theirown whey plus outside sources whey to high solids for lactose crystallization and drying.

4.2 Demineralization

At the other end of the spectrum, a small percentage of utilized whey (less than 5%) isdemineralized by ion exchange or electrodialysis prior to spray drying to produce dry demineralizedwhey for specialized uses. These include whey protein based infant formulas and other medical andnutritional products that require lactose, special nutritional quality of whey proteins and low mineralcontent.

4.3 Whey drinks

A variety of beverages consisting of plain, carbonated, alcoholic and fruit flavouredhave been successfully developed and marketed all over the world, because they hold great


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potential for utilizing whey solids. In India also, a number of refreshing and low cost wheydrink 'Whevit' or 'Acidowhey' is in the market. These drinks are prepared from paneer/chhanawhey which is acidic and has low protein content (0.4%).

Whevit, an orange, pineapple, lime or mango flavoured alcoholic drink from whey, wasdeveloped at National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal by Bambha et al. (1975). For its

manufacture, fresh whey is efficiently separated in cream separator, deproteinised by steamingfor half an hour and cooled to room temperature. To the deproteinised and clarified whey, 22-23% of 50% sugar solution is added followed by 2-2.1% of 10% citric acid, colour and flavour.It is then fermented by incubation at 22

oC for 14-16 hr with a 1% culture of Saccharomyces

cerevisae. The product is bottled, pasteurised (75oC/30 min), cooled and stored at low

temperature (5-10oC). For the manufacture of Acidowhey that is a non-alcoholic whey drink,deproteinised whey is fermented with a culture ofLactobacillus acidophilus and Lactobacillusbulgaricus (1:1) (Paul, 1990).

4.4 Lactose production

The production of lactose from whey continues to be one of the most important form ofwhey utilisation. The global market for lactose based goods is valued at over $3 billion. Themarket for lactose ingredients is likely to be strengthened as the dairy industry focuses moreon healthy and nutritional products. The renewed research interest in application of lactose isexpected to drive interest in lactulose, lactitol and galactooligosaccharides. A significantquantity of food and pharmaceutical grade lactose is produced by conventional process.During the process, a protein-mineral precipitate is segregated, which is dried and sold as a by-product for animal feed. It has limited application as a food ingredient because of the highmineral content and the less functional (insoluble) property of the denatured whey proteins.

4.5 Ultrafiltration processing

By 1981, UF had become the most widely used process for recovery of soluble wheyprotein concentrates (WPC). By this process, a highly functional WPC is produced as theprimary end product for a wide variety of applications as a substitute for non-fat dry milk andother protein ingredients. The largest potential use of WPC is as a replacement for non-fat drymilk (NFDM) in the food industry. WPC with 35% protein is perceived to be a universalsubstitute for NFDM because of the similarity in gross composition and its dairy character.WPC can also be seen competing with casein, egg albumin and soya proteins within theexisting markets.

However, WPC constitutes a very small proportion (10%) of protein utilisation in foodindustry. More product formulation work, especially in the food industry, is needed to moveWPC into the general market place. Whey proteins are also being used for reactive extrusion tosupplement polyethylene - a common non-biodegradable plastic.

4.6 UF permeate stream

Although UF of whey has been in commercial use since 1972, the industry has been slowto adopt it. This is because the process generates a UF permeate as a by-product rich in lactoseand minerals that creates a waste disposal problem, equal in magnitude to the disposal of whole


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raw whey. Of concern too is the fact that a great deal of milk permeate is now coming on stream(the by-product from UF processing), adding to the problem. The fuel crisis of the seventies andperhaps the possibility of another looming on the horizon in the 1990's provided stimulants tolook at an array of fermentation possibilities of using whey or milk permeates to producealcohols, methane, organic acids, microbial biomass protein and other useful products. To some

extent, lactose and alcohol is produced from the UF permeate but the identification of the mostcost effective means for its utilization is still awaited by most dairy companies world wide. InIndia, all the lactose, the total production capacity being about 15,000 tonnes per annum, isproduced from UF permeate.

4.7 Alcohol

The lactose in whey can be converted by fermentation by a variety of organisms toproducts ranging from lactic acid to flavouring materials. Three plants in New Zealand.

4.8 Milk Mineral products

Milk mineral products rich in natural calcium and phosphate are valuable nutritionalsupplements in todays osteoporosis-sensitive world. These products are prepared byprecipitation of calcium phosphate in whey UF permeate under suitable conditions ofconcentration, pH, time and temperature. The crystals that first precipitate quickly undergosolid state transitions depending on the conditions to which they are subjected. It is necessaryto grow calcium phosphate particles to sufficient size to recover them in a good yield bycentrifugation and filtration. Milk mineral is used as a natural calcium supplement in agrowing range of food products including milks, yoghurts, canned milk powders andconfectionary and health foods.

5. GHEE RESIDUEGhee residue is a by-product of ghee industry and is produced in large quantity in India.

This nutritious by-product has been studied for its physico-chemical characteristics and for itsutilization in a number of food products like chocolate burfi, samosa filling, chapatis etc.However, most dairy plants in India have not been utilizing ghee residue profitably except for fatextraction. Most of the ghee residue goes to waste. A sincere R & D work and a strongwillingness on the part of manufacturer is required to develop food uses of ghee residue and putit in the market place.

6.0 CONCLUSION

The utilisation of skim milk and buttermilk has attracted sufficient successful attentionin India and abroad. During the last two decades, lot of technological advances have beenmade for effective utilisation of whey. However, just technical feasibility of whey processinginto interesting by-products does not ensure its utilisation. Processing technologies need to beeconomically attractive before any attempt of commercial utilisation of this dilute liquor canbe made. Therefore, further emphasis needs to be put on identifying and developing costeffective processing technologies. Commercial utilisation of whole ghee residue is also yet topick up.


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7. REFERENCES

Bambha, P.P., Nambudripad, V.K.N. and Srinivasan, M.R. 1975. NDRI Bull. No. 136, NDRI, Karnal.Goel, B.K. and Chouhdary, V.K. 1996. Techno-economic aspects of production of salted spiced buttermilk: A

promising profit making by-product utilization. Indian Dairyman, 48(5): 29-31.Gupta, P.R. 1997. Dairy India. P.R. Gupta Publisher, N. Delhi.Gupta, V.K. and Mathur, B.N. 1989. Current trends in whey utilization. Indian Dairyman, 41: 165.Horton, B.S. 1995. Whey processing and utilization. Bull. of the IDF No. 308 : 2-6.Huffman, L.M. 1996. Processing whey protein for use as a food ingredient. Food Technol. 50(2): 49-52.Khanna, R.S. and Gupta, V.K. 1996. Process optimization for the production of buffalo milk casein hydrolysate.

