COMMUNICATION, BUSINESS, AND YOU

Communication skills help students obtain jobs and succeed in their careers Individual employees act as links in the communication chain, transmitting messages to

and from the outside world and up and down the organization. The manager's essential function is to collect and disseminate information.

INTERNAL COMMUNICATION

Each organization has its own communication requirements and methods for exchanging information.

Formal communication channels are defined by the official chain of command and govern the flow of information up, down, and across the organization.

Messages may become distorted as they travel up and down the organization; the bigger the company, the bigger the problem.

Flat structures are less susceptible to distortion than tall structures. Downward information flow: from upper to lower levels of the hierarchy; permits

management to direct activities of employees. Upward information flow: from lower to upper levels; enables management to monitor

performance and obtain ideas. Employees are inclined to suppress bad news "Going through the channels" can be awkward for employees; some companies create

alternative transmission lines from lower to higher levels. Horizontal information flow: from department to department, peer to peer; enables

employees to do their jobs efficiently. Amount of horizontal flow depends on degree of cross-functional interaction required by

the organization. "Grapevine" supplements formal channels:

o Contains mix of business and personal messages o Contains mix of facts, assumptions, opinions o Enables organization to function more efficiently

Successful managers use the grapevine to keep in touch. Fluid nature of grapevine contrasts with relatively rigid structure of formal channels.

EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION

Organizations depend on communication with customers, suppliers, competitors, investors, government officials, community representatives.

Two types of external communication: formal and informal. Marketing is a type of formal communication aimed at selling goods and services. Another type of formal communication, public relations deals more broadly with

establishing the organization's reputation. The reaction to a crisis can profoundly affect a company's future. One of the main functions of public relations people is to anticipate problems and outline

steps for dealing with them.

Individual employees make informal contacts with outsiders: receptionists present a distinct image to customers, lower-level employees pick up bits of information helpful to the organization, and top managers encounter colleagues, competitors, suppliers, and so forth with whom they regularly exchange information.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION

Corporate culture determines the degree to which management (1) encourages honesty and debate and (2) shares information with employees.

Three distinct management styles are associated with various communication climates: o Theory X: Workers are viewed as lacking motivation, requiring control through

fear; closed communication climate. o Theory Y: Workers are viewed as motivated and responsible, deserving

encouragement and support; open communication climate. o Theory Z: Workers are viewed as part of a family or team; open communication

climate. Employees prefer to work for companies that are ethical in their communication practices;

that is, companies that are trustworthy, fair, and impartial in their dealings with people. Conflicting loyalties may pose ethical dilemmas for business communicators, whereas an

ethical lapse is choosing an unethical or illegal action. o Legal considerations: first priority is to obey the law

Avoid questions or comments that discriminate against people on the basis of gender, age, race, or religion

Avoid making false or misleading statements about products Remember that comments, letters, and reports can be used as evidence

in court o When the law does not apply, consider the moral implications of the message:

The legality The balance of good and harm The way the decision makes you feel The way the decision works in the real world the effect the message will have on people outside the company,

supervisors, employees, and co-workers So many communication situations are neither black nor white. Business people

occasionally find themselves forced to choose between several alternatives that are a muddy shade of gray. When handling these ethical dilemmas, people face conflicting loyalties and difficult trade-offs between principles and practicalities. Often such dilemmas arise when organizations and individuals feel pressure to meet the competition, increase profits, or adhere to the "party line."

Intercultural communication is crucial both abroad and at home. Culture determines our perceptions, customs, and social conventions. Understanding, using, and adapting to technology is crucial to successful business

communication. Audience-centered approach is the best way to communicate effectively, openly, and

ethically. Many organizations are awash in a sea of paper. The solution:

o Reduce the number of messages

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o Make instructions clearer o Delegate responsibility o Train writers and speakers

How to improve: o Assess strengths and weaknesses o Set goals o Practice

THE BASIC FORMS OF COMMUNICATION:

Verbal and Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication is less structured and more spontaneous than verbal communication.

