The Life Histories of Selected Public Library Directors:

An Exploration of Career and Leadership Development

A Dissertation presented to the

Faculty of the Simmons College School of Library and Information Science

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

By Renée Di Pilato

MPA, George Mason University, 2006

MSLS, The Catholic University of America, 2002

BA, Old Dominion University, 1999

©2016

Renée Di Pilato

All rights reserved

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Abstract

In order to thrive in a rapidly changing environment, public libraries must cultivate

leaders. The library profession has taken note and responded by offering numerous opportunities

to encourage leadership development and growth. However, little is known about how such

activities—including continuing education, institutes, and professional engagement—have

affected individuals. Moreover, even less is known about what critical incidents contributed to

their leadership development. Using a mixed-methods approach, which includes document

analysis of the participants’ curricula vitae and semi-structured interviews, this study examines

the lives of twelve established public library directors who are leaders in the profession. The

study methodology applies a life histories approach in order to investigate their career

progression and leadership development. It explores the critical incidents that shaped leadership

development at specific career stages, the factors that contributed to professional success, the

participants’ views of leadership, and characterization of their individual leadership development

and growth. Offering an analysis of lessons learned and of factors that contributed to successful

leadership development, the findings can be applied to future practices and initiatives for

developing public library leadership.

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Acknowledgments

Writing a dissertation often seems like a lonely, solitary act, but numerous people

contributed to this work—each in their own way—and deserve my heartfelt gratitude. I would

particularly like to acknowledge my committee, Candy Schwartz, Ron Heezen, Lisa Hussey, and

Maureen Sullivan. In particular, my patient committee chair, Candy Schwartz, provided advice,

kindness, and reassurance during the entire process. Maureen Sullivan introduced me to

leadership theories through the Emerging Leaders program and I continue to use the knowledge

that I gained from that experience in my daily work. I am also grateful to Peter Hernon, the

coordinator of the MLIP program, who challenged me to be a better student, writer, and

researcher. The faculty and staff at Simmons, including Jennifer Andrews, Rong Tang and

Linda Watkins, were always helpful and responsive.

My director and mentor, Rose Dawson, has been critical to my personal and professional

development. I am grateful for her encouragement and confidence in my abilities. Her “glass

half-full” perspective inspires me to look for the best in any situation. Under Rose’s guidance, I

have become a better leader and manager. I will always be thankful for her respect for learning

and her desire to make our library an exceptional community resource.

My mentor, Raymond Santiago, is a true authentic leader and a credit to public libraries.

Raymond’s humility and his focus on people set him apart from all others. He reminds me to

bring balance and laughter into my life and I am grateful for his friendship and guidance.

My cohort members, Cindy Chadwick, Rachel Rubin, and Monique le Conge

Ziesenhenne, are exceptional women. Their friendship stands out as the most meaningful aspect

of my MLIP experience. Learning with and from my cohort was a true joy. Maria Carpenter,

from the 2008 cohort, helped me through comprehensive exams and I am thankful for our

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enduring friendship. Other students, especially Kathleen DeLong, were generous with their time

and advice.

My dear friend, Lynda Rudd, provided inspiration along the way. Our summers watching

the Washington Kastles and World Team Tennis were a welcome respite from the stress of work

and writing. Together, we refuse to lose. Judy Fillmore was unable to see me complete this

work, but her can-do attitude was with me the entire time. Sandy Holt was a loyal confidante

and constant source of encouragement. Diane Stoy, offered counsel that was incredibly

important to this dissertation. During those difficult times when I had questions and doubts she

provided critical advice and guidance.

I also owe numerous thanks to the wonderful and dedicated staff of the Alexandria

Library, who happily picked up the slack when I was focused on my research and writing. I have

been fortunate to have such a talented and supportive team.

I would like to acknowledge the participants who agreed to share their time and stories

with me. The twelve distinguished leaders were gracious and candid. I was honored to be given

a window into their lives and learned a great deal from the experiences they shared.

My parents, John and Betsy, instilled in me a love for reading and learning and

encouraged my educational pursuits. My brother, Jay, has always been my best friend and

champion. Finally, my husband, Andy Sulavik, was exceptionally patient and understanding

through this entire process. His love and support got me across the finish line.

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Dedication

This work is dedicated to my loving husband, Andy Sulavik, whose encouragement, optimism,

and support were instrumental to its completion. You brighten all of my days.

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Contents Acknowledgments Chapter One: Nature of the Study 1 Introduction 1

Statement of the Problem 2 Purpose of the Study 2 Synopsis of Research Design 3 Significance of the Study 5 Conclusion 6 Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 8 A Time of Turbulent Change 8 Community support during political struggles 9 Debate about the future 10 The Need for Library Leadership 11 Research Methods in Leadership Studies 13 Narrative inquiry 13 Life history research 14 Critical incidents 16 Life histories and critical incidents in leadership studies 18 Leadership 20 Authentic leadership 20 Characteristics and definitions 20 Self-awareness and the intrapersonal perspective 22 Relationships and the interpersonal perspective 23 The evolving self and the developmental perspective 24 The role of life history in leadership development 25 Leadership in Libraries 27 Factors that Affect Career and Leadership Development 28 Critical incidents 28 Career progression 29 Structured learning 31 Mentors and role models 35 Social networks 35 Conclusion 38 Chapter Three: Methodology 39 Research Questions 41 Data Sources and Instrumentation 41 Sampling strategy 41 Access 42

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Instrumentation 43 Consent and Confidentiality 44 Data Collection 44 Data Analysis 45 Curricula vitae 45 Interviews 46 Delimitations and Limitations 47 Delimitations 47 Limitations 48 Comparability 50 Control of sample 50 Data quality 50 Conclusion 52 Chapter Four: Results 53 Demographic Profile of the Study Sample 53 Document Analysis of Curricula Vitae 55 Number of advanced degrees 55 Leadership institutes and formal leadership training 56 Time to first directorship 57 Number of directorships 57 Involvement with professional associations 57 National library associations 58 State library associations 58 Board affiliations 59 Honors and awards 59 Content Analysis of Interviews 60 Career Progression 60 Limited options 61 Timing and serendipity 63 Self-efficacy and encouragement from others 64 Growth from failure 65 Inexperience 66 Family influence 67 Engagement with professional organizations 69 Importance to career advancement 70 Preparation for directorship 74 Professional relationships and the value of networks 75 Professional organizations and leadership development 77 Continuing education 79 Formal learning programs 80 Learning in leadership institutes 82 Informal learning with influential individuals 85 Executive coaches 91 Learning from outside of libraries 92

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Evolution of leadership 93 Critical incidents at the middle management level 94 Early mentors and role models 95 Leadership struggles 96 Personal struggles 98 Critical incidents at the senior management level 99 Personal triumphs 100 Leadership lessons 101 Learning from difficult situations 103 Critical incidents at the directorship level 105 Leading staff 106 Municipal politics 107 Budget turmoil 109 Community engagement 110 Learning from critical experiences 112 Identifying as a leader 113 Leadership concepts 114 Attributes 115 People 115 Persistent learning 118 Changing definitions 120 Chapter Five: Discussion and Implications 123 Overview 123 Path to Directorship 125 Qualifications and education 125 Limited opportunities 126 Influence of others 127 Self-efficacy 127 Engagement with professional organizations 128 Effect on career and preparation for directorship 128 Networking 129 Leadership Development 129 Mentors and role models 130 Formal leadership training 131 Critical incidents 132 Implications 133 Reflective practice 133 Mentoring programs 134 Networking 135 Instructional value of other professions 136 Continuous learning 136 Areas for Further Research 137 Critical incidents and experiences 137

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Mentors and influential people 138 Networks 138 Next generation leaders 138 Chapter Six: Conclusion 140 Overview 140 Emergent Themes 141 Education 141 Engagement 142 Relationships 142 Critical incidents 143 Conclusion 143 References 145 Appendices Appendix A 157 Appendix B 158 Appendix C 163 Appendix D 165 Appendix E 166 Appendix F 178

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List of Tables and Figures

Tables Table 1 Number of participants by census region and division 55 Table 2 Participation in leadership institutes 56 Table 3 Years to achieving first public library directorship 57 Table 4 Level of participation with national library organizations 58

throughout career Table 5 Summary of critical incidents by type and level of 112

management Figures Figure 1 Participants by gender 54 Figure 2 Participants by ethnicity 54 Figure 3 Career progression 61 Figure 4 Engagement with professional organizations 70 Figure 5 Continuing education 80 Figure 6 Evolution of leadership 94

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Chapter One

Nature of the Study

Introduction

Like all modern organizations, public libraries need effective leadership, and especially so

in times of transition. In the early twenty-first century, developments in information technology

have brought public libraries and public library leaders under scrutiny (Levien, 2011; Riggs,

2001; Schreiber & Shannon, 2001). External pressures, such as budget cuts, competition from

online resources, and increasing complexity in the public sector environment have introduced

additional concerns for library leaders, who must also cope with internal struggles, including an

aging workforce, the need for library staff to develop more diverse skills, and priorities that are

beyond public libraries’ traditional focus on literacy.

Public libraries are increasingly working within their communities to organize initiatives

that extend beyond the conventional role of the library (Urban Libraries Council, 2012). This

work requires strong individuals who are not only library leaders but also recognized leaders

within their communities (Poole, 2012). Libraries throughout the country are assisting new

immigrants through citizenship programs, promoting entrepreneurship through business

incubators, and leading sustainability efforts. In some regions of the United States, libraries are

the leading authorities on civic engagement (Becker, 2012; Young, 2012). Visionary library

directors with the courage to reshape the definition of a public library in challenging times have

been at the forefront of many of these initiatives. However, little is known about how these

directors grew into their leadership roles, how they developed their leadership skills, and how

experiences shaped them and their leadership development.

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Statement of the Problem

There is little doubt that libraries need effective leaders in order to survive, thrive, and

remain relevant during challenging times. To date, there has been no research that has elicited

the life histories of public library leaders and gathered their perspectives on leadership and the

role of critical incidents in shaping their professional development at various stages in their

careers. This is a void in the study of notable library leaders, whose experiences can guide

leadership development initiatives within the profession.

Purpose of the Study

In the twenty-first century, public libraries remain trusted and valued institutions in the

US. A recent nationwide survey found that 94% of the 6,224 respondents believe that libraries

improve the quality of life in their communities by supplementing education, providing access to

technology, and assisting with workforce development (Zickuhr, Rainie, Purcell, & Duggan,

2013, p. 24). Yet, the long-term success and viability of public libraries are uncertain given

challenges such as financial constraints, greater competition, demographic shifts, and

developments in technology (Levien, 2011). The current environment demands library leaders

who can successfully guide their organizations and prepare others to assume effective leadership

roles.

Since 2000, there has been an increasing emphasis on developing leadership skills within

the library profession. The Public Library Association (PLA) asserts that “developing leaders is

essential to advance the public library mission” (Public Library Association, 2009), while the

Aspen Institute (2014) suggests that fostering library leadership is essential to the future success

of libraries. These kinds of statements have led to numerous leadership development programs

offered at the state and national level. One example is the American Library Association’s

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(ALA) Emerging Leaders program, developed specifically for new librarians. In 2013, PLA

introduced a new leadership academy in conjunction with the International City/County

Management Association. Across the country, there are other leadership institutes that focus on

developing the talent pool within libraries. Yet, little is known about the impact of these

programs on participants and whether library leaders believe that such professional development

activities influence career development.

This study examines aspects of life histories that can influence the career advancement

and leadership development of public library leaders, seeking to identify the factors that

contributed to their successful career evolution. Focusing in depth on a sample of individuals

identified as public library leaders, this study explores the experiences or critical incidents that

influenced leadership development at specific stages of their careers, the factors that contributed

to their professional success, their views of leadership, and their characterization of their own

leadership development and growth. It identifies the organizations, individuals, educational

experiences, and situations that shaped the participants’ leadership development and contributed

to their career advancement and growth as library leaders. In addition, the study highlights the

lessons the leaders learned from their experiences and how this learning influenced their

leadership practice in building the capacity of public libraries to cope with transition. For the

purposes of this study, a library leader was defined as an individual with the title of library

director, CEO, or executive director of a public library; a professional reputation as a change

agent and innovator; honors and awards that acknowledge leadership contributions; and a history

of active involvement in professional organizations such as ALA.

Synopsis of Research Design

The study used a mixed-methods approach, which included document analysis of the

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participants’ curricula vitae and semi-structured in-person interviews. Narrative inquiry was

applied to a life histories approach in order to investigate the career progression and leadership

development of established public library leaders. Connelly and Clandinin (1990) note that, “the

main claim for the use of narrative in educational research is that humans are storytelling

organisms, who individually and socially, lead storied lives” (p. 2). Narrative provides

understanding into how individuals experience their environments, including work, family, and

society. Narrative is relevant in many disciplines because it emphasizes the lived experience,

“characterizes the phenomena of human experience,” and is “a fundamental structure of human

experience” (Connelly & Clandinin, 1990, p. 2). The importance of storytelling is increasingly

recognized in many different types of organizations and storytelling is now highlighted as an

important leadership behavior (Gardner, 1995; George, Sims, McLean, & Mayer, 2007; Shamir,

Dayan-Horesh, & Adler, 2005).

While narrative data exist in different forms, such as journals, letters, and field notes, the

use of life histories provides study participants with an opportunity to share those events that are

most meaningful to them. According to Musson (1998), “the method prioritizes individual

explanations and interpretations of actions and events, viewing them as lenses through which to

access the meaning which human beings attribute to their experiences” (p. 10). Polkinghorne

(1988) considers narratives to be grouped into two distinct forms, explanatory and descriptive,

with both using similar methods, such as document analysis and interviews. The descriptive

form seeks “to produce an accurate description of the interpretive narrative accounts individuals

or groups use to make sequences of events in their lives or organizations meaningful” (pp. 161-

162). In the explanatory form, the goal is to make causal connections between events by using

narrative accounts. Since this study solicited stories about career stages and those experiences

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that encouraged leadership development, it is both descriptive and explanatory in nature.

In this study, participants recalled critical events related to career and leadership

development. Critical events are past experiences that have a lasting impact on an individual and

are not recognized as critical until after they have passed. They often influence how an

individual responds to current situations and they give shape to narrative recollections. Webster

and Mertova (2007) suggest that “because events are critical parts of people’s lives, using them

as a main focus of research provides a valuable and insightful tool for getting at the core of what

is important in that research” (p. 71). Moreover, critical events help bring focus to the sizeable

amount of data typically produced by qualitative research.

Finally, the study examined the participants’ leadership development at three stages of

their careers: middle management, senior management, and library directorship. These stages

loosely correspond to Super’s (1957) theory of career progression, which divides career

development into five periods: growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and decline. In

particular, the stages of establishment and maintenance are congruent with the study’s focus on

the higher levels of management in libraries. This type of categorization assisted the investigator

in organizing the themes revealed in the participants’ stories and experiences.

Significance of the Study

Public libraries require strong leadership to manage change. Such leadership is often

found at the director level—the central leadership position. The director works with multiple

stakeholders—staff, trustees, community members, and civic leaders—to establish a vision for

the library and to guide the organization through transformative initiatives. Recognizing that

cultivating leadership is a key factor in sustaining public libraries, the profession has responded

by offering numerous opportunities to encourage leadership growth and development.

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Unfortunately, little is known about how such activities—including continuing education,

institutes, coaching, and other educational pursuits—have affected participants. This study goes

some way towards filling that gap.

Although public library leaders have compelling stories to share, published accounts of

their life narratives are scarce. ALA projected that there would be approximately 28,200

librarian retirements from 2005 through 2015 (Davis, 2009). This figure would almost double

the approximately 15,000 retirements that occurred from 1995 through 2005, and underscores the

urgency of gathering and analyzing the life histories of the leaders in the profession. Stories

about career paths, formative experiences, and growth provide insights into the professional

development of public library leaders. If shared, their personal accounts and the meanings that

they attribute to their experiences can play an important role in influencing and preparing the

next generation of library leaders and suggesting directions for their professional development.

This study will be of interest to those involved in succession planning and leadership

development initiatives. Library leaders’ stories and experiences will provide guidance about

effective professional development. The study explored specific career phases (early, middle,

and executive level), which should resonate with individuals at these career stages who seek

career advancement. Managers who design staff development programs, professional

organizations that offer career training workshops, and educators in library and information

science (LIS) programs which include courses in leadership and management should find value

in the study’s findings.

Conclusion

This study seeks insight into the development of public library leaders through life history

research. In addition to biography, the study analyzes critical incidents to explore and highlight

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career progression and leadership development. In libraries, storytelling has always maintained a

prominent place within the mission of instructing others and building literacy skills. Thus, it is

fitting to explore library leadership through life stories. In order to understand and further

develop library leadership, the profession needs a knowledge base that can support the

instruction and inspiration of others. This study contributes to that base by exploring the lives of

noted public library leaders and the factors that contributed to their success.

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Chapter Two

Review of the Literature

Twenty-first century public libraries are confronting numerous challenges, ranging from

funding reductions to questions about their very existence. As technology influences all aspects

of daily life and becomes more accessible, information can be obtained online without the need

for visiting a physical space. With a simple click or swipe, children and adults can now obtain

books and other information immediately at little or no cost. In response to these changes, public

libraries are reconfiguring their staffing needs, developing new programs and services, and using

advocacy tools to communicate their value. Further, librarians are reconsidering the library’s

services, resources, and spaces, and are rethinking the library’s central mission and purpose in

their communities. Libraries are no longer warehouses for books, but are dynamic places where

individuals can access technology, create content, attend courses, and conduct job searches.

A Time of Turbulent Change

Today’s libraries operate within a complex, turbulent environment. Vaill (1996), writing

about the need for continuous learning, describes this kind of state, in which organizations do not

experience times of stability, as “permanent white water” (p. 197). In this environment, “new

technologies, new services, and new demands all combine to make the job of a library more

complicated than it was a generation ago, or even five or ten years ago” (Wilkins-Jordan, 2012,

p. 37). In 2011, Levien suggested that:

The changes confronting public libraries over the next thirty years will be profound,

just as those of the past thirty years have been. That libraries have responded so

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effectively thus far is encouraging, yet it appears that they will have to face even

more difficult challenges in the future. (p. 9)

Community support during political struggles. Despite easy and ubiquitous access to

information, recent studies have shown that communities value their public libraries. A Pew

Research Center study (Zickuhr, Rainie, Purcell, & Duggan, 2013) found that the majority of

Americans aged 16 and older believe that public libraries play an important role in their

communities. Approximately 94% of those surveyed noted that libraries promote reading, give

citizens a chance to succeed, and improve the community’s quality of life.

The Pew study also revealed that Americans are poorly informed about library services:

47% of respondents knew of some services offered, 20% knew very little, and 10% nothing at

all. Palfrey (2015) feels that this is partially a result of the nostalgia associated with libraries.

While many library systems have implemented changes to core offerings and services, much of

the population still view libraries as static places for studying quietly and reading books, which is

a view that does not entirely capture the full contribution of libraries to the communities they

serve.

This lack of knowledge about the breadth of services provided by public libraries extends

to community leaders and affects their support for libraries and funding decisions. Research on

community leaders’ attitudes toward public libraries (Public Agenda, 2006) found that leaders

see libraries as valuable but vulnerable because of growing public sector budget constraints. In

budget negotiations, libraries are often on the sidelines of political discussions. For example,

one study of public libraries in New York found that “despite their growing importance, public

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libraries have been hugely undervalued by policymakers and are absent from most policy and

planning discussions about the future of the city” (Giles, 2013, p. 7).

As financial resources shrink in U.S. communities, municipal leaders often debate

funding for libraries, while library supporters struggle to advance their advocacy efforts.

Competitive needs—such as economic development, public schools, and safety—and a lack of

understanding about library services put library funding at risk (Palfrey, 2015). In addition,

competing sources of information available on the Internet and delivered on mobile devices

undermine perceptions of the library as the principal provider and most convenient source of

information, especially among more affluent citizenry. As Denning (2015) suggested, “after all,

who needs a library today, when it is possible, without even getting out of bed, to find and read

almost any book or article that has ever been published?” (p. 1).

Debate about the future. As the library community continues to examine the future of

libraries, there is debate about the relevance of libraries in the professional literature and popular

press. In 2013, ALA, which is regarded as the primary professional organization for American

librarians, established The Center for the Future of Libraries. The Center was created as a

resource for librarians and community leaders and “as envisioned will serve as a definitive

resource for libraries and the profession, promoting innovative and future-oriented thinking that

will help position libraries for long term sustainability and success” (American Library

Association, 2014, p. 1). The creation of the Center suggests that ALA recognizes the critical

importance of discussing, debating, and shaping a solid foundation for the future of libraries.

The future of libraries has also garnered attention in the popular press. In 2011, The

Huffington Post published a series entitled “Libraries in Crisis,” which chronicled library budget

cuts across the US and demonstrated how modern libraries have grown beyond book repositories

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to become community anchors (Kavner, 2011). After libraries survived the budget cuts of the

recent recession, articles in newspapers and magazines continue to debate the need for libraries

and to predict their demise (Agresta, 2014; Denning, 2015; Tett, 2013).

The Need for Library Leadership

Diverse think tanks, nonprofit organizations, and professional associations have focused

their attention on the future of public libraries in the US. In 2014, the most recent report by the

Aspen Institute noted that “expanding access to education, learning opportunities, and social

connections for all is one of the greatest challenges of our time” (p. viii). The report emphasized

that libraries must re-envision their purpose if they are to “maximize their impact” (p. ix), and

offered four key recommendations: align services with community goals; make content available

in all formats; ensure the long-term sustainability of public libraries; and cultivate leadership

which can strengthen public libraries within their communities and secure a solid future for

libraries.

In 1996, Kent wrote that “the public libraries that have been the most successful in

transforming themselves are those institutions that have had strong and visible leadership” (p.

209). Gill (2003) agreed, saying that “it is leadership that makes the difference” (p. 307). Public

libraries require qualified leaders who can effectively navigate the difficult waters of continuous

change. Schreiber and Shannon’s (2001) assertion still holds true a decade and a half later that

“while leadership within the profession has always been important, the hyper speed of changes in

information services now demands libraries that are lean, mobile, and strategic” (p. 36). In the

same era, Riggs (2001) suggested that there could be a crisis in library leadership if librarians are

unresponsive and passive, and if the library profession continues to rely on management

practices that do not distinguish between leadership and management. Riggs (2001) believes that

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it is critical to focus on developing vision and adaptability in building leaders in the profession.

Winston and Neely (2001) agree:

The many issues that face public libraries at present and in the future require effective

leadership in terms of developing and promoting vision, identifying priorities,

handling competitors, and providing information services needed by a changing,

diverse, and increasingly technologically savvy user population. (p. 16)

It is important to note that some community leaders have suggested that librarians

develop skills for both library and community leadership. According to interviews conducted by

Public Agenda (2006), community leaders believe that librarians should take an active role in

addressing community issues. This report also noted that “library education needs to change so

the librarians are better trained to be advocates and leaders of institutional growth and change”

(p. 36). In a 2012 report on the importance of leadership to public libraries, the Urban Libraries

Council (ULC) suggested that libraries’ evolving roles necessitates hiring executives who are

skilled leaders. As libraries expand their services and position themselves to serve a number of

community needs, strong leaders are necessary. “As public libraries broaden their reach into the

communities they serve and deepen their role as an essential part of community life, the

expectations of library executives are expanding as well” (ULC, 2012, p. 1). The perception of

libraries is increasingly dependent upon “the effectiveness of a library executive as a strategic

leader” (p. 1).

In response to the growing recognition that leadership is essential to preserving libraries,

professional organizations have developed leadership institutes and models for librarians at both

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the state and national levels. In 2006, PLA suggested that there were five forces that affect

public library leaders: the nature and pace of change, the evolving role of the public library,

building community, asset driven impact, and the challenge for leadership. PLA used these

forces as a framework for developing a leadership model that addressed personal, organizational,

and community leadership. Using this model as a foundation, PLA established a leadership

academy to educate library staff at all levels in order to instill in them essential skills. In its most

recent strategic directions document, ALA (2015) lists “professional and leadership

development” as a key focus area that is “recognizing that the professional and leadership

development of all who work in libraries is essential to high-quality professional practice and the

future of libraries and information services” (p. 5). The inclusion of leadership is a new addition

to ALA’s strategic plan.

Libraries need strong leaders to remain relevant and to thrive within their communities.

Notable leaders currently exist in the profession, but new leadership talent is critical to sustaining

leadership. Young, Hernon, and Powell (2004) suggest that “to ensure a vital and viable

professional future, librarianship must embrace a commitment to the identification, recruitment,

and nurturing of the next generation of leaders” (p. 35). Despite the long-standing recognition

that leadership is crucial for the future success of libraries and the various professional efforts to

promote the development of library leaders, little is known about the evolution of library leaders.

Research on current library leaders can contribute to charting a course for the development of

new library leaders.

Research Methods in Leadership Studies

Narrative inquiry. Narrative inquiry is an effective tool for structuring and investigating

human experience, and expressing its meaning (Connelly & Clandinin, 1990). There are

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narrative traditions in every society and, though story structures often differ among cultures, the

basic design—with a beginning, middle, and end—is a familiar one. Stories are a standard

format for conveying information. According to McAdams (1993), humans make sense of their

world and organize their experiences through the stories they tell. “People live stories, and in the

telling of these stories, reaffirm them, modify them, and create new ones. Stories lived and told

educate the self and others” (Connelly & Clandinin, 1990, p. 25).

According to Klenke (2008), “storytelling is a natural way of recounting experience, a

practical solution to a fundamental problem in life, or creating reasonable order out of

experience” (p. 241). Storytelling is natural because individuals tend to organize their

experiences into narrative form, “arranging the episodes of our lives into stories” (McAdams,

1993, p. 11). Some proponents and practitioners of the method even assert that narrative is “the

central means by which people give their lives meaning over time” (Bell, 2002, p. 213).

In any research, it is important to recognize the sometimes subjective and selective nature

of the narrative in its varied, edited formats. As Webster and Mertova (2007) point out,

“narrative is not an objective reconstruction of life—it is a rendition of how life is perceived. As

such, it is based on the respondent’s life experiences and entails chosen parts of their lives” (p.

