By: Nicole Kline

Ch 13 Reformation and Religious Warfare in the Sixteenth

Century

Northern Humanists (also called Christian humanists) focused on the sources of early Christianity, Holy Scriptures, and writings of church fathers. Most important characteristic was their reform program. Believed that through education in the sources of classical

antiquity they could instill an inward religious feeling that would bring about a reform of the church in society.

Supported schools Brought new additions of the classics and prepared new editions of the

Bible and writings of the church fathers.

They believed that the power of education would remain an important characteristic of European Civilization.

Most prominent Christian Humanists: Desiderius Erasmus Thomas More

Christian or Northern Renaissance Humanism

Erasmus (1466-1536)

Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536) was the most influential of all Christian Humanists. Formulated and popularized the reform program of Christian

humanism. The Handbook of The Christian Knight reflected his preoccupation

with religion Called his conceptions of religion “the philosophy of Christ,”

meaning that Christianity should be a guiding philosophy for the direction of daily life, not the system of dogmatic beliefs and practices. Emphasized inner piety and deemphasized the external forms of

religion. He edited the Greek text of the New Testament and published it

with a new Latin translation (1516) Wrote The Praise of Folly which was used to effectively criticize

the corrupt practices of society in a humorous way. His work helped prepare the way of the reformation.

**“Erasmus laid the egg that Luther hatched”**

Erasmus

More had an interest in new classical learning and became proficient in Latin and Greek. Made translations from Greek authors and wrote prose and

poetry in Latin. Wrote Utopia (1516) which is an account of the idealistic

life and institutions of a community, Utopia. Reflects his concerns with the economic, political, and social problems,

and presents a new social system in which cooperation and reasons replaces power and fame as the proper motivating agents of society.

*Utopian society based on communal ownership rather than private property.*

Thomas More (1478-1535)

Corruption in the Catholic Church was another factor that caused people to want to reform.

Economic changes in the 14th and 15th century affected the clergy. Most members were nobles or wealthy members of the bourgeoisie. High church officials took over more than one church office

(pluralism), which led to absenteeism (church office holders ignoring their duties and hiring underlings who were sometimes not appropriately qualified.)

As more people sought certainty of salvation through veneration of relics, collections grew. Indulgences: a remission of all/part of the punishment for sin. “As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory

springs” was a German advertising slogan used by the Church. Others sought certainty of salvation through Modern Devotion,

which downplayed religious dogma and stressed the need to follow teachings of Jesus. Thomas á Kempis- The Imitation of Christ

Church/Religion on the Eve of the Reformation

Luther’s early life was characterized with an obsession of his own sins and questions over the efficacy of the sacraments. The sacraments were a Catholic’s chief means of receiving God’s grace

and confession offered the opportunity of having one’s sins forgiven.

In 1512 he received his doctorate and became a professor at the University of Wittenberg, lecturing on the Bible.

Believed that humans are not saved through their good works but through faith in the promises of God, made possible by the sacrifice of Jesus on the cr0ss. The doctrine of salvation or justification by grace through faith alone

became the primary doctrine of the Protestant Reformation. The bible became the chief guide to religious truth.

The indulgence Controversy Pope Leo X issued a special jubilee indulgence to finance the

construction of St. Peter’s Basilica. Johann Tetzel sold indulgences in Germany, and Luther was distressed by the sales of indulgences.

Luther issued his Ninety-Five Thesis and nailed it to the church doors. Pope Leo X did not take Luther’s Thesis seriously. A German translation of the thesis was printed in thousands of copies.

Martin Luther and the Reformation in Germany

The Leipzig Debate: Luther’s opponent, Johann Eck, forced Luther to move beyond indulgences and deny the authority of the popes and councils. Luther was compelled to see the effects of his new theology.

Luther published three pamphlets t0 move toward a more definite break with the Catholic Church. Address to the Nobility of the German Nation- a political tract written in

German in which Luther called on the German princes to overthrow the papacy in Germany and establish a reformed German church.