Indian J. Dairy Sci., 49: 386-397.Mann, E.J. 1993. Whey utilization. Part 2. Dairy Ind. Int., 58 (6): 19-20.Mann, E.J. 1996. Dairy ingredients in foods. Part 2. Dairy Ind. Int. 61(2): 10-11.Mann, E.J. 1996. Casein, caseinates and hydrolysates. Dairy Ind. Int. 61(9): 13-14.

Paul, S.C. 1990. Nutritive Beverages for product diversification in dairy industry. Indian Dairyman, 42:282.

Pittis, E. 1995. The European market for dairy ingredients. J. Soc. Dairy Technol. 48(3): 79-86.Southward, C.R. 1994. Utilization of milk components: Casein. In: Modern Dairy Technology, Vol. 1. Advances

in Milk Processing (ed. R.K. Robinson), Chapman & Hall, London, U.K. P.. 375-432.Zadow, J.G. 1994. Utilization of milk components. Whey. P. 313-374.

Zall, R.R. 1992. Sources and composition of whey and permeate. In: Whey and Lactose Processing (Ed. Z.G.Zadow), Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd., New York, USA. P. 1-72.


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Vinod K. Kansal

Principal Scientist & Head

Division of Animal Biochemistry, N.D.R.I., Karnal 132 001

1. INTRODUCTION

Milk occupies a special position among foods in being an animal food that has a vegetarian

connotation. For children, adolescent, elderly people pregnant and nursing mothers, milk plays an

important role in meeting the requirements of many essential nutrients, and hence milk is

considered as a protective food. Milk helps to balance human diet by supplementing good quality

protein, calcium and vitamins particularly, vitamin A, riboflavin, niacin and folic acid. In addition,

milk contains several bio-protective molecules that ensure health security to humans. Casein

prepared from skim milk, being high quality protein with good supplementary value, can be used

to fight protein deficiency. During processing, there is partition of nutrients. A considerable

portion of nutrients pass into whey during manufacture of cheese and paneer. Whey protein

concentrate (WPC) is indeed very rich in high quality proteins, minerals and vitamins. Besides

having functional properties, WPC improves the nutritional attributes of the product. Milk sugar,

lactose, has therapeutic value in improving intestinal flora and absorption of calcium.

2. NUTRITIONAL QUALITY OF CASEIN AND WHEY PROTEINS

Milk proteins are rich in essential amino acids. Whey proteins that constitute 20% of milk

proteins especially are of high nutritional quality, containing 51% essential amino acids, compared

to 45% in casein. The sulphur amino acids are higher in whey proteins then in casein. The Protein

Efficiency Ratio (3.1), Biological Value (91) and Net Protein Utilization (82) of milk protein are

very close to that of egg proteins (3.8, 100 and 94, respectively). Lactalbumin is superior to caseinhaving Biological Value (BV), Net Protein Utilization (NPU) and Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER)

100, 92 and 3.6, respectively. The corresponding values for casein are 77, 76 and 2.5, respectively.

Only 14.5g of lactalbumin or 28.5g milk proteins is sufficient to meet the daily requirement of

essential amino acids for adult humans.

2.1 Supplementary value and digestibility of whey proteins

Milk proteins contain a surplus of certain essential amino acids (lysine and threonine), so

they can raise the BV of vegetable proteins. Milk proteins can be added to cereal based products

to increase their lysine and threonine content. A breakfast consisting of milk, egg and bread has an

excellent NPU value, and provides balanced amounts of minerals and vitamins. Whey proteins

have even better supplementary value. A mixture of whey protein, wheat, rice or maize has PER

value even greater than that of whey proteins. Whey proteins can raise the BV of soy proteins

because of their high concentration of sulphur amino acids. Whey obtained as a by-product in

cheese manufacture has thus a great potential for incorporation in cereal based products.

The digestibility of milk proteins is rated higher (96%) then that of plant proteins (74-

78%). Because of their high BV, the milk proteins are useful in the diet of patients suffering from

liver and gall bladder diseases, hyperlipidaemia and diabetes. Patients with impaired kidney

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functions rely on protein with high BV for relieving strain on the excretory function of the kidney.

The milk proteins are also used in slimming diets.

2.2 Immunoprotective properties of milk proteins

Immunoglobulins, lactoferrin, lysozyme, lactoperoxidase and vitamin B12-binding proteinhave antimicrobial effect. The immunoglobulins mainly 1gA are not broken down by the digestive

enzymes. Thus, they not only act against the microorganisms in the intestine, but also prevent the

absorption of foreign proteins.

Lactoferrin is an iron binding glycoprotein that occurs in cow milk at a level of 0.2 mg/ml.

Lactoferrin plays an important role in the resistance against intestinal infection, particularlyE.

coli. The bacteriostatic effect of lactoferrin is due to its iron binding ability making iron

unavailable for iron requiring bacteria. Lactoferrin has also been shown to have bactericidal effect.

Unsaturated vitamin B12-binding protein competes with bacteria that have a vitamin B12.

A number of enzymes are also involved in the milk immune system. These are

lactoperoxidase, xanthin oxidase and lysozyme. Lysozyme has a direct effect by breaking downthe cell wall of gram-positive bacteria. The lactoperoxidase-thiocyanate-H2O2 system is an

antibacterial system. Lactoperoxidase and thiocyanate are found in milk and other tissue

secretions, and H2O2 is produced by lactic acid bacteria or by the action of xanthin oxidase.

Thiocyanate is oxidized by H2O2and lactoperoxidase to an intermediate product that destroys the

microorganisms.

2.3 Functional Peptides

Many milk-derived peptides possess functional properties. Several peptides with opium

like (sleep inducing) activity have been extracted from the degradation products of milk proteins.

These include -casomorphins (from -casein), exorphin (from S1

casin), -lactostensin (from

lactoglobulin) and serorphin (from serum albumin). These opium-like peptides have been

shown to prolong gastrointestinal transit time exerting anti-diarrhoeal effect. These also stimulate

secretion of insulin and somatostatin.