3). In addition, narrative research with stories may involve an entire life story, various vignettes,

or simply highlights from specific periods. As Denzin (1989) said, “when a life is written about,

the story that is told may attempt to cover the full sweep of a person’s experiences, or it may be

partial, topical, or edited, focusing only on a particular set of experiences deemed to be of

importance” (p. 29).

Life history research. Within narrative inquiry, researchers employ a variety of different

methods, although “what narrative researchers hold in common is the study of stories or

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narratives or descriptions of a series of events” (Pinnegar & Daynes, 2007, p. 4). As narrative

inquiry matured as a method, overlapping subsets that focused on specialized techniques

emerged. Life history research is one such methodological subset of narrative inquiry, and has

been in use since the beginning of the twentieth century (Bertaux, 1981).

Life history methodology highlights how individuals personally recount and characterize

their life experiences. Cole and Knowles (2001) explain that:

Life history inquiry is about gaining insights into the broader human condition by

coming to know and understand the experiences of other humans. It is about

understanding a situation, profession, condition, or institution through coming to

know how individuals walk, talk, live, and work within that particular context. It is

about understanding the relationship, the complex interaction between life and

context, self and place. It is about comprehending the complexities of a person’s day-

to-day decision making and the ultimate consequences that play out in that life so that

insights into the broader, collective experience may be achieved. (p. 11)

The method captures individual interpretations of experience and provides extremely personal

insights. According to Musson (1998), life histories consider social interactions, the effect of

individuals on one another, and the change in those experiences over time.

The life history approach provides researchers with a window into individual experiences.

Musson (1998) characterized the approach as providing “a fundamental source of knowledge

about how people experience and make sense of their environments, thus allowing the actors to

speak for themselves” (p. 11). Life histories provide researchers with an understanding of an

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individual’s current behaviors and feelings, and the influence of past experiences. Such

understanding must be tempered, as Bruner (1986) notes, by the recognition that every life

history has three distinctions: “life as lived (reality), life as experienced (experience), and life as

told (expression)” (p. 6). Despite the capacity of the life history method to illuminate different

facets of an individual’s experiences, there will be “inevitable gaps between reality, experience,

and expressions” (Bruner, 1986, pp. 6-7).

Critical incidents. Within any life history, there are critical moments. Life is a series of

snapshots, with one event following another, and some being more important than others.

Pillemer (1998) points out that “a human life is composed of an unending stream of particular

instances” (p. 1). In social science, events or incidents that punctuate a life with indelible

meaning are critical events or incidents. Within narrative studies and life histories, critical

incidents are important because, as Webster and Mertova (2007) note, “specific events are key

determinants in how we recall our life experiences” (p. 71). Thus, individuals construct their

individual life narratives by recalling the key events that remain in the memory well beyond their

actual occurrence.

Critical incidents are essential to understanding a life history. Denzin (1989) notes that

lives contain objective and subjective markers, which are critical moments in every biography.

“The interpretive biographical method…involves the studied use and collection of personal-life

documents, stories, accounts, and narratives which describe turning-point moments in

individuals’ lives” (p. 13). Lives can be changed or transformed by these experiences, which

Denzin terms epiphanies.

Pillemer (2001) distinguishes among six different types of life experiences:

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1. Originating events: these mark the beginning of a life path and are tied to an

individual’s long-term goals.

2. Turning points: single events that encourage an individual to change life direction and

form new objectives.

3. Anchoring events: an event that encourages values or assists in forming the individual’s

belief system.

4. Analogous events: guides for present situations, in which an individual uses a similar or

analogous event from the past to influence their response to a current situation.

5. Redemptive events: experiences originally thought to be challenging, but, upon

reflection, reveal a positive effect.

6. Contaminating events: seemingly positive situations that become negative.

Denzin’s (1989) epiphanies are those critical moments that can influence a person’s life.

McAdams (1993), on the other hand, refers to these experiences as nuclear episodes, and

believes that identifying such experiences is the most important method for developing a sense of

an individual’s identity. Narratives highlight critical events, and those that are particularly

significant are shared with a listener or audience through stories. As an individual recalls a vivid

memory, stories about the experience form naturally. The events are important because they

remain with the individual even when other, perhaps more mundane, experiences disappear from

memory. As an individual accumulates experiences, the perspective on a particular past episode

may be re-shaped with reflection and through the lens of different influences. Typically, the

critical experience results in a change, whether the change is a new perspective or a different

understanding. According to Webster and Mertova (2007), memory of past critical events often

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leads to adaptation strategies for use in new situations.

Events, and in particular critical incidents, can be catalytic parts of people’s lives. Critical

incidents in qualitative research are insightful tools for arriving at the core of meaning in

narrative studies. Polkinghorne (1988) asserts that the human behavior is influenced by the

meanings that people assign to experiences. By exploring life histories and the critical events

that form life histories, researchers can explore phenomena such as leadership development.

Life histories and critical incidents in leadership studies. According to Howe (1980),

events that emanate from life histories highlight an individual’s distinguishing qualities and

assist in making connections among the experiences that shape a leader’s identity and infuse it

with purpose. As opposed to static narratives, personal stories are continually relayed and

reinterpreted as they are created, told, and revised throughout a lifetime. Stories inform an

individual’s identity because they relate the person’s past, present, and possible future

(McAdams, 1993). In leadership studies, the concept of self-identity is crucial because, as

Klenke (2008) notes, “identity is a key construct in the understanding and development of

leadership ability as well as a central theme in the role of followership and leadership

effectiveness” (p. 321). Identity informs a leader’s beliefs, values, behavior, and goals, all of

which contribute to leadership effectiveness and the ability to influence followers (van

Knippenberg, van Knippenberg, De Cremer, & Hogg, 2004).

In addition to shaping identity, the experiences within life histories can affect behavior.

Since lived events are instructional in nature, individuals often use experiences to give their lives

direction as they attempt to understand and respond to new situations (Ligon, Hunter, &

Mumford, 2008). Leaders impart meaning to their experiences, and this meaning influences their

self-identity and actions (Kuhnert & Russell, 1990; Shamir, Dayan-Horesh, & Adler, 2005).

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Gardner (1995) proposes that leaders actually personify their stories and inspire followers by

modeling behavior based on life experience.

Stories help individuals craft their identities, values, motivation, and aspirations. Thus, a

core story that defines an individual’s identity is essential to fostering leadership (Klenke, 2008).

Experiences and the stories that describe them add a sense of purpose to one’s leadership and

help to develop an individual’s self-conception as a leader. These experiences provide ongoing

motivation and validation for the person’s leadership both internally and to their followers

(George, 2007). To become more convincing leaders, “people need to find or construct a life

story that feels comfortable to themselves and can be presented to others” (Shamir, Dayan-

Horesh, & Adler, 2005, p. 15). According to Gardner (1995), “leaders achieve their

effectiveness chiefly through the stories they relate. In addition to communicating stories,

leaders embody those stories” (p. 9). Gardner (1995) further notes, “the ultimate impact of the

leader depends most significantly on the particular story that he or she relates or embodies, and

the receptions to that story on the part of audiences, or collaborators or followers” (p. 14).

Relating personal stories to influence others is considered a fundamental leadership

practice (Gardner, 1995; George, Sims, McLean, & Mayer, 2007; Shamir, Dayan-Horesh, &

Adler, 2005). Stories assist leaders with informing, motivating, and connecting with followers.

Stories also bolster sensemaking by providing meaning in organizational environments and

situations (Denning, 2004; Fleming, 2001; Ready, 2002). Stories can help a leader convey the

current state of an organization, along with a vision of the future. Personal stories allow a leader

to make effective connections with followers (Marek, 2011). Although life stories affect values

and leadership styles in an individual, leaders’ stories contain considerable educational value for

peers, colleagues, and aspiring leaders (Kellerman & Webster, 2001). “Understanding the

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lifespan development of leaders may improve leadership development in others” (Shoup, 2005,

p. 11).

Leadership

Authentic leadership. Some researchers suggest that interest in authentic leadership

emerged with the collapse of large corporations and the loss of trust with government and other

institutions (George, 2003; Luthans & Avolio, 2003). In the midst of societal upheaval,

individuals seek leaders who are sincere, true to their values, and inspire trust. In the late 1990s,

researchers began to study authentic leadership in depth, and interest in the theory continues to

grow (Northouse, 2013).

Authentic leaders are self-aware, certain of their values, and continually seek to relate their

leadership to a sense of purpose (George, Sims, McLean, & Mayer, 2007; Turner & Mavin,

2008). This type of leadership involves “owning one’s personal experiences and acting in

accordance with one’s true self” (Gardner, Avolio, Luthans, May, & Walumba, 2005, p. 345).

Authentic leadership dispenses with the notion that an individual must possess specific traits to

be an effective leader. Instead, authentic leaders use their strengths to overcome deficiencies and

maintain a sincere motivation to use leadership for more than personal gain (George, 2003).

Leaders also develop authentic leadership in followers by modeling “self-awareness, balanced

processing [decision-making], transparency, and authentic behavior” (Gardner, et al., 2005, p.

347).

Characteristics and definitions. According to George (2003), authentic leaders:

understand their purpose, practice solid values, lead with the heart, establish connected

relationships, and demonstrate self-discipline. Luthans and Avolio (2003) note that authentic

leaders draw from positive psychological capacities that include confidence, optimism, hope, and

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resiliency to develop their leadership abilities. By demonstrating these behaviors, leaders

stimulate the development of authenticity in others. Luthans and Avolio suggest that authentic

leadership depends on the combination of positive psychological behaviors and an organizational

culture in which leadership development is supported. Such a pairing “results in both greater

self-awareness and self-regulated positive behaviors on the part of leaders and associates,

fostering positive self-development” (p. 243).

Authentic leadership includes self-awareness and understanding. “Self-awareness is not a

destination point, but rather an emerging process where one continually comes to understand his

or her unique talents, strengths, sense of purpose, core values, beliefs, and desires” (Avolio &

Gardner, 2005, p. 324). An individual must be self-aware in order to further develop leadership

skills and to strengthen limitations, which will change depending on the context. Self-awareness

is informed by life experiences and trigger events or challenges (Luthans & Avolio, 2003).

According to George, Sims, McLean, and Mayer (2007), self-awareness is also based on

understanding an individual’s life narrative. “The journey to authentic leadership begins with

understanding the story of your life. Your life story provides the context for your experiences,

and through it, you can find the inspiration to make an impact in the world” (p. 132).

Although there are varying definitions of authentic leadership, Sparrowe (2005) suggests

four commonalities: “the primacy of self-awareness, the enduring nature of the true self, self-

regulation and consistency, and authenticity and positive or moral leadership” (p. 421).

Authenticity requires self-awareness and honest acknowledgement of one’s nature, including

strengths and weaknesses. The true self has its roots in values and purpose. Self-regulation

requires a leader to link their behavior and actions consistently to their inner purpose. These

associations result in authentic leadership and positive outcomes that have moral or ethical

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components.

Through their review of the literature and interviews with content experts, Walumba,

Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing, and Peterson (2008) identified four components of authentic

leadership:

1. Self-awareness: an ongoing process whereby individuals understand themselves and

how they affect others, which provides a strong basis for consistent actions.

2. Internalized moral perspective: a process in which individuals act according to their

values and principles.

3. Balanced processing: objectivity and considering multiple viewpoints before making a

decision.

4. Relational transparency: being candid and open in relationships with others.

Northouse (2013) views authentic leadership from three distinct perspectives: the

intrapersonal, which depends upon on life experiences and the creation of self-identity; the

interpersonal, which can be found in leader-follower relationships; and developmental, which

occurs over a lifetime with critical incidents or triggers (Luthans & Avolio, 2003).

Self-awareness and the intrapersonal perspective. Shamir and Eilam (2005) advanced the

intrapersonal perspective of authentic leadership by highlighting the importance of life stories to

developing self-concept. In this view, authentic leaders have a powerful sense of identity or self-

concept and extreme clarity about their values and opinions. These leaders identify strongly with

their leadership roles, associate their self-concepts with their leadership roles, and behave in

ways consistent with their values. According to Shamir and Eilam (2005), these leadership

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behaviors come from “constructing, developing and revising their life-stories” (p. 396). The

process of reflecting on these experiences encourages self-awareness, which then increases the

ability to develop as an authentic leader (Gardner, et al., 2005; George, 2007). Shamir and Eilam

(2005) assert that the life story serves to justify the individual’s leadership and suggest that “life-

stories provide authentic leaders with a self-concept that can be expressed through the leadership

role” (p. 402).

Sparrowe (2005) emphasized the life narrative, and questioned the idea that leaders

develop authenticity from values or a sense of purpose. Sparrowe suggests that to understand

these concepts, one must first understand narrative identity, which is the foundation for character

and self-constancy. Leaders become authentic through narrative constructs that underscore and

inform their core values, values that may change over time and with exposure to new people,

ideas, and cultures. This suggests that leadership development is a dynamic process.

Sparrowe uses the work of Ricoeur (1992) to advance the notion that individuals create a

life story by combining the various experiences and events from their life in a process called

emplotment. Narrative is not simply connecting life events in a chronological order, but includes

imparting meaning and “portraying the why’s of one life” (Sparrowe, 2005, p. 427). Further,

“emplotment binds contingent events into a comprehensible narrative” (p. 427). Sparrowe’s

analysis suggests that leadership development programs should promote self-reflection and

journaling as a means of encouraging self-awareness.

Relationships and the interpersonal perspective. The interpersonal perspective of

authentic leadership relies on leader-follower relationships. In order for a leader to achieve

authenticity, it is essential to have followers who believe in the leader and react to their

leadership in a reciprocal manner. It is also essential for the leader to model positive behaviors

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and encourage growth in their followers. Avolio and Gardner (2005) suggest that “through

increased self-awareness, self-regulation, and positive modeling, authentic leaders foster the

development of authenticity in followers” (p. 317). By realizing their own authenticity,

followers can attain personal fulfillment and higher levels of performance. According to Eagly

(2005), authentic leadership is far more than knowing one’s values and being true to one’s

convictions. In fact, authentic leaders need followers to support and respond to their leadership.

If a leader’s vision is to be accepted, followers must recognize, legitimize, and identify with the

leader’s authenticity.

This transactional relationship is the key to validating authenticity through the reciprocal

influence of each party on the other. Eagly (2005) notes that achieving authenticity is more

difficult for women leaders and members of other outside groups, who may be atypical in higher-

level leadership roles. Followers may not easily identify with these leaders or may be

uncomfortable with their leadership positions because they associate conventional leadership

behaviors with men and masculinity. Eagly (2005) notes that “in leadership roles in which

women are highly unusual, even those women who convey the conventional values of a

community may find that they do not receive their associates’ trust and identification” (p. 463).

In these instances, outsiders need leadership training that specifically addresses developing

positive interpersonal relationships and increasing comfort with authority.

The evolving self and the developmental perspective. The developmental perspective

emphasizes leadership development as an evolving and dynamic process. In contrast to a set of

traits or characteristics, this perspective views leadership as something that develops through

new experiences. According to Northouse (2013), “authentic leadership develops in people over

a lifetime and can be triggered by major life events, such as a severe illness or a new career” (p.

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254). Gardner et al. (2005) note that life histories along with critical incidents or trigger events

are key to developing authentic leadership:

We view the leader’s personal history and key trigger events to be antecedents for

authentic leadership development. The personal history of the leader may include

family influences and role models, early life challenges, educational and work

experiences. Trigger events constitute dramatic and sometimes subtle changes in the

individual’s circumstances that facilitate personal growth and development. (p. 347)

For Luthans and Avolio (2003), this developmental process begins with life experiences,

which ground the leader in their history. The leader then develops and strengthens positive

psychological capacities of confidence, hope, optimism, and resiliency, which help the leader

develop their identity. Trigger events influence self-awareness, which guides behavior, decision-

making, and growth.

According to Luthans and Avolio (2003), highly developed organizations are more likely

to support leadership development. While life experiences and critical events are often

unpredictable, organizational cultures can provide stability and support for leaders. For example,

organizations can offer instructional and mentoring programs for emerging leaders. “In

particular, highly developed organizational cultures will promote trigger events that

appropriately challenge emerging authentic leaders to achieve their full potential” (p. 257).

The role of life history in leadership development. The theory of authentic leadership

highlights the ability to develop leadership skills over time. In contrast to a prescribed set of

leadership traits, authentic leadership includes recognizing the unique nature in each individual

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and making authenticity accessible to almost anyone. According to Bennis (2009), the concept

of authentic leadership dispenses with the idea that only certain individuals are capable of

leadership and emphasizes that the capacity for leadership is inherent in everyone. All

individuals can hone and use leadership skills in any number of situations (Kouzes & Posner,

2007). Northouse (2013) sees authentic leadership as “a lifelong developmental process, which

is formed and informed by each individual’s life story” (p. 261). Thus, ongoing development is

central to becoming an authentic leader.

In their study of notable leaders’ biographies, Shamir, Dayan-Horesh, and Adler (2005)

used a life story approach to explore leadership development. They suggest that a leader’s

biography provides the basis for the leader’s self-concept, which informs leadership behaviors

and justifies the leadership role. After analyzing leader biographies, they discovered four

consistent themes in leadership development:

1. Leadership development is a natural process: Some individuals sensed their leadership

tendencies from a young age, while others became more comfortable with leadership as

opportunities to lead arose.

2. Development arises from struggling and coping with difficulties: Individuals found

purpose from personal or even community/societal struggles and this purpose informs

their leadership. This aspect highlights critical incidents or crucible moments, which

instill the leader with confidence and the incentive to lead.

3. Development is self-improvement through learning: Leaders often identify life events as

learning experiences. Furthermore, these learning experiences often involve others such

as family members, teachers, role models, and mentors.

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4. Development can arise from finding a cause: This is mostly found in political leaders.

For those considered organizational leaders, development stories “are more often

presented in terms of career progression.” (p. 23)

This research suggests that experience influences career progression and leadership

development. In one study of senior executives, “It was the lessons of experience that were

reported to be the most potent forces of development” (Day, 2012, p. 127). In another study of

senior managers, Kempster and Parry (2004) discovered that four areas affected each individual:

the impact of notable people and critical incidents on their concept of leadership, development of

their identity as a leader, leadership values, and situated learning. Exploring these factors and

the experience of senior executives in libraries is critical to gain insight into these leaders’

careers and leadership development.

Leadership in Libraries

The role of the library director is central to the analysis of leadership development in

public libraries. The leadership capacity of library directors is critical to advancing the future of

the public library (Kent, 1996; ULC, 2012). Kent (2002) notes that “the role of the library

director and the future of the public library are inextricably linked” (p. 53). As a senior

executive at an advanced career stage, the library director influences the organization both

internally with staff and trustees, and externally to community stakeholders. At this time in the

history of libraries, the work of library directors in a chaotic and challenging environment

provides unlimited opportunities to demonstrate stronger leadership. “In other words, crises

create the opportunity for outstanding leadership because people seek leaders who can make

sense of events in a way that provides a clear and obtainable target resolution” (Ligon, Hunter, &

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Mumford, 2008, p. 313).

To explore views of leadership and the role of library directors, Mullins and Linehan

(2005) interviewed public library directors in the US, Ireland, and the United Kingdom. A total

of 67% of the respondents agreed that “leadership takes precedence over all other factors in

determining organizational success” and 63% agreed that “the leader determines the prevailing

culture of the organization” (p. 391). Mullins and Linehan argue that it is important for the

director to engage in leadership development for themselves and their staff, and to focus on the

director as an influencer and leader for organizational success.

Factors that Affect Career and Leadership Development

Critical incidents. Life histories shape the key experiences in leaders’ lives whether those

experiences represent failure or success. Such experiences, referred to as critical incidents or

crucible experiences (Thomas, 2008), are challenging situations, which are instructional and

influence a leader’s values and leadership practice (Bennis & Thomas, 2002). Ready (2002)

asserts that established leaders relay such moments to build trust and, consequently, relationships

with promising leaders within their organizations. Since sharing crucible moments is a way to

connect with and mentor junior staff, life stories include an instructional component for those

seeking to learn from the experiences of established leaders. Mirvis and Ayas (2003) suggest

that “other people’s experiences bring to mind stories of oneself,” which encourages reflection

and bolsters self-awareness (p. 44). Understanding someone else’s story encourages the

recipient to think about their own life, make comparisons with that of the storyteller, and develop

a greater understanding of their own personal experiences.

Burns (1978) sees biography as “an indispensable tool in analyzing the shaping influences

on leadership” (p. 53), although researchers have traditionally focused on the traits or behaviors

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that make leaders distinct, without taking biographical data into account. However, there is “a

growing acceptance in the field of management learning that people are in a constant process of

sensemaking, evolving and reshaping their identity, and their sense of meaning through what

they do and how they talk about it” (Rae & Carswell, 2000, p. 221). The personal stories in the

lives of recognized leaders contain insights on leadership and leadership development, and they

“advance understanding about the complex interactions between individuals’ lives and the

institutional and societal contexts in which they are lived” (Cole & Knowles, 2001, p. 126).

Although the research on leadership in libraries is limited, there is one study that used

narrative inquiry and critical incidents to analyze the development of female academic library

directors in Canada. In this study, DeLong (2012) found that the library directors traced their

leadership development to challenging situations or crucible moments that defined their values

and mission as leaders. Critical incidents often involved the influence of others, either through

informal or formal mentoring, and role models. Additional factors that influenced the leaders’

career and leadership development included involvement with professional associations and

networking. DeLong’s study of female directors found that the directors experienced challenges

at the mid-career point, and that relationships with peers, challenging assignments, and

involvement with professional associations provided important opportunities to learn, reflect, and

grow as leaders.

Career progression. Exploring career progression is one approach to learning about the

influences on library directors and identifying areas for further investigation. Despite the general

dearth of research on public library leadership, there has been some research on career

progression in public libraries. Greiner’s (1985) seminal study compared the career paths of

female and male public library directors by surveying public library directors who served

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populations of 100,000 or more. Greiner found that men achieved their directorships at younger

ages, generally had higher levels of education, and completed more additional degrees beyond

the master’s of library science. Female directors were more likely to engage in other continuing

education programs, such as workshops and non-degree granting courses. Mentors were

important to more than 50% of both male and female directors, although men were more likely

to have more than one mentor over the course of their careers. Both men and women were

actively involved with professional organizations, with 90% of the respondents being active

members of ALA.

In a survey of 28 Canadian directors of large, urban public libraries, Haycock and

McCallum (1997) found similarities in the directors’ experiences and qualifications. The

directors typically had a bachelor’s degree in history or English, while none had a science

background. Previous professional experience within libraries was varied—12 held positions as

deputy directors, nine had been directors in other libraries, and 17 had experienced five or more

position changes prior to their current directorship. Haycock and McCallum found that male

directors were more likely to have children than female directors and males also experienced

slightly fewer geographic moves for career promotions. In regard to career progression, 60%, or

17 participants, noted that mentorships helped with career advancement. Of the 20 study

participants who participated in continuing education efforts, 80% believed that the education

assisted with career advancement, and 75% had completed courses or degree programs related to

management such as a master’s in business administration or public administration. In terms of

professional engagement, more than 80% of the directors belonged to both a local and a national

professional organization.

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Golden (2005) updated Greiner’s work with another study of the use of career

development strategies by directors of large public library systems. Golden analyzed the

directors’ opinions about the particular factors that affected their career advancement such as

continuing education, mentors and role models, networking, and involvement with professional

associations. Almost 80% of directors completed some sort of continuing education courses

before achieving their director position. Of those, 38.3% believed the education was very

helpful in terms of career advancement; while 84.1% believed that training and development

workshops/seminars were helpful for career advancement (p. 89). Golden’s study also revealed

that 61.1% of the directors had a mentor. While 30.5% of the directors believed they could have

achieved their position without a mentor, 29.7% believed they could not and 39.8% were unsure.

In this study, networking emerged as a significant factor in the directors’ career progression, with

almost 67% citing networking as a contributor to their career advancement.

Structured learning. Library directors have acknowledged that structured learning

activities are important to their career development (Golden, 2005; Greiner, 1985; Haycock &

McCallum, 1997). Some have called for developing core leadership competencies for librarians

as a way to guide LIS education, inform continuing education courses, and guide professional

development for practitioners (Ammons-Stephens, Cole, Jenkins-Gibbs, Riehle, & Weare, 2009).

A general set of competencies was developed by Ammons-Stephens, et al. in four core areas:

cognitive ability, vision, interpersonal effectiveness, and managerial effectiveness. An essential

set of personal attributes included being principled/ethical, honest, humble, gracious, and

teachable. These attributes reflect components of authentic leadership such as ethical behavior,

honesty, acknowledgement of strengths and weaknesses, and self-reflection or learning from

experiences.

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In an attempt to establish leadership competencies for public library directors, Wilkins-

Jordan (2012) conducted a Delphi study with library directors. In the first round of the study, the

directors were provided with a list of 34 competencies. From that list, 18 competencies were

identified as important and five new, additional competencies were suggested by the directors.

After three rounds of questions, 10 competencies emerged as critical: integrity, customer service,

accountability, communication skills, credibility, interpersonal skills, vision, political

understanding, demonstrating leadership, and advocacy skills.

Leadership institutes have been popular in American and international library

communities as a method for building leadership capacity. Mason and Weatherbee (2004)

conducted a thorough review of both academic and public library leadership institutes in the US.

The review revealed serious deficiencies in the evaluation tools that assess the programs’

effectiveness. The programs had different goals and objectives, which also made comparisons of

impact very difficult. Romaniuk and Haycock (2011) suggest that the impact of these programs

is not proven, and that the failure of the profession to adopt a set of leadership competencies

contributes to program variances and enhances the evaluation difficulties.

Winston and Neely (2001) evaluated the Snowbird Leadership Institute, one of the early

leadership programs for librarians. The Institute, which was offered from 1990-1998, included

instruction and mentoring. Winston and Neely conducted post-participation surveys to

understand how the Institute affected the librarians’ career development. After completing the

Institute, the librarians reported higher levels of participation in professional activities, such as

volunteering with local and national library organizations, leading projects in their home

organizations, attending continuing education programs, and serving on committees that were

engaged in community initiatives. When asked about impact on their career advancement, 40%

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responded that the Institute contributed somewhat and 19% that it contributed to a great extent

(Winston & Neely, 2001).