Babylonian Captivity of the Church- written in Latin, it attacked the sacramental system as the means by which the pop and church had held the real meaning of the Gospel captive for a thousand years. He called for a reform of monasticism and for the clergy to marry.

On the Freedom of a Christian Man- a short treatise on the doctrine of salvation.

The church excommunicated him January 1521, and summoned him to appear before the Reichstag (the diet of the Holy Roman Empire) in Worms, convened by Emperor Charles V. (the Edict of Worms) Luther was made an outlaw within the empire. Luther’s works were to be burned, and he was to be captured and

delivered to the emperor.

A Quickening Rebellion

Woodcut: Luther Versus the PopePamphlets containing picturesque woodcuts were important in the

spread of Luther’s ideas.

The preaching of evangelical sermons, based on a return to the original message of the Bible, was favored throughout Germany.

A reform of the church was instituted by state authorities. Pamphlets were used to spread the Reformation. Luther used music to teach the Gospel.

Lutheranism spread to states and cities in Germany. Nuremberg was the first imperial city to convert to Lutheranism. The Reformation in Germany was largely and urban

phenomenon. Luther experienced dissent with others, such as Andreas

Carlstadt, who wanted to initiate a more radical reform by abolishing all relics, images, and the Mass.

When others realized that Luther’s movement threatened the unity of Christendom, the older generation of Christian humanists broke away. A younger generation of Christian humanists played a significant

role in Lutheranism.

The Rise of Lutheranism

Peasant dissatisfaction and social discontent led to the peasants looking to Martin Luther for support.

Radical Thomas Müntzer, inflamed the peasants against their rulers. Revolt first erupted in southwestern Germany and spread

northward and eastward. Luther reacted with his pamphlet Against the Robbing and

Murdering Hordes of Peasants in which he called on the German princes to “smite, slay, and stab” the stupid and stubborn peasantry.

Luther supported the rulers. To him, the state and its rulers were ordained by God and given the authority to maintain peace and order necessary for the spread of the Gospel. It was the duty of the princes to put down all revolts. By May 1525, the German princes suppressed the peasant hordes.

By this time, Luther found himself more dependent on state authorities for the growth and maintenance of his reformed church.

The Peasants’ War

Since Luther downplayed the role off good works in salvation, the sacraments had to be redefined. The sacraments were now divinely established signs signifying

the promise of salvation. Only kept two sacraments: baptism and the Lord’s Supper.

Baptism signified rebirth through grace. Luther denied the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, which taught

that the bread and wine consumed in the rite is miraculously transformed into the body and blood of Jesus.

Constituted a “priesthood of all believers,” since all Christians who followed the word of God were their own priests.

The Lutheran church in Germany became territorial or state churched in which the state supervised and disciplined church members.

Luther instituted new religious services to replace the Mass. This included a vernacular liturgy focused on Bible reading, preaching of the word of God, and song. He denunciated clerical celibacy and provided a model of married

and family life for the new Protestant minister.

Church and State

Charles I was elected Holy Roman Emperor as Charles V. Politically, he wanted to maintain his dynasty’s control over his empire. Religiously, he hoped to preserve the unity of the Catholic faith.

The French, the papacy, the Turks, and Germany’s internal situation cost him his dream and his health. His problems gave Luther’s movement time to grow and organize.

Charles V’s chief concern was his rivalry with the

Valois king of France, Francis I. They had disputes over territories. These disputes were called the Habsburg-Valois Wars (1521-1544), and prevented Charles from focusing on the Lutheran problem in Germany. Pope Clement II joined the side of Francis I In April 1527, the Spanish-imperial army and Charles V attacked Rome and gave the capital of Catholicism fearful and bloody sacking. Clement came to terms with the emperor and soon, Charles V stood supreme over much of Italy.

The Ottoman Turks, under Suleiman the Magnificent,

defeated and killed King Lois of Hungary at the Battle of

Mohács. The Turks overran most of Hungary, moved into

Austria, and advanced into Vienna.

