Buy an Efficient Car -Catalytic Convertor

7/27/2019 Buy an Efficient Car -Catalytic Convertor

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Buy an Efficient Car

With the emergence of peak oil and climate change as hot issues, car makers have beenfocusing their engineers on fuel efficiency, aerodynamics and hybrid technology. So

when youre next in the market for a new set of wheels consider buying an efficient car

Cars are the primary mode of transport in Australia with most households having at leastone. he current generation of cars emit greenhouse gases, which contribute to climatechange. !or every litre of petrol used in a motor vehicle, ".# kilograms of carbon dioxide$C%"& is released from the exhaust.

he new breed of efficient cars and hybrids are increasing fuel efficiency by significantmargins and with electric cars about to emerge onto the market in the next few years, wewill soon have cars with 'ero net carbon emissions.

As one of the ma(or investments for most families, car efficiency also means lowerrunning costs, better insurance rates and even green loans.

How to do it now!

he efficiency of the vehicle $design, engine, weight, etc.& determines the fuelconsumption and the amount of greenhouse gases and air born pollution released perkilometre, so there are plenty of factors to consider to reduce the emissions you create.

Buying a new efficient car

!uel efficient cars have the following benefits)

hey produce fewer C%" emissions, lowering their impact on the environment

and contribution to climate change. hey consume less fuel and are therefore less expensive to run, year in year out.

With peak oil, carbon taxes, and climate change concerns pushing the price offuel up, the savings derived from increased fuel efficiency will only increase.

hey highlight and focus the economy and community on the value of our

efficient use of energy.

As the following table demonstrates, an efficient car reduces both your annual C%"

emissions and the amount of money you pump into your car at the petrol bowser.

CO2 Tailpipe Emissions from

Petrol Vehicles

Costs and Dollar Savings from Efficient fuel

consumption

!uelConsumption

Annual C%"*missions

+etrol cost per -/0$12.- 3litre& 4 yrs

Additional cost $5Smost efficient&

6 73km ",8kg 2#,- 2

9 73km ",86kg 29, 2:,-


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CO2 Tailpipe Emissions from

Petrol Vehicles

Costs and Dollar Savings from Efficient fuel

consumption

73km #,:-kg 2"",- 2;,

" 73km :,:kg 2"8, 2#,-

NOTE: Based on 15,000 kilometres annually

he


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are higher than petrol, but engines designed to operate on diesel tend to be far more fuel4efficient than petrol engines.

o be sure that one vehicle has lower greenhouse emissions than another use theou can also ring the Aus?ndustry otline on # "9 :6 or emailhotline1ausin d ustry.gov .au
http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/transport/fuelguide/environment.htmlhttp://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/transport/fuelguide/environment.htmlhttp://www.evworld.com/index.cfmhttp://www.ausindustry.gov.au/EnergyandFuels/LPGVehicleScheme/Pages/LPGVehicleSchemeApplicationForm.aspxhttp://www.ausindustry.gov.au/EnergyandFuels/LPGVehicleScheme/Pages/LPGVehicleSchemeApplicationForm.aspxhttp://www.ausindustry.gov.au/EnergyandFuels/LPGVehicleScheme/Pages/LPGVehicleSchemeApplicationForm.aspxmailto:[email protected]:[email protected]://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/transport/fuelguide/environment.htmlhttp://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/transport/fuelguide/environment.htmlhttp://www.evworld.com/index.cfmhttp://www.ausindustry.gov.au/EnergyandFuels/LPGVehicleScheme/Pages/LPGVehicleSchemeApplicationForm.aspxhttp://www.ausindustry.gov.au/EnergyandFuels/LPGVehicleScheme/Pages/LPGVehicleSchemeApplicationForm.aspxmailto:[email protected]


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!or more information on rebates check our rebates an d assistancepage or visit theAustralian


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he only certainty is that the future should look very different from the past. When weconsider air pollution in cities from burning fossil fuels as the main source of energy forelectricity production, transportation, home heating and industrial production, then theentire infrastructure of industrial countries must change. Climate change from burningfossil fuels is occurring with destructive forces that will continue to increase and interfere

with expectations of a FnormalF life and economy.

riving a car is the most air polluting act an average citi'en commits. Air pollution is nota good idea for a variety of reasons, large and small. he right ideas for remediation ofenvironmental degradations involve unselfish and compassionate behavior, a scarcecommodity. he right ideas involve long4term planning, conservation and a deepcommitment to preserving the natural world. Without a healthy natural environment,there will be few or no healthy humans.

