Business Legislation Final

8/6/2019 Business Legislation Final

1/147

BUSINESS LEGISLATION

PAPER CODE: II-204

COURSE OBJECTIVE:

The course is designed to provide anunderstanding of legal processes involved inmanagement of an organization. The main focusis on understanding basic laws affecting theoperation of a Business Enterprise


2/147

Unit-I

The Indian Contract Act: Essentials of a valid contract, void agreements, performance of contracts,

breach of contract and its remedies, Quasi-Contracts

Unit-II

The Sale of Goods Act: Contract of sale of goods, conditions and warranties, transfer of property, rights

of an unpaid seller; the negotiable instruments act: nature and types; negotiation and assignment;

holder-in due course, dishonor and discharge of a negotiable instrument, arbitration

Unit-III

The Companies Act, 1956: Nature and types of companies; formation; memorandum and articles ofassociation; prospectus, shares and share capital, allotment of shares

Unit-IV

Membership; borrowing powers; management and meetings; accounts and audit; compromise

arrangements and reconstruction; prevention of oppression and mismanagement; winding up;

Consumer Protection Act and Cyber Law

Suggested Readings:

1. Kuchhal, M.C. and Deepa Parkash , Business Legislation Management, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.2. Khergamwala, J.S., The Negotiable Instrument Acts, N.M. Tripathi, Bombay, 19803. Ramaiyam, A., Guide to the Companies Act, Wadhwa, Nagpur, 19924. Shah, S.M., Business Law for Managers, Sultan Chand, New Delhi, 19985. Tulisian P.C., Busienss Law, TMH, New Delhi

Note:1. One case study be discussed per unit in the class.

SYLLABUS


3/147

Unit-I

The Indian Contract Act: Essentials of a valid contract,

void agreements, performance of contracts, breach ofcontract and its remedies, Quasi-Contracts

INDIAN CONTRACT ACT-1872


4/147

INDIAN CONTRACT ACT, 1872

Indian Contract Act 1872 is the main source of law regulating contracts inIndian law, as subsequently amended.

It determines the circumstances in which promise made by the parties toa contract shall be legally binding on them.

All of us enter into a number of contracts everyday knowingly orunknowingly. Eg. When you purchase milk or newspaper in the morning orgo to movie in the evening, you are entering into a contract.

Each contract creates some right and duties upon the contracting parties.

Indian contract deals with the enforcement of these rights and dutiesupon the parties.

It applies to the whole of India except the state of Jammu and Kashmir.


5/147

DEFINITIONS

Proposal (Offer) - When one person signifies to another hiswillingness to do or to abstain from doing anything, with aview to obtaining the assent of that other to such act orabstinence, he is said to make a proposal.

Acceptance - When the person to whom the proposal oroffer is made signifies his assent thereto, the proposal issaid to be accepted.

Promise - A proposal when accepted becomes a promise.

Consideration - Consideration means something in return(quid pro quo). It can be cash, kind, an act or abstinence. Itcan be past, present or future. However, considerationshould be real and lawful.

Agreement - Every promise and every set of promises,forming the consideration for each other, is an agreement.

Contract - An agreement enforceable by law is a contract.


6/147


7/147

COMPONENTS OF CONTRACT

An Agreement

It involves proposal or offer by one party and acceptance of the

same by the other party.

AGREEMENT = OFFER + ACCEPTANCE

Enforceable at law

An agreement to become a contract must give rise to legal

obligations. It must create legal relations and not merely social or

domestic relations.

CONTRACT = AGREEMENT+ENFORCEABILITY AT LAW

Leading Case: BALFOUR V. BALFOUR


8/147

Classification of Contract

Classification as per Validity(valid/voidable/illegal/unforceable)

Void Agreement & Void Contract Classification as per formation

(Express/Implied/Quasi)

Classification as per performance(Executed/Executory)


9/147

Essential elements of a Valid Contract.

1. Proposal & Acceptance.

2. Lawful Consideration.

3. Capacity of parties to contract.

4. Free Consent.5. Agreement should not be expressly declared void.

6. Writing & Registration, if so required by law.

7. Legal Relationship.

8. Certainty.9. Possibility of Performance.

10. Enforceable by law.

9


10/147

Proposal/ Offer

Proposal/ Offer - When one person signifies

to another his willingness to do or to abstain

from doing anything, with a view to obtaining

the assent of that other to such act or

abstinence, he is said to make a proposal.

10


11/147

Essentials of Proposal/ Offer

1. Beyond expression of willingness, there must

be something in the nature of a request.

2. Proposer cannot dictate terms.3. An offer must be intended to create &

capable of creating legal relations.

11


12/147

Communication of proposals.

The communication of a proposal is complete

when it comes to the knowledge of the person

to whom it is made.

Eg - A proposes, by letter, to sell a house to B

at a certain price. The communication of the

proposal is complete when B receives the

letter.

12


13/147

Acceptance

When one person to whom the proposal is

made signifies his assent thereto, the proposal

is said to be accepted.

Proposal when accepted becomes promise.

The person making the proposal is called the

Promisorand person accepting the proposal

becomes Promisee.

13


14/147

Essentials of Acceptance

1. Acceptance must be absolute and unqualified.

2. It must be expressed in some usual & reasonablemanner.

3. Mental Acceptance is not sufficient in Law.

4. Acceptance must be communicated to the offerer.

5. Acceptance must be by a certain person.

6. Acceptance must be given within a reasonable time.

7. Acceptance must be given before the offer lapses oris revoked or is withdrawn.

8.Acceptance of proposal is acceptance of all terms.

14


15/147

Communication of an acceptance

The communication of an acceptance iscomplete, -as against the proposer, when it is put in acourse of transmission to him, so as to be outof the power of the acceptor; as against the

acceptor, when it comes to the, knowledge, ofthe proposer.

Eg : B accepts A's proposal by a letter sent by

post. The communication of the acceptance iscomplete, as against A when the letter isposted; as against B, when the letter isreceived by A.

15


16/147

Revocation or Lapse of Offer

By Communication of Revocation

Death of insanity of either party before acceptance

By lapse of time (if not accepted within the

prescribed time) Non fulfillment of specific condition

If a counter offer is made

If the acceptance is not according to the prescribedmode and the Offeree is informed


17/147

Revocation of proposals and acceptances

A proposal may be revoked at any time beforethe communication of its acceptance iscomplete as against the proposer, but not

afterwards.