Glycomacro peptide (GMP) derived from K-casein induces production of cholecystokinin,

a hormone associated with satiety. GMP and other fractions of K-casein digest inhibit the adhesion

of oral actinomycetes and streptococci to erythrocytes, and binding of cholera toxins to its

receptor. GMP is free from aromatic amino acids, and therefore a suitable protein substitute for

those suffering from hereditary disorder of aromatic amino acid metabolism, such as phenyl

ketonuria.

Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) located in different tissue, splits two amino acidsfrom C-terminal end of angiotensinogen I converting it into angiotensinogen II, which is a highly

hypertensive octa-peptide. Peptides with anti-hypertensive activity that act through inhibition of

ACE have been identified in the sequence of bovine and human -and S1 casein. Recently

-lactalbumin and -lactglobulin fragments that inhibit ACE have also been characterized.

Several immune-stimulatory peptides have been identified from both bovine and human

casein and whey proteins. These peptides have been shown to stimulate the phagocytic activities

of murine and human macrophages and enhance resistance against certain bacteria. Certain


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peptides from casein stimulate the production of immunoglobulins.

Casecidin, a chymosin digest of casein in vitro, inhibits Sarcina, Bacillus subtitis,

Diplococcus pneumoniae and Streptococcus pyrogenes.Similarly, fragments of human -casein

have a protective effect againstKlebsiella pneumoniae. Iracidin, anS1 -casein fragment has both

therapeutic and prophylatic effect. Lactoferricin, an acid-pepsin digestion product of lactoferrin,

has stronger bactericidal activity compared to the native molecule.

3. CHOLESTEROL LOWERING FACTORS

Several studies have shown that milk reduces serum cholesterol levels of the consumers.

Experiments with volunteers have shown that cholesterol levels do not rise when as much as 2

litres of milk is consumed daily. On the contrary, the cholesterol level is reduced. Experiments

with animals have shown that even buffalo milk, containing 7% fat, lowers plasma cholesterol

levels. Both decreased formation and increased breakdown of cholesterol are responsible for the

cholesterol lowering effect of milk. Orotic acid and another nucleotide associated with proteose-

peptone fraction of milk proteins and calcium are suggested to have cholesterol reducing

properties. Milk slows down the biochemical processes leading to atherogenesis in rabbits fed on

atherogenic diet. It has been suggested that the regular intake of milk keeps blood vessels healthy.

4. NUTRACEUTICAL ATTRIBUTES OF MILK CONSTITUENTS

Milk proteins have high buffering power; therefore it is useful in the treatment of

inflammation of mucous lining of stomach and of stomach ulcers, preventing hyperacidity. Milk

and milk products are used as a source of proteins in hyperuricaemia and goat disease. In contrast

to other foods, they do not contain purines, which are precursors in the synthesis of uric acid that

causes gout when deposited in the joints or may lead to formation of urinary calculi.

Short and medium-chain fatty acids with 4-12 carbon atoms, which occur in a relatively

high concentration in milk fat, are reported to have antibacterial and fungicidal activity against

gram negative bacteria and certain moulds. Milk fat has a protective effect against human tooth

decay. This effect has been ascribed in part to adsorption of milk fat onto the enamel surface and

in part to antimicrobial effect of milk fatty acids.

Recently much attention has been directed towards an unusual fatty acid, conjugated

linoleic acid (CLA), which is naturally present in milk and dairy products. Several bio-protective

properties of CLA have been demonstrated such as anti-carcinogenic activity in mouse fore-

stomach, mammary cancer prevention in rats, anti-carcinogenic activity in rat colon, anti-

carcinogenic activity in skin, anti-diabetic activity in rats and reduction in body fat and anti-

atherogenic activity in rabbits and mice and immuno-modulation in rats.

5. NUTRITIONAL BENEFITS OF MILK FAT

Compared to other fats and oils, milk fat is easily digestible. The digestibility of milk fat is

99%, while that of natural palm oil is 91%. The excellent digestibility of milk fat is due to

dispersion of fat globules in the aqueous phase of milk forming an emulsion. They are absorbed

directly unlike other dietary fats that have to be emulsified by bile, pancreatic enzymes and

intestinal lipases before they can pass through intestinal well. Also, milk fat is rich in short and


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medium-chain fatty acids, which are more easily absorbed than long chain fatty acids. The ester

bonds involving short-chain fatty acids are more easily cleaved by lipases. The easy digestibility

of milk fat makes it a valuable dietary constituent in diseases of stomach, intestine, liver, gall

bladder, kidney and disorders of fat digestion. In infant and child nutrition, milk fat is of immense

benefit. It helps them in meeting their energy requirements by increasing energy density of the

diet. A sufficient fat supply is essential for thriving babies, a rosy and smooth skin and alsoresistance to bacterial infections.

5.1 No Justification for replacing milk fat with vegetable oils

Milk fat has a low content of essential fatty acids (EFA), linoleic and linolenic acid. The

EFA requirement is only 3% of total calories, two-third of which is met from invisible fat present

in dietary cereals, pulses and vegetables. Therefore there is no justification to replace milk fat with

another fat having higher linoleic acid content.

5.2 Milk fat and misconceptions about its role in coronary heart diseases (CHD)

Milk fat has often been implicated in CHD because of its cholesterol content andcomposition of its fatty acids. It is however, not correct to judge the implication of milk fat in

development of CHD solely on the basis of its fatty acid composition and cholesterol content. The

average cholesterol content in cow and buffalo milk is only 2.8 and 1.9 mg/g fat respectively.

Moreover, humans absorb 10-14% of dietary cholesterol, thus only 20-40 mg cholesterol will be

absorbed from 50g of dietary milk fat. On the other hand, the body itself synthesizes cholesterol

(1-4g daily) in much higher amounts than what is absorbed from the diet.

The so called "Lipid hypothesis" states that there is a connection between fatty acid

composition of the diet and cholesterol content of serum in that the saturated fatty acids (SFA)

increase cholesterol and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) decrease it. Since increased

cholesterol levels are believed to play an important role in the development of CHD, the demand

is often made that the dietary fat having low proportion of PUFA be replaced with oil that are rich

in PUFA. The question that naturally arises is should one avoid milk or milk fat because it

contains high content of saturated fat. The major saturated fatty acids in milk fat are palmitic acid

(24-28%), myristic acid (13-14%) and stearic acid (11-12%), and the major unsaturated fatty acid

is oleic acid (23-28%). Milk fat has high proportion of short and medium chain saturated fatty

acids, which do not raise serum cholesterol levels, nor does stearic acid. Only palmitic acid has

some effect.