One of the anticipated outcomes of leadership programs is an increase in participants’

confidence (O’Connor, 2014; Romaniuk & Haycock, 2011). An organizer from the Snowbird

Institute noted “if there is a key identifying concept of the Snowbird Leadership Institute, it is

probably the belief that being a leader depends as much as anything else upon knowing and

being comfortable with who you are and having confidence in yourself” (Winston & Neely,

2001, p. 19). Wilson and Corrall (2008), focusing on the Leading Modern Public Libraries

program in the United Kingdom, found that one of the most common results was “understanding

and enabling leadership capacity. … a recurring theme was the improved confidence of

participants, both in realizing their own potential as leaders and feeling more assured in their

existing leadership styles and approaches” (p. 481). This theme of confidence also appeared in

Arnold, Nickel, and Williams’ (2008) study of leadership institute graduates. “The single most

common refrain from attendees is that leadership institutes can help to create leaders by building

confidence in leadership skills” (p. 449).

Romaniuk and Haycock (2011) suggest that many leadership institute graduates cite an

increase in confidence, although increasing confidence is not a stated outcome of such programs.

Participants may, in fact, be referring to self-efficacy and “without self-efficacy in leadership,

participants of leadership development interventions will neither be motivated to lead nor will

they attempt leadership regularly” (p. 34). Self-efficacy differs from self-esteem and confidence

because it reflects an individual’s belief in their own capabilities (Bandura, 1997). According to

Bandura, “perceived self-efficacy is not a measure of the skills one has but a belief about what

one can do under different sets of conditions with whatever skills one possesses” (p. 37).

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Efficacy is one component of self-knowledge, which, in turn, is a component of authentic

leadership (Gardner, et al., 2005).

Bandura (1997) noted four sources of self-efficacy:

1. Mastery experiences: These are the most influential because they verify whether an

individual can succeed in various situations. Successes strengthen an individual’s belief

in their capabilities, while failures can undermine it. Mastery experiences can build

resilience and other positive psychological behaviors.

2. Vicarious experience: This type of experience occurs when an individual compares their

abilities to others. Individuals judge their efficacy in relation to others and model their

behavior after those they admire and whose competencies they aspire to emulate.

3. Verbal persuasion: This involves social interactions and the verbal reinforcement of

peers, such as colleagues, friends, and family. Individuals are more likely to have a

higher sense of efficacy when they receive positive reinforcement from respected social

peers.

4. Physiological and affective states: Emotional and physical states can influence an

individual’s beliefs regarding efficacy.

As Bandura’s work has suggested, perceived self-efficacy affects many aspects of an

individual’s life, such as the choices that one makes and the ability to cope with stressful,

challenging situations. Since self-efficacy evolves over time and is inextricably associated with

self-awareness and experience, it is an important factor to consider in research on leadership

development.

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Mentors and role models. Studies on career progression and leadership development

often consider the role of mentors. Ligon, Hunter, and Mumford (2008) note that mentoring is

an experience that may affect the development of leadership style. Mentoring is essentially a

developmental relationship between a senior and junior colleague. Bennis (2012) suggests that

forming alliances is not a skill relegated to politics, but one that is essential to leadership as well.

In addition to providing advice and guidance, mentors may introduce a mentee to career

opportunities, challenging assignments, and professional networks. For librarians, mentoring can

offer “career planning advice, professional development guidelines, mid-career evaluation

guidance, personal development suggestions, and the building and/or reinforcement of one's self-

confidence” (Field, 2001, p. 270).

Greiner’s (1985) study revealed that more than 50% of male and female directors

believed that mentors had a positive influence on their career progression. Chatman’s (1992)

study of public library directors, which found that more than 50% had mentors, supports the

notion that mentors have a positive effect on both career and leadership development. Mentors

were responsible for numerous components of the directors’ development, such as instilling

values, exposing the directors to career opportunities, and increasing their confidence. Golden’s

(2005) study of library directors noted that more than 60% of the directors had a mentor.

Finally, for many of the respondents in Arnold, Nickel, and Williams’ (2008) study of leadership

institutes, mentoring was a critical component of their development. The participants revealed

that having a mentor increased their confidence, empowered them to seek positions of greater

responsibility, modeled political savvy, and assisted in improving their skills.

Social networks. Another factor related to leadership development is the value of

personal networks. Cullen, Palus, and Appaneal (2014) note that leaders need a network

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perspective, which is a view of the informal structures that support an organization. Since

leadership is based upon relationships, strong leaders understand the value and potential of

networks as catalysts for change and innovation. Whether network structures are personal (those

within an immediate team), group (those within an organization), or societal (those between

organizations and external stakeholders), all networks affect personal and organizational change.

“Individuals do not exist in isolation and their connections provide opportunities and also create

constraints. The people they are connected to influence ideas, attitudes, and behavior” (Cullen,

Palus, & Appaneal, 2014, p. 19).

Balkundi and Kilduff (2006) assert that networks and the ways in which an individual

perceives and manages networks ultimately contribute to a leader’s effectiveness. They

emphasize four key points of social network theory. First, relationships are at the center of

networks. Second is the concept of embeddedness, or the notion that individuals are embedded

in relationships within a particular community. The third is that networks provide social capital

or some level of value to those within the community. Finally, networks exhibit a structure,

which can be closed or open to outsiders. Balkundi and Kilduff suggest that understanding

leadership in the future will involve studying how leaders manage, interact with, and influence

networks.

Barabási’s (2014) exploration of networks suggests that networks are ever-present and

that, in the current high-tech environment, individuals are connected in many ways. According

to Barabási, “networks are by their very nature the fabric of most complex systems, and nodes

and links deeply infuse all strategies aimed at approaching our interlocked universe” (p. 222).

Within any network there are connectors, who are individuals with a high number of friends and

acquaintances. Connections are much more influential than most individuals realize, says

37

Barabási, who supports Granovetter’s (1983) assertion that weak social ties are more important

than long-standing friendships when it comes to advancing trends, influencing others, or finding

a job. An individual’s close friends operate in the same social circles or networks and have

access to the same information. In contrast, an individual’s weaker ties or less close

acquaintances have access to new, different information, and can provide more diverse resources

when searching for jobs or other opportunities. According to Granovetter (1983), weak ties

assist with diffusing information by acting as bridges that connect individuals operating in

different social circles.

While the study of networks is relatively new and has been only indirectly included in

studies of libraries, librarians in several studies have cited the value of networks to their personal

and professional development. In Arnold, Nickel, and Williams’ (2008) study of leadership

institute participants, the second most common recommendation for future leadership training for

librarians included encouraging networking and the opportunity to meet new colleagues. The

value of networks is also reflected in Winston and Neely’s (2001) study of the Snowbird

Institute, where many participants reported increased involvement in community organizations

and professional associations after participating in the Institute.

Networking and involvement in professional associations appear to contribute to career

and leadership development. Salvatore’s (1991) study of more than 100 female library

administrators in school, public, and university libraries identified participation in professional

networks as the “best assist” to those currently in the profession and interested in attaining an

administrative position (p. 227).

38

Conclusion

American libraries are operating in a challenging and volatile environment, in which

leadership is fundamental to assuring the sustenance and growth of libraries in the future. As

Wilkins-Jordan (2012) writes:

To continue to not only keep pace with the speed of these changes in service, but to

get out ahead of them and ensure the value of public libraries is not overlooked in a

community, that library needs to have a good director helping them to meet these

challenges. Public libraries in too many communities are in danger of losing staff,

resources, hours, or of closing entirely. Without capable directors, they will be

unable to overcome the current problems and to sustain a library for the future (p. 37).

Library directors must represent the library as a valuable resource to their communities.

The directors’ leadership is critical to sustaining libraries and influencing a future generation of

library leaders. Little is known about how library directors advance into their positions and

develop their leadership competency. Understanding life history and critical incidents can

provide insights into those factors that influenced directors, their career progression, and their

development as leaders. Insights about these aspects of leadership development can help to

prepare the next generation of library leaders and suggest directions for their professional growth

and development.

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Chapter Three

Methodology

Despite the growing interest in the future of public libraries, there is little research on

public library directors and their development as leaders. Most research focuses on the directors’

qualifications, characteristics, and career progression from one position to another. A narrative

lens and a focus on critical incidents in the directors’ lives can offer new perspectives on their

evolution as leaders. This study examines the career patterns of public library directors and their

leadership development at three distinct career stages: middle manager, senior manager, and

library director. The analysis focuses on the educational experiences, professional organizations,

professional development opportunities, and personal circumstances that affected the leaders’

career progression and the processes through which they attained and honed their leadership

skills.

This study builds on DeLong’s (2012) study of female directors of academic libraries.

DeLong used document analysis of curricula vitae, semi-structured interviews, and narrative

inquiry to elicit the critical incidents that significantly affected career and leadership

development. According to Connelly and Clandinin (1990), narrative inquiry is a valuable

method for collecting information about personal experiences. It relies on the natural human

inclination to describe experience through stories, which can increase understanding of how

individuals experience their environment and their lives. One important aspect of narrative

inquiry is that it is “based on the assumption that human experience is episodically ordered and

best understood through a reconstruction of the natural narrative order in which it was lived”

(Cole & Knowles, 2001, p. 19).

Within narrative techniques, the use of the life history approach is unique in that it provides

40

researchers with a window into individual experiences. Musson (1998) characterized the

approach as providing “a fundamental source of knowledge about how people experience and

make sense of their environments, thus allowing the actors to speak for themselves” (p. 11). Life

histories allow the researcher to understand an individual’s current behaviors and feelings, and

how the individual may have been influenced by experiences of the past. Denzin (2013) points

out that life experiences that are unique, problematic, or resulting in epiphanies are those critical

moments that stand out in a person’s life as a vivid memory. Critical moments, or critical

incidents, can provide insight into leadership development because they often result in a change,

whether the change is a new perspective or a different understanding. Polkinghorne (1988)

asserts that the human behavior emanates from the meanings that people associate with or assign

to experiences. Thus, researchers can understand a phenomenon such as leadership development

by exploring life histories and the critical events that form those life histories.

This study was designed and conducted to enhance understanding of public library leaders

through life history research. The sample was composed of 12 library directors who were

determined to be leaders in the profession and included a combination of women and men from

across the US, representing various ethnicities. The study began with document analysis of

curricula vitae to examine career progression, educational achievement, continuing education,

involvement with professional organizations, and honors and awards. Semi-structured

interviews were then conducted to collect information regarding career progression, professional

activities, and critical incidents that contributed to leadership development at various career

stages. After restorying the critical incident narratives, the interviews, including the critical

incidents, were coded and analyzed for patterns and common themes.

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Research Questions This study addresses the following research questions:

1. What are the professional qualifications of the participants?

2. When and why did the participants begin applying for senior management positions?

3. How long did it take participants to attain their first director position?

4. What are the personal characteristics of participants that may have influenced career

progression?

5. What types of critical incidents do they associate with their leadership development and at

what stages of their careers did these events occur?

6. When did they first think of themselves as a leader?

7. What is their definition of leadership and how has it changed over time/at various stages

of their careers?

Data Sources and Instrumentation

Sampling strategy. The sampling strategy used purposeful and criterion sampling to

recruit participants for the study. Purposeful sampling is a technique used to study select

individuals in their natural settings and to gather significant, relevant data (Merriam, 2009;

Patton, 2015). Creswell (2014) defines criterion sampling as the process in which all study

participants meet certain specified criteria. The researcher initially consulted with a recent past

president of ALA, and the former coordinator of the Simmons College doctoral program in

managerial leadership in the information professions to develop a list of potential study

participants. The eligibility criteria included established professional reputation as a change

leader or innovator, honors and awards, and active involvement in professional associations such

as ALA. The researcher examined award lists from organizations such as ALA and PLA, and

42

awards given by professional publications, such as Library Journal’s “Librarian of the Year” and

“Mover and Shaker” honors, to determine those individuals and libraries that were recognized

for innovation in the profession. The researcher also reviewed committee and executive board

rosters for ALA, PLA, and ULC to determine which directors were actively involved with

professional organizations at the time of the study.

The researcher then collaborated with her dissertation chair and dissertation committee to

develop an initial list of 20 public library directors who met the primary study criteria. To

increase the study sample’s heterogeneity, the researcher and her advisors made selections from

this initial list that would represent greater ethnic, gender, and geographic diversity. This

process identified a total of 12 diverse, potential participants for the study. According to Patton

(2015), selecting a sample with more diverse characteristics is valuable because the data analysis

can identify shared patterns that cut across the diverse participants and are significant because

they emerged from a more heterogeneous group of participants.

Access. Access to study subjects was a consideration for this study because library

directors have many commitments, difficult schedules, and diverse locations. To encourage

involvement at a convenient setting, the researcher sent the 12 potential participants an e-mail

invitation to participate in an interview prior to their scheduled attendance at a major national

meeting such as the ALA mid-winter meeting or the ULC Partners for Success conference

(Appendix A). The invitation described the purpose of the study; the required two-hour time

commitment for a private, tape-recorded, one-to-one interview; the protection of the subjects’

confidentiality; and the right to refuse participation without future prejudice or bias. Two

potential participants who did not respond to the initial e-mail invitation were contacted via e-

mail by the researcher’s library director, who endorsed the study and requested their

43

participation. As a result, all 12 potential subjects agreed to participate in the study.

Instrumentation. The standardized interview guide was based on DeLong’s (2012)

instrument. The questions were open-ended because open-ended questions enable narrative

conversation and lead to more robust responses (Creswell, 2014; Merriam, 2009). The questions

represented a cross-section of Patton’s (2015) recommended categories for interview questions,

which can include background and demographic data, as well as sensory, knowledge, and feeling

questions. Prior to the interviews, the participants provided copies of their curricula vitae, which

included biographical data and information on career progression. An interview protocol was

developed to guide the researcher’s actions prior to, during, and following the interview. The

interview protocol and the instrument itself, with sample interview script, primary questions, and

follow-up, or probing, questions, appear in Appendix B. This included beginning the interviews

with a discussion of further details about the study, such as the timeline, ability for participants to

review and approve their interview transcripts, and steps taken to ensure confidentiality.

Prior to the beginning of data collection, the researcher pretested the interview questions

with the executive director of the public library of Alexandria, Virginia, and with the Associate

University Librarian of the University of Alberta, the investigator whose research provided a

foundation for this research. This pretesting process, which provided specific feedback on the

clarity and wording of each interview question, was critical because as Patton (2015) suggests,

the wording of a question determines how a subject will respond. The researcher incorporated

the two reviewers’ feedback into the final interview guide. As a result, additional questions

related to continuing education pursuits were included in the interview and clarifying language

and examples were added regarding the term “senior management position.” One reviewer

recommended that the researcher emphasize that critical incidents did not have to relate to career

44

experiences, but could also involve personal experiences apart from the workplace.

Consent and Confidentiality

Prior to data collection, the researcher submitted the study protocol to the Simmons

College Institutional Review Board (IRB) for approval. The step was critical to ensure that the

study conformed to the ethical standards for research involving human subjects. Given the

highly personal nature of the interview questions, confidentiality was a very important

consideration in this study. The study protocol stated that the subjects’ identities were

confidential, that all participants would be assigned a study number, and that no names or

institutions would be included in the study’s data analysis or final report.

The protocol also stated that the subjects’ informed consent would be obtained prior to the

beginning of the interviews, and that all interviews were to be recorded, transcribed, and

forwarded to the participants within one week of the interview for review and comment. To

further protect the subject’s confidentiality, all recordings, transcripts, copies of the curricula

vitae, and field notes associated with the interviews were to be stored in a locked cabinet in the

researcher’s office for a period of three years.

Data Collection

From October 2013 to April 2014, the researcher contacted the 12 potential subjects via e-

mail to confirm their initial interest in participating in the study, request copies of their vitae, and

schedule the interviews. The researcher sent the questions to the subjects prior to the one-to-one

interviews to allow the opportunity for the participants to reflect on their career progression and

leadership development and any critical incidents that they would like to share. This was a

strategy employed by DeLong (2012). Patton (2015) also recommends providing interview

questions in advance and using probing questions to address themes that may emerge during the

45

interview. The interview questions as sent to the participants appear in Appendix C.

Due to scheduling challenges and geographic limitations, six interviews were conducted

in-person and six were conducted by telephone. Each subject received an informed consent form

and a pledge of confidentiality prior to the beginning of each interview (Appendix D). All

interviews were recorded and transcribed within one week of their having taken place. The

transcripts were then sent to the participants via e-mail for their review and modification. Two

of the twelve interview participants made small changes or edits to the interview transcript to

clarify their responses. This process, entitled member checking (Creswell, 2014), is a method

that helps to confirm the accuracy of the findings by offering subjects the opportunity to

comment on the interviews.

Data Analysis

Curricula vitae. Analysis of the participants’ curricula vitae was the first step in data

analysis. Bowen (2009) describes document analysis as “a systematic procedure for reviewing

or evaluating documents—both printed and electronic material” (p. 27). Examples of the types

of materials used in document analysis can include annual reports, public records, press releases,

and any items that are available in printed or written form. Researchers use document analysis

with other types of qualitative research methods, such as interviews or participant observation, in

a process known as triangulation (Bowen, 2009, Denzin, 1970; Janesick, 1994) that increases the

reliability of a study by supporting the findings with multiple data sources and multiple data

collection methods. Bowen (2009) cites five specific uses for document analysis: providing

context about the phenomenon under study, raising additional questions to investigate during the

research process, providing supplementary data, assisting in tracking changes or progress, and

verifying the study’s findings (p. 30).

46

Document analysis can identify general themes and specific information that are relevant to

a study’s purpose and that complement the data collected by other methods (Creswell, 2014). In

this study in which the subjects’ educational and professional development trajectories were

relevant, the researcher analyzed each curriculum vitae and then identified types of educational

pursuits, professional development activities, and positions held by the participants to determine

whether there was a common or predictable path to a directorship. The researcher noted the

number of advanced degrees, attendance at leadership institutes, years between positions,

number of directorships, number of professional memberships, leadership positions within

professional organizations, service on boards, honors and awards, and all promotions, whether

internal or external to the organization.

Interviews. One critical aspect of narrative research involves the process of restorying

(Creswell, 2014; Hunter, 2009), which is the rewriting of subjects’ narratives in order to discover

themes and meaning (Connelly & Clandinin, 1990). The researcher restoried the critical events

in the interviews by following the method used by DeLong (2012). Specifically, the researcher

analyzed the participants’ stories or narratives in order to identify critical incidents and major

themes. As recommended by Miles, Huberman, and Saldaña (2014), this analysis began with a

start list of possible themes that emerged from the relevant literature, the study’s research

questions, and the study’s central themes of interest, which included career progression and

leadership development. The subjects’ stories were rewritten in a “logical and chronological

sequence of ideas or activities” (DeLong, 2012, p. 64). The process of restorying provided

linkages between the ideas and themes culled from the subjects’ narratives, brought clarity to the

stories, and prepared them for further content analysis. Appendix E shows restorying for critical

events at three career stages.

47

Content analysis, which Klenke (2008) defined as “a family of procedures for studying the

contents and themes of written or transcribed texts” (p. 89), was used to analyze the general

interview responses and the restoried critical incident narratives. The interview texts were

analyzed to extract the ideas and concepts used by participants that related to their experiences

and leadership development. A descriptive coding method as outlined by Saldaña (2013) was

used to analyze the texts. Each interview transcript was coded line-by-line and the investigator

studied the responses for common words, concepts, themes, and experiences.

The process of data analysis in this qualitative study was inductive, meaning that the

researcher built patterns, categories, and themes from the bottom up by organizing the data into

increasingly more abstract units of information (Creswell, 2014). This inductive process also

required the researcher to avoid imposing preexisting expectations on the phenomena under

study, and to allow the themes to emerge from the data (Patton, 2015). The analytic process

involved working back and forth between the themes, and constantly comparing incidents in the

coded categories until the researcher had established a comprehensive set of themes. The main

themes were then organized into a coding matrix, which formed the foundation for the data

analysis. Determining the frequency of certain words and opinions identified commonalities in

the subjects’ attitudes toward career progression and leadership in libraries.

Delimitations and Limitations

Delimitations. This study included public library directors who are considered

exceptional leaders within the profession. The study focused on outstanding leadership, and

does not provide a broad overview of library directors. The study did not test any hypotheses or

prove causation. Instead, the study sought a thorough understanding of the individuals’

leadership development and those experiences that particularly affected them. Further, the study

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sample included library directors exclusively from urban populations, whose libraries are

members of ULC. Thus, the study represented the experiences of a finite population.

Limitations. There are several limitations to this study. The study is confined to a small

number of participants, whose experiences may prove extremely unique or highly affected by

factors of a personal nature. However, qualitative studies typically include a small study sample.

Patton (2015) asserts that a small sample size in qualitative research is valuable because it

produces detailed information and profound insights about people and their experiences.

Webster and Mertova (2007) feel that narrative studies, in particular, provide insight into the

human experience and its complexities. In this study, such detailed information contributed to

understanding of those factors that contributed to the leadership development of established

leaders in the library profession.

The small sample size and the unique subjects limit the study’s generalizability to the

larger population. This limited generalizibility is expected in field research (Stake, 2010).

Qualitative studies with small samples seek to understand a phenomenon that is limited to time,

place, and condition (Patton, 2015). Thus, the results of this study are not intended to be

representative of the larger professional community of library leaders or public library directors.

Several of the participants are from the same generation, which may influence values,

beliefs, career experiences, and perspectives that are unique to a particular generation. The

subjects’ career paths and leadership development in this study represent what Patton (2015)

calls “information-rich cases” which provide an opportunity for detailed study. “Information-

rich cases are those from which once can learn a great deal about issues of central importance to

the purpose of the inquiry, thus the term purposeful sampling. Studying information-rich cases

yields insights and understanding rather than empirical generalizations” (Patton, 2015, p. 230).

49

Although the study participants may not be representative of the majority of public library

directors, the findings provide insights into public library leadership.

The study used curricula vitae, which varied in their detail and length. Some individuals

provided comprehensive curricula vitae with many details stretching across their entire careers,

while others provided limited content. As a result, some details, especially relating to

professional involvement, were inconsistent across the curricula vitae. This study also used

interviews, which are a methodology Connaway and Powell (2010) praise for flexibility and the

potential to provide the researcher with important information. However, interviews have an

inherent limitation because research participants may not be willing to divulge personal

information during an interview, particularly one that seeks information about an individual’s

life history. For example, participants might be uncomfortable sharing personal stories and

experiences. The participants’ candor may vary depending on the topic and their willingness to

disclose personal details. Furthermore, six of the interviews were conducted via telephone,

which may have affected the researcher’s ability to establish a rapport with the participants and

inhibited the researcher’s ability to read body language or other non-verbal signals.

In addition, memories evolve with time and some details may be difficult for participants

to recall from the distant past. As with any narrative study, the responses reflect the participants’

personal experiences and their interpretation of those experiences. It is possible that a

participant’s interpretation may be somewhat exaggerated or modified; thus, the concern for

accuracy is a legitimate consideration. As Pillemer notes, while errors can occur, “At the same

time, memory, for the most part, does its job; that is, memory descriptions usually are consistent

with the general form and content of past experiences, even if particular details are lost, added,

or distorted in the act of remembering” (1998, p. 55).

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Comparability. Given the general educational requirements for public librarians, it was

possible to identify what Patton (2015) calls recurring regularities that allowed for some credible

comparisons among the subjects’ career progression. However, due to the unique, personal

nature of leadership development, some cases were difficult to compare because the subjects’

stories presented more divergent paths to leadership success.

Control of sample. The respondents’ leadership development, personal experiences, and

background were varied. Despite expected commonalities in terms of education and professional

organizations, career and leadership development were influenced by factors unique to each

individual such as, but not limited to, relationships with family members, mentors, and

colleagues. Furthermore, career path affected leadership development opportunities, and the

particular organizations in which these individuals were employed offered distinct opportunities

for leadership development. This was a realistic limitation that is inherent in the study of

leadership development and personal experience.

Data quality. Overarching issues of reliability and validity must be addressed when

reporting the subjects’ life stories. Weber and Mertova (2007) note that traditional concerns

about reliability and validity do not completely apply to narrative inquiry because the method

focuses on individual interpretations of events. Huberman (as cited in Webster & Mertova,

2007) argues that when determining the reliability and validity of narrative studies, researchers

should consider other factors such as access, honesty, verisimilitude, authenticity, familiarity,

transferability, and economy.

x Access suggests that the research data are not only available, but also placed in

the proper context of time, culture, and process.

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x Honesty refers to giving subjects an opportunity to review, edit, and confirm their

stories.

x Verisimilitude means that the report of narratives ensures that a reader finds them

believable and not overly embellished.

x Authenticity is a similar concept, but involves maintaining a tone of sincerity and

seriousness in conveying the stories. This is achieved by providing enough

information to keep the story flowing in a logical manner.

x Familiarity refers to the phenomenon in which a known event seems to gain

meaning merely by being reported. The storyteller may not realize the

importance of an event because it was commonplace to them. They must be

encouraged to bring seemingly small things back to their consciousness.

x Transferability means that the related stories, especially critical events, can be

applied or related to other settings.

x Economy promotes the use of critical events to ensure that the researcher can

focus their analysis on the most important aspects of a narrative.

Through the study’s design, data collection process, and data analysis, the researcher

made every attempt to consider these factors. For instance, to address access, the researcher

placed critical incidents in the context of career stage. This was compared to the participants’

curricula vitae in order to correlate the incident to a distinct time period. The researcher also

restoried the events and then further analyzed them for themes and patterns. To ensure honesty,

the participants were given an opportunity to review the interview transcripts and to make any

corrections or modifications to their responses. Verisimilitude and the related concept of

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authenticity were ensured by requesting detailed accounts from each participant to ensure the

stories’ plausibility and to guarantee a serious tone. Familiarity was addressed by assuring the

participants that any event deemed critical to the individual should be shared. Participants were

encouraged to share seemingly common incidents that may have impacted them. Moreover, by

asking probing questions, the researcher was able to elicit additional details. Economy was

ensured by focusing on critical events in the responses. The researcher specifically asked about

critical incidents that related to leadership development, which focused the narrative responses

and assisted in identifying important themes (Webster & Mertova, 2007).