An acceptance may be revoked at any time

before the communication of the acceptanceis complete as against the acceptor, but notafterwards.

17


18/147

Completion of Communication

Offer or Acceptance

OFFER : when it comes to the

knowledge of the Offeree

ACCEPTANCE : (i) As against

the offeror : when puttedinto course of transmission

(out of acceptors power)

(ii) As against the acceptor :

when it comes to theknowledge of the offeror

Revocation of Offer or

Acceptance

(i) As against the person

who makes it -- whenputted into course of

transmission.

(ii) As against the person

to whom it is made -- whenit comes to his knowledge


19/147

Consideration When A promises to do something A must get

something in return this something is known asconsideration (Affirmative Act / Abstinence / Promise)

It must move at the desire of the promisor

It may move from promisee or any other person

It may be act, abstinence, forbearance or promise

It may be past, present, future

It must be real and not illusory

It must not be something which the promisor is notalready bound to do

It must not be illegal / immoral

Stranger to the Contract


20/147

Capacity of parties to Contract

An agreement becomes a contract if it isentered between the parties who arecompetent to Contract.

Every person is Competent to contract

1. Who is of the age of majority according to the

law.2. Who is of sound mind.

3. Who is not disqualified by any law.

20


21/147

Free Consent

"Free consent" - Consent is said to be free when it isnot caused by

1) coercion,2) undue influence

3) fraud,4) misrepresentation,5) mistake.

Consent is said to be so caused when it would nothave been given but for the existence of suchcoercion, undue influence, fraud, misrepresentationor mistake.

21


22/147

Coercion

Coercion is the committing, or threatening to

commit, any act forbidden by the Indian Penal

Code, or the unlawful detaining, or threatening to

detain, any property, to the prejudice of anyperson whatever, with the intention of causing any

person to enter into an agreement.

Eg A, causes B to enter into an agreement by an act

amounting to criminal intimidation under the

Indian Penal Code.

22


23/147

Undue influence

A contract is said to be induced by "undueinfluence where the relations subsisting betweenthe parties are such that one of the parties isin a position to dominate the will of the otherand uses that position to obtain an unfair

advantage over the other.

Eg - A had given advance money to his son B duringhis minority, upon B's coming of age, A obtains, bymisuse of parental influence, a bond from B for a

greater amount than the sum due inrespect of the advance. Here A employs undueinfluence.

23


24/147

Fraud

"Fraud" means and includes any of the following actscommitted by a party to a contract, or with hisconnivance, or by his agent, with intent to deceiveanother party thereto of his agent, or to induce him toenter into the contract

1) the suggestion, as a fact, of that which is not true, byone who does not believe it to be true;

2) The active concealment of a fact by one

having knowledge or belief of the fact.3) A promise made without any intention of performing.

4) Any other act fitted to deceive;

5) Any such act or omission as the law specially declares to

be fraudulent. 24


25/147

Misrepresentation

"Misrepresentation" means and includes 1) the positive assertion, in a manner not warranted

by the information of the person making it, of thatwhich is not true, though he believes it to be true.

2) any breach, of duty which, without an intent todeceive, gains an advantage to the personcommitting it, or any one claiming under him, bymisleading another to his prejudice or to theprejudice of any one claiming under him.

3) causing, however innocently, a party to anagreement to make a mistake as to the substanceof the thing which is the subject of the agreement.

25


26/147

Legality of Object

Sec 23 declares that object & consideration of a

contract should be lawful Consideration & object could be unlawful:-

a) If it is forbidden by law

b) If it is of such a nature that, if permitted, itwould defeat the provisions of any law

c) If it is fraudulent

d) If it involves or implies injury to th

e person orproperty of another

e) If the court regards it as immoral

f) If the agreement opposed to public policy


27/147

Void Agreements

An agreement not enforceable by law is said to be void.

Following are void agreements

* Both parties under mistake of fact (section 20)

* Unlawful object or consideration (section 24)* Agreement without consideration (section 25)

* Agreement in restraint of marriage (section 26)

* Agreement in restraint of trade (section 27)

* Agreement in restraint of legal proceedings (section 28)* Uncertain agreement (section 29)

* Wagering agreement (section 29)

* Agreement to do an impossible Act (section 56)

27


28/147

Performance of Contract Sec 38 says if a promisor has made an offer to perform as per the

contract and th

e promisee does not accept th

at, th

e promisor isnot responsible for non performance. By whom the contract must be performed;

Promisor himself,Agent,Legal Rep.,Third Person,Joint Promisors.

Devolution of joint liabilities (Sec 42 to 44) (When 2 or morePromisors have made the promise, they are known as the jointpromisors)

All of them must fulfil the promise jointly (42),If not, 43 comes into effect thereby;liability of joint promisors is joint & several, a joint promisor mayclaim contribution, sharing of loss arising from default of one (43para 1,2,3)


29/147

Discharge of Contract

Discharge means termination of a contract.

The contract may be discharged in any of followingways

1. By performance.2. By refusing tender of performance.3. By breach of Contract.4. By impossibility of performance.

5. By agreement or by consent.6. By operation of law. (Death, Insolvency, Merger)

7. Discharge by lapse of time.

29


30/147

Breach of ContractBreach of contract is non performance of contract.

Remedies for breach of contract to Aggrieved party.

1. Suit for specific performance The court directs party commitingbreach to perform the promise according to the terms of the contract.

2. Suit for injunction An injunction is an order of Court directing personto do or refrain from doing some act which is subject matter ofcontract.

3. Suit for damages, for the loss sustained In case of breach of contract,injured party can claim for damages caused due to breach.

4. Quantum meruit Quantum meruit means as much as earned or

deserved or as much as is merited. A person can claim payment for thework done or goods supplied.

30


31/147

Contingent contract

"Contingent contract" defined A "contingent contract" is a contract to do or not to do

something, if some event, collateral to such contract, does ordoes not happen.

Essential ch

aracteristics of a contingent Contract

1. There should be existence of a contingency, happening or nonhappening of some event in future.

2. Contingency must be uncertain.

3. The event must be collateral, for example, incidental to the

contract.

Eg A contracts to pay B Rs 10,000 if Bs house is burnt. This is acontingent contract as A will pay B only if his house burns andnot otherwise.

31


32/147

Quasi Contracts

Quasi Contract is an obligation resembling

that created by a contract.

It is implied Contract.