The idea that excess of SFA and/or cholesterol were associated with the development of

CHD arose from epidemiological association between high total and animal fat intake, high serum

cholesterol levels and incidences of CHD, in some countries. The conclusion made from such

empirical studies have been criticized by many researchers in that the population that consumedfat with higher PUFA/ SFA ratio also consumed less calories from sugars and total fat.

An excessive intake of energy, resulting in excess weight is one of the major reasons of

altered cholesterol metabolism and atherosclerosis. Indeed, a diet containing optimum amounts of

calorie and essential nutrients, wherein the type of fat has no significance, is a real safeguard

against high mortality from atherosclerosis.


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6. MILK AND SKIM MILK ARE RICHEST NATURAL SOURCE OF CALCIUM

Recent research has shown that poor nutritional status with respect to calcium is related to

diseases like osteoporosis, hypertension and colon cancer. The hypertensive patients have shown

significant reduction in blood pressure in response to increased calcium intake. The effect of

calcium on blood pressure is mediated by (1) increase in urinary excretion of sodium, (2)

preventing the rise in vitamin D hormone which increases blood vessel resistance (3) relaxingsmooth muscle cells which lines the blood vessels (4) suppressing the renin-angiotensin system

and (5) increasing production of endothelial relaxing factors.

Introduction of increased dietary calcium through dairy products has been shown to reduce

incidences in colon cancer and hyper-proliferation in the colonic mucosa in rodents. Calcium

produces these effects by neutralizing deconjugated bile acids and free acids, thereby removing

their mitogenic/ toxic influence.

Milk and dairy products are the most important source of calcium in readily available

form. In western countries milk and dairy products provide up to 75% of total calcium intake. A

250 ml serving of cow milk contains calcium equivalent to 60% of ICMRs Recommended

Dietary Allowance (RDA) for adults. Equal amount of buffalo milk contains 95% of calcium RDA

for adults. Calcium in all forms of milk is equally well utilized. Incorporation of milk in the diet

also improves the bioavailability of calcium from vegetable foods. The factors that contribute to

better availability of calcium from milk include lactose, protein and phosphorus.

The sulphur amino acids, methionine and cystine produce acidic urine, causing calcium

loss. Milk has lower amounts of sulphur amino acids, and also has higher amounts of lysine that

enhances diffusion of calcium across the intestine. A part of calcium in milk is associated with

phosphorylated casein. The casein phosphopeptides, released in the gastrointestinal tract during

digestion, form soluble complex with calcium phosphate salts and improves the diffusion of

calcium across the intestine. Milk is rich in phosphorus that reduces urinary calcium excretion,

and counter balances, at least in part, the calciuric effect of dietary proteins. Milk and most dairyproducts, except some processed cheese, have a near 1:1 calcium to phosphorus ratio considered

to be ideal for retention of calcium in the body.

7. MILK AND WHEY ARE RICH SOURCE OF VITAMINS

Milk is a rich source of vitamins not only in terms of their contents but also their better

bioavailability. Milk is one of the richest natural sources of riboflavin (vitamin B2). A 250 ml

serving of cow milk contains riboflavin equivalent to 50% of the daily requirement of a pre-school

child. Although milk contains only small amounts of preformed niacin (Vitamin B3), nevertheless,

it is a very good source of this vitamin. Niacin can be synthesized in the body from tryptophan,

which is present in milk proteins in good amount (480 mg/L). Sixty mg tryptophan is metabolisedin the body to give rise to one mg niacin. Indeed, milk is used as dietary ingredient for patient

suffering from pellagra, a niacin deficiency disease. For vegetarian, milk is sole natural source of

vitamin B12, as this vitamin is present only in animal foods. Milk is also a good source of folic

acid. Vitamin A deficiency is a major cause of widespread blindness among children in India. A

250 ml serving of cow milk contain vitamin A sufficient to meet 75% daily vitamin A requirement

of pre-school child.


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Mr. H. K. Mondal

Deputy Director, Export Inspection Agency, New Delhi

1. INTRODUCTION

The Export Inspection Council (EIC) is the official certifying body for Exports. The

organization is a statutory body set up by Govt. of India, Ministry of Commerce & Industry under

the export (Quality Control & Inspection) act 1963. In order to ensure sound development of

Export trade of India through quality control and Inspection. EIC provides mandatory certification

for various food items namely, Fish & fishery products, Dairy Products, Egg products, Meat &

Meat products, poultry and poultry meat products and honey and while other food and non food

items are being certified on voluntary basis. The certification is given against the standards of

importing countries or in absence of this, international standards / Indian National Standards.

Export Certification is carried out through its field organization, Export Inspection Agency (EIA)

located at Mumbai, Kolkata, Kochi, Delhi and Chennai and 38 sub offices and is based on a

system approach to include GMP/GHP/HACCP and also tailored to meet the requirements of the

importing country. EIC certification is recognized by several of Indian Trading partners while

with others the dialogue is on for seeking recognition.

Though, India is the largest milk producer in the word, its exports are relatively

insignificant. Major factors for low export of milk products are the quality and safety aspects.

Consumer of all over the world is showing their preference for high quality of products. Beside

with the establishment of WTO and further increase in global trade, due to removal of quantitative

restrictions, the Governments have realized their role in protecting the health and safety of their

populations by imposing stringent restrictions relating to pesticides residue, heavy metals,

contaminants, microbiological parameters as well as various aspects of hygiene control.

Many importing countries such as U.S.A., E.U., insist on implementation of Food Safety

Management System (FSMS) such as H.A.C.C.P. / G.H.P. rather then depending on final product

inspection. On the similar approach E.U. has issued directive on general hygienic condition for

processing storage, packaging and transportation of dairy products for approval of dairy

processing unit to produce while some and safe dairy products.

2. NOTIFICATION OF DAIRY PRODUCTS

In light of the development in the International Market, Ministry of Commerce and Industry,

Govt. of India has issue order / notification wherein dairy products have been brought under

compulsory quality control inspection and certification vide S.O. No. 2719 and 2720 dated28/11/2000 under the export of milk products (Quality Control, Inspection and Monitoring) Rules

2000. The dairy product processing units are required to meet the sanitation and hygiene and other

food safety requirement as laid down in the said notification for getting approval from E.I.C. /

E.I.A.s for export.