To understand air pollutionyou can consider a simple schematic that divides a bigproblem into components.

. 7ocal effects 4e.g. poisoning humans breathing bad air.

". Gegional effects 4 fallout from airborne pathogens 4 infections, particles, chemicals.

#.


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smaller, more fuel efficient vehicles for sale. !ord appeared to be unscathed by therecession. Car design has changed radically and fuel efficiency as been increased andsales have increased.

he explosion of a a deep sea oil rig in the


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Despite compelling evidence of climate change, governments in many affluentcountries have avoided their responsibility to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. heESA is the biggest emitter of greenhouse gases worldwide. ES emissions increased to 8billion tones of C%"in ":, 6J higher than emissions in the late ;@s. he E/ didbetter reducing their emissions to about .6 billion tons, :J below ;; levels. An

accurate analysis of total greenhouse gas emission is difficult or impossible to achievesince there many variable and unknowns. ake the ES estimates, for example, and pursuethe argument that the ES is also responsible for some emissions from other countries,which provide raw materials and manufacturing for the ES economy. Gomm argued)"U.S. businesses have off-shored more and more of the U.S. economys and CO2emissions to parts of the world where the carbon intensity is higher but labor is cheaper.he U.S. has essentially off-shored its emission problem to the rest of the world! turningtheir economies into dumping grounds for our own air pollution. "

Car e)haust is to)ic at ground level *xhaust from all combustion engines combine toproduce local adverse effects on the health of car users and all innocent bystanders. Citieshave become islands of toxic chemicals from the unrestrained use of vehicles burning

fossil fuels. Cars are noisy, ugly, often dangerous and dominate the experience of modernliving. We are now used to the carnage on roads and highways4 attempts to reduce deathand disability from our motori'ed containers have not substantially altered the negativeimpact on society. he adverse health effects of car exhaust are pervasive and difficult tomeasure. See *xhaust Chemicals.

&dvertising and Delusions elevision Ads for sports and recreation vehicles showsolitary, impeccable machines in wilderness locations. %ne 5 ad shows a couplemaking a mad dash to escape the city core in their expensive, luxury upholstered clone ofthe land4rover. he ads are selling a fantasy of wilderness, fresh air and escape. ?s theconsumer is completely deludedD hese vehicles are mostly found in suburban driveways

and in the traffic (ams of polluted cities. hey have nowhere to go to escape theenvironmental degradation they help to create) :x: drives and large tires are rarely usefulin cities and are not suited to highway driving. >ou see these machines, submerged insuburban driveways by the floods they helped to create. he latest car advertising hasswitched to styling, crash protection, interior comforts and fuel efficiency as the mainselling points. While these improvements are welcome, reduced vehicle useis the mostessential remedy and is seldom mentioned.

Ethanol Combustion engines contribute to greenhouse gas accumulation in theatmosphere and are responsible for climate changes. A sane, sober revision of vehicle useis long overdue. While ethanol has been championed as an alternative to petroleum fuels,

it mainly helps to reduce dependency on oil producing countries. *thanol or methanol canbe blended with gasoline to reduce petroleum dependency.


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here are problems in the bigger picture of carbon consumption and emission. Whenethanol is made from corn, some its energy value $up to 8J in the least efficient plants&must be spent on its production. While innovations in production technologies continue,there will be an ongoing re=uirement to invent new methods of production. ?nvestment innew technologies will re=uire government policy changes, subsidies and research grants.

Climate change with extreme weather events may reduce corn production in the ES,where for decades corn surpluses were common. he new competition between ethanolplants and food production suddenly in "9 became an international issue.

?f you are an optimist, you might argue that improved technologies will save the day 444corn yields per acre have been increasing mostly because of genetic engineering, so thatfood and ethanol production need not compete in the future. he ethanol industry usesonly the carbohydrate fraction of the cornI the protein and oil fractions are used as animalfeed to be consumed by humans as dairy products, eggs and meat. ?f you are a pessimist,you might point to the recurrent droughts in recent years in the ES corn producingregions and predict more crop failures in years to come. %ther non4food vegetable

sources of carbon will become alternative sources of raw materials. $See Hiofuels&.