The essentials of formation of contracts are

absent.

There is no agreement at all.

32


33/147

Quasi ContractsLaw of Quasi Contract Law of Restitution

As a matter of fact Quasi Contract is not a contract at all.It is rather created by Law.

It is an obligation which the law creates in the absenceof any agreement.

Sec. 68 -72 deals with following kinds of quasi-

contractual obligations;

1. Supply of necessaries

2. Payment by an interested person

3. Obligation to pay for non-gratuitous4. Responsibilities of finder of goods

5. Mistake or Coersion


34/147

Types of Quasi Contracts.

Supply of necessaries

Where a person supplies necessaries to a person incapable ofcontracting, he is entitled to be reimbursed from that property ofsuch incapable person.

Payment by an interested person

A person who is interested in the payment of money which anotheris bound by law to pay is entitled to be reimbursed by other.

Mistake or Coersion

A person to whom money is paid by mistake or under coercion,must repay or return it.

34


35/147

Types of Quasi Contracts Continued

Obligation to pay for non-gratuitous

When a person lawfully does anything not intending todo so gratuitously & other person enjoys benefit

thereof, the later is bound to make compensation tothe former.

Responsibilities of finder of goods

A person who finds the goods belonging to another issubject to the same liabilities as a bailee of goods. He isentitled to retain the goods until he receives the lawfulcharges or compensation.

35


36/147


37/147

Unit-II

The Sale of Goods Act: Contract of sale of goods,

conditions and warranties, transfer of property,rights of an unpaid seller

SALE OF GOODS ACT - 1930


38/147

Preliminary

Short title, extent and commencement.-

This Act may be called the Sale of Goods Act,

1930. It extends to the whole of India (except the

State of Jammu and Kashmir).

It shall come into force on the 1st day of July,

1930


39/147

Definitions

(1) buyer" means a person who buys or

agrees to buy goods,

(2) "delivery" means voluntary transfer ofpossession from one person to another


40/147

Contract of Sale

A contract whereby a seller transfers or agrees

to transfer the property in goods to buyer fora price


41/147

Essentials of Contract of Sale

Two Parties

Transfer of Property

Goods Price

Includes both Sale & Agreement to sell


42/147

Contract of Sale how made

A contract of sale is made by an offer to buy orsell goods for a price and the acceptance ofsuch offer.

The contract may provide for the immediatedelivery of the goods or immediate payment

of the price or both, or for the delivery orpayment by instalments, or that the deliveryor payment or both shall be postponed.


43/147

Kinds of Goods

Existing Goods (Goods which are physically in existence& sellers ownership & possession at the time ofentering the contract) Specific Goods (Eg. Particular Car bearing a number)

Unascertained Goods (Eg. One bag of sugar)

Future Goods (Eg. A agrees to sell B milk that his cowyields in coming year)

Contingent Goods (Eg. A agrees to sell B specificpainting provided he is able to purchase it from itspresent owner)


44/147

Conditions & Warranties

(1) A stipulation in a contract of sale with reference to goods

which are the subject thereof may be a condition or a warranty.

(2) A condition is a stipulation essential to the main purpose of thecontract, the breach of which gives rise to right to treat the contractas repudiated.

(3) A warranty is a stipulation collateral to the main purpose of thecontract, the breach of which gives rise to a claim for damages butnot to a right to reject the goods and treat the contract as

repudiated.

(4) Whether a stipulation in a contract of sale is condition or awarranty depends in each case on the construction of the contract.


45/147

Condition Defined

A condition is a stipulation essential to themain purpose of the contract, the breach ofwhich gives the aggrieved party a right to

repudiate the contract itself.

In addition, he may maintain an action for

damages for loss suffered, if any, on thefooting that the whole contract is broken andthe seller is guilty of non delivery.


46/147

ILLUSTRATION

A goes to B, a horse dealer and says, I want ahorse which can run at the speed of 30 km per

hour . The horse dealer points out to a

particular horse and says, This horse will suit

you. A buys the horse. Later on A finds the

horse can run only at the speed of 20 km per

hour. There is a breach of condition, A can

repudiate the contract, return the horse to B& get back the price.


47/147

Warranty Defined

A warranty is a stipulation collateral to the

main purpose of the contract, the breach of

which gives the aggrieved party a right to sue

for damages only, and not to avoid the

contract itself.


48/147

ILLUSTRATION

If A says to B, I want a good horse. B showshim a horse and says, This is a good horseand it can run at the speed of 30 km perhour, A buys the horse and later on finds it

can run at the speed of 20 km per hour only,there is a breach of warranty, because thestipulation made by the seller did not formthe very basis of the contract and was only

subsidiary one & hence is only of secondaryimportance.


49/147

Transfer of Property

It means transfer of ownership of the goods.

Rules Regarding Transfer of Property

1. Transfer of property in specific orascertained goods.

2. Transfer of property in unascertained and

future goods.


50/147

Transfer of Property in Specific or ascertained goods

1. When goods are in deliverable state

Eg. A buys bicycle for Rs 2000 on a months credit and

asks the shopkeeper to send it to his house. The

shopkeeper agrees. The bicycle immediately becomesproperty of A.

2. When goods have to be put into a

deliverable state

Eg. Packing the goods, or loading them on rail or ship,

filling them in containers or polishing them to give a

finished shape.


51/147

Transfer of Property in Specific or ascertained goods

3. When the goods have to be measured etc.,to ascertain price Property does not pass unless such thing is done

4. When goods are delivered on approval

- Eg. A delivered a horse to B on the terms of saleor return, within 8 days . The horse died on the

3rd day without any fault on the part of B. Held Awas to bear the loss as the horse was still itsproperty when it perished.


52/147

Transfer of Property in Unascertained and Future

goods

The property in goods does not pass to the

buyer unless and until the goods are

ascertained or conditionally appropriated to

the contract so as to bring them in a

deliverable state, either by seller with assent

of buyer or by buyer with assent of seller.


53/147

Rights of unpaid seller

The seller of the goods is deemed to be anunpaid seller

a) when the whole of the price has not been paid

or tendered b) where a bill of exchange or other negotiable

instrument has been received as a conditional

payment and the same has been dishonored.


54/147

Rights of unpaid seller

An unpaid seller has two fold rights

a) Rights of unpaid seller against the goods and

b) Rights of unpaid seller against the buyer

personally


55/147

Rights of unpaid seller against the goods

Right of lien Lien is the right to retain possession of goods and

refuse to deliver them to the buyer until the pricedue in respect of them is paid or tendered.