EXPORT REQUIREMENTS OF DAIRY PRODUCTS PLANTEXPORT REQUIREMENTS OF DAIRY PRODUCTS PLANT


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r. Inspection and monitoring of plant and packing centers shall be carried out regularly by

competent authority. The competent authorities have free access at all times to all part of

the plant to check that the rules are being strictly complied with. The health checks and

supervision of the production shall be carried out by CA as follows:

o The cleanliness of the premises, equipment and hygiene.o The efficacy of the checks carried out by the establishment.o The microbiological and hygiene condition of the milk based products.o The efficacy of treatment of the milk based products.o The hermetically sealed containers by means of random sampling.o The appropriate health making of the milk based products whenever applicableo Storage and transport conditiono Take sample required for laboratory tests.o Make any other checks it considers necessary to ensure compliance with this order.

5. CERTIFICATION

a. CA shall issue health certification in prescribed Performa after satisfying that the dairyproducts are processed in approved processing plant having valid approval number and

after satisfying the relevant requirements

b. The CA shall also issue any other certificate on request from processor / exporter after

satisfying itself that the requirements of the relevant standards are met.

6.

GENERAL CONDITIONS OF DAIRY PROCESSING ESTABLISHMENT FORAPPROVAL FOR EXPORT

6.1 Premises In open, clean and healthy surrounding, away from the roadside, garbage dumps,

cattle sheds, open sewage drains.

Free from sources of obnoxious fumes, smokes, odor or excessive dust Surrounding roads to be cemented, tarred or turned

6.2 Building Paramount in nature, suitable in size, construction, designs to facilitate

maintenance and hygienic condition and unidirectional flow.

Sufficient space for housing equipments & storage materials. Shall not be used for domestic purpose Rodents, flies & birds proof.


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6.3 Ventilation & lighting

Adequate lighting in accordance with factory act. Light to be covered with protective cover Adequate ventilated in according to the number of worker with fly proofing

arrangement.

6.4 Floor, Walls & Ceiling

Hard smooth. Washable, slopped to the drain, not affected by weak acid, alkali,stream.

Cement concrete floor for store room and go down also Walls and ceiling shall be smooth, non-absorbent light colored, Free from crevices and sharp angle Wall washable up to 1.5 meter Junction of floor with walls and two walls to be rounded off

6.5 Processing Room

Shall be made fly proofing & rodent proof Floor shall have sufficient slop to the drain Drains to be cemented and covered with detachable covers For effective drainage 15 to 30 cm half circular drains with glazed tiles on the

bottom to be provided.

Screen to be provided at the opening of the drain to prevent solid matter fromlogging the drain, end of the drain to be made rodent proof by providing screen.

Doors to be provided with self closing system Exhaust fan to be provided whenever necessary Windows, ventilators and Exhaust fans openings to be provided fly proofing

arrangements

Facilities for washing & cleaning Adequate numbers of wash basis to be provided with non hand operated taps

Hose holders with hoses to be provided near all water outlets Hose shall be kept always rolled condition Self closing containers to be provided for waste collection Fly catchers


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6.6 Change Room

Adequate numbers separately for males & females Smooth water proof washable walls & floor Wash basins with non-hand operated taps, soap solution Flash lavatories, door must not open directly to the work room Single used towels for hand drying, foot operated bins nail brush Arrangements for changing shoes Separate cupboard for company cloths and personal belongings

6.7 Entrance

Hand washing and sanitation facilities Arrangement for hand drying Foot dip in sufficient size Air curtains / fly catchers

6.8 Plant & Equipments

Smooth, free form pits & crevice Non absorbent, corrosion resistance materials (St. Steel) and easily cleanable Gasket to be food grade, non-porous & non-absorbent Place at least 45 cm from walls and ceiling Drains & catch pans to be provided where ever necessary to collect spill & drip,

easily cleanable.

All electrical connection switch boxes, control boxes, cables to be installed 45cmaway from the equipment walls to facilitate cleaning

All cable wires to be covered All switch boards to be covered with washable covers Equipment coming in contact with milk to be kept always clean All equipment, machines to be serially numbered Heat treatment equipment to be fitted with

oAn automatic temperature control and recording thermometer

o An automatic safety device preventing insufficient heating or cooling mediumo An automatic safety system preventing the mixture of pasteurized or sterilized

milk with incompletely heated milk.

All the temperature / pressure measuring apparatus, balance shall be calibratedfrom authorized authority.


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6.9 Water suppler

Adequate safe & potable water to be supplied Hot, cold water to be supplied for cleaning the plant equipments machineries Storage tank to be kept always lockable condition Manhole of storage tank to be sufficient for easy cleaning Cleaning of storage tank to be carried out at least once in six months. Date of cleaning, next date of cleaning, capacity, procedure of cleaning to be

displayed on the storage tank

Water to be periodically tested (once in a year) for physically, chemically andmicrobiologically as per IS 4251 to check portability

Plumbing arrangements to be such type so that potable water should not becontaminated

All taps and water outlets to be serially numbered6.10 Dairy hygiene

Arrangements to be made to protect the entry of Birds & domestic animals in theplant.

Collect waste and refuse in covered receptacles and not allow to scatter on thefloor

Prevent mould growth on equipments and internal structure of the plant Steps to be taken to prevent infestation of cockroaches and other pests. Care to be taken to prevent contamination of equipments, raw materials etc if

pesticides used.

Pesticides not to be used during processing in side the processing hall. Processing room not to be used as store & eating room Premises to be well lit and ventilated, sufficient number of exhaust fans to be

provided

Ventilators to be covered with fly proofing nets Safety type bulbs & fixture to be used. Glass windows & light fitting to be cleaned at regular intervals All pumps and waste disposal lines to be large enough to carry peak loads Mechanism to be provided to treat dairy effluent Effluent not to be disposed on the road or open area outside the plant Store rooms, brushes, buckets and other cleaning gears in separate place. Dry & wet chemicals to be stored in separate room to avoid contamination.


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6.13 Storage

Store the materials away from the walls & ceiling and on the pellets Packaging materials to be transported to the processing unit with protective

coverers to avoid dust and damaged.