"ydrogenhe ultimate cars burn hydrogen in fuel cells, but despite working prototypes,a hydrogen fuel infrastructure is a distant fantasy. %ne problem is the low energy densityof li=uefied hydrogen that re=uires larger tanks than the e=uivalent gasoline tank.Another problem is that producing hydrogen re=uires a large amount of energy. ?nCanada, there are opportunities to dam more rivers and produce electricity with fallingwater, a non polluting, renewable energy resource. A science fiction fantasy mightinclude a novel way of splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen with less energyconsumed but no4one knows how to do this in ". *ven if new non4polluting energysources are developed, hydrogen storage and distribution re=uires investment in a very

expensive infrastructure.

An innovative use of hydrogen added in small =uantities to gasoline and diesel engines4has been achieved by the h"gogo GB# ydrogen


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and cause more extreme weather events. Smart humans notice adverse changes and takeaction to minimi'e adverse conse=uences. Hut not all human are smart or prudent.

+hat Can , do( Drive ess Hoth local and global pollution would be reduced if eachcar4driving person pledged to use their car #J less starting immediately. his is a

responsible, individual contribution to a global problem. At least #J of vehicle use isoptional 4 either recreational or la'y driving when walking, cycling or public transitwould be a better choice.

Cities can reduce vehicular trafficby more than #J over the next # to - years byimproving public transportation. Commuter trains are a model of urban access forsuburban residents who drive their cars short distances, park in terminal lots and ride thetrain into town. Cities can create car free 'ones and develop park4like corridors thatwould allow movement through the city by walking, cycling and limited use of small,light electric vehicles in vehicle corridors specially designed to be safe and efficient.

he rising cost of crude oil is altering driving habits and big auto companies closedplants that produced SE5s and pickup trucks. ?f you are interested in longer term humansurvival, then high cost oil is a real benefit. With or without higher fuel prices, eachperson can drive less and resist the temptation to buy larger, heavier cars, trucks andsports vehicles. ?f you really need a :x: to drive off4roads in wilderness settings, youneed a rugged clunker that@s already got scratches, dents and mud on the tires. Carry ashovel, axe, chain saw, and a come4along in the back. ?f you can afford it, add a heavyduty winch up front. Stay off city streets and highways. Seeisease *ffects, Car *xhaust

Solutions: Reduce Air Pollution by changing the design and use ofmotor vehicles

he use of cars must be re4defined. Car use has to be considered a privilege, not a right.he cost of environmental damage and reclamation has to be added to the cost of owningand operating a car. 5ehicle use should no longer be subsidi'ed.

Geduce number of 5ehicles 4 Erban areas need to set vehicular =uotas and issue permitsto limit the number of vehicles to control regional traffic congestion and air pollution.

Small hybrid or J electric cars are desirable, but make their occupants speciallyvulnerable when they collide with much larger vehicles. A sane city would separatesmall, efficient passenger vehicles from buses and trucks.

?mprove efficiency of vehicles 4 reverse the trend to larger vehiclesI engineering solutionsto emissions of combustion engines. !lex fuel and hybrid cars are a step in the rightdirection but in small numbers will not have a significant impact on air pollution.

Geduced vehicle use and traffic reform can be a bigger and more immediate remedy forurban air pollution. ?mproved efficiency of traffic is important. *xamples are) dedicatedbus lanes and priority for car4pools and vehicles with # or more passengers. raffic can
http://www.nutramed.com/environment/carschemicals.htmhttp://www.nutramed.com/environment/carschemicals.htm


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be scheduled to optimi'e road usageI e.g. commercial traffic at nightI large companiescan stagger working hours and decentrali'e administrative operations. Commuting longdistances in cars to work needs to be phased out. Single passenger commuting to workshould be strongly discouraged.

The most accessi#le measure of air pollution contri#ution is the amount of fossil fuel#urned'

Gecreational driving can be reduced immediately. Car owners need to pay for milesdriven and fuel burned on an escalating scale. *ach person can have a Ffree drivingFallotment per year and pay increasing insurance and3or taxes on fuel consumption beyondthis limit.

-overnments can encourage the reduction of vehicular use #y.

+romoting 5oluntary abstention

?ncrease +ublic ransit 4 diversify options and limit access to existing roads. Separate commercial and private traffic to increase efficient use of roads

Stop building car4oriented roads and highways

Geplace #J of the existing roads designed for cars with park4like corridors

?n cities, build more walking paths, bicycle routes and roads for small electric

vehicles Geduce commuting 4 link residence and business activities by re'oning and

rebuilding cities. Geward car4pools and car4sharing plans

Gedefine road use by defining access privileges 4 no longer a right

Goad olls and increased gasoline and vehicle registration taxes

Hase car license fees on fuel consumption in the previous year. Ese exponentialfee rate increase for high fuel consumption individuals.