Right to Stoppage of goods in transit Stopping further transit of the goods while they

are with a carrier for purpose of transmission tothe buyer, resuming possession and retaining

possession until payment

Right of Resale


56/147

Rights of unpaid seller against the buyer personally

Suit for Price Buyer wrongfully neglects or refuses to pay the

price according to the terms of the contract.

Suit for damages for non acceptance Buyer wrongfully neglects or refuses to accept and

pay for the goods

Suit for special damages and interest

Sue buyer for special damages


57/147


58/147

NEGOTIABLE INSTRUMENTS ACT

Unit-II

The negotiable instruments act: nature and

types; negotiation and assignment; holder-in

due course, dishonor and discharge of anegotiable instrument, arbitration


59/147

Definition

The term Negotiable Instrument literally means

a written document transferable by delivery

A negotiable instrument is a piece of paper which

entitles a person to a certain sum of money andwhich is transferable from one to another person

by a delivery or by endorsement and delivery

Promissory Notes

Bills of Exchange

Cheque


60/147

Promissory Note

A promissory note is an instrument in writing(not being a bank note or a currency note)

containing an unconditional undertaking,

signed by the maker, to pay a certain sum ofmoney only to or to the order of certain

person, or to the bearer of the instrument.

I am liable to pay to B Rs 500/-

I have taken from B Rs 2000/- and I am

accountable to him for the same with interest


61/147

Essentials of Promissory Note

It must be in writing It must contain a promise or undertaking to pay.

I promise to pay B Rs 500/-

The promise to pay must be unconditional

I promise to pay B Rs 500/- seven days after mymarriage with C

The maker must be a certain person

The payee must be certain The sum payable must be certain

It must be signed by the maker.


62/147

62

Specimen of a promissory note

Rs. 5000/- Pune November 25,2008

Threemoths afterthe date, I promiseto pay Mr. X of

Mumbaiorordera sumof Rupees Fifty Thousand forvaluereceived.

To

Mr.Address..

Stamp

Mumbai Signatureof Mr Y


63/147

Bill of Exchange

A bill of exchange is an instrument in writing containingand unconditional order, signed by the maker, directinga certain person to pay a certain sum of money only to,or to the order of, a certain person or to the bearer of

the instrument.

Eg - Mr. X purchases goods from Mr. Y for Rs. 1000/-

Mr. Y buys goods from Mr. S for Rs. 1000/-

Then Mr. Y may order Mr. X to pay Rs. 1000/- Mr. Swhich will be nothing but a bill of exchange.


64/147

Bill of Exchange

Suppose Rajiv has given a loan of Rupees Ten Thousand toSameer, which Sameer has to return. Now, Rajiv also has to give

some money to Tarun. In this case, Rajiv can make a document

directing Sameer to make payment up to Rupees Ten Thousand

to Tarun on demand or after expiry of a specified period. This

document is called a Bill of Exchange, which can be transferred to

some other persons name by Tarun.

Section 5 of the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881 defines a bill of

exchange as an instrument in writing containing an unconditionalorder, signed by the maker, directing a certain person to pay a

certain sum of money only to or to the order of a certain person,

or to the bearer of the instrument.


65/147

Parties to a Bill of Exchange

There are three parties involved in a bill of exchange. They are

i. The Drawer The person who makes the order for making payment. In the above

specimen, Rajiv is the drawer.

ii. The Drawee The person to whom the order to pay is made.He is generally adebtor of the drawer. It is Sameer in this case.

iii. The Payee The person to whom the payment is to be made. In this case it is

Tarun.


66/147

Features of a bill of exchange

i. A bill must be in writing, duly signed by its drawer,accepted by its drawee and properly

stamped as per Indian Stamp Act.

ii. It must contain an order to pay. Words like please pay

Rs 5,000/- on demand and obligeare not used.

iii. The order must be unconditional.

iv. The order must be to pay money and money alone.

v. The sum payable mentioned must be certain or capableof being made certain.

vi. The parties to a bill must be certain.


67/147

Cheques

Cheque is a very common form of negotiable instrument. If you have asavings bank account or current account in a bank, you can issue a cheque

in your own name or in favour of others, thereby directing the bank to pay

the specified amount to the person named in the cheque.

Therefore, a cheque may be regarded as a bill of exchange; the only

difference is that the bank is always the drawee in case of a cheque.

The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881 defines a cheque as a bill of

exchange drawn on a specified banker and not expressed to be payable

otherwise than on demand.

Actually, a cheque is an order by the account holder of the bank directinghis banker to pay on demand, the specified amount, to or to the order of

the person named therein or to the bearer.


68/147

68

Cheque

A cheque is a bill of exchange drawn on aspecified banker and expressed to be payable

otherwise than on demand.

The maker of a bill of exchange or Cheque is

called the Drawer"; the person therebydirected to pay is called the "Drawee".


69/147

69

Essential characteristics of a Cheque

A cheque is a negotiable instrument.

It is a bill of exchange.

It is always drawn on a specified banker. It is always payable on demand.

A cheque can be bearer, order or crossed


70/147

70

Negotiation

It is a process of transferring the ownership,

right, title, interest of a person in a negotiable

instrument to another person so as to give a

good title to the transferee and make a

transferee a holder of such instrument.


71/147

71

Continued

Negotiation does not mean a simple transfer.Simple transfer may not necessarily involve thetransfer of property in the negotiable instrumentbut negotiation implies the transfer of propertyor ownership.

Eg -X hands over a cheque to Mr. Y here Mr. Xhas negotiates the instrument.

But if he hands over a cheque to Mr. Y askinghim to keep the same in his safe, the cheque isnot negotiated to Mr. Y, Mr. Y does not becomeits holder but only a bailee.


72/147

72

Essentials of negotiation

There must be transfer of a negotiable

instrument to another person.

As a result of such transfer, the transferee

must become the holder of the instrument.


73/147

73

Modes of negotiation:

Negotiation by delivery The negotiable

Instrument is transferred by delivery, actual or

constructive. It is physical act of delivering

the instrument or handing over the delivery.

Negotiation by endorsement and delivery

The negotiable Instrument payable to order isnegotiable by the holder by endorsement and

delivery thereof.


74/147

Endorsement

Literal meaning of the term endorsement is

writing on an instrument.