Nonverbal communication is important because it (1) has more impact than verbal communication, (2) is considered a more accurate and reliable indicator of meaning than words, and (3) conveys information quickly and efficiently.

Six varieties of nonverbal behavior: o Facial expressions and eye behavior o Gestures and postures o Vocal characteristics o Personal appearance o Touching behavior o Use of time and space

Men and women use and interpret nonverbal communication differently. Verbal communication is the use of words arranged according to rules of grammar. Although business people tend to rely more heavily on oral than written communication,

some things need to be put in writing. Using multiple channels (both written and spoken) gives your message maximum impact. People spend more time receiving information than transmitting it. The listening/reading process requires the ability to register, interpret, evaluate, sort, and

store information.

THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication process: 1. Sender has idea 2. Idea becomes message (encoding) 3. Message is transmitted 4. Receiver gets message (decoding) 5. Receiver reacts and sends feedback

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Communication is a dynamic process that can be interrupted before it really begins. Problems include

o Trouble selecting the right amount and type of material o Lack of information about the purpose of the message and the audience's needs o Lack of skill in using language

Communication barriers between people include o Individual perceptions of reality o Incomplete or overzealous screening or abbreviating of information before passing

it on o Word choice and interpretation o Lack of attention on the receiver's part o Negative reactions to message content or sender-receiver relationship o Individual life experiences

Communication barriers within organizations include o Too much information o Individual conflicts about content as well as difficulty with dry or technical material o Divided audience attention o Unwillingness to give and receive bad news o Inability to build trust o Formal restrictions on who may communicate with whom o Lack of media richness o Directive or authoritarian corporate structure o Illegal or unethical messages o Unnecessary messages o Bad connections, acoustics, copy, and so forth

HOW TO IMPROVE COMMUNICATION

Five qualities of good communicators: o Perception o Precision o Credibility o Control o Congeniality

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Six steps to creating effective messages:

1. Think about purpose; analyze audience's background and needs 2. Tell audience what to expect; preview contents. 3. Use concrete, specific language; pin down general concepts with memorable,

graphic words. 4. Stick to the point; weed out unnecessary information, but develop each idea

adequately. 5. Connect new information to existing ideas to help audience sort, store, and accept

message. 6. Emphasize and review key points: allocate the most space to the most vital ideas;

use graphics, format, and body language to highlight main ideas; and summarize major sections.

To minimize noise:

o Choose the communication channel and medium most likely to attract attention. o Tailor messages for the reader's convenience. o Remove environmental distractions. o Reduce the number of links in the communication chain.

Feedback is vital but can be disruptive in some situations, so o Think about how and when you want to obtain feedback. o Choose the channel and medium accordingly. o Encourage honest feedback. o Ask questions to draw out the audience's reaction. o Listen with an open mind. o Avoid defensive reactions. o Revise message and try again if audience doesn't understand.

BASICS OF INTERCULTURAL BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Culture: a shared system of symbols, beliefs, attitudes, values, expectations, and norms of behavior.

Subcultures: cultural groups that exist within a major culture An individual belongs to many subcultures: ethnic, religious, social, professional, and son

on. Cultural differences that can affect communication:

o Social values o Roles and status

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o Decision-making customs o Concepts of time o Concepts of personal space o Cultural context o Body language o Social behavior and manners o Legal and ethical behavior

Social values involve: o Attitudes toward material success o Attitudes toward efficiency o Attitudes toward progress

Culture dictates who you may communicate with and your concept of status. Decision-making customs differ in process and authority. Culture dictates the way you perceive and use time. Personal comfort zones are dictated by culture. Cultural context may be high (when people rely less on verbal communication and more on

nonverbal and environmental cues) or low (when people rely heavily on verbal communication rather than nonverbal or environmental cues).

three ways body language can cause misunderstandings: o People may misread intentional signal. o People may overlook signal entirely. o People may assume that meaningless gesture is significant.

