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By: Zack White
Table of Contents Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 14 Chapter 16 Chapter 15.3 and 17.1 Chapter 17.4 Chapter 19 Nervous System Notes
Chapter 10
Limits to Cell Growth
DNA Overload! Inefficient exchange of materials! Cell volume increases too rapidly! The solution: Cell Division Cells that do not divide throughout
life would not encounter the issues above. DNA determines cell decline and death!
What are Chromosomes? Strands of DNA Every organism has a specific number
of chromosomes. Before cell division occurs, DNA must
be copied so each new cell will have DNA.
Once copied, the two identical stands (or Chromatids) are held together by a Centromere
Cell Cycle Interphase – growth period of cell, longest
stage of cell life.1. G1 phase – growth2. S phase – DNA replication3. G2 phase – preparation for mitosis Cell Division – division of the cell into 21. Mitosis – division of the cytoplasm2. Cytokinesis – division of the cytoplasm
Mitosis Prophase – chromatin condenses, centrioles
separate to opposite sides of cell (animal cells only), spindle forms, nuclear membrane breaks down
Metaphase – Chromosomes line up in the middle
Anaphase – Sister chromatids separate Telophase – chromosomes gather at
opposite ends, new nuclear membranes form
Cytokinesis
Division of the cytoplasm In animal cells: cleavage of cell
membrane. In plat cells: a cell plate forms midway
between the divided nuclei.
Cancer
Uncontrolled cell division DNA or proteins damaged by
carcinogens or genetically inherited. Carcinogens: radiation, chemicals,
viral
Table of Contents
End of Chapter 10 Notes!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Chapter 11 Notes
Chromosome Number
Each organism inherits 1 set of chromosomes from “mom” and 1 set from “dad”. (ex. In humans…)
A homologous pair = 1 chromosome pair
A diploid cell = 2 whole sets A haploid cell = 1 set (ex: sex cells)
Meiosis Reduction division What is it!? Two stages: Meiosis I and Meiosis II Meiosis I: Important events that take place:a. Pairing of tetrads What is tetrad?b. Crossing over What happens?c. Reduction division Meiosis II: same process as mitosis (no real
interphase II thus no 2nd S-phase)
Gamete Formation
Males Produce 4 sperm from 1 cell Each are haploidFemale Produce haploid eggs Cell divisions are uneven Only one cell receives most of the
cytoplasm Other smaller cells are called polar bodies
End of Chapter 11 Notes
Table of Contents
Chapter 14 Notes
Human Chromosomes Karyotype: picture of chromosomes
that are arranged in 23 pairs. Autosomes are pairs #1-22. Sex chromosomes are pair #23-Males have one X and one Y (XY)-Females have two X’s (XX) Human chromosome number is
written as: 46XX for a female and 46XY for a male
Autosomal Genetic Disorders Recessive alleles – two recessive alleles
to show disorder Ex: PKU, cystic fibrosis, albinism Dominant alleles – only one dominant
allele needed to show disorder.Ex. Huntington’s disease, achondroplasia Codominant alleles – only one
codominant allele needed to show disorder.Ex. Sickle cell anemia
Sex-Linked Traits Location: Sex chromosomes, pair #23 Most sex chromosome disorders are found on the “X”
chromosome of pair #23 Males only need 1 allele for the trait. Females need 2 alleles for the trait. Colorblindness – lack of ability to distinguish certain
colors Hemophilia – lack of a clotting factor in blood. Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy – defective muscle
protein that causes progressive weakening and loss of skeletal muscle.
Chromosomal Mutations Meiosis goes wrong at Anaphase I. Homologous pairs don’t separate Called: Nondisjunction1. Down Syndrome – 57XX or 47XY2. Klinefelter’s Syndrome – 47XXY3. Turner’s Syndrome – 45XO4. Metafemale – 47XXX or 48XXXX5. Jacob Syndrome – 47XYY
~!End of Chapter 14 Notes!~
Table of Contents
Chapter 16 Notes
Gene Frequencies and Hardy-Weinberg
Gene frequencies can be high or low no matter if the allele is dominant or recessive.
Frequencies can change depending on the conditions that exist in the environment.
It is the changes in gene frequencies over time that results in evolution.
Hardy-Weinberg
In 1908 Hardy-Weinberg made a principle that provides a way to determine whether gene frequencies have changed in a population, and thus, whether evolution has occurred.