Endorser - The person who signs on the back

or on the face of the instrument or on the

slip is an endorser.

Endorsee - The person to whom the

instrument is endorsed is called theendorsee.

74


75/147

75

Types of Endorsement

General or blank endorsement - Endorser

signs his name either on the back or face of

the instrument.

Full or special endorsement - It specifies the

name of the person to whom or to whose

order the payment must be made.


76/147

76

Continued

Partial endorsement Endorsement is made

for remaining balance of payment.

Conditional endorsement The liability of the

endorser is limited or negative.


77/147

Holder

The definition given in Section 8 implies that

any person:

Who is entitled in his own name to thepossession of the negotiable instrument.

Has right to receive or recover the amount

from the parties thereto


78/147

Holder In Due Course

The definition of holder in due course inSection 9

means that any person who for the

consideration paid becomes the possessor ofa negotiable instruments, before its maturity,in good faith and without any sufficient reasonto believe that any defect existed in the title of

the person from whom he obtained it.


79/147

79

Dishonour of negotiable instrument

Negotiable instruments, Promissory notes and

Cheques may be dishonored by non payment

Bills of exchange may be dishonored by non

payment or by non-acceptance as they require

acceptance from drawees.


80/147

Discharge of Instrument

A negotiable instrument is said to be

discharged when it can not be negotiated

further -

When party liable to instrument makes payment

When party primarily liable becomes insolvent

When holder cancels the instrument with the

intention to release the primary party liable.


81/147

THE COMPANIES ACT

Unit-IIIThe Companies Act, 1956: Nature and types of

companies; formation; memorandum and

articles of association; prospectus, shares and

share capital, allotment of shares

Types of Business Entities


82/147

Sole Proprietorship

Partnership

Private Limited Company

Public Limited Company

Charitable Organization

Types of Business Entities

l i hi


83/147

No registration required

Unlimited liability

Used for small business or by Professionals

No Separate Legal Entity

Sole Proprietorship

P hi


84/147

Section 11 of Companies Act, 1956No partnership consistingofmorethan20 persons shall be formed

Partnership

Indian Partnership Act, 1932

Section4 Partnership is therelationbetween persons whohave agreed

to share profits ofbusiness carried onby all orany ofthem acting forall

Unlimited Liability

Registration not Compulsory

C


85/147

Governing Act Companies Act, 1956

Company

Special Features of Company

a) Company is a Separate Legal Entity

b) Itcan sue and be sued inits ownnamec) The liability ofthe shareholders are limited totheextentof

theirshareholdings

d) Company is distinct fromits shareholders

e) Itcanhold property inits ownname


86/147

Types of Companies in IndiaD

ESCRIPTION

S PRIV

ATE COMPANY

PUBLIC COMPA

NY

Definition Which by its article restricts:Numbers of members to 50

Transfer of shares

Invitation of public to subscribe

its debenture, shares etc.

Acceptance of deposits fromperson other than its shareholders

and directors

Which is not * private

Governing Laws Companies Act, 1956 Companies Act, 1956SEBIAct, 1992 and allied

laws.


87/147

Types of Companies in India

DESCRIPTIONS PRIVATE COMPANY PUBLIC COMPANY

Incorporation

Time

22 to 3 weeks 2 to 3 weeks

Minimum Paid up

Capital

INR 1,00,000/- INR 5,00,000/-

MaximumN

o. ofshareholders

50 (Fifty) No limit

MinimumNo. of

Shareholders

2 (Two) 7 (Seven)

Transferability of

Shares

Restricted Freely. If company is listed

then through stock

exchange(s)

MinimumNo. of

Directors

2 3

A ti l f A i ti


88/147

Articles of Association.

The Articles of association are the documents

containing the rules and regulations which

govern the internal management of a

company at every stage of its business that isfrom cradle to grave.

These defines powers and duties of directorsand other officers of the company.

88


89/147

Contents of Articles

Provisions relating to share capital and

alteration thereof.

Share certificates & warrants.

Rights of share holders.

Meetings of the Company.

Appointment,remuneration,qualifications of

Board ofDirectors.

Dividends.

Indemnity.89


90/147

Articles of Association shall

be printed.

be divided into paragraphs numbered

consecutively.

be signed by each subscriber of the

memorandum of association.

90

ALTERATION OF ARTICLES


91/147

ALTERATION OF ARTICLES

ASSOCIATION

It must be bonafide in the interest of the

company and for the benefit of the company

as a whole, it should not constitute a fraud on

minority.It should not operate as a breach of contract

with an outsider.

It cannot require a member to purchase moreshares or increase his liability in any way

except with his consent in writing.

Memorandum of Association


92/147

Memorandum of Association

Memorandum of Association is the documentwhich contains the rules regarding constitution and

activities or objects of the Company.

It is a fundamental agreement of the Company.

Company is governed by Memorandum ofAssociation.

92


93/147

Contents of memorandum.

The name of the company with "Limited" as thelast word of the name in the case of a public

limited company, and with "Private Limited" asthe last word of the name in the case of a privatelimited company.

The State in which the registered office of thecompany is to be situated.

93


94/147

Continued

objects of the company.

in the case of companies with objects not

confined to one State, the States to whoseterritories the objects extend.

The memorandum of a company limited byshares or by guarantee shall also state thatthe liability of its members is limited.

94

C ti d


95/147

Continued

The memorandum of a company limited byguarantee shall also state that each memberundertakes to contribute to the assets of the

company in the event of its being wound up.

In the case of a company having a share capital thememorandum shall also state the amount of share

capital with which the company is to be registeredand the division thereof into shares of a fixedamount.

95


96/147

The memorandum shall (sec

15) be printed,

be divided into paragraphs numbered

consecutively,

be signed by 7(2 in case of private company)

subscriber.

96

l f d


97/147

Alteration of memorandum.

A company shall not alter the conditionscontained in its memorandum except in thecases, for which express provision is made in

this Act.

Provisions relating to the appointment of amanaging director, managing agent,

secretaries and treasurers or manager, may bealtered in the same manner as the articlesof the company.

97


98/147

Continued

The alteration, with a printed copy of the

memorandum altered, shall be filed by the

Company within three months from the date

of the order with the Registrar who shallregister the same and certify it.