Conclusion

This study used a combination of document and content analysis to gain insight into

public library directors’ career and leadership development. The research methodology

incorporated steps to ensure data quality throughout the study. The study instrument was pre-

tested twice in order to identify and correct any flaws with the interview script. During the

interviews, participants were prompted to share detailed accounts of critical incidents to focus

their narratives. Due to the personal nature of the study questions, following each interview,

participants were provided with transcripts and offered the opportunity to correct or modify any

aspects of their interviews. The interviews were rigorously analyzed and coded based on the

study’s themes of career and leadership development. Given that narrative focuses on individual

interpretation of events, the researcher took all possible steps to ensure that the personal accounts

were accurately relayed, collected, and analyzed.

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Chapter Four

Results

This chapter presents the demographics of the study sample, document analysis of the

participants’ curricula vitae and content analysis of the interview data. Through the examination

of education, professional activities, and community involvement, the document analysis

provided important insights into the participants’ career progression toward a public library

directorship. The content analysis of the interviews revealed how the participants’ experiences

contributed to their professional and leadership development.

Demographic Profile of the Study Sample

The study sample included 12 participants, seven women and five men (Figure 1). Two

participants were Black or African American, two were Hispanic or Latino, and eight were

White (Figure 2). The participants’ residences represented the four U.S. Census Bureau

geographic regions: Northeast, Midwest, South, and West. Table 1 further identifies the study

participants by the regions and divisions developed by the Census Bureau (2000). The Census

Bureau distinguishes between urban and rural areas by defining an urban area as a densely

populated area that includes “residential, commercial, and non-residential urban land uses” (p.

1). According to the Census Bureau (2010), an urbanized area must have a minimum population

of 50,000. By this criterion, the 12 library directors in the study represented libraries located in

urbanized areas. In addition, all 12 directors oversee libraries that are members of ULC, a

membership organization that represents public libraries which serve a population of at least

30,000.

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Figure 1. Participants by gender.

Figure 2. Participants by ethnicity.

Black/African American Hispanic/Latino Caucasian0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Male5

42%Female

758%

55

Table 1 Number of participants by census region and division

Region number Region name Division Participants Region 1 Northeast Middle Atlantic 1 Region 2 Midwest East North Central 1 Region 3 South South Atlantic 3 Region 3 South West South Central 1 Region 4 West Mountain 1 Region 4 West Pacific 5

Document Analysis of Curricula Vitae

All 12 participants provided the most recent copy of their curriculum vitae. Document

analysis of these vitae identified fundamental facts about each participant, such as education

(number of advanced degrees awarded), career progression (continuing education; number of

leadership institutes attended; number of years to achieve first directorship; number of

directorships held), involvement with professional and community organizations (committee

membership and appointed or elected offices), as well as honors and awards (recognition for

service to the library profession). This information described aspects of the participants’ career

patterns that may have contributed to their leadership development.

Number of advanced degrees. For the purpose of this study, this included the total

number of master’s and doctoral degrees awarded to each participant. A graduate degree in LIS

from a program accredited by ALA is the graduate degree required for consideration as a

professional librarian1. All 12 participants hold the equivalent of an MLS; four participants

1 A graduate degree in library science (called here an MLS) can have a variety of titles. For example, some

graduate schools award a master of science in library and information science, others award a master’s in library science, and some have deleted the term library entirely and confer a master’s degree in information science, information studies, or even just in information.

56

completed a second degree: a master’s in business administration, a master’s in public

administration, a master of arts in economics, and a Ph.D. in library and information studies.

Leadership institutes and formal leadership training. This category includes

participation in a leadership institute, e.g., a formal learning experience sponsored by an

educational institution or a professional organization and devoted to advancing leadership

practice, or completion of a short-term training program focused on developing specific

leadership skills. Eight of the 12 participants noted their participation in a formal leadership

institute or training program. Of these eight, six participants attended national leadership

programs sponsored by prominent organizations such as the Center for Creative Leadership, the

ULC Executive Leadership Institute, and the Harvard Kennedy School for Senior Executives in

State and Local Government. One of the six participants attended the ULC program, the

Harvard Kennedy School program, and the Snowbird Leadership Institute for librarians, a

program that is no longer operational. Of the remaining five, two attended the ULC program;

two attended the Harvard Kennedy School program; and one attended the program sponsored by

the Center for Creative Leadership. The other leadership training programs cited by the

participants included local and state-wide training programs.

Table 2

Participation in leadership institutes

Leadership Institute Number of Participants

Center for Creative Leadership 1 Harvard Kennedy School 3 Snowbird Institute 1 ULC Executive Leadership Institute 3 Local or state leadership institute 5

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Time to first directorship. This is calculated as the number of years between the

participants’ completion of a graduate degree in LIS and their appointment as a library director.

This ranged from less than one year to 21 years (Table 3). While four (33%) of the participants

obtained a directorship within one year of completing the MLS, seven (58%) did not obtain an

appointment until 11 or more years after the completion of their graduate studies.

Table 3

Years to achieving first public library directorship

Years to achieving first public library directorship

Number of participants

1 year or less 4 5 1 11 1 17 2 19 1 20 2 21 1

Number of directorships. This refers to the total number of positions held by the

participants with the title of director of a public library, i.e., the most senior leader in a public

library. This position may have a number of official titles other than director, such as executive

director, city librarian, or chief executive officer. The total number of directorships held by the

participants ranged from one to six. Three had held just one directorship; five held two

directorships; two held three; one held five; and another, six directorships.

Involvement with professional associations. This category considered active

involvement in state and national professional associations that are devoted to the advancement

of professional librarianship. For the purpose of this study, active involvement included serving

58

as a member of a working committee or as an association officer. Representative national

organizations include ALA, PLA, and ULC. State organizations include entities such as the

California Library Association.

National library associations. The participants demonstrated strong involvement with

national organizations related to librarianship, with 11 of the 12 participants citing membership

and participation. The participants indicated high levels of involvement through both committee

membership and elected offices (Table 4). Three participants served terms as a Councilor-at-

Large for the ALA Council, the association’s elected governing body. Four served as the

president of PLA, while eight served on the PLA Executive Board. Six participants also served

on ULC’s Executive Board.

Table 4

Level of participation with national library organizations throughout career

Position Participant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Total

ALA Committee Chair x x 2 ALA Committee Member x x x x x x x 7 ALA Councilor-at-Large x x x 3 PLA Committee Chair x x x x x 5 PLA Committee Member x x x x x x 6 PLA Executive Board x x x x x x x x 8 PLA President x x x x 4 ULC Executive Board x x x x x x 6 Total 4 0 6 4 3 1 5 6 3 3 2 4

State library associations. Nine participants were actively involved with state library

associations, which generally focus on regional issues related to professional librarianship, such

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as advocacy, funding, and legislative concerns. These associations also work to improve library

services through professional development and educational activities for library staff. For the

participants in the study, participation at the state level included working on committees,

chairing committees, and serving on the executive board. Of the nine participants who indicated

involvement with state library associations, five had held a presidential post in the association.

Board affiliations. This category includes serving on a board of directors, board of

advisors, or executive board of a community based organization, non-profit organization, or

cultural institution. The participants exhibited a high level of involvement with various types of

boards and community organizations. As might be expected, some directors included both

present and past board involvement on their curricula vitae, while others included only current

board affiliations. Nine of the 12 participants cited at least one current board affiliation on their

vita. The organizations and boards with which the participants were affiliated varied greatly,

although most involved the arts and humanities, business, and community service. Among the

nine participants who noted current service on a board, memberships range from one board

affiliation to as many as five. Two of the participants also serve on advisory boards for graduate

programs in LIS.

Honors and awards. This refers to an honor or award given to a participant in

recognition of outstanding service to the library profession. The study sample represents a group

of leaders who received honors for their professional achievements and contributions. The 12

participants listed a total of 20 honors or awards in their vitae. Ten of the 12 participants

received at least one notable honor, such as “Librarian of the Year” at either a local, state, or a

national level. Others received either state or national awards for their innovations in

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librarianship, dedication to professional concerns, such as intellectual freedom, and community

service.

Content Analysis of Interviews

Content analysis was conducted on each interview transcript and the restoried critical

incidents. From this analysis, themes emerged in three broad areas: career progression,

engagement with professional organizations, and continuing education. Within each theme,

specific topical subsets were identified and the responses were coded accordingly. Then, critical

incidents that occurred at three distinct career stages—middle management, senior management,

and directorship—were explored. The critical incident narratives were also analyzed for themes

and patterns relating to leadership development, especially as it occurred throughout the

participants’ careers.

Career Progression. Of the twelve directors, four became public library directors

immediately after finishing their MLS degrees and, thereafter, three of those individuals never

held other positions such as branch manager or assistant director. The remaining eight directors

experienced a linear career progression that included moving upward through a variety of

management positions. To help elucidate the participants’ career paths, the directors were asked

to describe their career progression or their advancement through the organizational hierarchy of

public libraries. More specifically, the directors responded to questions about when and why

they moved into senior management positions. From this series of questions, several consistent

themes emerged (Figure 3).

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Figure 3. Career progression.

Limited options. More than half of the sample did not obtain a directorship until eleven

or more years after completion of their graduate studies. Nine of the participants indicated that

limited options for a library leadership position played a role in their career progression and

described limitations that either kept them in a certain position or motivated them to investigate

advancement opportunities at other libraries. For three of these nine, there were limited career

options available because the economy was weak. For example, one participant responded,

“When I got out of library school, it was the mid- to late-70s and there were no jobs. I mean, it

was very much like it was a couple of years ago. And so I applied and applied and applied.”

Two participants noted that there were few options for upward mobility within a specific

library system, and that this limitation forced them to accept positions in different organizations.

One noted, “They had an assistant director position on the books that they had chosen not to fill,

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probably due to budget challenges. And I had no other routes for upward mobility if I chose to

stay there.” Three cited geographic limitations that forced them to apply for positions that kept

them within a certain region or would take them to a desired geographic region. For example,

one participant responded:

I think there are always the choices that need to be made about your family, your

career. There’s some level of sacrifice, leaving your geographic comfort zone. I

always felt like I would be willing to move and travel within a certain geographic

space, the Southwest, West and Southwest. So I did that.

Several female participants noted that opportunities were limited because of their gender.

Four of the seven female participants mentioned that they felt limited by their gender early in

their careers when they were starting families and had children. One noted, “My guess would be

that men especially have a much more straightforward progression.” One African American

female director stated that, early in her career, she believed her prospects were constrained

because of her race and gender. Her opinion changed when she reported to a new supervisor

who was an African American woman in a senior management position. She described her

changing mindset:

I became aware that there were opportunities beyond being a branch librarian that

could be afforded by African American women. By looking at, by having in front of

me a new supervisor that was African American and in senior management. … I

said “Wow, you know, that can happen. Then maybe it can happen for me”.

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Timing and serendipity. Timing was an important factor with most participants, who

noted that a position became available at a point in their career when they were personally ready

for promotion or at a time that was suitable for their families. Ten participants noted that timing

played a role in deciding to pursue a senior management position. Participants also indicated

that serendipity, such as being at a conference with an unexpected recruitment effort, led them to

apply for a leadership position. Participants said that “luck” and “being in the right place at the

right time” helped them find a promotional opportunity. One remarked:

I mean, the sheer opportunity that presents itself. I wanted to move up when I was at

[XXXX]. I knew what up meant, I didn’t know where up was. If that person hadn’t

reached out to me to become their deputy director, I never would have looked at that

system.

Some participants said that they simply took advantage of opportunities as they became

available. These participants applied for new positions to explore promotional possibilities. For

example, after reflecting on the reasons for applying, one participant remarked, “So that was the

big leap for me saying, ‘You know what, I’m going to throw my hat in the ring and see what

happens.’ Well lo and behold, I got the position.” Another participant noted, “When the

position became available, it was such a good fit that I just went for it. And it was. You know, I

guess I was the top candidate, because it just fit like a glove.”

Three participants noted that they never aspired or planned to be library directors. One

participant described how timing and opportunities affected the decision to pursue a promotion:

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I guess you should know too that I never really wanted to be a library director. That

was nothing I aspired to. I never aspired to be anything other than a teen librarian.

That’s what I wanted to do. And I never really got to do that, which is odd. I don’t

know, I think I was in the right place at the right time a lot. I had a lot of people who

saw something in me and gave me opportunities that I probably didn’t deserve.

Another participant emphasized that individuals encouraged her to seek positions or take

advantage of opportunities for influence and leadership:

I never set out to be a library director ever, ever, ever, ever. That was never a

conscious goal of mine. I’ve been fortunate to work in an organization that has really

exposed me to the situations and the issues that motivated me to want to be in a

leadership role. And then I also had a lot of support over the years from various

people whose paths I crossed. And so, … I feel sort of opportunistic. Positions

opened up and I happened to be there at the right time and the right place. But I also

definitely, more than an actual role, I always wanted to be part of the larger

conversations.

Self-efficacy and encouragement from others. Nine participants responded that they

applied for a senior management position because they had confidence in their abilities to

perform at a higher level and believed that they could achieve success as a senior manager or

library director. As one stated, “I was recruited by the director, and so I was head of main library

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and then assistant director and then, when he left, I said ‘Oh I can do that and I can do it better.’”

Furthermore, nine participants noted that other individuals—peers, colleagues, and managers—

believed in their talents and actively encouraged their career progression. This support was

influential in their decisions to apply for promotions. One participant described a former

supervisor who urged her to apply for her first directorship:

And she came to me and said, “You know, you should really try for this. You can do

this. I know you can do this. I’ve watched you here. But you should try this,

because you need to stretch. You need to move up and you need to stretch.”

Growth from failure. Despite receiving encouragement from others, some participants

were unsuccessful when applying for promotions; supervisors at two libraries told participants

directly that their promotion within the organization was unlikely. At some point in their

careers, six of the participants failed to obtain a senior management position for which they had

applied. None of these participants indicated that the experience negatively affected their careers

and some suggested that the disappointment ultimately resulted in growth. All of these

participants reported that they eventually found a position that aligned with their career goals. In

some cases, the disappointment encouraged the participants to develop the skills needed for

eventual promotion or to accept a position in another organization that would further their career.

One individual noted:

I left children’s services after that. Not with any ill will. I just could see that I wasn’t

in a strong position to negotiate from. I thought "I need to get out there and figure out

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how to run a staff, how to manage a budget, and those kind of things, if I’m going to

go anywhere”.

One participant who was discouraged from applying for a particular directorship was

deeply concerned that she would not be considered despite the fact that she had worked in the

library system for many years. She reflected, “I had lots of leadership experience and they did

not interview me for the job. And I guess at the time I was insulted…I didn’t think there was

anywhere else for me to go.” After that experience, she left the organization when she was

recruited for a directorship in a different public library.

Inexperience. The majority of participants were self-confident and reported that others

had reinforced their confidence in their abilities. Yet, six respondents noted that they were very

inexperienced when they applied for or received an appointment to a senior management

position. One participant said, “In my efforts to find jobs, I would probably say I was a little

naïve in some instances and probably applied for jobs—for senior management type jobs—

before I was ready.” One participant noted that hiring managers were willing to take a risk on an

individual with little leadership experience. He responded:

I was twenty-four and willing to work ninety hours a week, you know, in this library

that did not have a salary that was strong enough to attract the kind of experienced

person that they needed to have, and having a gutsy, visionary chair of the board of

library trustees who was willing to take a chance on the rookie coming out of library

school.

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The participants did not believe that their inexperience caused any particular on-the-job

challenges. Upon reflection, they believed that the inexperience forced them to develop new

skills. One inexperienced director noted that “pretty much I learned at the university of trial and

error. You know, and I was lucky I had pretty good instincts or I didn’t step in too many

minefields along the way.” Another replied that “I think from early on I just fell into positions

where I was given a lot of responsibilities probably over my head. But that was fine and that’s

how you learned how to do things.”

Family influence. In response to questions about other factors that influenced their career

progression, eleven participants noted issues related to family life. Family members and

especially parents instilled important values and served as role models for the directors. Six of

the 12 participants cited family members as those who instilled values in them that affected their

career goals and work style. For example, one participant stated that her family’s determination

affected her proclivity for leadership:

I saw in my own family people take responsibility for their own selves and lead rather

than being led. And I think that there was always, even though it took me years to

really understand, that layer and see that it had impacted me. I do credit that.

On a more practical level, four participants identified the issue of work-life balance as a factor in

their decisions to apply for some positions or to remain in a specific job. As one participant said:

Your whole life can’t center around your work. There has to be more to it. Family

certainly. I always thought that was the most important thing. And so it meant a

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couple of things—I think it affected more the way I worked and more the way I

developed as a director.

Five participants, three men and two women, noted that family obligations limited their career

progression. The participants viewed family as a priority and they were unwilling to consider

any leadership positions that may have disrupted their families, particularly their children, whose

education would be interrupted by changing schools. One responded:

I felt that family and my home life and my life outside of work was much more

important than my life inside of work. So, you know, when I decided to try to move

on I limited myself to certain places that I wasn’t going to go to. Either because of

raising a kid, or options for my wife at the time.

On the other hand, six participants reported that family members supported their career

choices and did not discourage them from pursuing positions that may have taken them away

from a certain location. These six participants said that parents and spouses encouraged their

career advancement and supported their career choices, and that this made it easier to pursue

promotions. For example, one individual noted:

I had a very supportive family that understood my desire to move out of the city

where my siblings were. … After we met and married, my wife was very supportive

of following my career. So yeah I think so. And also the cultural, ethnic perspective.

You know, our families are very tight, very family-oriented. So that added the

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dimension of leaving a certain network, a family network. And so you make choices

and tradeoffs in your career. So there’s no doubt that once you pursued your career,

you knew that the family obligations, some of those things, would be secondary,

unfortunately.

Three of the twelve participants noted practical family issues that influenced their career

advancement. For example, two participants experienced marital problems that affected their

desire to pursue senior management positions with higher salaries. One participant commented:

When things got rocky and we eventually divorced, then it became really clear to me

that … not only was I capable of directorships, I had to do that because if anybody

was going to take care of me, it had to be me. And I needed that steady income, and I

needed a higher level of income.

Another participant remarked that, as the primary wage earner for her family, she needed to

ensure that her family was financially stable, and this reality prompted her desire to move into a

senior management position.

Engagement with professional organizations. The participants responded to questions

about their engagement with professional organizations and how this involvement affected their

career progression and leadership development. Figure 4 highlights the themes that emerged

from the questions about the participants’ engagement with professional organizations.

Participants noted that engagement with professional organizations was helpful with their

career progression and eight participants believed that their engagement prepared them to serve

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as library directors. In addition, participants found opportunities for leadership development

through serving on committees or serving as an elected officer of an organization. The

participants cited the positive benefits of developing relationships and creating networks of

associations that they established through involvement with professional organizations.

Figure 4. Engagement with professional organizations.

Importance to career advancement. Eleven participants noted that professional

organizations had a positive effect on their career progression. When questioned about how this

involvement affected their careers, the participants cited three direct effects: skill building,

networking, and name recognition. By serving on committees, the participants said that they

worked on special projects that helped them develop a specific set of leadership competencies,

such as project management, decision-making, and communication skills. Committee work also

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provided an opportunity for the participants to interact with individuals who worked in different

organizations and who had diverse experiences, leadership styles, and opinions. As one director

noted, the committee work helped him enhance his communication and decision-making skills,

and his ability to interact with varied personality types. When asked if his involvement with

professional organizations affected his career, he responded:

Oh I think so. You know, again part of it is getting outside your comfort zone, you

know, and working on committees or on different projects with different people with

different perspectives. … You learn a lot about getting your own opinions expressed,

listening to others, and, you know, figuring out what is the right thing to do or the

best thing to do under those circumstances. And I think those experiences are, if

you’ve chosen well, … mind-expanding in terms of how you think about things. You

know, also you meet some really interesting and wonderful people that often can add

to your network of folks.

Four participants cited building networks as one way that professional organizations had

a positive effect on their career progression. Three participants further noted that learning from

others had positive effects. Professional networks provided a sounding board for decision-

making and also kept participants abreast of new developments in the library profession. In

some instances, networks and the relationships formed through those networks identified

opportunities for advancement to positions with greater responsibility. One participant said:

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I would say they affected my career progression because there were people that I

would talk to not necessarily as mentors, who knew of job openings that I would

never have heard of just based on my position in my current organization. I was

exposed to other people from other organizations who then recognized me and could

say, you know, you might be a good fit for this job. So I definitely benefitted from

the personal contacts and networking of the professional organizations.

The directors also noted that professional organizations provided exposure that increased

their name recognition as leaders. This recognition enhanced the participants’ professional

profiles, which helped them obtain leadership positions with more responsibility. One

responded:

When I became a deputy director, then I started actively getting involved in the state

association and started in committee work. And within two years or so, I was asked

to run for the state association presidency and I got that. And that really raised my

profile statewide. And I think that certainly helped with my career because the next

job that I landed I was actually recruited because people knew of me by name

recognition or what have you. So it gave me a lot of visibility.

Although 11 of the participants said that their involvement in professional organizations had

positive effects on their career advancement, several participants qualified their responses. One

said:

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I think so. Maybe. Because I think I probably would have done most of the things I

have done the same, but I think that it brought a level of excellence to what I was able

to do. So it’s like, you know, you can be a range from a D to a B student or you can

be an A student. And I think this took me from the midrange of professionalism to a

much higher level of professionalism.

Several participants said that their involvement in professional organizations increased

after becoming a senior manager or director. Thus, having the title of library director brought the

participants not only professional recognition, but also invitations to become more involved with

committees and various professional initiatives. For example, one participant said:

Well, you know, in some respects, only because I was exposed to people. And, I

think, exposed to ideas. So that when the time came, I think it helped me more in

terms of not necessarily progression, but development. But when I became assistant

director here, … I ended up being much more visible. A lot of it had to do with … in

those early years we had so much money when I came here. … Part of [my]

responsibility was in charge of collection development in the main library. We had a

lot of money to buy stuff. There was a lot of exposure with vendors and you get

invited to things more, and then you begin to see people. That certainly was really

helpful. And then when I became director, even more so. … You know, whether you

like it or not, you become a director and all of a sudden people think you know

something. And want you to run for this board or that board. And I think at that

point, when I became director, was more of an exposure. And I don’t think it

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necessarily helped me in terms of progression directly. But because … I’ve been

here, what, sixteen years now? It helped me more, you know, just in terms of

professional development.

Preparation for directorship. Eight of the twelve directors responded that professional

organizations prepared them for a directorship position. The directors said that involvement with

the organizations broadened their perspectives, exposed them to issues within librarianship,

instilled confidence, provided increased responsibility, helped them develop new skills,

strengthened their networks, and offered an opportunity to learn from others. For example, one

replied:

Anyway, those experiences broaden your confidence. They broaden your experience

and just the realm of information that you have. So I think they’re very helpful

toward having you step up and be a leader. One of the things that I always take away

from ALA involvement is that it’s a great running exercise in time management. Not

just while you’re here, but all over. It’s a great exercise in time management and it’s

the ability to pull together a very diverse group of people and make something

happen. So yeah, I think it helps with being a director. Not to be discounted as well

is your ability to speak in front of a group of people you don’t know, to persuade a

group of people that you don’t know, to learn the politics of various situations, to be

able to analyze a room quickly. All those kinds of things are pretty important for

directors.

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Four participants were less positive about the association between involvement with

professional organizations and preparation for a library directorship. One participant responded

definitively that professional organizations did not prepare him for the leadership position he

held. Three others said that their involvement resulted in beneficial experiences, but they did not

believe that involvement specifically prepared them to become library directors. One replied:

Partially. I think what it did was it gave me a network to draw on. And so I don’t

know that it prepared me to be a director as much as it prepared me to be a good

problem solver and have a base to draw from. So yes, in that respect yes.

Another said:

I don’t know that I would say the professional organizations did anything specifically

for me. That being said, however, my placement on different professional

organizations gave me name recognition and responsibility. … I would say no to the

second question as well in terms of a direct development. Personal development,

where I just had a chance to observe other directors and call on them and say how

would you handle this, definitely. But again that’s the networking benefit of the

professional organization.

Professional relationships and the value of networks. The primary advantages of

belonging to professional organizations were believed to be relationships and networks.

Participants noted that engagement with professional organizations resulted in professional

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relationships that were ultimately beneficial to obtaining a directorship, and which contributed to

their growth and development as a library director. When asked whether involvement with

professional organizations contributed to her career progression, one participant responded:

Indeed. Because you are exposed to a variety of people in the profession, a variety of

leaders outside of your home library. You get to see library leaders on a national

scale. And there are people who you naturally resonate with or admire during your

opportunities to sit on committees or boards. And you see leaders in action that you

admire and you learn from them, or you engage them to be mentors. And you can

only do that through wide participation in professional organizations. And even those

organizations that are not necessarily library organizations.

Four participants believed that involvement created a network that prepared them to be a

library director. Networks provided assistance and encouragement, while individuals within the

network served as mentors and role models. One participant said:

I think it helped me in terms of development of a peer network, of folks that mentored

me, coached me a little bit. It did definitely help in terms of the job and the network

and the mentors. And you know what else was great, was to look at different leader

types in the association, and really they modeled a lot of skills and behaviors that I

wanted to emulate.

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In addition to providing support, three participants noted that learning from others within

professional organizations prepared them to be library directors. One participant replied:

To a certain degree it did. ... What it has done more so is once I became a director, it

has exposed me to sort of the higher-level, national-level conversation. I’ve had the

opportunity to develop networks with peers around the country that I didn’t have

before. I definitely had lots of opportunity to learn from others. That sort of thing.

And that was more a function of my participation as a director and the ascendance to

director, if you will.

Professional organizations and leadership development. While professional

organizations played a role in career progression and preparation for directorship, the

participants were less confident about the association between belonging to professional

organizations and their personal leadership development. Two organizations were highlighted in

the participants’ comments on leadership development: PLA and ULC. Five participants noted

that PLA contributed to their leadership development and five cited ULC. One participant

thought that ALA contributed to her leadership development, while one participant specifically

noted challenges with ALA that restricted her involvement:

I’ve always been a member of ALA and I try to get involved. But it’s just so hard to

navigate. And you really have to know somebody. And so early on in your career,

when you’ve got the energy and desire to get involved, it’s hard to get involved.