+rovide generous development grants and tax incentives for all non4polluting

transportation alternatives.

-overnments can use a com#ination of

5oluntary and Geward Schemes

Compulsory and +enalty Schemes

?ncentives for Bew echnology and Changes in ?ndustrial !uel Consumption

ong term solutionsre=uire that vehicles use less polluting energy sources suchbiofuels, propane and natural gas. ? am sorry to say that the marketing of FgreensolutionsF to global warming is becoming yet another scam. %ne problem is thatproducing alternate fuels and hybrid cars often re=uires C%" emissions that offset orcancel the benefits of improve vehicular design. See Hiofuels

Electric Cars are on the road, under development and promise to become vehicles ofchoice for urban transportation. he new cars represent advances in technology that link
http://www.nutramed.com/environment/biofuels.htmhttp://www.nutramed.com/environment/biofuels.htm


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computers, electric motors and batteries into systems that drive well, self4regulate, andre=uire little maintenance. he main components are modules that are removed to berefurbished in speciali'ed factories and recycled. %ne limitation is battery technology.Hatteries are heavy, wear out =uickly with repeated recharging and re=uire expensive,rather scarce materials such as lithium. Another more severe limitation is obtaining

electricity from a non4polluting power source. *ven if all the technical problems ofbuilding reliable electric cars were solved, there remains a daunting list of infrastructureproblems yet to be solved. While electric cars produce little air pollution, generatingelectricity continues to #e a ma/or source of air pollution. ?f an electric car isrecharged with electricity produced by a fossil fuel burning generator, there may be nonet benefit to the atmosphere. A real solution for car technology would reduce airpollution beginning at source materials and would continue through the use cycle of thevehicle. While is it feasible to use fossil fuels in generation plants with all the latesttechni=ues of emission control and C" recycling, these plants are uncommon. Heforemore people plug in electric vehicles, a new infrastructure of non4polluting, affordableelectricity production will have to be built.

>ou might imagine new residential and commercial buildings that conserve energy andgenerate their own electricity with solar panels and wind generators that also charge theirown electric vehicles. he cost of constructing new, more autonomous buildings is sogreat that only the wealthiest citi'ens can afford the capital costs.

,n the immediate future reduced car use is the #est solution'A gas4inefficient clunkerdriven twice a week for " km is a better choice than a new expensive hybrid car driveneveryday for /m. Bo solution is better than fewer vehicles and reduced vehicle use.

Car E)haust 0 &ir Pollutants?n cities across the globe, the personal automobile is the single greatest polluter, asemissions from a billion vehicles on the road add up to a planet4wide problem. riving aprivate car is a typical citi'en@s most air polluting activity. he negative effects ofautomotive emissions are maximum when you sit in traffic surrounded by cars, theirengines idling. *veryone sitting in a traffic (am is getting poisoned.

-reenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and chlorofluorocarbons$C!Cs&. hese gases act like the glass covering a greenhouse, letting sunlight in butblocking some of the infrared radiation from the earth@s surface that carries heat back intospace. he gases act like a blanket wherever their concentration increases. 7ocalconcentrations increase local heat and increased differences between hotter and colderregions drives weather events into more extreme ranges. %ver many years, the totalamount of greenhouse gases accumulates and the average temperature of the whole planetis increasing. he planet@s thermostat had been set at a pleasant average temperature of-; degrees $!& for the last thousand years or so and is now rising.


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?n our view, the main concern should be the effect of heat retention on local climatesright now. ?t is possible to imagine increasingly anomalous weather and increasing loss oflife and property from greenhouse gas accumulation with little or no change in theaverage temperature of the planet, although, we do expect slow progressive increase inaverage temperatures.

The Com#ustion Process


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Evaporative Emissions ydrocarbon pollutants also escape into the air through fuelevaporation 4 evaporation causes significant hydrocarbon pollution from cars on hot dayswhen o'one levels are highest. *vaporative emissions occur several ways)

Diurnal.