Religion and Politics

Charles V ( 1519-1556)

Germany was a land of many territorial states: princely states, ecclesiastical principalities, and free imperial cities, and theses states were enabled to become independent of imperial authority.

Charles’s attempted to settle the Lutheran problem at the Diet of Augsburg. The emperor ended up demanding that the Lutherans return to the Catholic

Church.

Fearful of Charles’s intentions, eight princes and eleven imperial cities formed a defensive alliance called the Schmalkaldic League.

Charles was preoccupied with military campaigns, and after many wars fought, he made peace with Francis in 1544 and the Turks in 1545.

Charles brought an imperial army of German, Dutch, Italian, and Spanish troops to do with battle with the Protestants. In the first phase of the Schmalkaldic Wars, the emperor’s forces defeated the

Lutherans at the Battle of Mühlberg. The Schmalkaldic League reestablished and allied with the new French king,

Henry II to revive the war. Charles negotiated a truce and abandoned German affairs to his brother Ferdinand.

An end to religious warfare in Germany came with the Peace of Augburgs. The division of Christianity was recognized and Lutheranism was granted equal

legal standing with Catholicism. Accepted the right of each German ruler to determine the religion of his subjects.

Politics in Germany

The Union of Kalmar brought the unification of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden under the rule of the king of Denmark. This union did not achieve social or political unification.

In 1520, the ruler of Denmark, Christian II was overthrown by Swedish barons led by Gustavus Vasa. Three years later, Vasa became king of independent Sweden. Vasa took the lead of establishing a Lutheran Reformation and by

the 1530s, the Swedish Lutheran National Church had been created.

Meanwhile, Charles II of Denmark was succeeded by his uncle, Frederick I. Frederick encouraged Lutherans to spread their evangelical

doctrines and to introduce a Lutheran liturgy into the Danish church service.

Frederick’s successor, Charles III installed a Lutheran state church with the king as supreme authority.

Charles also helped spread Lutheranism to Norway. By the 1540’s, Scandinavia became a Lutheran stronghold.

Lutheranism in Scandinavia

The Swiss Confederation was a loose association of 13 self-governing states called cantons. The six forest canons were democratic republics. The seven urban cantons were mostly governed by city councils controlled by

oligarchies of the wealthy.

Ulrich Zwingli became a cathedral priest in the Great Minister of Zürich. Through his preaching, he began the Reformation of Switzerland. Evangelical reforms were promulgated in Zürich by a city council influenced by

Zwingli. Relics and images were abolished; all paintings and decorations were removed

from the churches and replaced by whitewashed walls. The Mass was replaced by a new liturgy that had Scripture reading, prayer, and

sermons. Music was eliminated.

Zwingli built a league of evangelical cities by seeking an agreement with Luther and the German reformers.

To him, the Lord’s Supper was only a meal of remembrance and that the bread and the wine only symbolized the body and blood of Jesus.

In Strasbourg, a moderate reform with Luther and Zwingli’s ideas was instituted by Martin Brucer. To promote an alliance between the Swiss and German reformed churches, the

Marburg Colloquy was instituted. The Colloquy produced no agreement and no alliance because of the differences on the Lord’s Supper.

The Zwinglian Reformation

In October 1531,war broke out between the Swiss Protestant and Catholic cantons. Zwingli was wounded on the battlefield. His enemies killed him

and cut up his body, burned the pieces, and scattered the ashes.

Martin Brucer

(1491-1551)

Ulrich Zwingli

(1484-1531)

Anabaptism was attractive to the peasants, weavers, miners, and artisans who had been affected by the economic changes.

All believed that the true Christian church was a voluntary association of believers who had been baptized into the church, but Anabaptists advocated adult baptism rather than infant baptism. Each church chose it’s own minister, who then had the duty to

lead services. They rejected theological speculation in favor of simple

Christian living. The Lord’s Supper was a remembrance. Believed in complete separation of church and state and

refused to hold political office or bear arms. The Anabaptists were regarded as dangerous radicals who

threatened the society.