Automatic temperature recording device to be provided for cold room / coldstorage

Light to be provided with safety covers Rodent control system to be provided

6.14 Transportation

Tanks, cans, tankers, and other containers which are used for transport orpasteurized milk must comply the following:

oInside part made by SS304, smooth easy to clean and disinfect

o Designed such a way to drain completelyo If fitted with tap, which must be easy to remove, dismantle, wash clean and

disinfect.

o Washed, cleaned and disinfected immediately after each use and before reuse.o Must be sealed before and during transport by means of watertight sealing

device.

o Vehicles & containers must be designed and equipped in such a way tomaintain temperature through out the period.

o Vehicles transporting milk in small containers or in churns must be in goodcondition and must not be used to transport any objectionable products to causethe milk to deteriorate or contaminate.

7. REQUIREMENT FOR APPROVAL OF PROCESSING PLAN FOR DAIRY

PRODUCT

HACCP / GMP/GHP Minimum test facilities Waste disposal/Effluent treatment mechanism Record keeping mechanism Competence of technical man power Conformance of products to standard Facilities as per GOI notification


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8. PROCEDURE FOR APPROVAL OF A PROCESSING PLANT

The processor seeking approval of their plant submits an application in prescribedformat along with relevant documents and HACCP manual including SSOP to

concerned Export Inspection Agency (EIA) of their region. Any

discrepancies/shortcomings observed in the application are immediately

communicated to the applicant for rectification. Desk audit of HACCP manual

including SSOPs are also carried out and any deficiencies observed are

communicated to the applicant for rectification.

Applications complete in all respects will be forward to convener of InterDepartmental Panel (IDP), the convener will be from the concerned EIA. Themembers of IDP are from APEDA, NDRI, Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of

food Processing, NDDB-New Delhi, Indian Dairy Association.

The IDP will visit the plant to adjudge the facilities available in the plant and givetheir specific recommendations for approval or otherwise. The minimum corium of

the IDP will be three members including the convener.

The recommendation of the IDP will be placed to In charge of EIA for issuance ofapproval letter to the processing plant or otherwise.

Certificate of approval will be issue by the Director (Q/C & I), EIC New Delhi. The validity of certificate of approval will be for a period of 2 years from the dateof issue of the letter of approval.

8.1 Documents required

HACCP Manual with SSOP and organizational Chart Water test report as per IS 4251 Plan lay out Details Plumbing Diagram Flow Diagram of the product Legal identity of the unit Lease agreement if necessary Bio-data of technologist/chemist/Supervisor Valid consent order for air and water issued by pollution control board Certified copy of IEC number

8.2 Marking on The Export Packaging

It is mandatory for the approved plant to put approval number & Q-Mark on all export

packages by printing/stenciling, besides the requirements as stipulated in the export contact or the

requirements of the importing country.


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8.6 Surveillance by E.I.C. / E.I.A.s

Three tier Surveillance System is being followed By EIC/EIAs to check the compliance to

laid down requirements by the approved Dariy Processing plant.

8.6.1 Monitoring by EI A offi cial

Verify the raw material, process and product control Verify sanitary and hygiene practice. Verify parameters tested as specified in the notification are within the tolerance

limit and observe testing by laboratories.

Verify the records Verify implementation of HACCP plan. Draw sample of raw milk, swabs from workers and equipments, in process and

finish products for ensuring safetyand wholesomeness of the product.

8.6.2 Supervisory visit to veri fy

Compliance to norms by the processors Qualityand correctness of monitoring by EIA officers

8.6.3 Corporate Audi t by EI C

Examine the operations of scheme by EIAs as per documented system. Visit by audit team at least 10% of the approved units.

9. SOME IMPORTANT REQUIREMENTS FOR DAIRY PRODUCTS.

9.1 Microbiological criteria for Dairy Products

A) Pathogenic micro organisms should be absent Listeria monocytogenes Salmonella spp Shigella

B) Organisms indicating poor hygiene-within prescribed limits

Staphylococcus aureus (Milk powder- absent, others dairy products 100/g) Eschericia coli (Dairy product - absent)

C) Indicator Organisms within prescribed limits

Coliforms (Milk powder absent, other dairy product


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9.2 Residue Monitoring Plan (RMP)- Testing of Raw Milk by Processor

Dairy processing plants shall exercise suitable control on quality of incoming raw milk.

They shall test or arrange to get tested the raw milk in outside EIC recognised laboratories for the

following parameters as prescribed by EIC.

1.Pesticide residues2.Drugs ;Total residues antibiotic (as Beta Lactum)3.

Heavy Metals

a. Leadb. Arsenicc. Cadmiumd. Tine. Zincf. Mercury

4. Aflatoxin

a. Aflatoxin M110. ISSUUANCE OF CERTIFICATE OF INSPECTION

The printed blank certificates of inspection are issued to the approved plant. The approved plant

will issue the certificate of inspection for every export consignment & submit two copies of the same to

the concern EIA. The certificate of inspection can be issued only by the authorized signatories of the

plants. Validity of the certificate of inspection will be 45 days from the date of issue.

11. ISSUANCE OF HEALTH CERTIFICATE

The health certificate can be obtained by an approved plant for the products for which they

are approved for, by making a request on a prescribed format to concerned EIA along with the

following documents

i. Copy of certificate of inspection for the concern consignment issued by the processor.ii. Testing data of residues of pesticides, drugs and heavy metals for the period of

production of the consignment.

iii. Laboratory test report for the additional parameters to be indicated in health certificateof clearly indicating about compliance of the consignment as per the requirement of

importing country.

E.I.A.s also draw the sample of raw milk from approved processing unit for testing the

following parameters under residue monitoring plan (RMP).


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PARAMETERS MRL

Veterinary Drugs

ChloramPhenical ND Nitrofurans (including Metabolites) ND Ronidazole ND Metronidazole ND Albendazole 100ppb Fenbendazole 100ppb Phenyl butazone ND

Heavy Metals

Lead 0.02 ppm Arsenic 0.1 ppm Mercury 1.0 ppm Tin 250 ppm Cadmium 1.5 ppm Zinc 50 ppm

Aflatoxin M1 0.5 ppb

Total Antibiotic as (Beta lactum) 10.0 ppb

Pesticide Residue

Organochlorine Group 0.01 ppm Organiophosphorus Group 0.01 ppmThe above parameters shall be tested as per methods given in the latest

AOAC/Codex/Internationally recognized methods.