Hardy-Weinberg Principle
This principle will be maintained in nature only if all five of the following conditions are met:
1. Very large population2. Isolation from other populations3. No net mutations4. Random mating5. No natural selection
Hardy’s Equations
P + q = 1P = frequency of dominant alleleQ = frequency of recessive allele
P2 + 2pq + q2 = 1P2 = frequency or % homozygous dominant
genotype2pq = frequency or % heterozygous genotypeQ2 = frequency or % homozygous recessive
genotype
Evolution Definition: Change over time Occurs on populations, not individuals.(Individuals do note evolve, but are part of
populations which do.) Evolution is the genetic change occurring in
a population of organisms over time. Darwin’s Natural Selection is the
mechanism that runs evolutionary theory…
Evolution by Natural Selection
The Struggle for Existence (compete for food, mates, space, water, etc.)
Survival of the Fittest (strongest able to survive and reproduce)
Works upon the PHENOTYPES not the genotypes of any population.
Darwin’s Observations
In any population, there is variation with no two individuals being exactly alike.
Much of this variation between individuals is inheritable
What are the Sources of Variations?
Gene shuffling and crossing over from Meiosis.
Zygote production or fertilization Mutations
What is a Gene Pool?
All the alleles or genes for all the traits for a given population.
How common is a particular allele in a gene pool is its: GENE FREQUENCY
What is an adaptation?
Any trait that increases an animal’s chance for survival in a particular environment.
Those with the best adaptation for the environment are the FITTEST and will reproduce more.
Patterns for Natural Selection Single-Gene trait – only two alleles,
with two distinct phenotypes; show all-o-nothing pattern from natural selection.
Polygenic Traits – many allele possibilities with several phenotypes; show continuous variation just shifts in distribution
Ex: directional, stabilizing,
Artificial Selection
Humans slelect those traits they found most useful
Domesticated animalsDog breedsMilk production in cows Genetically engineered crops
What if natural selection does not play a role in gene frequency?
GENETIC DRIFT
Notes 16.3
In the process of evolution, natural Selection and genetic drift can lead to the ultimate differentiation…Speciation
What is a species?
A group of similar organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring.
So, once members of two populations cannot interbreed and produce fertile offspring, they are considered 2 different species
They are reproductively isolatedHow could this happen!?!?!?!?
Some Isolating Mechanisms
Geographical – barriers such as rivers, mountains or bodies of water separate a population
Behavioral – different courtship rituals Temporal – reproduce at different
times of the year
Darwin’s Finches is an example of speciation
Finches on the islands resembled a mainland finch
More types of finches appeared on the islands where the available food was different (seeds, nuts, berries, insects)
Finches had different types of beaks adapted to their type of food gathering
Speciation of Darwin’s Finches Founders Arrive – few finches from the
island from the South American mainland reach island.
Separation of Populations – Geographic isolation by being on different islands
Changes in gene pools – by natural selection
Reproductive isolation – do not recognize behaviors or physical traits etc.
Continued evolution over many generations
End of Chapter 16 Notes!!!!
Table of Contents
What Evidence is there for Evolution?
Sections 15.3 and 17.1
Fossil Record The Fossil Record – incomplete record of life
on earth-sedimentary rock forms most fossils-proves life on earth has changed over time Relative Dating – estimating a fossil’s age
by comparing it with other fossils Radioactive Dating – calculation of sample’s
age based on the amount of radioactive isotope it contains.
Geographic distribution of species
Unrelated species share similarities because of similar adaptations to the environment.
Biochemical Similarities
All organisms use DNA or RNA; cell respiration process
Homologous Structures
Same embryonic origin but have different mature forms.
Vestigial organs are useless structures that many have been used by ancestors.
Embryology
Embryonic cell development patterns are the same in all vertebrates
Descent with modification
Species today look different from their ancestors because they have similar traits
Each living species has:-descended-with changes-from other species-over time
Common Descent
All living things were derived from common ancestors
Cladograms can help to show this
End of 15.3 and 17.1 Notes
Table of Contents
Evolution patterns
17.4
Macroevolution
Large-scale evolutionary patterns and processes that occur over long periods of time
Microevolution Small-scale changes in allele
frequencies over a few generations at or below the species level
A Driving Force of Evolution: Extinction
More than 99% of all species that had ever lived on earth are now extinct.
Usual reasons: competition, environmental changes
Mass extinctions account for large changes wiping out entire ecosystems
Leaving many open niches to be filled by those that survived.
Divergent Evolution
Many species developing from one. A.k.a. Adaptive Radiation Example: Darwin’s finches Evolving through natural selection Usually a slow process Disappearance of dinosaurs cleared
the way for adaptive radiation of mammals.