The Radical Reformation: The Anabaptists

The Swiss Brethren: an early group of Anabaptists who arose in Zürich. Their teachings spread through southern Germany, the Austrian Habsburg

lands, and Switzerland, emerged in Moravia and Poland, and took a strange form in the Netherlands.

The city of Münster became a haven for Anabaptists, especially for Melchiorites. They adhered to millenarianism, which was a belief that the end of the world was at hand and the kingdom of God is about to be established on Earth with Münster as the New Jerusalem. They took control of the city, drove out anyone considered godless, burned

all books except the Bible, and proclaimed communal ownership of all property.

The leadership of this New Jerusalem fell into the hands of John of Leiden.

Dutch Anabaptism: Menno Simmons rejuvenated Anabaptism in the Netherlands. His Anabaptism stressed separation from the world in order to truly emulate the life of Jesus. He imposed strict discipline on his followers- the Mennonites.

Varieties of Anabaptists

Menno Simmons (1496-1561)

Initiated by King Henry VIII, who wanted to divorce his first wife, Catherine of Argon because she failed to produce a male heir. Henry had fallen in love with Anne Boleyn, who refused to be Henry’s

mistress. The king relied on Cardinal Wolsey to obtain an annulment of the king’s

marriage. Henry dismissed Wolsey and relied on two new advisers: Thomas Cranmer and Thomas Cromwell.

They advised the king to cut off all appeals from the English church courts to Rome. This abolished papal authority in England.

Anne became pregnant and was crowned queen. To much disappointment, the child born was a girl, whom they named Elizabeth.

In 1534, Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy to complete the break of the Church of England with Rome. The English monarch now controlled the church. Parliament also passed the Treason Act, making it punishable by death to

deny that the king was the supreme head of the church. Thomas More was one of the few who challenged the new order.

The Reformation in England

Thomas Cromwell worked out the details of the Tudor government’s new role in church affairs. He also gave financial aid to the King.

Although Henry VII had broken form the papacy, little changed in the matters of doctrine, ceremony, and theology. Archbishop Thomas Cranmer wished to have a religious reformation, as

well as an administrative one.

Tired of Anne Boleyn, Henry had her beheaded on a charge of adultery. His third wife, Jane Seymour, had a male heir but died twelve days

later. His fourth wife, Anne of Cleaves, was arranged for political reasons.

He was disappointed by her physical appearance and divorced her. His fifth wife, Catherine Howard, was beheaded on a charge of

adultery. His sixth and last wife, Catherine Parr, outlived Henry.

Edward VI, the son of the King’s third wife, succeeded Henry VII. Since he was only 9, his accession of the throne was passed through a council of regency. Archbishop Cranmer and others inclined toward Protestant doctrines. They instituted the

right of the clergy to marry, the elimination of images, and a new prayer book known as the Book of Common Prayer.

The New Order

Mary was a Catholic who intended to restore England to Roman Catholic.

Her restoration of Catholicism aroused opposition. There was widespread apathy to Mary’s marriage to Philip II, the

son of Charles V and the future king of Spain. Philip was strongly disliked in England. Mary’s foreign policy of alliance of Spain aroused hostility.

The burning of more than three hundred Protestants aroused further ire against Mary, who had gained the name “bloody Mary.”

As a result of her policies, Mary managed to achieve the opposite of what she had intended. England was more Protestant by the end of her reign than it was in the

beginning.

Her death ended the Catholic restoration in England.

Reaction Under Mary

Institutes of the Christian Religion, written by Calvin, was a masterful synthesis od Protestant thought that secured his position as one of the new leaders of Protestantism.

He adhered to the doctrine of justification by faith alone. He also placed emphasis on the absolute sovereignty of God.

One idea derived from the emphasis on the absolute sovereignty of God, was predestination. This meant that god has predestined some people to be saved and others to be damned.

He stressed that there could be no absolute certainty of salvation.