98


99/147

Company Objects

There can be an objects clause

This sets out the companies aims and

objectives

If it goes beyond it is acting ultra vires

Ashbury v Riche 1875


100/147

Prospectus

DEFINATION any document inviting depositsfrom public or inviting offers from public for

the subscription of shares or debentures of a

company is a prospectus.

h f


101/147

Characteristics of Prospectus

prospectus to be in writing

invitation to public

offer to the public


102/147

THE IMPORTANT CONTENT OF

PROSPECTUS1. General information-1.name & add of

company. 2. name of regional stock

exchange. 3. rating of CRISIL. 4. date ofopening and closing of theissue.5.declaration about refund of the issue.

2. Capital structure authorized, issued,

subscribed and paid-up capital 2) size ofpresent issue 3)paid-up: a)after the presentissue, b)after conversion of debentures

C


103/147

Cont.

3)Term of the present issue : a)terms ofpayment b)rights of the instruments holderc)how to apply d)any special for company

and its shareholders.4)Particulars of the issue: a)object b)project costc)means of financing.

5)Company ,management and project: a)history,

main objects of business b)subsidary of thecompany. C)promoters d)collaborationagreement

C i


104/147

Conti

Particular in regarding to the company:a) name of companyb)year of the issue

c)type of issued)amount of issuee)rate of dividend paid

management perception of risk factor

:a)sensitivity to foreign exchange ratefluctuation b)difficulty in availability of rawmaterial.


105/147

MIS-STATEMENT OF THE PROSPECTUS:[SEC.65]

-Mis-statement includes:-1.Untrue statement

2.Statement which produce wrong impression

3.Statement which are misleading

4.Statement which produced wrong impression.

5.omission of facts.

-Mis-leading prospectus:-

The prospectus which contains mis-statement/mis-leading statement

-Who is liable for mis-statement in

prospectus:-[sec.62]


106/147

LIABILITIES:- Civil & Criminal

CIVIL LIABILITES:-1.Compensation.

2.Damages for Fraud.3.Recision of Contract.4.Penalty for issuing the prospectus without

delivering for registration.

Share capital


107/147

Share capital

Definition (Sect.2(46))

Share means share in the share capital of the company

A Share is the interest of shareholder in the company

measured by a sum of money for the purpose, of liability in the firstplace , and of interest is second


108/147

Kinds of share:-

Before the company act, 1956 was passed a company could issue three types of share ;1) Equity share

2) Preference share

3) Deferred share

But under the company act ,1956 a company can issue only two type of share namely;

1) Equity share

2) Preference shareSection 86 as amended by the companies act 2000, provide that the new issues of share

capital of a company limited by shares shall be of two kinds namely

1)Equity share

This type of share can be further divided into,

1 . With voting rights; or

2 . With differential right as to dividend , voting or other wise

2)Preference share

Preference Share :-


109/147

Characteristic of preference share:-

Preference share have two characteristic :

1) They have preferential rights to be paid dividend during the life time of company and

2) They have preferential right to the return of capital when the company goes into liquidation.

Types of preference share:-

1)Cumulative or non-cumulative:-

With regard to the payment of dividends, preference share may be cumulative or non-cumulative. A cumulativepreference share confers a right on its holder to claim fixed dividend of the past and the current yearout of future profits.the fixed dividend keeps on accumulating until it is fully paid.

2)Participating or non-Participating :- Participating preference shares are those shares which are entitled to afixed preferential dividend and , in addition carry a right to participate in the surplus profits along withequity shareholder.


110/147

2)Participating or non-Participating :- Participating preference shares are those shares which are entitled to a fixed

preferential dividend and , in addition carry a right to participate in the surplus profits along with equity

shareholder.

3)Redeemable or irredeemable:-

Redeemable preference share are issued by a public limited company, to be redeemed either at a fixed

date or after a certain period of item during the life time of the company . Condition for issue of such shares are

laid down in section 80 of the act.

4)Convertible or non-convertible :-

convertible preference shares are those which would be convertible into equity shares after a specified period.


111/147

Ordinary or Equity shares :-All shares other than preference share will be ordinary shares . The holder of these shares are entitled to

dividend from the net profit of the company after the fixed dividend on preference share has been

paid up . If after paying the divident on preference share, no profit remain, equity shareholder willreceive no dividend.

Kinds of equity shares :-section 86,as amended by the companies (amendment) Act 2000, empowers companies to issue the

following types of equity shares:

1) Equity shares with voting right :-

The holder of such equity shares will have the right to vote on every resolution placed before the

company . His voting right on a poll will be a proportion to his share of the paid-up equity capital of the

company.

[Sec.87(1)]

2) Equity shares with differential rights:-

The holder of such equity shares have differential rights as to dividend ,voting or otherwise in

accordance with such rules and subject to such condition as may be prescribed by the central

government.

Who Can Become a Member of a


112/147

Company?

Any individual who can enter into a contract

under the Indian Contract Act, 1872 may be

eligible to become a member of a company.

However, this is subject to the provisionsunder the Memorandum and the Articles of

the company

Who Can Become a Member of a


113/147

Company? The Articles may restrict particular persons or organizations from becoming a

member of a company. A person can become a member of a company provided hefulfills certain conditions:

Minor: A minor is not qualified to become a member of a company, because acontract with a minor is not valid. However, a minor can become a member if awritten agreement is signed by his legal guardian.

Insolvent: A bankrupt person may be considered a member of a company and isentitled to vote, as long as his name is there on the register of members.

Partnership Firm: A partnership firm may own shares in a business. The shares areallotted on the names of partners. As per Section 25 of the Companies Act, 1956, afirm is allowed to become a member of a company that is licensed under Sec. 25.

Foreigner: A foreigner is eligible to become a member of a company. His rights as amember would be suspended if at any point of time he becomes an alien foe.

Company: A company may become a member of any other company if granted byits Articles. However, under Sec. 77 (1), of the Companies Act, 1956, a companycannot become its own member. It is considered illegal if it buys its own shares

BORROWING POWERS


114/147

BORROWING POWERS

A company is empowered to borrow money, if- The object clause permits the company to borrow

money; or

It is a trading company (since a trading company has

an implied power to borrow money.)

A public company having share capital is requiredto obtain a certificate of commencement ofbusiness.

Until such certificate is received, it shall not carryon any business or borrow money.