Because you really have to know somebody to be appointed to anything.

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The participants identified other organizations such as state library associations (two

participants), the International Federation of Library Associations (one participant), and

REFORMA: The National Association to Promote Libraries and Information Services to Latinos

and the Spanish Speaking (one participant). Five participants said that serving on boards of

community organizations, non-profits, and other organizations contributed to their development

as a leader. As one participant said:

You know really my biggest education is actually coming from the fact that I’m on a

lot of boards now. And that—learning about different organizations and learning

about different leadership styles and learning about how different boards operate and

how different organizations are run—that’s been my leadership development.

The participants emphasized the importance of learning from others. As one director

noted, “I’m on the PLA board—and it gives me an opportunity to really be with people that are

very mindful, thoughtful people. And look at the profession and help guide some things as

opportunities.” However, board service also provided an opportunity to interact with leaders

outside of the library profession.

Now I’m also involved with quite a few national boards. At the local level I think as

my career progressed, I definitely was involved in nonprofit work and volunteer

opportunities that gave back to the community but also I was exposed to other leader

types outside my profession. You know I was just blown away by boards that had,

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for example, a former administrator from the Clinton administration. Now we see

some people that were elected officials. And so exposure to that was very helpful in

my career. I wasn’t intimidated. So it just gave me access to a different arena, and so

did the professional development. Having access to and exposure to a breadth and

diverse landscape of leaders and movers and shakers; that was helpful in my own

career, absolutely.

Continuing education. The participants commented on the ways in which continuing

education affected their careers and leadership development. Ten participants noted their

participation in some form of continuing education, including attending workshops and classes;

formal degree programs beyond graduate work in LIS; and formal leadership development

institutes. Two participants began, but did not complete, graduate programs beyond the MLS.

Figure 5 depicts the main themes that emerged from the participants’ comments about continuing

education.

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Figure 5. Continuing education.

Formal learning programs. Seven participants believed that continuing education had a

positive effect on their career progression. Five of the seven said that continuing education

assisted in building their skills. Three reported that one benefit was learning from others, and

three noted that continuing education contributed to their overall leadership development. For

example, one director reported that continuing education exposed her to other individuals and

expanded her perception of her personal potential:

I was in the director role, but what … the continuing education did for me is to let me

see my own capacity on larger scales. So I was running a tiny little library in a town

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of 40,000 people. And then through continuing education and being around different

people, you begin to think that maybe your horizon is a little higher.

One participant, who completed a second graduate degree in economics, noted that she continues

to use the knowledge she obtained from this additional education:

And that was my big training ground when it came to strategic planning and … high-

end analysis about what it’s going to take for your organization to move to the next

place. And so that was a fabulous degree. It was a fabulous program. It helped me

in the work I was doing at the time. And it’s work I take with me to this day.

Similarly, another director noted that his graduate work beyond the MLS assisted in developing

skills that contributed to his career progression:

And so during that five-year stint, I actually pursued a second graduate degree in

public administration. And that was, from my standpoint, a very key factor in my

career development. … To this day I understand, … to a great extent, how other

departments work and how policy is driven. You know, policy analysis and some of

the other skills that really were added to my skill portfolio and so it’s great.

Two participants questioned the benefits of formal learning programs to their careers and

personal development. One responded that he believed his personal style was not necessarily

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receptive to continuing education. Further, he found the cost of courses or programs difficult to

justify:

I’m concerned that I will still be me and not gain or glean anything or will be too

dense to understand the benefit that they are trying to give, or too stubborn to

understand the benefit that they are trying to give me. So that concerns me. There is

no reason to spend that kind of money and not gain something from it. But I know

my style. And I quickly dismiss things that I don’t think are moving the way that I

think they should. I’m highly critical.

Learning in leadership institutes. Eight participants completed at least one formal

leadership development program, either at a local or national learning institute. Of those eight,

six noted that participation in the leadership development program helped to prepare them for a

directorship position. Other positive aspects included building a network, learning from others,

and instilling confidence. For example, one replied:

I have attended the Center for Creative Leadership, and I think that that was an

important piece of taking my career to the next level, that kind of go big or go home

kind of philosophy that I gained through that. Certainly it gave me a lot more

confidence.

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For one participant, participation in a state-sponsored leadership institute provided

exposure to professionals from other disciplines. This experience contributed to her professional

network and enabled her to work on advocacy issues related to libraries.

Anyway, I was selected for that group and that was a real leadership stretch because I

was suddenly with bankers and legislators and college presidents and doctors and

newspaper publishers. And I was the first librarian to be accepted. And I thought

“Well this is pretty slick. This is a chance for me to really advocate”. So I saw it as a

wonderful platform. I thought “If I can get all these people to think about the library

as a place for discourse and a place for access, wouldn’t that be sweet?” Plus, it also

allowed me to have an incredible network for any kind of legislative advocacy that

came down the pike, because I’ve always been interested in legislation and how all

that fits together. So it was a great opportunity. I just grew so much as a result of

that program.

Participants cited learning from others and developing networks as positive aspects of

participation in leadership institutes. For example, one participant noted that she continues to

benefit from the skills she learned in an executive leadership institute and the connections that

she made:

I was also part of the Urban Libraries Council Executive Leadership Institute. And

that was awesome. That was really great in giving me time to really think about who

I was as a leader and how I would apply my talents and skill sets to different

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challenges. I still rely on a lot of that learning and the networks of people that, you

know, that I met through that process.

Another participant in the same program echoed this sentiment:

That was a great program. It was a huge investment on the part of the organization in

me, which I really appreciated and took very seriously. And then the program itself

was really effective, and honestly one of the biggest assets for me of that program

was the opportunity to learn from others in the program and to develop some really

great connections and the network of colleagues that I still maintain today. So that’s

been really great. You know, it challenged me.

Another participant found that the Harvard Leadership Institute for State and Local

Executives assisted him with developing political acumen and understanding leaders of other

municipal departments:

Oh, enormously. … It was that free and open, unencumbered dialogue that appointed

officials were able to have with elected officials and library directors were able to

have with fire chiefs and state foresters and state senators. … As one of the faculty

members there said, you know, go to the balcony and be able to see the landscape. …

I’m going to be a better city librarian if I really understand and can appreciate the

motivations and the reasons why a city council member or a mayor makes the

decisions they do. And it helps you really realize—and I think library directors need

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this— … no one wakes up in the morning saying “I’m going to vote against libraries”

or “I don’t like libraries” or “I’m not a fan of libraries.” And how we approach those

conversations with people that may seem to be against us or not in favor of our

budget that we’re putting forward or whatever—helping to understand their

motivations in a real transparent way is so helpful. And so that experience helps with

those dialogues and building those relationships.

However, there was one study participant who questioned the value of such an institute. He

noted:

Three months after the first quarterly meeting—it was a year long program with

meetings each quarter—my director said “This was a mistake. We should not be

here, and you should truly not be at this table. … You already know everything

there.”

Informal learning with influential individuals. The participants acknowledged

that they had learned a great deal from two types of influential individuals: mentors and role

models.

Mentors. Informal learning via a mentor was an important theme throughout the

interviews. Nine participants referenced at least one mentor who was important to their career

and leadership development. For eight of those participants, mentors were especially important

in the early stages of their careers. Seven believed that mentors were important for support,

while five participants noted that mentors taught them new skills. Several participants cited their

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own inexperience and the ways in which mentors assisted with their professional development.

One participant described a mentor from his first senior management position:

I was very fortunate because my director knew that I was young and green and had

potential and gave me opportunities to grow. I was frankly not ready for that leap,

but she had faith that I would do well, and she tutored, mentored, coached me on that

deputy level. I was there for five years at that level, and it was very significant in my

career.

Additional ways that mentors assisted the participants included encouraging career

advancement, instilling confidence, and fostering values. One participant highlighted his

experience as an undergraduate student working at his university library. He described how his

mentor gave him assignments that nurtured his confidence and inspired him to pursue a career in

librarianship:

And she always gave me tasks to do that were … more advanced …, she was not

afraid to challenge me and to sort of feed my hunger and curiosity for that work. And

knowing that I was interested in being a librarian and going to graduate school, she

would give me really challenging tasks that really were things that she would do or

that the staff in the office would reserve for her. And that was a great experience, and

just the confidence that she showed in me by giving me those things and the

encouragement she provided for me to go on to library school. And sort of the

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ownership she took of me and my career and my moving forward really had an

impact.

Another participant spoke of a mentor who was important during her early career as a

librarian. Again, the mentor provided encouragement and bolstered the individual’s confidence:

I think, frankly, really early in my career when I was still a youth librarian, she was

one of those people who just kind of kept… it wasn’t really overt, but she

demonstrated a confidence in me and my potential that had a huge impact on my

willingness to move forward in my career. And to this day I am reminded of how

important that is … if there’s someone you think has a lot of potential, to encourage

them. It’s so meaningful for someone to say to you, “I think you do this really well. I

think you can do this thing.” [That] can have a profound impact on the choices we

make. … And then I still, yeah to this day, I still get in touch with her. Less though

than I used to.

For one participant, mentors were particularly important early in his career and as a

senior manager. He described two mentors who affected his career aspirations and professional

development:

I had great mentorship. Mentorship in my library school career—one of the

professors was like a father figure, a coach. He was quite successful in his career and

I really wanted to be like him. So that was big. And then my first, my director when

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I was a senior manager, as deputy director, she was terrific. So I learned a lot from a

woman director in how to lead and how to create teams. It also helped shape my core

values, between my mentor and my really excellent first director. Those were

seminal moments in my career path.

While having at least one mentor was cited by nine of the participants, three noted that

they did not have a formal mentoring relationship in their careers.

Role models. While mentoring was not a factor for all participants, role models were

universally referred to by the participants as valuable assets in their career progression and

leadership development. All 12 participants identified a role model within librarianship who had

inspired them and served as a positive example. Typically, these role models were library

directors or professional colleagues whom the participants admired or aspired to emulate. One

noted, “There’s going to be two or three people that you really want to be like, that you want to

learn their skills in terms of how they articulate a vision or how they perform under duress, how

they handle success and failure.” The participants met these individuals through involvement

with professional organizations. For example, one participant recalled a former director of a

library association who was a role model because of her knowledge, behavior, and skills:

She already understood that libraries were community centers and contributed so

highly … She could articulate things then that people were just starting to

understand. And I just liked that she was so, I mean, she was so calm all the time.

But she’s passionate. But just her demeanor was great, the way she interacted with

people, the questions that she asked. She was such a good listener, and I really

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admire that because that’s a skill set I have to constantly cultivate and I have to be

aware of it.

For most participants, role models were influential because they possessed traits and

behaved in ways that the participants wanted to mirror. As one participant noted:

But the role models in and outside of the profession were those that really I admired

as leaders. And they more often were service leaders, and my leadership style is

certainly one of a servant leader. And so I was attracted to people who were smart.

They were smart, had a vision, and they had influence over their teams. But they …

felt that they existed to ensure that their teams had everything they needed to be

successful. And I found that an admirable quality [rather] than leaving people out

there just to find their way. That you had a leader who checked in on you and made

sure that you had the resources you needed. Didn’t hold your hand, but made sure

you had the resources you needed to be successful in what they needed you to do.

Although most participants considered individuals in a position of authority as role

models, one participant identified his staff as role models of passion and commitment to service.

He noted:

Well you know honestly some of the people I admire the most are the people that

have worked in the organizations I’ve directed and who are passionate about the

services that we provide and who sort of see public libraries as institutions that can

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have enormous impact on the communities they serve and you know that we really

are in the business of changing lives.

For three other participants, role models emerged from other professions. One participant

actively sought individuals to assist with navigating the politics and issues particular to a city or

community. He noted:

That being said, my role models tend to come from outside the profession. There are

people who, each time you move into a new job, you identify people in the city that

you need to look to, who either work in the same arena—meaning government—so

you can say, “Okay, how do you deal with this, what do you do”, that type of thing.

Learning from colleagues and peers. Learning from others was mentioned as a benefit

gained from professional organizations, continuing education, and formal leadership training.

Colleagues, peers, supervisors, and family members provided the participants with knowledge

throughout their careers. Six participants cited learning from observing the behavior of others as

influential to their development. For example, one participant recalled:

We had a director who hired me here. And we’d work on a building or something,

and if he saw a piece of litter on the floor, he’d pick it up and put it in the garbage.

And these kind of minor things about how do you relate and how do you in some

ways dignify the work of people and dignify all the work that happens in a library.

…That we have to do everything and should be more than willing to do anything,

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whether it’s packing a box or you know picking up that piece of paper … I think it

has to do about setting examples of how you work, how you treat other people.

In other contrasting examples, the participants cited supervisors who were poor role

models. Six participants identified library directors who demonstrated negative behavior. One

participant said, “I think those things that I consider valuable as a director, those traits, were

things that probably grew out of my experience working under other directors, good and bad.

Probably more bad than good.” While describing a particular supervisor who left a negative

impression, one participant recalled, “But she was also a person who was, I think, the kind that

are really important to pay attention to, which is those folks from whom you learn how you don’t

want to be.” For one participant, an early experience with bad leadership motivated him to leave

the organization and to become a different type of leader.

I had very early on in my career a couple of director types—one particular director

type that for me modeled bad behavior or what I didn’t want to do. And I thought I

don’t want to be in this environment, I don’t want to work for someone like this. I

want to do it differently. So I saw the bad example of leadership. I also left the

organization because I just didn’t subscribe to that environment.

Executive coaches. Executive coaching is a professional service rendered by a trained

coach to a client. The coach guides the client in their efforts to improve their personal and

professional performance. A coach assists the client in finding solutions to problems and

strategizing ways to achieve the client’s goals for their development. According to two

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participants, executive coaching was important to their development. Coaches assisted the

participants in analyzing difficult situations and sharpening their perspectives. The participants

described coaching as helpful in elevating professional performance; both participants were

using coaching services at the time of their interviews. For example, one replied:

Another thing that I’ve done is I have an executive coach, and I think that that’s been

kind of the frosting on the cake when I got to where, okay, this is getting more and

more difficult and I think that I pulled all the rabbits out of the hat that I have, to

listen to somebody else and their breadth of knowledge and their tricks.

Learning from outside of libraries. Seven participants gained insights from industries

outside of the library profession. One said, “I love opportunities to learn and I love opportunities

to go outside the profession to learn things from craftspeople or thinkers in other fields too.” In

fact, these participants noted that they have gained knowledge from various organizations not

associated with libraries. When considering opportunities to learn, some participants turned

initially to other professions. One participant stated, “I am one who will learn from any other

industry before I will turn to the library profession to learn.” Several directors emphasized the

critical importance of actively looking outside of libraries for new experiences and knowledge.

For example, one participant characterized the library profession as insular and underscored the

need for those in the library field to gain exposure to other individuals and perspectives to

facilitate development. According to this participant:

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You know I say all the time as library folk we hang out with people just like us. And

it doesn’t result in growth and expansion and new ideas. And an easy way to do all of

that is to hang out with people who are different than you are. And not just different

in terms of their career choices, but different in terms of their politics, different in

terms of their values—all of those things ensure that we continue to grow and

develop, which is exactly I think what we’re supposed to do.

For eight participants, networking outside of libraries also emerged as a successful strategy that

advanced their careers. One participant explained:

And it’s not just networking in library land. It’s networking on a broader scale.

Because I don’t think library land has all the answers, and actually you’re getting

some very interesting experiences from the cultural organizations, from technology

businesses…you have to constantly be talking to people and you have to constantly

begin to test your thinking and test the theories that are here. Because I think that

there’s an awful lot we’re missing if you think you’ve got all the answers.

Evolution of leadership. The participants described experiences and critical incidents

that contributed to their leadership development at various stages of their careers. They

identified the point in their careers when they first felt like leaders. The participants shared their

definitions of leadership and whether those definitions changed over time. Figure 6 depicts the

main themes that emerged from the questions about the evolution of the participants’ leadership.

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Figure 6. Evolution of leadership.

Critical incidents at the middle management level. The critical incidents from the

participants’ middle management stages reflect early career experiences. For several

participants, the incidents revolved around mentors or role models who influenced their career

objectives and leadership values. For others, these early incidents involved leadership challenges

such as resolving interpersonal struggles, managing change initiatives, and learning from

mistakes. For several participants, the incidents were deeply personal situations that involved

marital discord and career setbacks that propelled them in another direction. Five participants

recalled incidents classified as turning point events, those events that changed the individual’s

perspective or resulted in new thinking. Two recalled originating events at this stage, which

were incidents associated with career aspirations. Two participants experienced anchoring

events, those events that reinforce an individual’s values or beliefs. One participant described an

analogous event, an experience that is used as a guide throughout a career. Two participants

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could not recall a specific incident or experience from middle management that affected their

leadership development.

Early mentors and role models. Three participants described incidents or experiences

that highlighted the importance of mentors and role models early in one’s career. These

individuals were exemplary and provided inspiration for a participant’s career path, served as

examples of strong leaders, and, in one instance, provided guidance that a participant continues

to follow. For one participant, meeting an African American woman in a senior management

position proved that she could also aspire to such a role. This was a turning point for her as she

realized that she, too, could move into a higher managerial position, and it also inspired her to

enroll in a Ph.D. program. For two participants, mentors and role models encouraged their

thinking about leadership styles and influenced career aspirations. In one case, merely observing

his library director pick up litter from the library’s grounds informed the participant’s notion that

leaders must set a good example for staff by doing even menial tasks. This anchoring incident

proved to the participant that leaders must be willing to do “the little, simple things that actually

mean a lot. My director would pitch in and do grunt work and taught me that nothing is beneath

me.” Another participant had a mentor who taught her an important lesson about managing her

emotions when responding to sensitive situations. The participant recognized that she tends to

respond too quickly and harshly when she is angry. She described an analogous incident that

served as a lesson that she recalls frequently and still uses as a guide in her daily work:

I was the head of the budgets for the branch libraries. And I had a wonderful boss.

And something was happening with the budget office or the human resources office

and we thought we were moving down a particular path. And so I had the presence of

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mind to write it out, I write this letter out. And it is scathing. But I knew not to send

it because I would’ve been representing the branch libraries. And so I bring it in to

[XXXX] and have [him] read it. “Are you ready to send this?” And he’s rocking in

his chair as he’s reading it…So he said, “All right here’s what I’m going to do. I’m

going to take this and I’m going to put it in my top drawer. And I’m going to give it

back to you on Monday and on Monday when you read it, you tell me whether you

want to continue to send it.” So he didn’t say no. He didn’t give me a hard time. He

knew I was reacting. And that to me was one of those great lessons. Just take a deep

breath. … Because he handed it back to me on Monday morning and I decided not to

send it.

Leadership struggles. For other participants, middle management brought leadership

challenges. For two participants, these challenges involved supervising staff and efforts to

initiate some type of change. One participant struggled with managing and leading staff as she

worked with her team on planning and implementing a special program. She described this

originating incident as helping her understand the importance of a collaborative leadership style:

So I have a couple of things that I might comment on. And some of the things …

could be perceived as failures. My first job as the branch manager, I experienced a

huge interpersonal struggle with staff. And I think I probably did a bad job of trying

to corral a group of people who pretty much had their own way of doing things and I

was trying to create efficiencies. And it completely took … a whole year of working

in an environment where I was clearly the odd man out as the so-called leader, right?

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And the thing that was the tipping point in that particular circumstance—the team, not

me, but the team wanted to do a literary festival. And I said “Okay let’s do it.” It

was a huge amount of work, but it turned into this brilliant event. And I think that the

team worked their tails off, including myself. And it turned into this wonderful event,

and at that moment in time I think that we really were working as a team and they

accepted me, because I had worked so hard and I had supported them. I guess this

goes back to Max De Pree and servant leadership, as I did everything I could to help

them succeed and to help them do their best work. So that would be one early

experience. I think that that was probably a beginning and it’s kind of interesting—at

that moment in time I didn’t say “Ah ha, now I’m going to change my management

style.” I didn’t do that. But I think that was the beginning of me actually

understanding working in what I call the work family or team, … there’s a book

called Tribal Leadership. And so I think that was the beginning, even though I didn’t

even know it, of working in a different way that’s a much more collaborative way.

Another participant inherited a difficult initiative that involved changing the

organization’s staffing model. After developing her position and pushing the initiative forward,

she was surprised to learn that some individuals were opposed to the effort and were actively

advocating against it. She changed her strategy and, during this process, she learned to become

less sensitive to criticism. When describing this anchoring incident, she remarked:

I couldn’t believe the depth of paranoia. I couldn’t believe that this person would

agitate so much to change the process. And it was a huge lesson for me in how to

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manage change in a way that doesn’t lead people to feeling that way. And it was

pretty painful. And I think for me it was the first in many opportunities to sort of

develop some thick skin and to recognize that I can’t control how people are going to

react to things. Do my best at trying to talk about the why behind it and moving it

forward in a respectful way, but at the end of the day people will concoct things out

of seemingly the blue about my motivations behind a decision or the process. And

that was pretty hard.

For two other participants, the leadership challenges involved working with a superior or

community members. In both turning point incidents, the participants learned from their

mistakes; one noted that he recognized the value of community input and the other commented

that he began to have more confidence in his opinions in the midst of politically charged

situations.

Personal struggles. For three participants, early management experiences were fraught

with individual trials. For two participants, disappointment in the workplace forced them to

leave their organizations. For example, one participant learned that she did not receive a

promotion and this turning point incident forced her to leave her organization. Meanwhile,

another learned that her library could not accommodate the schedule she needed for her growing

family. This originating incident taught her the importance of flexibility and working with

valued staff to ensure their loyalty and retention with the library. For another participant, a

tumultuous personal life affected her career path and leadership strength. While meeting with a

small, religious-based women’s social group, this participant revealed that her marriage was in

trouble and that she was suffering from depression. Despite the group’s disapproval at her

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outburst, the participant believed that such a cathartic moment fundamentally changed her as a

leader. She described the change from this turning point incident:

So when I was willing to let go of everything personally and none of it mattered, I

was then ready to develop leadership at a new level. Because that risk reward thing is

really important, and once I was willing, once it didn’t matter what anybody thought,

then I was ready to be who I was as a person and I was ready to be a different kind of

leader. So that to me was the first of maybe two or three of those experiences where

you embrace leadership principles, not by reading them in a book, but by really

experiencing that ability to just not care what other people think and step out and be

who you are and do what you do.

Critical incidents at the senior management level. Critical incidents at the senior

management level varied more than at the middle management level, with every type of incident

reported by the participants. For one participant, senior management brought an originating

event where his leadership was validated and encouraged, while another participant experienced

a contaminating event that was full of negativity. For two participants, senior management was a

redemptive time where negative experiences eventually led to positive outcomes. Yet, for four

participants, turning points occurred and they experienced moments that changed their

aspirations or opinions about leadership. Three others experienced anchoring moments that

solidified their leadership values, while one participant highlighted an analogous event that

serves as a constant lesson in her leadership practice.

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Personal triumphs. At the senior management level, four participants related experiences

that were personal triumphs. For these participants, being appointed to a new position confirmed

their leadership abilities. For one participant, his redemptive event occurred after leaving a

difficult directorship. He left that position feeling that he could have done a better job and that

changes had been extremely difficult to implement. After starting a new position, he learned that

the staff from the previous library had contacted his new team and revealed how they enjoyed

working on the change initiatives and how they had come to appreciate his leadership style. This

was encouraging and validating for the participant. For another participant, a position became

available at a time when her family had experienced a great loss. Despite her misgivings about

moving away from family, the participant’s family encouraged her to accept the promotion, and

this was a turning point. What followed was a time of learning and growth for her. For another

participant, her promotion was controversial because she had only recently obtained her graduate

degree. Nonetheless, the hiring agency supported her appointment and the experience prepared

her for future promotions. This was a redemptive incident, as the seemingly difficult experience

became a positive one. “It was a total endorsement—and they were a fabulous board,

fabulous—just wonderful human beings. It was an honor to work with them.” For another

participant, his election to the presidency of a professional organization, along with promotions,

endorsed his leadership ability and gave his career a push forward. He described the originating

incidents:

I think there were a couple of experiences that validated my leadership abilities. And

one of them was kind of a fluke: somebody asking me to run for president of an

organization. And nobody expected me to win, much less myself. And all of a

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sudden you win and you feel like, wow, you have some skills in terms of leading

organizations, et cetera. That gave me a lot of confidence. And then that also

coupled with some definite early promotions. So that gave me a lot of confidence. I

think there’s nothing better than getting a promotion or some validation of your

leadership skills that catapults your career. It gives you that momentum and that

energy.

Leadership lessons. Four participants related experiences that offered lessons in

leadership. One participant who made a disastrous presentation to the local Chamber of

Commerce was embarrassed and believed that she had disappointed her supervisor. This was a

moment where her leadership matured, and she vowed to be better prepared in the future. She

noted that she carries this lesson with her and makes certain to know how her staff is interacting

with the community, making this an analogous incident. Another participant’s turning point

centered on efforts to reinvigorate her library system. After working with a consultant, she

believed that she changed as a leader and had become both strategic and collaborative. As she

noted:

And I think that was my next step in the evolution of learning to do things in a very

strategic, cohesive manner. You know, defining an idea, defining a personality,

defining a vision, and then working together with a team to actually accomplish it.

One participant discovered several important principles after negotiating a formal

agreement with the library’s foundation. The process taught the participant to maintain balance

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between her work and personal life. She also learned that, in her role, she had more influence

than she originally believed. She described the anchoring incident:

And I felt like I was not walking into it with the degree of confidence I would like.

And so I just had to kind of fake it really well. And a lot of things came out of that.

One, I began to understand that I had more leverage and authority around that

relationship than I understood the library as having. So that was good because the

relationship has continued, and it’s continued in a really difficult manner. It taught

me a lot about negotiation, about my non-negotiables, and how to work those into

those conversations. It taught me a lot again about not taking things personally. This

is a business relationship and a business negotiation and trying to keep it as such.

And it was one step toward learning to let something go. So when I was done with

those long negotiations, really what I wanted to do was go home and fix three

martinis. But learning to separate that experience from what little time I got outside

of work for my own self was really important because it was such a stressful

experience.