Etiquette may be formal or informal: o Formal etiquette is a learned, conscious set of rules (how to hold chopsticks); you

don't necessarily expect outsiders to know all rules, so you excuse some mistakes.

o Informal etiquette consists of subtle customs, acquired through experience and observation (when it is okay to touch someone); stranger's failure to conform to informal customs makes "natives" uncomfortable, although they may not know why.

From culture to culture, what is considered ethical (and even legal) may change. Language barriers arise even when others speak English:

o In English-speaking countries, problems are slight, arising from minor differences in vocabulary and pronunciation.

o When people use English as their second language, some misunderstandings arise, but basic message usually gets through.

When others speak no English, you have three options: o Learn their language (time consuming, impractical for short trips). o Use intermediary or translator. o Teach other person to speak your language (may make sense for group of foreign

employees) How most U.S. companies that do business abroad handle written communication:

o Write most letters, memos, and reports in English. o Translate such items as advertisements, warranties, repair manuals, product

labels, and some internal documents. Problems in handling oral communication may arise from differences in pronunciation,

differences in inflection or volume, and confusion over idiomatic expressions. When speaking to someone who uses English as second language:

o Try to eliminate "noise."

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o Look for feedback. o Rephrase when necessary. o Don't talk down to person. o Use objective, accurate language. o Let other person finish his or her remarks

Problems arising from ethnocentric reactions: o Assuming others will react as we do make us overlook possibility that we will be

misunderstood. o Tendency to judge all other groups by our own standards makes us more likely to

misunderstand others. o Stereotypes blind us to individual's unique characteristics.

TIPS FOR COMMUNICATING WITH PEOPLE FROM OTHER CULTURES

Two approaches to developing intercultural communication skills: o Learn as much as possible about specific culture. o Learn general skills that are useful when interacting with people from a variety of

cultures or subcultures. Don't expect to understand another culture completely. General skills for intercultural communication:

o Take responsibility for communication o Withhold judgment o Show respect o Empathize o Tolerate ambiguity o Look beyond superficial o Be patient and persistent o Recognize your own cultural biases o Be flexible o Emphasize common ground o Send clear messages o Take risks o Increase your cultural sensitivity o Deal with individual o Learn when to be direct

If you learn about your counterparts' culture before you start to negotiate, you will be better equipped to understand their approach to negotiation, their tolerance for open disagreement, and their problem-solving techniques.

Tips for writing letters: o Write in your own language (and use a professional translator if necessary). o Rely on specific terms and concrete examples. o Avoid slang, jargon, and buzz words. o Rely on short, simple sentences. o Keep paragraphs short. o Emphasize transitions. o Employ relatively formal tone. o Be tolerant of other styles in letters you receive.

Handling oral communication:

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o Be alert to other person's customs. o Consider unintentional meanings that may be read into your message. o Listen carefully and patiently. o Be aware that you may misread other person's body language. o Adapt your style to other person's. o Confirm that you both agree on outcome of communication. o Follow up with letter or memo if appropriate.

BASICS OF INTERCULTURAL BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Culture: a shared system of symbols, beliefs, attitudes, values, expectations, and norms of behavior.

Subcultures: cultural groups that exist within a major culture An individual belongs to many subcultures: ethnic, religious, social, professional, and son

on. Cultural differences that can affect communication:

o Social values o Roles and status o Decision-making customs o Concepts of time o Concepts of personal space o Cultural context o Body language o Social behavior and manners o Legal and ethical behavior

Social values involve: o Attitudes toward material success o Attitudes toward efficiency o Attitudes toward progress

Culture dictates who you may communicate with and your concept of status. Decision-making customs differ in process and authority. Culture dictates the way you perceive and use time. Personal comfort zones are dictated by culture. Cultural context may be high (when people rely less on verbal communication and more on

nonverbal and environmental cues) or low (when people rely heavily on verbal communication rather than nonverbal or environmental cues).

three ways body language can cause misunderstandings: o People may misread intentional signal. o People may overlook signal entirely. o People may assume that meaningless gesture is significant.