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he problem with all alternative fuels is that the manufacture of fuels re=uires energy,distribution with a manufacturing infrastructure that consume energy, often derived fromburning fossil fuels. Bo alternative fuel is ideal. See Switch to Hiofuels

"ydrogen Eltimately cars might burn hydrogen in fuel cells, but despite working

prototypes, a hydrogen economy is a distant fantasy. here are many problems to besolved before hydrogen can replace fossil fuels as a portable energy source. he biggestproblem is that producing hydrogen re=uires a large amount of energy. ?n Canada, thereare opportunities to dam rivers and produce electricity with falling water, a non polluting,renewable energy resource. A more problematic energy source would be be nuclearreactors that FburnF uranium or plutonium. *ven if new non4polluting energy sources aredeveloped, hydrogen storage and distribution re=uires a new, very expensiveinfrastructure that could replace gasoline and diesel fuels.

With once rich countries such as the ESA on the verge of bankruptcy and facing theextensive repairs of already aging, derelict infrastructures, adding a new, unprecedented

development costs seems unlikely. Enless, of course the priorities in the ES shiftdramatically. he ES, for example, could adopt a sane, smart strategy, reduce its militarybudget by -J and invest the money and skills in rebuilding the country@s infrastructurewith new sustainable energy sources.

O. What is a catalystD

A. A catalyst helps substances react together but remains unchanged in the process. ?n anautomobile catalytic converter, the catalyst helps the pollutants $unburned hydrocarbons,carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and volatile organic fraction of particulates& react witheach other and other components of the exhaust gas to form non4toxic compounds $water,

carbon dioxide and nitrogen&.

O. o catalytic converters spoil the performance and driveability of cars and increase fuelconsumptionD

A. 0odern catalytic converters do not reduce vehicle performance significantly undermost driving conditions because they are designed with low backpressure as an integralpart of the exhaust system. With the advances incorporated in todays engines, theyperform significantly better both in terms of power and fuel economy than their pre4catalyst ancestors.

O. ?s it true that catalytic converters don@t work on a short (ourney such as the FschoolrunF or a visit to the shopsD

A. Bo. While catalytic converters do need a moderately hot exhaust to start working, it isa myth that catalytic converters do not work on short (ourneys. *mission control systemsbecome operational as soon as the engine conditions permit. ?n fact modern catalyticconverters fitted to passenger cars start working in a few seconds and iesel +articulate!ilters remove particulates under all conditions.
http://www.nutramed.com/environment/biofuels.htmhttp://www.nutramed.com/environment/biofuels.htm


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O. What is the effect of sulfur4free fuel on exhaust emissionsD

A. *xhaust emissions will be lower 4 particularly from catalyst4e=uipped cars. Sulfur inpetrol and diesel fuel has a ma(or negative impact on catalyst performance, especially forB%x catalysts and adsorbers. he effect of sulfur on catalyst performance becomes more

critical as lower tailpipe emissions are targeted for the very low emission levels nowre=uired. Sulfur strongly competes against pollutants for FspaceF on the catalyst surfacelimiting the efficiency of catalyst systems to convert pollutants at any sulfurconcentration 4 so the lower the sulfur levels in fuels the better the catalyst performancethat can be obtained. he conversion of sulfur to a sulphate aerosol can cause netincreases in diesel particulate emission.

O. What are the differences in toxic emissions from diesel and petrol enginesD

A. Hecause maximum power production from diesel engines is fuel and not air limited itis still the only engine that is Flean burnF across the full power3speed range. his brings

real fuel and carbon dioxide emission savings 4 good for the global environment. Hut itchallenges the catalyst chemist to control nitrogen oxide and particulate emissions at lowexhaust temperatures with excess oxygen. ?n parallel to low sulfur diesel fuelintroduction, iesel +articulate !ilters $+!& are now fitted on passenger cars andSelective Catalytic Geduction $SCG& catalysts and B%x traps are being progressivelyintroduced. his will help the diesel engine to reach the exhaust emission levels of thepetrol engine.

op

O. ow can toxic particles from engines be avoidedD

A. he best way is to use a particulate filter. hese systems consist of a filter positionedin the exhaust line and designed to collect solid and li=uid particulate matter $+0&emissions while allowing the exhaust gases to pass through the system. ?ncreasingnumbers of diesel cars, trucks and buses are now being fitted with iesel +articulate!ilters $+!&.

O. o all filters have the same efficiencyD

A. Bo, based on engine technology and engine management, different filter technologiesmay be used to meet the prescribed emission standards.