For another participant, his time in senior management involved a difficult personnel issue.

Despite the challenges this employee presented, he adhered to his values about working with

people and giving them every possible opportunity to grow and improve performance. This was

an anchoring incident for him. He stated:

I’ve dealt with some really nasty, squirrely, tough personnel issues. In [XXXX] I had

one branch manager who was particularly problematic. She would not learn new

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technologies or support our strategic plan initiatives. I tried everything to work with

her. I sent her to training to increase her management skills. I tried counseling her,

but nothing worked. After a while, I had to go down a disciplinary path that was

really painful for me. Eventually, I had to terminate her, but I felt that I had tried

everything to make her part of the organization and advance her development. And

you know my sort of philosophy all along has been to give even the toughest

employees that you think have absolutely no possibility of being redeemed and

turning into good employees, … bend over backwards with every kind of resource

you can give, every benefit you can give them to be successful. So that when it’s

time to say goodbye or to say, you know, discipline or something like that, that you’re

able to really feel like you gave them every opportunity. And then it becomes much

easier to separate them from employment with the organization if you really have

been genuine, and really genuine in that effort.

Learning from difficult situations. Four participants described incidents that were

negative or difficult, but resulted in some form of learning. One participant recalled her time as

a deputy director and what was a completely negative, contaminating incident, “In that instance,

I learned everything about what not to do.” Another participant witnessed a situation in which

individuals had mistreated and maligned his director. He recalled that the situation encouraged

him to meet challenging times with a positive attitude and tenacity. He spoke of the turning

point:

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I witnessed in one of my institutions the response of a board and administration to a

directive that they did not care for. And I watched how they treated that director.

And I served as that person’s deputy. And I remember it just being so horrible. I

mean it was playing out in the papers. It was just really, really bad. And it was so

unfair to this person. And I said to this person I’m not sure how you get up and come

every day, because I don’t even feel like coming into this. But I will assure you that

if you come to work every day, I will come. And he said I will be here every day. So

I just remember that being a turning point to help me face the challenges that I have

every day.

For one participant, a negative incident reinforced his belief that a leader should support his staff,

even when they make mistakes. He described a situation in which someone chastised him for

making a decision about a library facility. Instead of supporting the participant, his director was

more concerned for his personal reputation. This experience solidified the participant’s

leadership values as an anchoring incident. He noted:

And you know I think the one thing I’d gotten before from directors was a sense of

loyalty. And I think at that point it really struck me that especially here and at that

point with the administration we had—the upper administration we had—that word

did not exist. … And it made me realize that probably the most important thing I

could do as a director, if I became director and I think I did as an assistant director, is

my responsibility more than anything is to—and I hate to use the word protect, but—

take the shot for the group, for the staff. That I have to be loyal to them and allow

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them to make mistakes. I have to be loyal to them to allow them to do things and my

job was really to cover them. And if there was a problem, I’ll deal with it later on the

side. But you know it’s much easier for me to take the blame for something if

somebody wants to blame me.

Finally, one participant gained new knowledge by observing a challenging director. After

attending a leadership training program, she reflected on the situation and realized that, despite

the leader’s shortcomings in certain areas, she could learn from his positive traits. She noted that

his vision and innovative capacity taught her that individuals with personality flaws can also be

strong leaders. She described her turning point revelation:

And I thought that night, you know, I need to go in with a different perspective. And

so the next day I went in and it was like I’m going to learn from this man, everything

I can learn, and appreciate the good side and stop focusing on the crazy part. And

once I was willing to do that, I learned so much about vision as a part of directorship

and leadership. And I think that I could have missed so much if I had not done that.

… The whole idea of it goes beyond just reading a book and saying these other

twenty qualities a leader has to have, to seeing that real people, with some real big

faults, can be some pretty extraordinary leaders in some areas.

Critical incidents at the directorship level. The critical incidents at the directorship

level were more complex. In these incidents, the participants experienced political dilemmas,

budget stresses, and community challenges. For three participants, their leadership values were

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strengthened and validated through anchoring incidents. Two participants experienced turning

point moments in their leadership and two described redemptive events. Four others experienced

analogous moments that provide guidance in their current positions. Finally, one participant

experienced a contaminating situation that continues to be problematic and serves as a reminder

of negative leadership behaviors.

Leading staff. Two participants described incidents that validated their leadership

principles, which emphasize working with and developing staff. For one participant, a member

of his management team commented on his leadership style and how his emotional intelligence

has a positive effect on the staff and organization. This was an anchoring incident that

confirmed his values as a leader. For another, a recent group effort to apply for a difficult grant

emphasized her efforts to work with individual strengths. She commented on this anchoring

incident:

My job is to bring out the best in people and to bring out the best in the team and to

create an atmosphere. I call it improv jazz. That’s kind of my management style, to

recognize that each person has a set of skills. My style is to help that person hone

their skills, expand their skills, and play their role in the team effort so that we’re all

using our skills to actually create something—a better product—because we all have

a different perspective. … And the four of us actually took turns pushing and shaping

the project. And each brought different skills to the table. One person brought an

outside evaluator to the table. Another person basically turned out to be the lead

writer. I think I probably was the catalyst and the instigator, but I stepped back at a

certain point in time and let the other members of the team influence the grant and

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push it forward. So the reason I’m sharing that is that’s an example of improv jazz I

think. It’s letting each person take their moment in the spotlight and do their best

work and then they pass it off to the next person.

Municipal politics. For four participants, municipal politics affected their leadership

development at the director level. Learning to navigate the politics of a particular mayor or

municipal government affected the leadership perspectives of these directors. One participant

learned to be careful when communicating her dissatisfaction with her mayor’s decisions. This

was an analogous incident that she uses as a reminder to be careful in her communications. She

noted:

Yeah, it is about keeping your mouth shut. … The mayor had just put a million

dollars into his literacy program. And I had been begging him for that million dollars

for our program. And so I was spouting off to somebody about that. And that

conversation got back to the mayor, and he was furious with me. Absolutely called

me on the carpet. And all I could do was apologize. … But I’ve got to know who I’m

talking to. And really the last thing you ever do is talk behind the mayor’s back.

Because it gets back to him. It gets back to him all of the time.

For one participant, learning to understand the perspective of city council members

served a valuable lesson. During one political cycle, all department heads received questions

about their services to the community. This individual prepared and welcomed the opportunity

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to speak about library services. The analogous incident taught him to understand elected

officials’ perspectives, which he believed made him a better library director:

While they were tough questions and caused me to spend an enormous amount of

time doing my homework and all, I really tried my best and came to really appreciate

why those questions were being asked and the importance of those questions. And

unlike I think every single one of my other colleagues who were heads of various

departments in city government, I truly never really minded those questions. And

that really, that served me well. Again, being able to not just see, you know, the issue

from the perspective of the library director, but really understanding where the

elected official was coming from and why. And that’s served me incredibly well and

helped with all sorts of other issues and helped me really be a better library director.

One participant became embroiled in a political struggle when his staff created a series of

library posters that featured local politicians. One politician became angry when she learned that

a rival was also featured in this series of promotional pieces. The county manager supported the

director’s position, which reinforced the participant’s views about supporting his staff. When

recounting this anchoring incident, he described the importance of loyalty and feeling

empowered to make mistakes:

But he showed that level of loyalty. And I think that sort of reinforced again the idea

of, you know, you can make mistakes. And that somebody should be there to help.

That a good leader will be there to help cover up; not necessarily cover up their

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mistake, but at least you know if you allow people to do things, then you also have to

give them the assurance that if things go bad, you’ll be there to help them out of that

situation or you’ll take care of that situation. And that’s the, you know, the only way

we learn is by making mistakes.

Budget turmoil. Three participants highlighted incidents that involved budget challenges.

For one participant, a budget crisis resulted in a contaminating event that continues to affect her

relationship with staff and county officials. For another, initiating change in the midst of budget

cuts was exceptionally difficult. This participant experienced a turning point due to this incident

and eventually left the library. He noted:

When the city had a hiring freeze and the city cut $100 million out of the general fund

in the first three years that I was there, it wasn’t coming out of police and fire, you

know, so trying to implement a lot of change without financial stability was really

very hard.

One participant was forced to propose closing a facility in response to budget cuts. She

met with community members for months prior to this decision. Her mayor supported her

decision at community meetings and agreed with her despite the political consequences. She

learned about the importance of community involvement and the passion of communities about

library services. This was an analogous incident that she uses as a guide in her present work.

For another participant, the recession brought drastic budget cuts and downsizing to her library.

The local media reported this situation extensively and criticized the director. During the crisis,

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a staff member died in an accident, which caused her to refocus and feel more confident in her

leadership. She described the change that resulted from this turning point:

There was nothing left, and so if I was going to make it, it was going to come from

me. And you realize that you have strength. It sounds so cliché, but you have

strength beyond what you think you have. And that changed my leadership from the

point of view that I realized that whatever we take on, I can make it happen.

Whatever criticism there is, I’m strong enough to bear it. And it all goes away. It all

goes away and you’re still left standing with a great library with some great people

with a great family. And it’s all what you make of it.

Community engagement. For three participants, critical incidents arising from

community issues affected their leadership development. In fact, for two participants, issues

about the Child Internet Protection Act (CIPA) and Internet filtering caused intense community

concern about library policies. For one participant, the challenge was an analogous incident and

forced him to turn to colleagues and peers for support:

Well I think in the last decade, I’ve had several crises. They challenge your career,

they challenge your values, and challenge your sense of self. In [XXXX], I had some

challenges when we had open access to the Internet. And so there was a whole push

to have us filter and, as director, you’re at the forefront of that issue. And they want

to vilify you. They challenge you as it becomes personal. And so I learned a lot. I

learned a lot about courage. I learned a lot about resiliency. And I learned to not go

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at it alone. In order to face adversity in a career, you need to really have a team

approach. And that was a lesson to this day, I feel even as a leader, whether it’s a

crisis or whether it’s just leading an organization, it’s not about any one person. So

I’ve learned that lesson as I’ve matured. Part of my maturity has been bringing along

people that have either stronger skill sets in certain areas or that can give you good

advice or that will support you.

The other participant used the CIPA debate to create conversations around freedom of

information and access. As a result, the community began to see the library as a neutral forum in

which to discuss controversial issues. Thus, this was a redemptive incident. She commented, “I

think I became a stronger leader. I think I became a lot more politically savvy. A lot less narrow

in my focus.” For one participant, she experienced a redemptive incident when a natural disaster

struck her community and the library system assisted with recovery efforts. During this time, the

library engaged intensely with community concerns. The participant believed that views about

the library changed, as did views about her role as a leader. She described the situation:

There are things that are necessary because you want the library to be visible. And

you want people to respect the contributions that the library makes to the quality of

life in the city. And to do that, you have to be engaged. … I would say

though, that the recession and the major hurricane that we had down here were

altering, because the hurricane made the library step up to be a part of the recovery

for the city. Which made people look at the library as a leader, a leading

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organization, and changed my role, the way people viewed the library director role, I

think, to a certain degree.

Learning from critical experiences. Table 5 summarizes the critical incidents by type and

management level.

Table 5 Summary of critical incidents by type and level of management

Incident Type Number of Responses at Middle

Management

Number of Responses at Senior

Management

Number of Responses at Directorship

Originating 2 1 0 Turning Point 5 4 2 Anchoring 2 3 3 Analogous 1 1 4 Redemptive 0 2 2 Contaminating 0 1 1 No incident 2 0 0

Participants said that they learned from or experienced growth from these experiences,

and unanimously agreed that the incidents affected their leadership development. Four indicated

that their perspectives about leadership changed as a result of these incidents. Four others said

they experienced personal growth after a critical incident. Seven participants admitted that they

made mistakes in their careers, but they found that the errors were good learning experiences that

assisted in their leadership development. While some experiences were positive, the participants

spoke frequently about difficult experiences that also resulted in learning. One participant

commented, “And I could go into some stories, but I learned as much from negative things that

happened as positive things that happened.”

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Another participant said that difficult situations serve as guides for becoming better

leaders. She stated, “I believe even in situations that are not very positive or very professionally

rewarding, that you can learn the things that you would do differently if you had the

opportunity.” In fact, one participant asserted that challenging times require greater leadership

and serve as a test of an individual’s leadership potential. She used the great recession as an

example:

And the recession helped me as a leader step up even more during a difficult time.

When you have difficulties to deal with, I think it tests your ability to lead. It’s easier

in high growth times. But when there are times of disaster and/or recession that we

have to reduce hours and lay off people, it becomes a very difficult time for a leader,

to keep people focused. And try to make them feel a sense of stability for the

organization.

The participants emphasized the importance of recognizing and taking advantage of these

opportunities. As one noted, “Opportunities to learn and develop … [are] what I was given.

Anyone else could have had those same opportunities and not responded, but I was actually

given opportunities to learn and develop and I took advantage of them.”

Identifying as a leader. The realization that one had become or at least felt like a leader

was different for each of the 12 participants. Six participants noted that it was the recognition of

others that made them first believe that they were leaders. This recognition took various forms,

such as being elected to an office within a professional association, being appointed to a senior

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management position, or receiving encouragement to apply for promotions. Being recognized

for their abilities infused these participants with feelings of leadership. Two participants noted

that becoming a library director made them feel like a leader, while one described feeling like a

leader when he obtained his first management position. Another participant described attempts

to transform a particular service area within her library system. She spoke about the changes

coming to fruition as a result of her efforts. That transformation contributed to this particular

participant’s belief that she was leader.

One participant replied that she always felt like a leader and described this as stemming

from her childhood. She said:

I always knew that I had leadership. I think it stems from being the oldest child in a

family. There’s something about that. And then [I] just always had this thing in me

that said I can do that. Or I believe I can do it. And as I observed leaders and people

who were my supervisors and managers,… after watching them doing their jobs, I

just felt that it was something I could do. I always felt that I could go to the next step.

One participant replied that he did not believe himself to be a leader. He said that “I find it hard

to self-identify myself like that.”

Leadership concepts. The participants shared their definitions of leadership and any

changes in those definitions over time. They spoke about what leadership means to them and

how they characterize leadership. Their descriptions centered on attributes of a leader, leading

others, and persistent learning. For example, one participant commented:

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I think anybody can exercise leadership. It’s a question of whether they choose to or

not. And it’s as much about choosing to exercise that leadership as it is about

inspiring others to have confidence in you doing so. And so to me it’s really organic,

and it’s something you have to consciously work at.

Attributes. The participants cited numerous attributes that leaders should possess, ranging

from having and executing a vision to being confident and inspiring others (Appendix F).

Having a vision was cited by eight participants and was the most frequently identified quality of

a leader. The participants noted that simply having a vision was insufficient—a leader also

needs influence to engage followers. One director said, “But I think it’s the ability to have and

communicate a vision and to get others to embrace that vision and follow that vision. So it boils

down to having a vision and influence so that your vision can be realized.”

Another participant described her definition of leadership as “getting everyone on the

same boat and rowing in the same direction.” Being responsible or taking responsibility for an

organization was highlighted by seven participants. One participant, who noted that leadership

involves both positive and negative situations, said, “I think leadership is the willingness to take

responsibility for an organization and setting the direction and moving in that direction with all

the good, bad, and ugly that comes with it.” The participants also cited setting direction for an

organization (i.e., strategic planning, determining organizational goals and objectives), political

acumen, confidence, risk-taking, adaptive capacity, and authenticity as leadership attributes.

Several participants highlighted openness, humility, and passion.

People. While citing leadership attributes, the participants frequently mentioned that

leadership involves working with others and developing staff. In fact, “engaging others” and

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“developing others” were both phrases used by half of the participants when defining leadership.

One participant described his views on leadership as “Being able to get to 60,000 feet, see the

big picture, champion the great ideas of not just your own, but more often than your own, the

ideas of others. And to be able to empower other people to do good things.”

Another participant emphasized that individuals must also be open to listening to others

and supporting their ideas:

So I guess the theme here is always learning, always being open to new possibilities,

always being open to going a different direction, and listening to experts, and

listening to people. Because the ideas don’t always have to come from you. In fact,

often the best ideas don’t come from me, but supporting other people’s ideas.

For another participant, hiring strong staff was important to a leader’s success. She also noted

that people represent the key component to moving a leader’s vision forward and that strong

leaders are able to galvanize others around their vision:

You have to pick people that are smarter than you to take on leadership positions that

are in your camp. You do count on loyalty. Leadership is a lot of things. But it’s

people—you have a vision and people believe in that vision and are willing to get

behind you, alongside you and help make that successful. I think a good leader can

bring a lot of people along to get us to the next place.

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Another participant described a recent strategic planning process at her library that

involved a large number of staff members. She noted that it was important to involve staff from

across the organization, and she described the process as follows:

I think we’re making some very wonderful progress. As hard as change is, we’re

going there. You know we’re moving the mother ship here. I think that the strategic

planning process—while people sort of say ‘pshaw’ to the strategic planning

process—it was an engaging process. We had eighty staff members involved in it

and we keep engaging multiple levels of the organization, multiple descriptions, job

titles. Because I don’t want to be the one doing all the dreaming. I want participatory

dreaming going on here. And I think staff really, really, really appreciate that.

For another participant, collaborating and innovating with people were crucial:

I see libraries as places of ideas. It’s this big idea candy shop. But having an

opportunity to start with an idea and pursue it either in a collaborative fashion or a

research fashion or whatever. You know, I think that’s one of the dreams of our

profession, is the ability to pursue ideas and to play with them and then to actually

accomplish something with them with a group of people.

One participant’s leadership philosophy is based on cultivating individuals and

encouraging their growth and development:

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I think leadership is about creating something beyond yourself. So if that means an

organization that’s better than it was when you started, if that means staff both

collectively and independently—individually—have expanded in ways that they

perhaps hadn’t thought of or hadn’t felt themselves capable of, then that’s good

leadership. … I don’t say this out of a false sense of modesty, but the truth of the

matter is a good leader can only be a good leader if they have good people to work

with. And it’s always the staff. It’s always about the staff, and it’s always about

what they do. …You know it doesn’t just happen on its own. But I think leadership is

about pushing people, expanding their capacity, and giving them the opportunities

they need to be more than they think they can be.

Persistent learning. Five participants responded that leadership requires work and

attention. In fact, they suggested that leadership requires consistent practice and that individuals

must be proactive in continuously developing their leadership style.

And it’s just, it’s like exercise, you know? It’s not good enough to have done it in the

past. So I think it’s something that you lose if you’re not working on it, if you’re not

fine-tuning it. So just because I learned fifteen years ago that I need to be a better

listener and I worked really hard on that for a while, I still have to work on it.

Participants also reported that they were proactively attentive to their leadership practice:

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I am of the very strong opinion that it isn’t some magical thing to exercise good

leadership. You know you have to work at it. And a big part of working at it is

having a lot of self-awareness and being open to the possibility that you might be

wrong.

Participants noted that it is important for individuals to be receptive to new ideas and

continuous learning. Three responded that they read frequently to stay current with leadership

trends and theories, and in the words of one:

I think you learn every day. And you may on occasion see someone at an event who

is speaking that you gain something from, or something on television, or hear on the

radio or at a conference, … or a staff member that you gain something from every

day that helps shape you and informs your style and development. I think as long as

you’re open to it, information will continue to flow in that helps to shape your

leadership or test your leadership style. Because sometimes you get comfortable in

your style and something will happen or a situation will present itself that says maybe

I ought to change this or bend this way, you know.

The participants emphasized that leadership requires dedication and practice. One

participant compared her leadership development to that of an artist and the growth that an artist

experiences through consistent attention to their craft. Having recently toured an art exhibit that

exemplified this belief, she made the following comparison:

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So there’s an exhibit—I think it just closed—at the Phillips Club in Washington, D.C.

called Repetitions. It was a series of works by Vincent Van Gogh. … When I was

younger I think I expected to just magically be perfect. And as I watch people and

study other people and I’m very inspired by artists—artists like Vincent Van Gogh,

[who] taught himself how to draw. And he started with charcoal and then he moved

on to color and oil and then developed his brushstrokes. And he adapted styles from

other painters at the time. And then he developed his own style. But Repetitions—

there was a series of four or five of his “The Postman.” And it just showed how an

artist continues to perfect his craft and teaches him or herself by doing something

over and over and over again. And that’s the way I see my life, my work. Leadership

is the same thing. It’s a series of repetitions. It’s something that you learn over time.

It’s something that you’ll never—at least I don’t think—get to the place where you

say “Ah ha, I’ve got it perfect,” because you’re always working on it. But it’s

working on your craft continuously through your life through a series of repetitions.

And learning and ideas and curiosity and working with a different team each time you

have a slightly different result. It’s a little bit like cooking too. You just keep trying,

right? So I guess my approach to leadership is very organic and always learning,

always changing, always adapting.

Changing definitions. Eleven participants believe that their definitions of or ideas about

leadership have evolved over time. One participant’s concept of her personal leadership moved

beyond her library. When asked whether her definition of leadership changed over time, she

replied, “I think so. And only maybe in the sense that now I feel like I’m not just a leader in my

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library, but I’m a leader in the community. You know, it’s broadened.” Most participants said

that their concepts of leadership changed with their experiences and education, and that their

ideas about leadership became more defined. One participant, who described his leadership

philosophy as advancing with his career experience, replied:

I’ve always been kind of modest about leadership, but as I reflect back on my career,

I realize that we demonstrate leadership in so many different ways. I don’t think I

had a fully defined notion of what leadership was early in my career. My definition,

my sense of leadership, has matured with the career and experience, so that I can

more clearly articulate what I think leadership is now versus what it was in my career

even ten years ago. You know there’s certainly emotional intelligence competence—

all those factors really create a better leadership role for you. I think I was less secure

early in my career, and so you see leadership as a little more, I don’t want to say bold,

but you’re kind of unbridled in what you want to do. You’re kind of unrealistic

sometimes in terms of what you think you can accomplish. As you get older and

more experienced, you realize that leadership is demonstrating a set of skills and it’s

clear. To me, leadership is much clearer now.

Another participant replied that, while she may adapt her leadership style to particular

circumstances, her core leadership values—support and concern for her staff—remain constant.

She described this evolution:

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Yes. I think it has simplified—it’s gotten simplified. I think your leadership skills

sharpen over time. I think I’ve said that in a number of different ways. And that

you should always be open to learning, always be evolving as a leader. That it’s

exactly what we just talked about. Just stay open and agile as a leader so that you can

change as you need to change as situations present themselves. But I think in every

leader—in myself I’ve noticed—that there are certain qualities that even as you’re

changing to address a particular situation, you always have. And in me that quality is

that I care deeply about the folks over which I have responsibility and influence. I

care about people. And so my leadership style, no matter how I have to adjust it to a

situation, will always center on people and their well-being.

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Chapter Five

Discussion and Implications

Overview

The directors included in this study were identified for their extraordinary leadership in

the public library profession. In addition to being formally recognized with honors and awards,

they remain intensely involved with professional and community organizations. The participants

reported a strong sense of self-efficacy that motivated them to seek senior management positions.

However, opportunities for advancement were limited for a variety of reasons and, for most

participants, a directorship did not become a reality until 11 or more years after completing their

graduate studies. Budget constraints and a weak economy contributed to the limited

opportunities for both internal and external advancement. In addition, personal circumstances

affected career progression. Although their families supported the career choices of both female

and male directors, the directors considered the needs of their families when pursuing

professional advancement. Some participants’ financial situations influenced the need to seek

career advancement and motivated their desire to pursue promotional opportunities. Family

demands also influenced the decision of some participants to forgo advancement opportunities

that would have negatively affected their family lives. In addition, both female and male

participants refused some advancement opportunities because they desired greater work-life

balance.

Engagement with professional organizations played a pivotal role in the participants’

career progression and leadership development. The participants believed that involvement with

professional organizations prepared them to become library directors by exposing them to new

people, experiences, and opportunities that enhanced their skills and strengthened their

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professional networks. These skills and networks were advantageous when the participants

applied for promotions. The participants’ professional relationships and networks were valuable

throughout their careers as they sought guidance and support during challenging situations, and

learned from those who became role models for their personal leadership development.

Formal education was important to the participants in this study. Continuing education

and leadership institutes were believed to have a positive influence on both career and leadership

development. When discussing continuing education, building skills, networking, and learning

from others were highlighted as primary benefits. An attention to continuous learning and

development was evident among all of the directors.

The participants cited personal and professional relationships as crucial to their career

progression and leadership development. The participants noted that their families instilled

values in them such as hard work, responsibility, and the value of education. Peers and

supervisors informed the participants of promotional prospects and actively encouraged the

directors to pursue opportunities for career advancement. In addition to these collegial

relationships, participants cited mentors as important in their career progression and they also

cited the positive influence of role models in professional organizations, who demonstrated

behaviors and skills that the participants emulated.

The participants experienced critical incidents in middle management, senior

management, and directorship levels during their careers. The participants leveraged these

personal and professional experiences to shape their views of leadership, and their leadership

behaviors and styles. Most believed that their definition and understanding of leadership

changed over the course of their careers. Not surprisingly, the incidents became more complex

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with each career phase. At the directorship level, the most common incident was an analogous

event, which is an experience that becomes a guide for other situations.

Path to Directorship

Most participants had completed their formal education and had more than one decade of

management experience prior to an appointment. The participants in this study cited their

education, relationships, and belief in their abilities as important factors in obtaining a public

library directorship position. A public library directorship was not always easily obtained, often

for personal reasons or due to limited opportunities.

Qualifications and education. Most participants had extensive experience in post-

graduate work prior to becoming library directors. Golden (2005) found that the average

professional experience prior to a directorship was 13 years, similar to the mean of 11 years

found in this study. This amount of experience prior to a directorship does not align with the

analysis of job advertisements for public library directors by Henricks and Henricks-Lepp

(2014), who found that the mean years of experience required for a directorship was 5.86 years.

However, 25% of the advertisements specified that the required experience could be in either

management or administration. Although not directly stated in job postings, it is likely that

successful candidates for directorships were senior librarians with a diverse breadth of

experience, especially in management. Ten participants in this study worked in some form of

library management prior to completing their MLS or becoming a director; this suggests that

experience in management—including budgeting, planning, and supervision—is helpful to

obtaining such a position.