In Geneva, Calvin took up a ministry that lasted until his death. The city council accepted his new church council known as the

Ecclesiastical Ordinances, which created a church government that used both clergy and laymen in the service of the church.

Calvin’s success in Geneva enabled the city to become a vibrant center of Protestantism.

Calvinism

Catholic and Protestant clergy preached sermons advocating a more positive side to family relationships. The protestants were especially important in developing this new view of the

family. For most protestant women, family life was their own destiny. The protestant Reformation did not noticeably transform women’s subordinate

place in society.

The Reformation has an important effect on the development of education in Europe. Protestant secondary schools and universities were established, and were

aimed at a much wider audience. Protestant reformers broadened the base of the people being educated. Martin Luther advocated that all children should have the opportunity of an

education provided by the state. The gymnasium or secondary school was introduced, where the humanist emphasis on the

liberal arts based on instruction in Greek and Latin was combined with religious instruction. The most famous school was in Strasbourg, founded by Johannes Strum John Calvin’s Genevan Academy was organized into two parts, the private school and the

public school.

They abolished saints’ days and religious carnivals, some tried to eliminate forms of entertainment.

Puritans were English Calvinists, and they attempted to ban taverns, dramas, and dancing.

The Family and Education in the Reformation

The Catholic Reformation was a mixture of old and new elements as the best features of medieval Catholicism were revived and then adjusted to meet new conditions.

Old orders such as the Benedictines and Dominicans were reformed and renewed.

A nun of the Carmelite order, Theresa founded the Carmelite nuns and worked to foster her mystical experiences.

New religious orders and brotherhoods were created. The Theatines reformed the secular clergy and encouraged the clerics

to fulfill their duties among the laity. They also founded orphanages and hospitals to care for victims of the war and plague.

The Urselines focused on establishing schools for the education of girls.

The Oratory of Divine Love was a n informal group od clergy and laymen who worked to foster reform by emphasizing personal spiritual development and outward acts of charity. The “philosophy of Christ” was especially appealing to them. Their members included a number of cardinals who favored the reform

of the Catholic Church.

The Catholic Reformation

The Society of Jesus, known as the Jesuits, became the chief instrument in the Catholic Reformation.

Founded by Ignatius Loyola The Spiritual Exercises was a brief, powerful book that worked out a

spiritual program. It was a training manual for spiritual development.

The Jesuits established highly disciplined schools, had propagation of the Catholic faith among non-Christians, and were determined to carry the Catholic banner and fight Protestantism.

Francis Xavier carried the message of Catholic Christianity to the East. He converted tens of thousands in India, Malacca, the Moluccas, and

Japan.

The Society of Jesus

Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556)

Francis Xavier

(1506-1552)

The pontificate of Pope Paul III proved a turning point of the reform in the papacy. He continued Renaissance papal practices by appointing his nephews as cardinals, involving himself in politics, and patronizing arts and letters.

A turning point in the direction of the Catholic Reformation was at a colloquy held at Regensburg in a final attempt to settle the religious division. Here, Catholic moderates reached a compromise with Protestant moderates. The conservative reformers persuaded Paul III to establish the Roman Inquisition or the

Holy Office.

Cardinal Caraffa was chosen pope as Paul IV. He increased the power of the Inquisition. He has been called the “first true pope of the Catholic Counter-Reformation.” He created the Index of Forbidden Books.

The Council of Trent issued decrees that reaffirmed traditional Catholic teachings in opposition to Protestant beliefs. Scripture and tradition were affirmed as equal authorities in religious matters; only the

church could interpret Scripture. Faith and good works were declared necessary for salvation. The seven sacraments, transubstantiation, and clerical celibacy were upheld. The most important decrees established theological seminaries for the training of priests.

After the Council of Trent, the Roman Catholic Church was a body of doctrine and a unified church under the acknowledged supremacy of the popes.

A Revived Papacy and The Council of Trent

Huguenots (French Calvinists) came from all levels of society, and about 40-50% of the French nobility became Huguenots. They potentially became a dangerous political threat to monarchial power.