Borrowing of money


115/147

Borrowing of money

Such power shall be exercised by passing aresolution in a BM

Such power may be delegated by the Board,

provided The resolution delegating the power to borrow

money is passed at a BM only

The resolution of the Board shall specify total

amount that may be borrowed

Meaning of Borrowings ultra vires


116/147

g g

the company

Any borrowing by a non-trading company shall be ultravires the company if the power to borrow money is notexpressly stated in the memorandum

Any borrowings by any company shall be ultra vires thecompany if the borrowings are made for a purposewhich is outside the object clause of memorandum

The borrowing by the company must be within thelimits, if any, specified in the articles

Accounts and Audit


117/147

Accounts and Audit

Every company must maintain proper books of accounts of itsaffairs. The following transactions must be entered in the books ofaccounts of the company which must be kept at its registered office:-

all sums of money received and expended by the company and thematters in respect of which the respect of which the receipt andexpenditure took place;

all sales and purchases of goods by the company; and

the assets and liabilities of the company.

in the case of a company engaged in production, processing,manufacturing or mining activities, such particulars relating to

utilisation of material or other items of cost as may be prescribedrelating to certain class of companies as the Central Governmentmay require.

Preparation of Balance Sheet and


118/147

Profit and Loss Account

The company has to prepare its balance sheet

and profit & loss account from the books of

account maintained by it. Every Balance Sheet

of a company must give a true and fair view ofthe state of affairs of the company as at the

end of the financial year and must be in the

prescribed format.

Auditors of Companies


119/147

It is the duty of the auditor conduct the audit of the books of accounts of the company and to make

his report to the members of the company on the accounts examined by him, and on every balancesheet, every profit and loss account and on every other document declared by the Act to be part ofor annexed to the balance-sheet or profit and loss account and laid before the company in generalmeeting during his tenure of office. The auditors report, besides other things necessary in anyparticular case, must expressly state-

whether, in his opinion and to the best of his information and according to explanation given tohim, the accounts give the information required by the Act and in the manner as required;

whether the balance-sheet gives a true and fair view of the company's affairs as at the end of thefinancial year and the profit and loss account gives a true and fair view of the profit or loss for the

financial year; whether he has obtained all the information and explanations required by him for the purposes of

his audit;

whether in his opinion, the profit & loss account and balance sheet refered to in his report complywith the accounting standards recommended by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India;

whether, in his opinion, proper books of account as required by law have been kept by thecompany, and proper returns for the purposes of his audit have been received from the branchesnot visited by him;

whether the company's balance sheet and profit and loss account dealt with by the report are inagreement with the books of account and returns.

In case any of the above matters is answered in the negative or with a qualification, the auditor'sreport must state the reason for the same. Where the auditor is unable to express any opinion inanswer to a particular question, his report shall indicate such fact together with the reasons why itis not possible for him to give an answer to such question.

Compromise Arrangements and


120/147

Reconstruction

Compromise Compromise means anamicable agreement between parties to acontroversy to settle their differences by

making mutual concessions. In a compromise,the parties agree to settle it betweenthemselves by a give and take arrangement.For the purpose of a compromise, it has been

held that it is but essential that each partythereto should empowered to make thenecessary concessions.



121/147

Reconstruction

Arrangements Includes a reorganization of

the share capital of the company by the

consolidation of shares of different classes or

by division of shares into shares of differentclasses or by both these methods.



122/147

Reconstruction

Reconstruction A Reconstruction is

commonly said to have taken place when a

company resolves to wind up its business and

it is proposed to form a new company, withonly old shareholders as its members to take

over its undertaking, the rights of

shareholders in the old company.

Prevention of oppression and


123/147

mismanagement

Application to the Company Law Board for relief in cases of oppressionAny members of a company who complain that the affairs of thecompany are being conducted in a manner prejudical to public interestor in a manner oppressive to any member or members may apply to theCompany Law Board for an order for relief, provided suchmembers havea right so to apply as given below.

If, on any application, the Company Law Board is of the opinion :- that the company's affairs are being conducted in a manner oppressive

to any member or members; and

that to wind up the company would unfairly prejudice suchmember ormembers and would be a very serious step, but that otherwise the factswould justify the making of a winding-up order on the ground that it was

just and equitable that the company should be would up;

the Company Law Board may, with a view to bringing to an end thematters complained of, make such order as it thinks fit.



124/147

mismanagement

Application to the Company Law Board for relief in cases of oppression

Any members of a company who complain that the affairs of thecompany are being conducted in a manner prejudical to public interestor in a manner oppressive to any member or members may apply to theCompany Law Board for an order for relief, provided suchmembers have

a right so to apply as given below. If, on any application, the Company Law Board is of the opinion :-

that the company's affairs are being conducted in a manner oppressiveto any member or members; and

that to wind up the company would unfairly prejudice suchmember ormembers and would be a very serious step, but that otherwise the facts

would justify th

e making of a winding-up order on th

e ground th

at it wasjust and equitable that the company should be would up;

the Company Law Board may, with a view to bringing to an end thematters complained of, make such order as it thinks fit.



125/147

mismanagement

Application to Court for relief in cases of mismanagement

Any members of a company who complain :-

that the affairs of the company are being conducted in a manner prejudicial topublic interest or in a manner prejudicial to the interests of the company; or

that a material change has taken place in the management or control of thecompany, whether by an alteration in its Board of directors, or manager or in theownership of the company's shares, or if it has no share capital, in itsmembership, or in any other manner whatsoever, and that by reason of suchchange, it is likely that the affairs of the company will be conducted in a mannerprejudicial to public interest or in a manner prejudicial to the interests of thecompany;

may apply to the Company Law Board for an order of relief provided suchmembers have a right so to apply as given below.

If, on any such application, the Company Law Board is of opinion that the affairsof the company are being conducted as aforesaid or that by reason of anymaterial change as aforesaid in the management or control of the company, it islikely that the affairs of the company will be conducted as aforesaid, the courtmay, with a view to bringing to an end or preventing the matters complained ofor apprehended, make such order as it thinks fit.

Winding up


126/147

Winding up

Winding up of company is a legal procedure to dissolvethe company and put an end to its life

The term winding up is defined as, the process bywhich the life of a company is ended and its property isadministered for the benefit of its members and

creditors. During the process of winding up, the assets of the

company are sold and all the debts of the company arepaid off.

An administrator, called the liquidator, is appointed totake control of the winding up process of the company.If any surplus is left, the liquidator would distribute itamong the owners of the company in accordance totheir rights.


127/147

CONSUMER PROTECTION ACT,

1986

WHO IS A CONSUMER?