An MLS degree was sufficient formal education for obtaining a public library

directorship. All the study participants earned at least one graduate degree and all had completed

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the MLS. This is consistent with other studies (Golden, 2005; Haycock & McCallum, 1997),

which found that the majority of directors held just one graduate degree. In the present study,

four participants earned a second graduate degree beyond the MLS; three of these obtained the

additional degree prior to becoming library directors. In this group of four, two were female and

two were male; Greiner (1985) found that male library directors were more likely to have

completed formal education beyond the MLS. While the participants in this study believed that

their additional graduate education prepared them for a directorship, there was no indication that

it was a key factor in promotion to a directorship.

While additional graduate education may not have made a difference to obtaining a

position, there is some indication that education beyond the MLS may be important to expanding

the skills needed to be successful in a library directorship. Participants were generally actively

engaged in informal continuing education pursuits, such as webinars and workshops, which help

them build additional skills and remain current with library trends. Half of the participants

believed that informal educational pursuits helped their career progression and prepared them to

become library directors. Similarly, Haycock and McCallum (1997) found that 80% of directors

who engaged in continuing education believed that it helped their careers, and Golden (2005)

reported that, of the directors who completed seminars and workshops, 84% believed that such

continuing education assisted with their career development.

Limited opportunities. Limited opportunities for directorships contributed to the length

of time required for obtaining a directorship position. The reasons for limited opportunities

included restricted geographic mobility, which emanated from a desire to confine one’s job

search to a certain region or the need to live in an area that was compatible for spouses, children,

and other family members. Three male and two female participants noted that family

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circumstances limited their opportunities for advancement. Men were just as likely as women

were to desire work-life balance and to reject potential positions that would have been

detrimental to family life. Four of the seven female participants believed that gender limited

their career options; this was especially true early in their careers when they first had children.

Budget challenges in libraries also contributed to limited opportunities for promotion and

forced participants to consider positions outside of their organizations in the search for upward

mobility. In fact, only 25% of the study participants were internal candidates, that is, employees

of the institution, at the time of their first directorship appointment. This suggests that most

opportunities for directorships might be outside of one’s home institution and that mobility is

important for wider opportunities for promotion.

Influence of others. The study findings underscore the importance of relationships—

with colleagues, family members, mentors, and role models. Colleagues and peers informed

participants of job openings and encouraged them to apply for senior management positions.

Among reasons for considering a senior management position, 10 participants said that they were

encouraged by others or that others believed in their abilities. The influence of this

encouragement is reminiscent of Bandura’s (1997) assertion that the verbal persuasion of others

strengthens an individual’s belief in their abilities. Four participants had mentors who

encouraged their career advancement. Greiner (1985) similarly found that “previous employers

who had provided guidance, mentoring, and opportunities for assuming responsibilities were

cited … as having been positive factors in their upward mobility” (p. 279).

Self-efficacy. The participants believed in their capabilities to perform well at a high

level and achieve success. Nine participants noted that self-efficacy was a motivator for

applying for senior management positions. Bandura (1997) suggests that individuals increase

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self-efficacy through mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, social persuasion, and

physiological and affective states. Some participants applied for senior management positions

because they received encouragement from others (social persuasion). Some viewed others in

senior management positions and felt they could perform at a similar or higher level (vicarious

experiences). For other participants, experiences and successes contributed to their self-efficacy

(mastery experiences). Romaniuk and Haycock (2011) recommended that the library profession

pay more attention to developing self-efficacy through participation in leadership institutes and

continuing education programs.

Engagement with Professional Organizations

The participants exhibited a high level of engagement with professional organizations.

Involvement with professional organizations assisted the participants with building skills and

broadening perspectives through networking and observational learning. Participation in

professional organizations also provided exposure to influential experiences and relationships,

which could serve as a bridge to new opportunities.

Effect on career and preparation for directorship. The participants were actively

involved with professional organizations through committee work, chaired committees, and

elected offices. Greiner (1985) and Haycock and McCallum (1997) found high levels of director

participation in professional organizations. Although the involvement of participants in this

study was generally felt to be positive, the participants did not agree on the value of this activity

as preparation for a directorship and future career development. Participants did not view

membership as an absolute requirement for obtaining a directorship, although they

acknowledged the benefits from their involvement prior to achieving director positions. All but

one agreed that such involvement had had a positive effect on their career progression; however,

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only eight believed that professional organizations prepared them to become directors. This

finding is in contrast to Golden (2005) who found professional involvement to be less important

to library directors’ careers, with a ranking of six out of nine in terms of importance to career

development. In the present study, professional organizations are regarded as conduits to people

and opportunities that assist with development; however, they are not as strongly associated with

preparation for career advancement.

Networking. The participants identified the primary value of professional organizations

as pathways for networking and forming relationships with colleagues in the library profession.

Networking was critical to both their career and leadership development. Barabási (2014) and

Granovetter (1983) posited that connections were extremely influential in society and that weak

social ties, or acquaintances, were more important than friendships in influencing trends,

persuading individuals, and affecting an individual’s career advancement. Participants in the

present study felt that professional organizations provided an opportunity to learn from others,

build professional relationships, broaden their perspectives, and expand their ideas about

libraries.

The value of networks persisted throughout the participants’ careers, whereas mentoring

experiences played a role in the early stages. Wiley (2015a) has found that individuals across

generations renew membership in professional organizations because it is through these

organizations that they feel connected to their professional communities, and recommended that

networking opportunities should be emphasized to promote engagement and member satisfaction

(Wiley, 2015b).

Leadership Development

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The participants indicated that their leadership development evolved by learning from

others, engaging in formal leadership training, and learning from experiences. Mentors and role

models were also critical to shaping the participants’ leadership styles and behaviors. Formal

leadership training was important to developing leadership by promoting confidence and

exposing the directors to new individuals and perspectives.

Mentors and role models. Nine participants had mentors who influenced their career

and leadership development, while all 12 cited role models as important to career and leadership

development. Mentors were important in teaching skills, providing support, instilling

confidence, encouraging career advancement, and exposing participants to opportunities for

growth. Chatman’s (1992) study of public library directors found that more than 50% had

mentors who had a positive influence on their career and leadership development, and that

mentors were responsible for numerous components of their development, such as instilling

values, exposing them to career opportunities, and increasing their confidence. Similarly,

Arnold, Nickel, and Williams (2008) report that 69% of respondents to a survey of librarians

who attended leadership institutes noted that they had a mentor who increased their confidence,

empowered them to seek positions of greater responsibility, modeled political savvy, and assisted

in improving their skills.

Mentors and role models were perceived to be particularly important as models of

leadership behaviors, and participants learned from observing both positive and negative

leadership behaviors. As expected, the literature bears this out. Ligon, Hunter, and Mumford

(2008) emphasize that mentors provide guidance for leadership behaviors; and Bandura (1977)

points out that “most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from

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observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions

this coded information serves as a guide for action” (p. 22).

Formal leadership training. Formal leadership training was perceived to be helpful to

those either currently in or seeking to become a library director; such training improves

leadership skills, builds networks, and strengthens self-efficacy. Eight participants in this study

completed at least one formal leadership training program and, of those eight, only one

participant believed that it had not affected his leadership development. For the other seven,

leadership training was cited as an overwhelmingly positive learning experience that assisted

with their careers and professional development. Arnold, Nickel, and Williams (2008) found

that 64% of leadership institute participants believed that their participation had had a direct

effect on their careers. On the other hand, in an earlier study, Salvatore (1991) found that

leadership training was an “important factor” lacking in the careers of female library directors

and that such limited training may have affected career preparation and advancement (p. 201).

Leadership institutes provided participants with an opportunity to network and learn from

others; participants noted this as a positive aspect of leadership training. Arnold, Nickel, and

Williams (2008) reported that, in addition to career advancement and improving leadership

skills, finding networking opportunities was a strong impetus for participation among a majority

of leadership institute attendees. While networking and learning from others have benefits,

Winston and Neely (2001) also found that leadership institute attendees reported higher levels of

participation in professional activities and serving on committees that were engaged in

community initiatives. Of course, one must note that librarians who choose to participate in

leadership institutes may also be the kind of people who are more inclined to engage in such

professional and civic activities.

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Leadership training improved confidence or self-efficacy. Participants felt that

leadership training strengthened their skills in various areas and enhanced their belief in their

abilities. Wilson and Corall (2008), who studied a leadership training program for public

librarians in the United Kingdom, likewise found that “a recurring theme was improved

confidence of participants, both in realizing their own potential as leaders and feeling more

assured in their existing leadership styles and approaches” (p. 481). Recognizing that improved

self-efficacy is an unanticipated outcome of library leadership training, Romaniuk and Haycock

(2011) recommended that such programs should meet the challenge of developing self-efficacy

in library professionals. They argued that to improve leadership training, organizers of

leadership development programs need “a better understanding of how programs can develop

self-efficacy in participants, and recognition of the importance of self-efficacy development to

the fulfillment of leadership potential” (p. 35).

Critical incidents. The participants in this study provided insight into their life histories

by sharing critical incidents that occurred at distinct career stages. The stories provided the

context for their career and leadership development. Participants’ critical incidents served an

instructional purpose and were extremely important to the participants’ career and leadership

development. This was also found to be the case in DeLong’s (2012) study of female academic

library directors. Throughout their careers, the women in DeLong’s study also experienced

critical incidents that they believed play a role in their leadership development.

Incidents of all types and at all management levels contributed to participants’ leadership

behaviors and philosophies. All but one participant said that their understanding and definition

of leadership changed over time and as a result of the critical incidents they shared. Even

negative incidents proved valuable and contributed to the directors’ development. Other

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researchers have made similar observations. DeLong (2012) found that challenging incidents

were extremely instructional. Howe (1980) noted that the experiences found in a life story could

illuminate an individual’s unique qualities and provide insights into a leader’s identity and

purpose. Kempster and Parry (2004) found that critical incidents affected senior executives’

views of leadership. Various studies have noted that individuals’ self-identity and behavior are

affected by their reflections on and the meaning they assign to the critical incidents contained in

their life stories (Kuhnert & Russell, 1990; Polkinghorne, 1988; Shamir, Dayan-Horesh, &

Adler, 2005).

Implications

The study’s findings have implications for graduate education, professional development

and continuing education, and leadership development in the library profession. Encouraging

reflective practice, promoting mentoring programs, facilitating networking opportunities,

fostering learning outside of libraries, and encouraging a mindset of continuous learning are

practical implications that will be important to LIS educational programs of all kinds, as well as

library managers and leaders.

Reflective practice. Participants in this study noted that experiences, both positive and

negative, were important to their learning and leadership development. Reflecting on these

experiences provided an opportunity for participants to explore how situations contributed to

their professional development and education. Boud, Keogh, and Walker (1985) explain that,

“reflection is an important human activity in which people recapture their experience, think

about it, mull it over and evaluate it. It is this working with experience that is important in

learning” (p. 19). In the midst of any situation, it can be difficult to place emotions, thoughts,

and attitudes into a meaningful order. By retelling events, it is possible to make comparisons and

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associations between the events and subsequent outcomes. As a result, critical reflection helps

the individual create more meaning and understanding.

Understanding the personal meaning behind life events, both positive and negative,

provides an opportunity for individuals to gain a better sense of their leadership. Sparrowe

(2005) noted that reflecting on experiences and creating a life narrative are tools for developing

authentic leadership behaviors. Furthermore, reflective practice allows professionals to think

about experiences, learn from them, and evaluate their responses in the future. Self-reflection as

a component of leadership development has been appropriated into classroom practices. In order

to build leadership skills in students, Roberts (2008) set forth recommendations to educators that

encourage students to connect course content to their personal experiences. Continually asking

students to consider how they would apply their learning promotes reflective habits that stretch

beyond the classroom. Within the LIS graduate curriculum, it would be useful to promote

reflective practice and emphasize thinking deliberately about one’s personal and professional

experiences as a leadership development tool. Though many graduate LIS curricula incorporate

aspects of self-reflection, it might be useful to encourage reflection specifically related to career

and leadership development through activities such as journaling, blogging, and other reflective

methods. The current standards for accreditation of LIS master’s programs make no mention of

self-reflection, though they do require demonstration of student learning, leaving the means up to

individual programs (ALA, Committee on Accreditation, 2015).

Mentoring programs. The value of mentoring emerged in this study as a primary theme

in the participants’ career and leadership development. Mentors instilled values, advised

mentees of opportunities, and encouraged confidence. Ligon, Hunter, and Mumford (2008)

suggested that mentoring relationships influence leadership behaviors and styles. The

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importance of mentoring to librarians was also reported by several studies which found that at

least half of public library directors surveyed had mentors who supported their career

progression (Chatman, 1992; Greiner, 1985; Haycock & McCallum, 1997).

This suggests that LIS educators, professional organizations, and employers should

consider developing and emphasizing the value of initiatives that provide mentoring

opportunities for emerging leaders in the library profession. Some programs are already

developed, such as those at Simmons College2 and Long Island University3, and within various

ALA divisions, such as the New Members Round Table4. These mentoring initiatives connect

new professionals with seasoned practitioners, typically based on professional interests.

Formalized mentoring guidelines and expectations for the library profession may assist in

advancing mentoring relationships. In addition, it is also important for senior librarians and

managers to recognize the importance of mentoring junior library staff. Lee (2011) has

recommended to LIS educators and employers a number of mentoring possibilities (e.g., virtual

mentoring) which have potential for new professionals who may be unable to attend national

conferences and other educational events.

Networking. The participants in this study cited relationships formed through

professional networks as a benefit of their engagement in professional organizations and their

participation in continuing education. The participants used networking to learn about job

opportunities and to obtain advice and support during challenging professional situations.

Networks were also important for participants’ leadership development. The value of networks

was emphasized in Winston and Neely’s study of the Snowbird Institute (2001), in which many

2 http://www.simmons.edu/academics/schools/school-of-library-and-information-science/careers/work-with-a-mentor 3 http://palmerblog.liu.edu/student-resources-2/new-dual-degree-students/ 4 http://www.ala.org/nmrt/oversightgroups/comm/mentor/mentoringcommittee

136

participants reported increasing their involvement in community organizations and professional

associations after completing the Snowbird leadership program. Professional organizations and

those planners who are responsible for continuing education and leadership development

programs might consider integrating networking opportunities into those programs in a more

formal, deliberate manner. Increasing opportunities for engagement will increase the prospects

for connection and experiences that help to develop skills and leadership abilities. Emphasizing

the value of networks as an essential component of professional engagement and education will

be essential in the development of future library leaders.

Instructional value of other professions. Some participants in this study developed new

perspectives and learned new skills by interacting with professionals who were not associated

with libraries. By engaging with community organizations, serving on boards, pursuing

educational opportunities from other fields, and actively looking for role models from other

professions, the participants expanded their education and perspectives. It would be helpful for

LIS educators to encourage students to begin cultivating connections outside of their chosen

profession early in their careers. Professional organizations can also seek opportunities to form

partnerships with organizations that would complement the library profession through continuing

education. Recent collaborative efforts include PLA’s partnership with the International

City/Council Management Association that offers a leadership institute on working with

community leaders. Another example is the ULC partnership with the National League of Cities

in which the two groups have offered joint conferences and learning opportunities.

Continuous learning. The participants in this study were actively engaged in leadership

and professional development activities. In addition to deliberate, more formal learning, they

used experiences and relationships with others to support their informal learning and

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development, and embraced the concept of lifelong learning. Vaill (1996) emphasized that

managerial leaders must engage in lifelong learning that extends beyond formal education and

viewed the act of leading as a process of engaging in self-directed learning experiences and

learning by doing. LIS curricula, leadership development programs, professional organizations,

and mentoring programs should (and many do) emphasize continuous learning and development

as an essential component of leadership development.

Areas for Further Research

There are several areas for future research that would further enhance understanding of

career progression and leadership development among public library directors. Narrowing the

scope of the study to investigate particular areas would provide additional knowledge about the

experiences, people, and activities that influenced public library directors.

Critical incidents and experiences. This study explored experiences or critical incidents

at three distinct career stages. The study participants’ emphases on such experiences as a

primary method for learning and development underscored the importance of critical incidents to

career advancement. The incidents, which became more complex at the directorship level,

involved situations with staff, trustees, community members, and elected officials that caused

anxiety but ultimately resulted in learning. Issues involving politics, community engagement,

and budget challenges were especially relevant at the directorship stage. Focusing a lens on one

particular career stage, such as the directorship, would provide additional insights into the

common situations encountered by senior directors and the specific skills needed to manage

these situations effectively. In addition, narrowing the scope of the research to specific types of

events, such as turning points, might provide insight into the particular competencies and

resources used to respond to and successfully navigate such difficult circumstances. This

138

knowledge could form the basis of case studies from practice that would further inform the LIS

curriculum and professional development efforts for library professionals.

Mentors and influential people. In this study, mentors and role models were important

to career progression and skill development for successful leadership. Updating Chatman’s

(1992) study regarding the impact of mentoring relationships on public library leaders would

assist graduate schools, professional organizations, and library systems in implementing formal

mentoring programs for students and staff members. Further, a better understanding of role

models and how they instruct and shape behaviors would also be valuable to those in a position

of influence. Development of a framework for being an effective mentor and role model in the

public library profession would assist those who work with junior colleagues.

Networks. In general, networking is important in professional organizations, continuing

education, and leadership institutes, and there is a small body of research on the role of the

public library in providing networking opportunities for users, but there is little research

specifically on the impact of networks and networking among public librarians. Research on

hubs and connectors (Barbarási, 2014) in this domain would facilitate additional connections

between individuals, and would provide information that would assist in leveraging their

influence. Understanding networks and their functions in the library profession would be

valuable for professional organizations that are searching for approaches that enhance their value

to members. Additional research in this area would provide a foundation for formalizing

networking opportunities both in continuing education activities and professional organizations.

Next generation leaders. Given the budget challenges that public libraries have

confronted over the last decade, it is often difficult for libraries to fund memberships in

professional organizations or attendance at professional conferences. Financial challenges affect

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librarians’ participation in professional activities and continuing education pursuits, and the

opportunity to find mentors and establish additional professional relationships. It would be

valuable to probe whether limited involvement with professional organizations is influencing

career progression and leadership development. If new professionals have less exposure to role

models and potential networks, it is possible that their development is different than those who

had the opportunity to establish these relationships. While new professionals might be using

social media and other means to develop connections and networks, there may be differences in

the ways that such relationships influence development; thus, it would be important to

understand how networking in the library profession is changing in this era of social media.

Researching a new generation of library leaders may provide insight into this phenomenon.

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Chapter Six

Conclusion

Overview

Over the past ten years the public sector has presented new and challenging burdens that

have stretched library services beyond their established roles within their communities.

Financial downturns and demographic trends, such as increases in immigrant populations (U.S.

Census Bureau, 2013), coupled with innovations in technology, have forced library leaders to re-

imagine traditional services and balance innovative plans with practical solutions. Librarians

have always attempted to integrate new developments in information technology into their

services; however, the current landscape is complex, as it holds possibilities for greater user

engagement (e.g., in makerspaces) on the one hand, and disenfranchisement on the other, as

more library-like services seem to be available from other sources. Libraries have taken on roles

that might be associated with other types of public agencies, such as assisting new immigrants

through citizenship programs and promoting entrepreneurship through business incubators. As

members of communities, libraries also have responsibility for advancing financial and

environmental sustainability. Visionary library directors have responded to these complex forces

by implementing initiatives and programs that have repositioned libraries so that they are

perceived by their constituents as the vital community resources that librarians know they can be.

The recent several decades of transformation for public libraries have highlighted the

need for effective leadership. As libraries continue to respond to budget threats, competition

from the Internet, and questions of relevance, the need for strong leadership will not diminish.

The need to actively develop leaders has become all the more urgent in the face of an aging

workforce and the realization that a new generation must be prepared to meet the challenges

141

facing public libraries. In recent years, the library profession and LIS researchers have begun to

study aspects of leadership, succession, and leadership development, and yet insight regarding

how individuals become effective library leaders remains elusive.

Little is known about visionary library leaders, in particular about those directors who

have been pioneers in addressing the issues facing public libraries. In order to explore successful

leadership within public libraries, this study focused on 12 public library leaders who are known

to be effective and looked specifically at how they grew into their directorships and leadership

roles, how they developed their leadership skills, and how critical incidents shaped their

leadership development.

Career progression among these leaders was related to personal circumstances, education,

and professional engagement. Influential people, including family members, mentors, role

models, and colleagues, were critical to both career and leadership development. The critical

incidents, both challenging and fulfilling, that occurred throughout a career were influential in

shaping an individual’s leadership.

Emergent Themes

Education. Education and enthusiasm for learning emerged as an important factor in

both career and leadership development. The directors engaged in a variety of educational

activities, formal and informal, and continued their learning after attaining directorship positions.

They viewed critical incidents as instructional, and used the incidents to guide their behaviors

and shape their leadership styles. Even challenging or seemingly negative situations were

presented as opportunities for learning and growth. The participants’ interest in learning new

skills and following professional trends, and their openness to learning from others, all combined

142

to support the conclusion that embracing continuous learning is characteristic of effective public

library leaders and contributed to their development as leaders.

Engagement. Engagement with professional organizations was another factor that

shaped participants’ careers and enhanced how and what they learned about leadership. Through

involvement with committees, boards, and elected offices, the directors contributed to local,

state, and national library organizations. Their level of engagement extended to community

organizations and demonstrated a concern for positioning the library as a contributor to

community development. The participants used connections within these organizations to form

networks of colleagues that were important in staying current with trends and learning about

professional opportunities; these networks also offered support during difficult times. By

remaining actively engaged in professional organizations the participants are also, consciously or

not, “giving back” to the communities which contributed to their personal and professional

growth.

Relationships. Personal, one-on-one, relationships were influential in numerous aspects

of the directors’ lives. Family members certainly affected the participants, sometimes

encouraging and motivating the directors to pursue new opportunities and at other times being

the inadvertent source of conflict when the desire to maintain work-life balance clashed with

professional pursuits. Mentors and role models proved instrumental to leadership development,

especially during early career stages. Colleagues and supervisors were also instructional and

demonstrated behaviors that the participants either emulated or were determined to avoid. The

participants frequently noted that their success was due in part to the influential people in their

lives. People and their behavior, actions, advice, and support were important at all career stages.

143

Critical incidents. The focal point of this study involved critical incidents and how they

affected participants. Critical incidents evolved through the stages of participants’ careers,

becoming more complex as individuals advanced from middle management into directorships.

The incidents involved personal and professional situations that affected the participants’ beliefs

about leadership or their understanding of themselves. The incidents marked new beginnings,

life-changing moments, affirmations, or refutations, and were instructional and formative. When

examined together, the incidents provide a glimpse into the participants’ life histories and

demonstrated that critical moments had a lasting affect and shaped each individual.

Conclusion

This study set out to explore those factors that contribute to career progression and

leadership development in public library directors. By examining qualifications and career

patterns, the study found that directors who are considered leaders exhibit high levels of

involvement with professional organizations and tend to engage in continuing education and

leadership development activities. Critical incident analysis revealed that participants in this

study did not simply find themselves in leadership positions; rather, they worked to develop

leadership skills and were assisted by people, including family members, mentors, and role

models, along the way. The incidents and experiences they relayed were critical to developing

their feelings and attitudes toward leadership.

This study fills a gap in the field of public library leadership; the findings suggest that

these known library leaders demonstrate a shared pattern of behaviors in their progression to the

position of director. These behaviors can be emulated, and might be viewed as possible

signposts for those who wish to follow in their footsteps, realizing that there are personal

characteristics at play that are beyond the scope of this study and that also contributed to

144

leadership development. There is no question that public libraries face a challenging future.

Effective and innovative leadership is needed if libraries are to thrive and remain vital to their

communities. The lessons taken from these exemplary leaders can be instructive for those

seeking to improve their own leadership skills or to advance into larger leadership roles. It is the

hope of this investigator that this study will contribute to a deeper understanding of library

leadership, and will be one of many studies to come in this area. It is also to be hoped that the

importance of people, experiences, and continuous learning will be recognized by new

generations of library leaders, and will form part of their mindful self-development.

145

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Appendix A

Sample Letter Inviting Study Participants Dear __________:

I am a doctoral student at Simmons College who is conducting a study on leadership

development and career progression among public library directors. In preparation for this study

I have identified twelve participants to be interviewed. Based on your evidenced leadership in

the public library profession, you have been selected as an ideal participant for this study. Please

consider contributing to this doctoral study by accepting my request for an interview that will

last approximately two hours, either in person or by phone.

The interview explores your opinions regarding leadership development, the various

factors that impacted your career from a middle manager to a director, and the critical incidents

that affected your leadership development at various stages of your career. Your identity,

institution, and responses will be kept confidential and anonymous. I will send a copy of the

interview transcript for your corrections and approval prior to finalizing my study.

Your participation in this study will contribute to the study of library leadership and will

assist in adding to the body of research regarding public libraries and their future. Over the next

week, I will contact you via e-mail to schedule an interview time. Thank you very much in

advance for considering this request.

Sincerely, Renée Di Pilato, Central Library Manager Alexandria Library, Alexandria, Virginia Doctoral Student Simmons College, Managerial Leadership in the Information Professions

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Appendix B

Interview Protocol and Instrument 1. Protocol Prior to the interview

x Curriculum vitas will be requested in advance and details verified during the interview. x Questions will be sent to participants to allow time for reflection and recall of critical

incidents. x Participants will be informed of the confidentiality of their responses.

The interview Prior to starting

x Thank the participant for their time x Verify name and position x Explain the purpose of the study x Explain the interview process (recording, note taking, and expected duration) x Reinforce confidentiality of responses x Request that participants sign informed consent form

During the interview

x Keep the questions open-ended and use a conversational tone x Ask probing or follow-up questions as needed

Concluding the interview

x Ask the participant to reflect on the questions for additional thoughts x Explain that the participant will receive a transcript of the interview to make any

corrections or changes to ensure accuracy x Thank the participant

Following the interview

x Send participants thank you notes x Send participants copies of their interviews and invite them to review the transcript for

additions and changes

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2. Sample Interview Script and Questions Thank you very much for taking the time to meet with me. I really appreciate your willingness to participate with this study. I am recording the interview and will keep your responses anonymous. Please take a moment to review and sign this informed consent form. Begin recording. State date, time and participant number. This study focuses on public library directors, their life stories, and leadership development. The interview should last for about one-two hours. Please feel free to ask for clarification at any time. Do you have any questions for me before we begin?