The Valois monarchy was Catholic and was soon dominated by Catherine de’ Medici. She looked to compromise as a way to defuse the political tensions. The extreme Catholic party (the Ultra-Catholics) favored strict opposition to the

Huguenots and was led by the Guise family.

Another factor contributing to the French civil wars was the resentment of the growing powers monarchial centralization. A group of public figures called politiques who placed politics before religion

and believed that no religious truth was worth the rages of civil war emerged in France.

The wars erupted when the duke if Guise massacred a peaceful congregation of Huguenots, called the Saint Bartholomew’s Day massacre. The fighting continued and the Huguenots rebuilt their strength. The ultra-Catholics formed a “holy league” The turning point in the conflict came in the war of the Three Henries.

The religious problem persisted until the Edict of Nantes was issued in 1598. This acknowledged Catholicism as the official religion of France but guaranteed

the Huguenots the right to worship in selected places.

The French Wars of Religion (1562-1598)

The greatest advocate of militant Catholicism in the second half of the sixteenth century was King Philip II of Spain. The first major goal of Philip II was to consolidate and secure the lands he had

inherited from his father, which meant strict conformity to Catholicism enforced by aggressive use of the Spanish Inquisition, and the establishment of strong, monarchial authority.

He also wanted to make Spain a dominant power in Europe.

The attempt to make Spain a great power led to its decline after Philip’s reign.

Philip II, the “Most Catholic King,” became a champion of Catholicism in Europe. This led to victories and defeats for the Spanish King. The Battle of Lepanto in 1571 was a stunning victory over the Turkish fleet in the

Mediterranean. His greatest misfortunes came from his attempt to crush the revolt in the

Netherlands and his tortured relations with Queen Elizabeth of England.

Philip II and Militant Catholicism

The Spanish Netherland was one of the richest and important parts of Philip’s empire. The Netherlands became prosperous through commerce and a

flourishing textile industry. Despite the opposition, Philip strengthened his control of the Netherlands.

The taxes were used to support the Spanish. He also attempted to crush Calvinism. The oppressive policies were counterproductive, which alienated

merchants and commoners. They joined the nobles and Calvinists against Spanish rule.

The Council of Troubles inaugurated a reign of terror in which powerful aristocrats were executed.

With the help of William of Orange, the Netherlands was now divided along religious, geographical, and political lines into two hostile camps. When a twelve-year truce ended the war, it recognized the

independence of the northern provinces. These “United Provinces” soon emerged as the Dutch Republic and the ten southern provinces remained under Spanish possession.

Revolt of the Netherlands

After the death of Queen Mary in 1588, he half-sister Elizabeth ascended to the throne of England. During her reign, became the leader of the Protestant nations of Europe and laid the foundations for a world empire. During Mary’s reign Elizabeth had been imprisoned. Elizabeth moved quickly to solve the religious problem inherited from Mary.

Elizabeth’s religious policy was based on moderation and compromise. The new Act of Supremacy designated Elizabeth as the only supreme

governor of England. The Act of Uniformity restored the church service of the Book of Common

Prayer. The Catholics and the Puritans opposed the new religious settlement. Elizabeth’s Catholic cousin, Mary queen of Scots, was placed under house

arrest for her plan to kill Elizabeth. The Puritans wished to remove all traces of Catholicism from the Church

of England. Caution, moderation, and expediency dictated Elizabeth’s foreign policy.

She encouraged the English to raid Spanish ships and colonies. She was drawn into more active involvement in the Netherlands.

The England of Elizabeth

Philip ordered preparations of a fleet of warships that would rendezvous with the army of the duke of Parma in Flanders and escort his troops across the English Channel for invasion.

The armada was a disaster. The Spanish fleet that set sail did not have ships nor troops

that Philip I planned to send. The Spanish fleet sailed back to Spain, where it was further

battered by storms. The defeat of the Spanish armada guaranteed that England

would remain a Protestant country.

The Spanish Armada