Convergent Evolution
Process where unrelated organisms come to resemble each other or have similar looking traits.
Environmental conditions are the same.
Convergent evolution may lead to the formation analogous structures
Coevolution
Two species evolve in response to changes in each other over time.
Formation of symbiotic relationships Advantages: less competition Disadvantages: too specific
End of 17.4 Notes!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Table of Contents
Chapter 19
Viruses and Bacteria
What is a virus?
Ultramicroscopic infectious agents that replicates itself only within cells of living hosts.
Many are pathogenic Composed of a piece of nucleic acid
wrapped in a thin coat of protein.
Virus Genetic Material
DNAfairly stable from radical mutationsEx: polio, small pox
RNA Mutations are commonRetrovirusesEx: influenza, HIV
Viral Reproduction TypesLytic Cycle Quick in process Takes over host cell Forces host to make more virus Uses host’s materials Destroys host cellLysogenic Slower process Prophage inserted into host’s DNA Hides in host’s DNA until activated Once activated, continues with lytic cycle
How fast can they replicate
A virulent virus may complete its lifecycle in 30 minutes, producing 200 new viruses.
Flu of 1918 killed people over 24 hours.
How can a viral infection be cured
There is no cure for a viral infection Vaccines must be taken before you
are infected Once infected, body must fight off the
infection Antiviral drugs are available to treat
only a few viral diseases
Prion
Protein infectious particles No genetic material Diseases: Mad Cow, scrapie and
Creutzfeldt-Jacob Nervous tissue with prions must be
ingested
Diseases
See Textbook Figure 19-5
What is a Prokaryote
An organism with no nucleus and unicellular.
ALL BACTERIA!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Classification
Movement Non-Motile Flagella Slime
Bacteria Shapes
Three basic – Bacillus (rod), coccus (sphere), and spirillum (spiral)
Gram Staining Technique
Cell Walls: thick or thin peptidoglycan walls. Gram staining is used to identify.
Metabolic Diversity
HeterotrophsChemoheterotrophPhotoheterotroph
AutotrophsPhotoautotrophsChemoautotrophs
Energy Release
Two ways: respiration and fermentation
Classified based on how they release energy from food:
Obligate aerobes Obligate anaerobes Facultative anaerobes
Growth and Reproduction
Binary Fission – simple mitosis Conjugation – Swapping genetic
material Endospore Formation – thick coat for
dormant times.
Bacterial Importance
Photosynthesis Decomposers – sewage treatment Nitrogen Fixers – fertilizer for plants Biological – vitamin K production,
fiber breakdown Genetic Engineering – production of
hormones for medical purposes
Disease
Pathogen – disease causing agent Cell and tissue destruction of infected
organism. Food consumption of bacteria
Releases toxins that poison the host and cause symptoms of disease.
Prevention and Control Vaccines – given to prevent illness Antibiotics – given after infection to kill
bacteria-Over usage problems-Conjugation Sterilization – exposure to high heat Disinfectants – chemical solutions Refrigeration Cooking Canning and Preservatives
Chapter 40 Notes
The Immune System
Immune System Function
To recognize, attack, destroy, and remember pathogens that invade our body.
Two types of defense systems
Nonspecific defense Specific defense
Nonspecific Defenses
Does not discriminate between any type of threat – Attacks all
Provided by physical or chemical barriers
1st Line of Defense Skin and Mucus membranes
(skin pH and stomach, saliva, tears, sticky mucus traps)
2nd line of defense: inflammatory response and fever
Blood vessels dilate from histamine release, phagocytes move in
Body temperature increase slows down pathogen growth and speeds up WBC response.
Interferon – chemical secreted by infected cells to protect other cells from infection.
Specific Immune Defense
Two pathways that will occur1. Humoral – antiobodies are made2. Cell Mediated – destruction of
infected cell or pathogen Key players: Lymphocytes Both pathways are activated when a
pathogen invades the body.
Humoral Antibodies are made to attach to a specific
pathogen’s antigens. Immobilizing pathogen.
Antigens are identifying surface markers. Key players: B cells Key steps:1. B cells recognize antigen2. B cell differentiates into plasma cells3. Plasma cells make/release antibodies.4. B cell differentiates into memory B’s
Antibodies
Y structured molecule made of protein.
Specific receptor sites made to bind to specific antigens.