12. NEW EU DIRECTIVES ON FOOD-STUFFS

Regulation (EC) No. 852/2004 on the hygiene of food stuffs requires food businessoperators to put in place, implement and maintain a permanent procedure based on Hazard

Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) principles.

HACCP system is generally considered to be a useful tool for food business operators inorder to control hazards through out the food chain from raw material to distribution that

may occur in food.

Regulation (EC) No. 852/2004 allows HACCP based procedures to be implemented withflexibility so as to ensure that they can be applied in all situations and in particularly in

small businesses operator. Primary objective of Regulation (EC) No. 852/2004 is to ensure a high level of consumer

protection with regard to food safety


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General hygiene requirements are specified for food business operator in Annexure ofregulation No. 852/2004.

o General requirements for food premises.o Specific requirements for processing roomso Transporto Equipment Requirementso Food Wasteo Water Supplyo Personal Hygieneo

Provisions applicable to foodstuffso Provisions applicable to wrapping and packagingo Heat Treatmento Training

Regulation (EC) No. 853/2004 is on specific hygiene rules for products of animal origin. Itcontains detailed hygiene rules for products of all animal origin including dairy products

recognizing the specific microbiological and chemical hazards associated with such foods.

Products of animal origin are also subject to the general hygiene rules in Regulation (EC)No. 852/2004 and thus the requirements for procedures are based on the HACCP principles.

Regulation (EC) No. 854/2004 is on specific rules for the organization of official controlsfor products of animal origin intended for human consumption.

Regulation (EC) No. 882/2004 is on official control performs to ensure the verification ofcompliance with feed and food law, animal health and animal welfare rules.

Regulation (EC) No. 2073/2005 is on microbiological criteria for food stuffs. Regulation (EC) No. 183/2005 is laid down requirements for feed hygiene. It ensures the

primary responsibility for feed rests with feed business operator.

Regulation (EC) No. 178/2002 is on general principles and requirements of food law. Itcontains food safety requirements, responsibility, traceability and liability.


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2

SECTION - II

CASEIN PRODUCTSCASEIN PRODUCTS


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Principal ScientistDairy Technology Division, N.D.R.I., Karnal-132 001

1. INTRODUCTION

Edible casein is a long established dairy by-product finding its use as an ingredient in

many dairy and food products. The general development in technologies and the new uses in foods

have ever increased the production and demand of this by-product. Its manufacture differs from

that of non-edible casein (also called industrial casein) in that it is produced under sanitary

conditions. Further, during its manufacture, food grade chemicals are to be used and sufficiently

heat treated to make it safe for human consumption. Appropriate national and international

standards for this by-product (Table 1) call for rigorous control during its manufacture. The

intensive investigation in manufacturing technologies over the years and the introduction of

efficient plant designs, have immensely improved the technology of edible casein.

2. MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Processes for the manufacture of edible casein from cow milk are well known to dairy

processes all over the world. Efficient separation of fat from milk is essential. For this, filtered and

warmed milk (40-45C) should be separated in a hermetic cream separator so that fat in skim milk

is reduced to less than 0.05%. Achievement of the microbiological standards for edible casein

requires pasteurization of either or both the milk and the curd. Heat treatment tends to give higher

yield of casein. Some authorities hold that heat treatment of milk for casein manufacture causes

slight insolubility and other defects.

2.1 Precipitation

Casein exists in milk as a calcium caseinate-calcium phosphate complex. When an acid is

added to milk, this complex is dissociated. As the pH of milk is lowered, the calcium is displaced

from the casein molecules by hydronium ions, H3O+and the calcium phosphate associated with the

complex is converted into soluble Ca2+

ions and H 2PO4-ions. At about 5.3 pH the casein begins to

precipitate out of solution and at the isoelectric point of casein (about pH 4.6), maximum

precipitation occurs. At this pH all the calcium is solubilized. Not only is the calcium from the

caseinate molecule removed but also the calcium phosphate is liberated to the soluble form. This

makes it possible to wash these soluble salts from the curd and achieve a low ash content in the final

product.

It might be expected that all the casein in a sample of milk would be precipitated simply by

adding sufficient acid to bring the pH value to approximately 4.6. However, the reaction of acid

with caseinate complex is not instantaneous and the pH will tends to rise slowly with time.

Therefore, ample time should be allowed for achieving equilibrium conditions. When casein is

precipitated from skim milk by the direct addition of acid, the temperature and pH of precipitation

DEVELOPMENTS IN THE MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY OF CASEINDEVELOPMENTS IN THE MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY OF CASEIN


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and the mechanical handling of the curd during its formation are very important in determining the

subsequent properties of the curd.

Table 1. National and international standards for edible casein

Requi rement for edible casein I nternational standards

(FI L-I DF 45:1969)

I SI standards

(I S:1167-1965)Extra grade Standard grade

Moisture, % by weight, max. 12 12 10

Total ash, % by weight,

(on dry basis), max.

- - 2.5

Copper, max. 5 ppm 5 ppm -

Lead, max, 5 ppm 5 ppm -

Iron, max. 20 ppm 20 ppm -

Acid insolutble ash, % by

Weight (on dry basis) max.

- - 0.1

Fat % by weight

(on dry basis) max.

1.7 2.25 1.5

Nitrogen, % by weight

(on dry basis), min.

- - 14.5

Protein, % by weight

(on dry basis), min.

95 90 -

Total acidity in terms

of ml. of 0.1 N NaOH/g.

- - 6-14

Free acidity in terms of

ml of 0.1 N NaOH, max.

0.20/g 0.27/g 5.6/10 g

Lactose, % by weight, max. 0.2 1 -

Bacterial counts, per g, max. 30,000 100,000 50,000

Coliform count, max. Negative in 0.1g 10 per g

Mould count, per g, max. - - 50

Moulds and Yeasts, per g, max. 50 100 -

Thermophillic organisms, per g,

max.

5,000 5,000 -

Optional Requirements

Staphylococci (beta haemolytic

coagulase positive), per g.

Negative Negative -

Salmonella, per 100 g. Negative Negative -

Casein precipitated by acid usually includes the name of the acid in its description e.g.hydrochloric acid casein, lactic acid casein etc. but may simply be called acid casein. Any of the acid

precipitation processes (Hydrochloric acid casein, sulphuric acid casein or lactic casein process) can

be used to produce edible quality casein. The choice of method for reducing the pH of skim milk to

precipitate casein is largely governed by economics. In terms of cost of acid, a lactic fermentation

process is attractive especially when, with large-scale processing by modern methods, the tendency

for higher capital and operational costs are minimized. For lactic acid casein, the pasteurized milk is

cooled to 22-26C and inoculated with about 0.5% starter of mixed strain (S. cremoris)being the


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major culture) and incubated for 14-16 hr. during which the pH reduces to 4.6 giving a coagulum.