?t is possible with advanced filter technology $wall4flow filters& to almost completelyeliminate the carbon particulates, including fine particulates of less than nanometres$nm& diameter with an efficiency of N;-J in mass and N;;J in number. he removal ofultra4fine particles is very important since health experts believe that they are carrieddeep into the lungs and are thought to be the most dangerous si'e of +0.+artial4flow filters operate with the bypass flow principle. he overall filtration efficiencyof these partial4flow filters is #46J in mass depending on application and operatingconditions.
http://www.aecc.eu/en/faq.html#tophttp://www.aecc.eu/en/faq.html#top


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O. oesn@t the +! become plugged with particulate material after a whileD

A. +articulate filters retain all particles) soot, lube4oil ashes, engine wear products and,when applicable, !uel Horne Catalyst $!HC& ashes. %n4board catalytic soot burningallows automatic regeneration of the +!@s efficiency. epending on the application, this

can be done through passive regeneration $continuous oxidation of particulates by B%"&,the use of a !HC which lowers the soot burning temperature, or, active engine controlstrategies periodically increasing the exhaust temperature. Any residual ash can becleaned during maintenance if re=uested by the car manufacturer but most passenger carsystems are now designed to last for the lifetime of the vehicle without maintenance.

O. ?s the catalyst helpful to health and the environmentD

A. >es, the average family car would emit - tons of the toxic and harmful pollutinggases $carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides&, over a 4year life, ifcatalytic converters were not fitted to all new cars to remove ;9J of pollution as re=uired

by current regulations.

O. Catalytic converters produce C%". ?s this adding to the greenhouse effectD

A. All the carbon contained in fossil fuels is ultimately converted to C%" in theatmosphere. Hy accelerating that conversion, and removing other dangerous pollutants inthe process, catalytic converters do not increase overall C%" levels. he only way toreduce C%" emissions is to burn less fossil fuel.

op

O. What is retrofitD

A. ypically, retrofit involves the addition of an emissions control device to removeemissions from an existing vehicle. Getrofits can be very effective at reducing emissionsof the legacy fleet, eliminating up to ; percent of pollutants in some cases. Someexamples of emissions control devices used for diesel retrofit include diesel oxidationcatalysts, diesel particulate filters and selective catalytic reduction systems. 0oreinformation on eavy4duty iesel retrofit in *urope can be found here.

O. Are catalytic converters fragileD o they need replacing fre=uentlyD

A. he modern catalytic converter is robust, one of the most reliable elements in theengine management system and corresponds to the lifetime of the car. Ender *uro :emissions legislation, it is re=uired that the emissions remain below the legal limits for atleast km. his will increase to 6 km with the new *uro - legislation as of";.

O. ?s more pollution emitted in the mining and refining of precious metals than thepollution they remove from engine exhaustD
http://www.aecc.eu/en/faq.html#tophttp://www.dieselretrofit.eu/http://www.aecc.eu/en/faq.html#tophttp://www.dieselretrofit.eu/


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A. Gesearchers$& have calculated that after the first : ; km of the vehicle@s life there isa net benefit to the environment. his is based on the acidification potential of nitrogenoxides $B%x& emissions removed from exhausts by autocatalysts and the sulfur oxides$S%x& emitted in precious metal refining.(1) Hagelcken, Hoc!eld, "ediga, #utoa$gaskatalysatoren, %001&

O. Are there enough precious metals for catalytic convertersD

A. he precious metals, including platinum $+t&, have been recycled since long beforethis became a necessity to conserve our resources. !rom the onset of their use in cars,catalytic converters have been removed from end4of4life $*%7& vehicles and theplatinum, palladium $+d& and rhodium $Gh& recovered. ?n *urope, autocatalysts platinumrecycled share increased from - to J between ;;8 and "8 whilst that for palladiumwent from essentially 'ero to ##J over the same period. %n a worldwide basis, "J of+t, +d and Gh demand for automotive catalyst was met by recovered precious metals in"8$"&. he share of recycled precious metals continues to grow as the first generation

of cars e=uipped with catalysts are reaching the end of their useful lives. Although highlyefficient refining processes are available and used to recover +


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nation4wide in " and Hharat stage ?? $e=uivalent to *uro "& in "-. ?n ?ndianmetropolitan areas, Hharat stage ??? $*uro #& has to be met since "-. his Hharat stage??? is now planned nation4wide in " except for ma(or cities where the tougherHharat stage ?5 $*uro :& limit will be re=uired. !or "4# wheelers, Hharat stage ?? normsare applicable from "- and Hharat stage ??? will come into force between st April

"9 and st April ".?n China, *uro 4based legislation was introduced in " $

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Buy an Efficient Car -Catalytic Convertor