Area—Career Progression Follow-Up/Probing Questions

My first set of questions explores your career progression from a middle manager to a library director and the various factors that may have affected your career advancement. 1. You have held a number of positions in public libraries. At what point in your career did you first apply for a senior management position, such as a deputy director, coordinator of branches, or coordinator of a particular service area? What prompted you to pursue this position? 2. When did you apply for your first directorship? What prompted you to pursue this position?

1. Were you recruited or encouraged to apply for this position? Was there a turning point in your career or other impetus that caused you to apply? Were you an internal candidate? If internal/external, do you believe that this influenced your success or failure in obtaining the position? 2. Were you recruited or encouraged to apply for the position? Was there a turning point in your career or other impetus that caused you to apply? Were you an internal candidate? If internal/external, do you believe that this influenced your success or failure in obtaining the position?

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Next, I would like to move to the professional activities that may have affected your career progression. 3. You have been active in a number of professional organizations. Did your involvement in professional organizations have an effect on your career progression? Did your involvement with professional organizations prepare you for your directorship? 4. You have attended a number of continuing education and professional development programs. Did your involvement in these programs have an effect on your career progression? Did your participation in these programs prepare you for your directorship?

3. If yes, how or why? If no, why not? 4. If yes, how or why? If no, why not?

5. Finally, were there personal circumstances, such as family or marital status that influenced your career progression from a middle manager to director?

5. If so, how? If not, were there any other factors I have not mentioned that you believe influenced your career progression?

Area—Critical Incidents and Leadership Development at Different Career Stages Follow-Up/Probing Questions

My second set of questions will focus on your leadership development. Specifically, I would like to know about critical incidents or situations that occurred at three different stages in your career: middle management, senior management, and directorship. A critical incident is an experience that was significant to you and influenced your attitudes, behaviors, or values. The incident may have been either positive or negative and had a lasting influence on your leadership practice. Furthermore, the critical incident does not have to be something that happened in your work life, personal events can also be considered. 6. Reflecting on your time as a middle manager (such as a branch manager or department head), please share an experience or critical incident that contributed to your leadership development. Please provide as many details as possible. 7. Reflecting on your time as a senior manager (such as a deputy director), please share an experience or critical incident that contributed to your leadership development. Please provide as many details as possible.

6. What lesson(s) did you learn as a result of this experience? How did you change as a leader as a result of this experience? How did this experience affect your views regarding leadership or leadership development? 7. What lesson(s) did you learn as a result of this experience? How did you change as a leader as a result of this experience? How did this experience affect your views regarding leadership or leadership development?

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8. Reflecting on your time as a director, please share an experience or critical incident that contributed to your leadership development. Please provide as many details as possible. Do you see any commonalities among the critical incidents you described?

8. What lesson(s) did you learn as a result of this experience? How did you change as a leader as a result of this experience? How did this experience affect your views regarding leadership or leadership development?

Now, I would like to turn to the people and experiences that influenced your leadership development. 9. Who were the mentors who contributed to your leadership development? 10. Who were the role models who contributed to your leadership development? 11. What professional networks/associations contributed to your leadership development? 12. What were the professional development or continuing education opportunities that contributed to your leadership development? 13. Were there other factors that contributed to your leadership development? 14. At what point in your career did you first think of yourself as a leader?

9. At what stage of your career were they most important to your leadership development? Why? How did they contribute? 10. At what stage of your career were they most important to your leadership development? Why? How did they contribute? 11. At what stage of your career were they most important to your leadership development? Why? How did they contribute? 12. At what stage of your career were they most important to your leadership development? Why? How did they contribute? 13. Who/what were they and how did they affect your leadership? 14. Was there an event that precipitated this thinking? Or perhaps it was a person or group of people? If so, what was the event or who were the people and how did it/they influence your self-identity?

Area—Leadership Perspectives Follow-Up/Probing Questions To conclude, I would like to gather your opinions regarding leadership and leadership development.

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15. How do you define leadership? 16. In addition to the critical incidents you identified in the previous questions, were there other incidents that shaped you as a leader that you would like to mention?

15. How has this definition changed over time? Why/how? Was the definition different at different stages of your career (middle manager versus director)? 16. What were they? At what stage of your career? How did they change your views?

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Appendix C

Interview Instrument as Sent to Participants My first set of questions explores your career progression from a middle manager to a library director and the various factors that may have affected your career advancement.

1. You have held a number of positions in public libraries. At what point in your career did you first apply for a senior management position, such as a deputy director, coordinator of branches, or coordinator of a particular service area? What prompted you to pursue this position?

2. When did you apply for your first directorship? What prompted you to pursue this position?

Next, I would like to move to the professional activities that may have affected your career progression.

3. You have been active in a number of professional organizations. Did your involvement in professional organizations have an effect on your career progression? Did your involvement with professional organizations prepare you for your directorship?

4. Have you attended continuing education and professional development programs? If so, did your involvement in these programs have an effect on your career progression? Did your participation in these programs prepare you for your directorship?

5. Finally, were there personal circumstances, such as family or marital status that influenced your career progression from a middle manager to director?

My second set of questions will focus on your leadership development. Specifically, I would like to know about critical incidents or situations that occurred at three different stages in your career: middle management, senior management, and directorship. A critical incident is an experience that was significant to you and influenced your attitudes, behaviors, or values. The incident may have been either positive or negative and had a lasting influence on your leadership practice. Furthermore, the critical incident does not have to be something that happened in the workplace, personal events can also be considered.

6. Reflecting on your time as a middle manager (such as a branch manager or department head), please share an experience or critical incident that contributed to your leadership development. Please provide as many details as possible.

7. Reflecting on your time as a senior manager (such as a deputy director), please share an experience or critical incident that contributed to your leadership development. Please provide as many details as possible.

8. Reflecting on your time as a director, please share an experience or critical incident that contributed to your leadership development. Please provide as many details as possible.

Do you see any commonalities among the critical incidents you described? Now, I would like to turn to the people and experiences that influenced your leadership

164

development.

9. Who were the mentors who contributed to your leadership development? 10. Who were the role models who contributed to your leadership development? 11. What professional networks/associations contributed to your leadership development? 12. What were the professional development or continuing education opportunities that

contributed to your leadership development? 13. Were there other factors that contributed to your leadership development? 14. At what point in your career did you first think of yourself as a leader?

To conclude, I would like to gather your opinions regarding leadership and leadership development.

15. How do you define leadership? 16. In addition to the critical incidents you identified in the previous questions, were there

other incidents that shaped you as a leader that you would like to mention?

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Appendix D

Informed Consent Form

I volunteer to participate in a research project being conducted by Renée Di Pilato from Simmons College. I understand that the project is designed to gather data regarding public library directors' career progression and leadership development. I will be one of approximately 12 individuals being interviewed for this research. 1. My participation in this project is voluntary. I understand that I will not be paid or compensated in any way for my participation. I may withdraw and discontinue participation at any time without penalty. 2. I understand that most interviewees will find the process interesting and though-provoking. If, however, I feel uncomfortable in any way during the interview session, I have the right to decline to answer any question or to end the interview. 3. Participation involves being interviewed by a researcher from Simmons College. The interview will last approximately one-two hours. The interview will be recorded and notes will be written during the interview. A transcription will be made following the interview, which will be destroyed at the completion of this study. 4. I understand that the researcher will not identify me or my institution by name in any reports using information obtained from this interview and that my confidentiality as a participant in this study will remain secure. 5. I understand that this research study has been reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board at Simmons College. 6. I have read and understand the explanation provided. I have had all of my questions answered to my satisfaction and I voluntarily agree to participate in this study. 7. I have been given a copy of this consent form. _________________________________ ___________ Signature Date _________________________________ Printed Name If you have questions about the research, you should contact Renee Di Pilato at 703-746-1728 or rdipilato@gmail.com and/or Peter Hernon at 617-521-2829 or peter.hernon@simmons.edu. If you have questions about your rights as a research subject or if you experience any research related injury, you should contact the Simmons Human Protections Administrator in the Office of Sponsored Programs at 617-521-2415.

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Appendix E

Restorying for Critical Incidents at Three Career Stages

1. Early Experiences, Middle Management Critical Incident 1.1

Setting: Personal leadership transformation Characters: Participant, friends Incident Type: Turning point Themes: Confidence, risk-taking, self-efficacy, learned to have confidence in opinions, change as a result of a critical incident, understand leadership through experience Scene: Early experiences, middle management Action/Resolution: Participant was taking part in a women’s Bible study and discussion group. This was during a period when she was having marital problems and struggling with depression. She decided to share her situation with the other women, who were shocked at her honesty. At that moment, she determined that she would no longer worry about other people’s opinions. She felt that she could embrace leadership by being true to herself.

Critical Incident 1.2

Setting: None Characters: None Incident Type: None Themes: None Scene: None Action/Resolution: Participant could not recall an incident at this point in his career that affected his leadership development.

Critical Incident 1.3

Setting: New manager trying to implement change Characters: Participant, union activist Incident Type: Anchoring Themes: Inexperience, learning from difficult situations, leadership challenge-interpersonal struggle, leadership challenge-change management, change as a result of a critical incident Scene: Early experiences, middle management Action/Resolution: After beginning a new position, the participant was charged with implementing a change to the existing work model, including changing staffers’ responsibilities. This was challenged by a union activist, who believed that the effort was an attempt to undermine the union. The participant was personally attacked and accused of bias toward administrators. While the change effort continued, the participant was forced to adapt her approach to change management and to develop tactics to become less sensitive.

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Critical Incident 1.4 Setting: Learning lessons on the job Characters: Participant, community members Incident Type: Turning point Themes: Inexperience, learning from mistakes, importance of community involvement Scene: Early experiences, middle management Action/Resolution: Community members challenged the participants regarding purchases for the library’s collection. The community wanted popular reading material, but he believed in purchasing high quality items. After speaking with library users and reflecting on his decision, he realized that the community and their needs/wants should drive the library and its collection.

Critical Incident 1.5

Setting: New manager observes a role model director Characters: Participant, the Library Director Incident Type: Anchoring Themes: Learning from observation, leaders as role models, learning from observation, emphasis on staff/people Scene: Early experiences, middle management Action/Resolution: The participant described a director who made an effort to work side-by-side with frontline staff. From picking up litter to assisting with clerical tasks, this director was a role model, who emphasized supporting staff. The participant learned from this director that all levels of work in a library serve an important purpose and it is imperative to set an example for others.

Critical Incident 1.6

Setting: Emotions run high in the Library Budget Office Characters: Participant, her supervisor Incident Type: Analogous Themes: Leadership challenge-communication, learning from mistakes, mentors teach skills, self-awareness Scene: Early experiences, middle management Action/Resolution: The participant was angry regarding a decision made by her superiors. She wrote a lengthy and passionate letter to the parties involved regarding her irritation. After sharing her letter with her supervisor, who was also a mentor, he advised her to wait 24 hours before sending the letter. She followed his advice and eventually decided to delete the letter, recognizing that the situation had political implications. She realized that she would have more influence if she built relationships in a professional and friendly manner. In her current position, this is a lesson she remembers when responding to or dealing with difficult situations.

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Critical Incident 1.7 Setting: Library director delivers disappointing news Characters: Participant, the Library Director Incident Type: Turning point Themes: Change as a result of a critical incident Scene: Early experiences, middle management Action/Resolution: The participant was interested in applying for a promotion that would have made her the coordinator for youth services for an entire library system. She was told by the library director not to apply for the position, that she did not have a chance to be selected. She realized that she needed to leave youth services if she wanted to move into senior management. She recognized that she would need a different skill set and, as a result, took a position that would provide experience with budgeting and management.

Critical Incident 1.8

Setting: None Characters: None Incident Type: None Themes: None Scene: None Participant could not recall an incident at this point in his career that affected his leadership development.

Critical Incident 1.9

Setting: Working together at a branch library Characters: Participant, branch staff Incident Type: Originating Themes: Leadership challenge-interpersonal struggle, learning from mistakes, emphasis on staff/people, collaboration, engaging others, developing staff Scene: Early experiences, middle management Action/Resolution: As a new branch manager, the participant struggled with her staff. After one year, they proposed a program and she agreed to support their efforts. By working with the staff, recognizing their strengths, and developing their skills, she learned to be more collaborative in her leadership style. She also became more comfortable with leading teams and realized that she enjoyed working in a collaborative team environment.

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Critical Incident 1.10 Setting: Trouble at a city council session Characters: Participant, his supervisor Incident Type: Turning point Themes: Leadership challenge-interpersonal struggle, leadership challenge-political struggle, learning from mistakes, learned to have confidence in opinions, authenticity Scene: Early experiences, middle management Action/Resolution: The participant was questioned about a capital project during a city council session. He hesitated with his response and did not give a definitive answer for fear of political reprisal. His supervisor was displeased with this reaction and him for not giving a strong recommendation. The participant learned that he needed to have confidence in his opinions and to share those opinions regardless of the political situation.

Critical Incident 1.11

Setting: Branch library where policies matter most Characters: Participant, branch manager, the Library Director Incident Type: Originating Themes: Leadership challenge-interpersonal struggle, change as a result of a critical incident, emphasis on staff/people Scene: Early experiences, middle management Action/Resolution: The participant resigned from a position after returning from maternity leave and being denied the opportunity to job share. Despite being dedicated to the library, her immediate supervisor was inflexible with scheduling and would not accommodate a request for more flexibility. The participant was eventually offered a position with the same organization that accommodated her situation. She realized the importance of working with staff and that an organization should be about people above policy.

Critical Incident 1.12

Setting: A new supervisor inspires career aspirations Characters: Participant, her supervisor Incident Type: Turning point Themes: Limited career options, role model broadened perspective, role model encouraged professional development Scene: Early experiences, middle management Action/Resolution: Participant felt constrained in her branch manager position at a public library. As an African American woman, she did not believe that she could be promoted to a position with more responsibility. A new supervisor encouraged the participant to aspire to a senior management position. This supervisor was an African American woman and helped to broaden the participant’s perspective and encouraged her professional development.

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2. Senior Management Critical Incident 2.1

Setting: Library Administration Characters: Participant, consultant Incident Type: Turning point Themes: Self-awareness Scene: Senior management Action/Resolution: Despite working with a challenging director, the participant learned to see his strengths and learn from them. After speaking with a consultant on a library building project, the participant recognized that her director was visionary and innovative. Instead of complaining about his faults, she decided to work closely with him and to learn from him in order to gain insight regarding his talents.

Critical Incident 2.2

Setting: Library Administration Characters: Participant, library director, library board Incident Type: Turning point Themes: Learning from difficult situations, leadership challenge-interpersonal struggle, leadership challenge-political struggle Scene: Senior management Action/Resolution: The participant observed his director being mistreated by the library board members, who did not agree with the director’s decision regarding a particular matter. The director was maligned and the situation was even highlighted by local newspapers. The participant learned the importance of positivity and perseverance in challenging situations.

Critical Incident 2.3

Setting: Library Administration, newly appointed deputy director Characters: Participant, county attorney, library foundation CEO, library foundation board chair Incident Type: Anchoring Themes: Leadership challenge-interpersonal struggle, leadership challenge-political struggle, learned to have confidence opinions Scene: Senior management Action/Resolution: In the library director’s absence, the participant was the lead representative from the library regarding a negotiation with the library foundation over a memorandum of understanding between the two organizations. The negotiation lasted for over one month and was contentious. As a result, the participant learned to have confidence in her opinions and to be more assertive in her leadership position. She also learned to separate work stress from her personal life.

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Critical Incident 2.4 Setting: Leaving for another library position Characters: Participant, staff Incident Type: Redemptive Themes: Leadership challenge-change management, emphasis on staff/people, risk-taking, confidence Scene: Senior management Action/Resolution: The participant struggled to implement changes at one public library. He left that position feeling that he could have done a better job and that the change had been extremely difficult to implement. He was not sure that the staff had accepted his forward thinking mentality. Sometime after starting his new position he learned that the staff from the previous library had contacted the new team. They revealed how they enjoyed working on the change initiatives and how they had come to enjoy his leadership style. This was encouraging and validating for the participant.

Critical Incident 2.5

Setting: Library, newly appointed deputy director Characters: Participant, library director, county manager Incident Type: Anchoring Themes: Emphasis on staff/people, leadership challenge-interpersonal struggle, leadership challenge-political struggle, learning from observation-negative influence, poor management/leadership Scene: Senior management Action/Resolution: The participant was new to his position and made a decision to close the main library due to a potential safety issue. This decision was in conflict with recent county directives regarding building closures. The library director was more concerned with his personal reputation and position and took no steps to support the participant. The participant learned the importance of supporting staff and letting them be comfortable making mistakes. At the time, he vowed to treat staff differently if he were to become a library director.

Critical Incident 2.6

Setting: New job Characters: Participant, library board chair Incident Type: Redemptive Themes: People believed in me, leadership challenge-political struggle Scene: Senior management Action/Resolution: The participant had been offered a position with a new library, but the appointment came into question based on her qualifications. The library board chair fought to offer her the position and she was eventually appointed. The experience was wonderful and positioned her for additional promotions.

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Critical Incident 2.7 Setting: Chamber of Commerce meeting at the library Characters: Participant, library director Incident Type: Analogous Themes: Learning from mistakes, importance of community involvement, mentor provides support Scene: Senior management Action/Resolution: The participant was hosting the local Chamber of Commerce at her branch library. Her director was involved with community groups and happened to be present at this event. The participant did not prepare for her presentation and did not offer enough information regarding the library. She realized her mistake and believed she had squandered an opportunity. Her director was supportive, but she learned to be prepared and to take these opportunities seriously. She also learned to be more attentive to community groups and local politics.

Critical Incident 2.8

Setting: Professional organization Characters: Participant Incident Type: Originating Themes: Serendipity, confidence, recognition of others Scene: Senior management Action/Resolution: The participant was asked to run for the presidency of a national library organization. He did not expect to win, but did indeed win the election. The event encouraged his confidence, validated his leadership ability, and encouraged him to pursue additional leadership roles.

Critical Incident 2.9

Setting: City in political turmoil Characters: Participant, staff, consultant Incident Type: Turning point Themes: Adaptive leadership, learning from mistakes, political acumen, leadership challenge-change management Scene: Senior management Action/Resolution: The library was located in a city in political turmoil. Having worked under several mayors, the participant learned to be adaptive in her leadership. She initiated a project to re-brand the library and worked with a consultant, who led the staff in this effort. During this period, she learned how to work with a team to articulate and implement a vision. The participant believed this was an evolution of learning to do things in a very strategic, cohesive manner.

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Critical Incident 2.10 Setting: Library Administration Characters: Participant, problem staff Incident Type: Anchoring Themes: Leadership challenge-interpersonal struggle, emphasis on staff/people Scene: Senior management Action/Resolution: The participant was addressing numerous personnel challenges in this particular library system. After working with staff by offering training and many resources for growth, some performance issues subsided and others continued. In particular, one branch manager was disciplined and eventually terminated. The participant learned that it is important to take every step possible to assist staff with their performance. Giving people opportunities to improve is imperative before removing them from a position.

Critical Incident 2.11

Setting: Interview Characters: Participant, her family Incident Type: Turning point Themes: Family supports career choices, conflict between personal and professional Scene: Senior management Action/Resolution: Participant was being recruited for her first directorship at a time that her father had suddenly died. Despite being conflicted about moving away from her family, she was encouraged to accept the position.

Critical Incident 2.12

Setting: Library Administration Characters: Participant Incident Type: Contaminating Themes: Learning from difficult situations, learning from observation-poor management/leadership, leadership challenge-difficult organizations Scene: Senior management Action/Resolution: Participant could not recall a specific incident, but learned from a series of negative situations regarding how poor leadership can affect an organization.

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3. Directorship Critical Incident 3.1

Setting: Budget unrest Characters: Participant, community, staff, media Incident Type: Turning point Themes: Leadership challenge-political struggle, leadership challenge-budget, importance of networks, confidence, self-efficacy Scene: Directorship Action/Resolution: During the Great Recession, the city was facing terrible budget times and the library’s budget was widely debated in the press as cuts loomed. The participant experienced extreme stress and relied on her peer network for support. During the budget crisis, a staff member was killed in a drunk driving accident. In the midst of this turmoil, the participant realized that she could bear the stress of any situation. She found new confidence in her abilities to move the organization and staff through any challenge.

Critical Incident 3.2

Setting: Training office Characters: Participant, training coordinator Incident Type: Anchoring Themes: Authenticity, emphasis on staff/people, emotional intelligence Scene: Directorship Action/Resolution: The participant was told that he leads with his heart and that this style will always impact an organization. He realized that his leadership made a difference in the organization and that staff members were influenced by his concern for them.

Critical Incident 3.3

Setting: Library funding during an election Characters: Participant, staff, trustees, county board chair Incident Type: Contaminating Themes: Leadership challenge-political struggle, leadership challenge-budget, leadership challenge-interpersonal struggle, learning from experiences, adaptive capacity Scene: Directorship Action/Resolution: The participant, her staff, and library trustees had prepared for a ballot measure to guarantee library funding. The various parties worked for several years to strategize and prepare for the election. In particular, she spent time convincing staff of the importance of this effort for the library. At the last minute, the county board’s chair directed the participant to pull the initiative and she had to deliver the discouraging news to library stakeholders. The participant had to appear supportive of her supervisor’s decision, while working with staff to manage their disappointment. She learned to adapt her leadership style and balance her emotions.

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Critical Incident 3.4 Setting: Budget turmoil Characters: Participant, library staff, union representatives Incident Type: Turning point Themes: Self-awareness, leadership challenge-difficult organizations, leadership challenge-change management, leadership challenge-budget, leadership challenge-interpersonal struggle Scene: Directorship Action/Resolution: The participant was in a new position and attempted to implement changes to workflow and operations. This was during a time when the budget was being reduced and he could not hire or replace staff. The turmoil ensued for six years, as he pushed through new initiatives with a skeletal staff. At one contentious meeting, a group of managers challenged their management responsibilities. The participant realized that the organization was not going to change any further. He applied for other positions and eventually moved to another organization.

Critical Incident 3.5

Setting: Library posters fuel political fire Characters: Participant, county manager Incident Type: Anchoring Themes: Leadership challenge-political struggle, learning from mistakes Scene: Directorship Action/Resolution: The participant’s staff created a series of library posters featuring various local politicians. One politician became angry when she learned that a rival was also featured in this series of library posters. The participant became embroiled in a political argument and was questioned by the county manager. The county manager was supportive and assisted in smoothing the situation. This endorsement and loyalty reinforced the participant’s belief that leaders should support their staff.

Critical Incident 3.6

Setting: Mayor’s office Characters: Participant, mayor Incident Type: Analogous Themes: Leadership challenge-political struggle, leadership challenge-communication, leadership challenge-budget Scene: Directorship Action/Resolution: The participant was angry with her mayor when he did not include the library in a literacy initiative that included funding. The participant criticized the mayor, who eventually learned of the incident. He confronted the participant, who apologized for her behavior. She learned to be careful with her communications and keeps this incident in mind when responding to sensitive political situations.

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Critical Incident 3.7 Setting: Internet and filtering controversy Characters: Participant, community Incident Type: Redemptive Themes: Importance of community involvement, leadership challenge-political struggle, library seen as a leader in the community, change as a result of critical incident Scene: Directorship Action/Resolution: After passage of the Child Internet Protection Act, the participant was forced to approach the issue with her community. While the participant did not want to install filters, she strategized her message so that the community members accepted her decision. The participant also designed and implemented a series of programs on free speech and access to information. As a result of this year-long series, the library was seen as a safe place to discuss community concerns. The library became a leader in the community and vital to the democratic process.

Critical Incident 3.8

Setting: Internet filtering in first directorship Characters: Participant, community Incident Type: Analogous Themes: Importance of networks, resilience, confidence, leadership challenge-political struggle Scene: Directorship Action/Resolution: After passage of the Child Internet Protection Act, the participant was confronted by some community members who wanted to limit Internet access. The participant was vilified and personally attacked. He relied on his peer network and values to work through the situation. He also learned to be confident and resilient when facing a crisis. Finally, he realized that it was good to look to other staff with different skills and strengths to assist with the situation.

Critical Incident 3.9

Setting: Applying for a grant Characters: Participant, staff Incident Type: Anchoring Themes: Emphasis on staff/people, developing others, recognizing the strengths of others Scene: Directorship Action/Resolution: In the midst of writing an important grant application, the lead staff member became injured and could not continue with the project. The senior managers pulled together under the participant’s direction to finish the application. After getting the group started and assigning portions that worked with their strengths, the participant stepped away and allowed the group to finish. The project reinforced her collaborative leadership style.

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Critical Incident 3.10 Setting: Service equity in a big city Characters: Participant, city department heads Incident Type: Analogous Themes: Leadership challenge-difficult organizations, leadership challenge-communication, leadership challenge-political struggle Scene: Directorship Action/Resolution: In this position, the participant and other city department heads were asked about service equity issues in their facilities. While other department heads struggled with these questions, the participant learned to research the issues and come prepared to speak about the library. He learned to consider various perspectives, including those of elected officials.

Critical Incident 3.11

Setting: Community meeting, new director Characters: Participant, mayor, community members Incident Type: Analogous Themes: Leadership challenge-budget, leadership challenge-communication, leadership challenge-political struggle, importance of community involvement, mentor, people believed in me Scene: Directorship Action/Resolution: Due to a budget crisis, the participant was forced to propose closing a branch library. She met with community members for months prior to this decision. Her mayor supported her decision at community meetings and agreed with her despite the political consequences. She learned about the importance of community involvement and how passionate communities are regarding library services.

Critical Incident 3.12

Setting: Library services during a natural disaster Characters: Participant, community Incident Type: Redemptive Themes: Leadership challenge-budget, library seen as a leader in the community, changed view of library director, growth from crisis Scene: Directorship Action/Resolution: A natural disaster made the library step up to be a part of the recovery for the city. The library’s efforts made people look at the library as a leading organization and changed the way people viewed the library director’s role.

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Appendix F

Leadership Attributes Cited by Study Participants