Binds to the pathogen, flagging it for death
Cell-mediated Immune Response
Key players and steps:1. Killer (cytotoxic) T-cells will multiply and
attack cells with antigen markers.2. Helper T’s will activate killer T’s and
differentiate into memory T’s for future exposures.
3. Suppressor T’s will slow or stop the killer T’s when the attack is under control.
4. Macrophages clean up the mess
The Germ Theory
What is a disease Any change that disrupts normal functions
of the body.What are some agents that produce disease? Bacteria, viruses, fungi, helminths, protistsHow can agents be transmitted? Physical contact, contaminated food, water,
and infected animals (vectors)What methods do we use to fight infections
disease? Antibiotics, vaccines, sanitation, pesticides
Germ theory of Disease
Idea that microorganisms can cause disease
Based on observations from Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch.
Robert Koch developed a set of rules “Postulates” for testing whether or not an organism caused disease.
Koch’s Postulates1. The pathogen should always be found in
the body of a sick organism and not in a healthy one.
2. The pathogen must be isolated and grown in the lab in a pure culture.
3. When purified pathogens are placed in a new host, they should cause the same disease that infected the host.
4. The very same pathogen should be re-isolated from the second host. And it should be the same as the original pathogen.
Immunity Types
Active Immunity – injection of a weak or mild form of pathogen; may make you a little sick. Attenuated form of disease. Natural exposure to pathogen. Long-term immunity.
Passive Immunity – injection of antibodies from another organism; temporary immunity or treatment.
Allergies
An overreaction of the immune system
Mast cells release histamines when allergic antigens attach to it.
Result: itchiness, mucus production, sneezing, watery eyes etc.
Asthma
Narrowing of the air passages by the spasm contractions of the smooth muscle.
Chronic disease Reaction to antigens or stress related.
Other diseasesAutoimmune Disorders Your own immune system is attacking
yourself Production of “antiself” antibodies. Ex. Multiple Sclerosis, Rheumatoid arthritis,
LupusImmunodeficient Diseases Failure of the immune system to develop
normally. Pathogen could be destroying WBC’s Ex: AIDS, boy in the bubble
Chapter 18
Classificiation
Why classify
To organize living things into groups with biological meaning
Taxonomy: the study of classification
Assigning a name Problem: common names can vary among languages Solution: Latin and Greek words are commonly used
to avoid any language issues Problem: When naming by specific traits too many
words are used Solution: Carolus Linneaus developed 2-part naming
system used today called Bionomial Namenclature Rules: 1. Always italicized2. 1st word cap, 2nd lowercase3. Genus is 1st word, species 2nd
Kingdoms and Domains
Modern tree contains six kingdoms and their phyla: Eubacteria, archaebacteria, protista, fungi, plantae, animalia
Domains – newest larges inclusive category devloped from comparing rRNA subunits. Bacteria, Archaea, Eurkarya
Modern Classification Just using appearance can be
misleading New system uses:1. Fossil2. 2. Dissections/Comparative anatomy3. 3. Molecular
similarities/DNA/enzymes4. 4. Evolutionary similarities or
developmental milestones
Molecular Clocks
Comparing DNA segments and looking for mutations in similar genes.
The more dissimilar the genes the longer ago they shared a common ancestor.
Nervous System Notes
CNS
Consists of the brain and spinal cord Recieves sensory input, integrates
and relays information for a response.
Peripheral Nervous System All nerves from spinal cord and cranial
region.1. Sensory nerves pick up stimuli2. Motor nerves send response to muscle
organs Motor functions are controlled bya. Somatic nervous system, conscious
control, skeletal systemb. Autonomic nervous system, involuntary
actions, heart, glands etc.
Meninges
Membranous coverings of the CNS CSF (cerebrospinal fluid) flows here
Cerebrum
Two hemispheres Connected by the Corpus Callosum Wrinkles or folds (gyri) increase
neuron space. Four lobes: frontal, parietd, temporal,
occipital Cerebral cortex – gray matter,
outermost
Cerebellum
Beneath the occipital lobes of cerebrum
Function – coordination of voluntary movements, maintains posture, integrates balance, information (equillbrium)
Brain Stem
Connects the cerebrum to spinal cord Primary life functions Three sections1. Midbrain2. Pons3. Medulla Oblongata
Other structures
Thalamus – main relay station for sensory impulses; general awareness
Hypothalamus – regulates HR, BP, temperature, hunger, sleep, waterfullness, stimulate pituitary
Pituitary gland – major endocrine glands secretes hormones to control other glands/organs.