The slow coagulating cultures exhibit less proteolysis and increased protein yield (Heap and

Richardson, 1985). The precise rate of acid production by the starter is not important as coagulation

usually takes place several hours before processing begins and at about 4.5 pH, the culture is in

stationary phase of growth. The coagulum is cooked to 50-55C to create a curd firm enough for

subsequent processing. The acid and heat help in synersis of whey.The use of mineral acids, on the other hand, has the advantage of completely continuous

operation with no holding time for coagulation. Hydrochloric acid has been found, with

experience, to be a superior coagulating agent. When sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid is used to

precipitate curd, it should be diluted before being added to the skim milk; otherwise local action of

the acid may injure the curd, even though the agitation is rapid. Within reasonable limits, the more

dilute the acid, the better will be quality of casein produced. In practice, hydrochloric acid is used

in dilutions ranging from 1 part in 3 to 1 part in 9 and sulphuric acid is diluted 1 part in 20.

2.1.1 Temperature of Precipitati on

The kind of curd formed is quite sensitive to heat. Curd precipitated at temperature below35C is very soft and fine, and consequently, is slow to settle and difficult to wash without loss.

Precipitated at temperatures between 35 and 38C, the curd is coarse provided stirring is not too

fast. Stirring is necessary to distribute the acid uniformly, but rapid string at temperatures below

38C produces a curd so fine that it settles very slowly during drainage and washing and may be

lost to some extent in the whey and washings. Much more rapid equilibrium, more complete

precipitation and, therefore, better yields are obtained by rapid and complete mixing before

precipitation. The curd can be made firm in either of two ways; by heating to a temperature above

38C; or the pH lowered to 4.1. Curd precipitated at about 43C has a texture resembling chewing

gum, being stringy, lumpy and coarse, containing practically no fine particles, and separating

cleanly from the whey.

A high-grade casein, low in ash and readily soluble, is made by the grain-curd process,

provided pH value and temperature are closely controlled. The best product is made by the use of

hydrochloric acid, but lactic and sulphuric acids may be used successfully. The temperature of the

skim milk should be held close to 35C for hydrochloric acid curd. The pH value of 4.1 is attained

by adding dilute acid slowly with slow stirring of the milk. this pH produces a granular curd of

casein which is easy to drain and wash.

2.2 Drainage of Whey

After the precipitation has been completed and the curd has settled, whey should be

removed from contact with the curd as soon as possible. The longer the curd stands in contact with

the whey, the more difficult it is to wash out acids, salts, whey protein and lactose, as the freshlybroken curd tends to anneal itself, thereby enclosing these constituents within a protein film.

2.3 Washing

The most positive quality improvement in casein is achieved through efficient washing.

Relatively large amounts of lactose, minerals and acids are trapped within the curd, which

prevents their ready removal during washing of the curd. It is necessary to allow sufficient


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holding time during each washing stage to permit diffusion of these whey components from the

curd into wash water. The diffusion rate depends on the size and permeability of the curd

particles, and the purity, amount and rate of movement of the wash water. Smaller size and better

permeability of the curd particles are important for efficient washing. Three separate washes of

casein curd are required with contact times of 15-20 min. each. As soon as the whey is removed

from the curd, wash water should be added equal in quantity to whey that has drained off. Thecurd should be well stirred in the wash water, either by rakes or by mechanical agitators, but care

should be taken not to break the curd into fine particles. Firm and friable curd particles are

required to avoid creation of excessive fines. Rubbery and plastic curds cannot be washed

effectively. A marked increase in the efficiency of washing can be achieved by removal of as

much whey as possible at the whey off stage. Even small amounts of whey contamination in wash

water can cause a sharp decrease in washing efficiency.

2.3.1 pH of Wash Water

The pH of wash water should be about 4.6 for first two washings to avoid the formation of a

gelatinous layer over the curd particles in excessively acid water and softening and redispersion of

the curd in alkaline waters. Gelatinous layer if formed over the curd particles, inhibits drainage ofsalts and lactose from the particles. The adjustment of same pH of wash water as that of casein

facilitates in maintaining the equilibrium. For pH adjustment, sulphuric acid is preferred, as casein is

much less soluble in this acid, than in hydrochloric acid. The third wash should be given with neutral

water.

2.3.2 Temperature of Wash Water

Casein curd has the usual property of acting somewhat like a sponge in water, contracting

to expel water when heat is applied (Synersis) and relaxing when the water temperature is

lowered. On the application of heat, the curd also becomes hard and rubbery, while cold water

softens it and causes the curd to be quite fragile and readily broken. The temperature of the firstwash should be about the same as the precipitation temperature to give good curd shrinkage. With

lactic casein, higher temperature (70C or more) is necessary at some stage of washing to reduce

the bacteria which multiply during incubation of milk with starter. In practice, it is usual to adjust

the temperature of last wash water to 32-40C for better expulsion of water during subsequent

pressing.

2.4 Pressing

Efficient pressing for dewatering of washed casein curd is important in minimising the

energy required for removal of remaining water by drying. If the pressing has not been adequate,

the subsequent grinding will give lumps of curd that will dry on the outside to give hard,

impervious surface that prevents the escape of moisture from the inside, a condition known as case

hardening. Further, mechanically removal of water is cheaper than thermal vaporization. The

batch pressing operation is usually an overnight operation. The pressing of the curd should not be

for less than 12 to 15 hr. with 34 kg/cm2pressure.

The proportion of water in washed curd and its ease of removal depend upon the type of

curd made. Precipitation of the curd at pH of 4.1-4.3, and the curd well-washed in waters, also of


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the proper pH and at temperatures of 41C would give a firm, friable curd which would drain well

and press well. The final moisture content is usually 55-60%.

2.5 Milling and Drying

Pressed curd is liable to deterioration by action of moulds and bacteria and therefore,

should be shredded and dried as promptly as practicable. The pressed curd is milled to produceparticles of uniform size and surface for drying. Otherwise, uneven drying occurs. Large particles

or lumps may dry on the outside f