128/147

WHO IS A CONSUMER?

Two kinds of consumer under the Act

Consumer of goods

buys or agrees to buy goods

any user of such goods

Consumer of services

hires or avails any services

any beneficiary of such service

CONSUMERS NEED PROTECTION AGAINST


129/147


Unfair trade practice

Restrictive trade practice

Defects

Deficiencies

CONSUMERS NEED PROTECTION


130/147

UNFAIR TRADE PRACTICE

Adopting unfair methods or deception to promote sale, use or

supply of goods or services e.g.

Misleading public about price (e.g. bargain price when it is not so).Misleading public about price (e.g. bargain price when it is not so).

Charging above MRP printed.Charging above MRP printed.

Misleading public about anothers goods or services.Misleading public about anothers goods or services.

Falsely claiming a sponsorship, approval or affiliation.Falsely claiming a sponsorship, approval or affiliation.

Offering misleading warranty or guarantee.Offering misleading warranty or guarantee.

CONSUMERS NEED PROTECTIONAGAINST



131/147


RESTRICTIVE TRADE PRACTICE

y Price fixing or output restraint re: delivery/flow of supplies to

impose unjustified costs/restrictions on consumers.

y Collusive tendering; market fixing territorially among competing

suppliers, depriving consumers of free choice, fair competition.

y Supplying only to particular distributors or on condition of sale

only within a territory.

y Delaying in supplying goods/services leading to rise in price.

y Requiring a consumer to buy/hire any goods or services as a pre-

condition for buying/hiring other goods or services.

CONSUMER'S RIGHTS


132/147

CONSUMER S RIGHTS

yy RightRight toto safetysafety againstagainst hazardoushazardous goodsgoods andand servicesservices

yy RightRight toto bebe informedinformed aboutabout quality,quality, quantity,quantity, purity,purity,

standard,standard, pricepriceyy RightRight toto choosechoose fromfrom aa varietyvariety atat competitivecompetitive pricesprices

yy RightRight toto bebe heardheard

yy

RightRight toto seekseek redressalredressalyy RightRight toto consumerconsumer educationeducation


133/147

FORUM & JURISDICTION

Consumer Disputes Redressal Forums (District Forum)

Claims less than or equal Rs.20 lacs.

Consumer Disputes Redressal Commissions (State

Commission)

Claim more than Rs.20 lacs & less than Rs.1 crore & appeals.

National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission (National

Commission)

Claim equal to Rs.1 crore & appeals

ESSENTIAL INFORMATION IN THEAPPLICATION


134/147

APPLICATION

Name and full address of complainant

Name and full address of opposite party

Description of goods and services

Quality and quantity

Price

Date & proof of purchase

Nature of deception

Type of redressal prayed for

BENEFITS & RELIEFS


135/147

BENEFITS & RELIEFS

BenefitBenefit

Disposal within 90 daysDisposal within 90 days

No adjournment shall ordinarily be grantedNo adjournment shall ordinarily be granted -- Speedy trial

Relief Removal of defects in goods or deficiency in services.

Replacement of defective goods.

Refund against defective goods or deficient services.

Compensation.

Prohibition on sale of hazardous goods.


136/147


137/147

CYBER LAWS

CONTENTS


138/147

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

NEED FOR CYBER LAWS

CYBER LAWS IN INDIA

CYBER CRIMES OFFENCES AND LAWS IN CYBER SPACE

INTRODUCTION


139/147

INTRODUCTION

GROWTH OF

CYBER SPACE

ONSET OF

INTERNET

CYBER LAW ORLAW OF INTERNET

NEED FOR CYBER LAWS


140/147

NEED FOR CYBER LAWS

TACKLING CYBER

CRIMES

INTELLECTUAL

PROPERTY RIGHTS

AND COPYRIGHTS

PROTECTION ACT

IT ACT PROVISIONS


141/147

IT ACT PROVISIONS

email would now be a valid and legal form ofcommunication in our country that can be dulyproduced and approved in a court of law.

Companies sh

all now be able to carry out electroniccommerce using the legal infrastructure provided bythe Act.

Digital signatures have been given legal validity and

sanction in the Act.

IT ACT PROVISIONS


142/147

statutory remedy in case if anyone breaks

into companies computer systems or

network and causes damages or copies data

CYBER CRIMES


143/147

C C S

CYBER CRIMES AGAINST

PERSONS

CYBER CRIMES AGAINSTPROPERTY

CYBER CRIMES AGAINST

GOVERNMENT

OFFENCES AND LAWS IN CYBER SPACE


144/147

TAMPERINGWITH

COMPUTER DOCUMENTS

HACKINGWITH COMPUTER

SYSTEM PUBLISHING OBSCENE

MATERIAL ON INTERNET

BREACHING OF

CONFIDENTIALITY ANDPRIVACY

Appeals / Cyber Appellate Tribunal


145/147

pp / y pp

Appeal to Cyber Appellate Tribunal

Any aggrieved person

Powers of Cyber Appellate Tribunal

Appeal to High Court

Unit-I

SYLLABUS


146/147

The Indian Contract Act: Essentials of a valid contract, void agreements, performance of contracts,

breach of contract and its remedies, Quasi-Contracts

Unit-II

The Sale of Goods Act: Contract of sale of goods, conditions and warranties, transfer of property, rights

of an unpaid seller; the negotiable instruments act: nature and types; negotiation and assignment;

holder-in due course, dishonor and discharge of a negotiable instrument, arbitration

Unit-III

The Companies Act, 1956: Nature and types of companies; formation; memorandum and articles of

association; prospectus, shares and share capital, allotment of shares

Unit-IV

Membership; borrowing powers; management and meetings; accounts and audit; compromise

arrangements and reconstruction; prevention of oppression and mismanagement; winding up;

Consumer Protection Act and Cyber Law

Suggested Readings:

1. Kuchhal, M.C. and Deepa Parkash , Business Legislation Management, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.2. Khergamwala, J.S., The Negotiable Instrument Acts, N.M. Tripathi, Bombay, 19803. Ramaiyam, A., Guide to the Companies Act, Wadhwa, Nagpur, 19924. Shah, S.M., Business Law for Managers, Sultan Chand, New Delhi, 19985. Tulisian P.C., Busienss Law, TMH, New Delhi

Note:1. One case study be discussed per unit in the class.


147/147

THANK YOU

Documents

Business Legislation Final