Etiquette may be formal or informal: o Formal etiquette is a learned, conscious set of rules (how to hold chopsticks); you

don't necessarily expect outsiders to know all rules, so you excuse some mistakes.

o Informal etiquette consists of subtle customs, acquired through experience and observation (when it is okay to touch someone); stranger's failure to conform to

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informal customs makes "natives" uncomfortable, although they may not know why.

From culture to culture, what is considered ethical (and even legal) may change. Language barriers arise even when others speak English:

o In English-speaking countries, problems are slight, arising from minor differences in vocabulary and pronunciation.

o When people use English as their second language, some misunderstandings arise, but basic message usually gets through.

When others speak no English, you have three options: o Learn their language (time consuming, impractical for short trips). o Use intermediary or translator. o Teach other person to speak your language (may make sense for group of foreign

employees) How most U.S. companies that do business abroad handle written communication:

o Write most letters, memos, and reports in English. o Translate such items as advertisements, warranties, repair manuals, product

labels, and some internal documents. Problems in handling oral communication may arise from differences in pronunciation,

differences in inflection or volume, and confusion over idiomatic expressions. When speaking to someone who uses English as second language:

o Try to eliminate "noise." o Look for feedback. o Rephrase when necessary. o Don't talk down to person. o Use objective, accurate language. o Let other person finish his or her remarks

Problems arising from ethnocentric reactions: o Assuming others will react as we do makes us overlook possibility that we will be

misunderstood. o Tendency to judge all other groups by our own standards makes us more likely to

misunderstand others. o Stereotypes blind us to individual's unique characteristics.

TIPS FOR COMMUNICATING WITH PEOPLE FROM OTHER CULTURES

Two approaches to developing intercultural communication skills: o Learn as much as possible about specific culture. o Learn general skills that are useful when interacting with people from a variety of

cultures or subcultures. Don't expect to understand another culture completely. General skills for intercultural communication:

o Take responsibility for communication o Withhold judgment o Show respect o Empathize o Tolerate ambiguity o Look beyond superficial o Be patient and persistent o Recognize your own cultural biases

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o Be flexible o Emphasize common ground o Send clear messages o Take risks o Increase your cultural sensitivity o Deal with individual o Learn when to be direct

If you learn about your counterparts' culture before you start to negotiate, you will be better equipped to understand their approach to negotiation, their tolerance for open disagreement, and their problem-solving techniques.

Tips for writing letters: o Write in your own language (and use a professional translator if necessary). o Rely on specific terms and concrete examples. o Avoid slang, jargon, and buzz words. o Rely on short, simple sentences. o Keep paragraphs short. o Emphasize transitions. o Employ relatively formal tone. o Be tolerant of other styles in letters you receive.

Handling oral communication: o Be alert to other person's customs. o Consider unintentional meanings that may be read into your message. o Listen carefully and patiently. o Be aware that you may misread other person's body language. o Adapt your style to other person's. o Confirm that you both agree on outcome of communication. o Follow up with letter or memo if appropriate.

TECHNOLOGY AND THE NEW WORLD OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

The choices you make as a communicator today are more complicated. When choosing communication technology, consider

o Audience expectations o Time and cost o Nature of the message o Presentation needs

TECHNOLOGY IN WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

Word-Processing software is the most common tool for creating printed documents. Desktop publishing (DTP) software computerizes the process of assembling finished

pages. when planning documents, you can use technology to

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o Research your audience and your content (via databases, statistical analysis software, and CD-ROM information sources).

o Outline your document. When composing documents, you can use technology to

o Enter text (via keyboarding, pen-based computers, voice recognition systems, dictation systems, and scanning).

o Add graphics and sound. When revising documents, you can use technology to

o Cut and insert material. o Search for and replace text. o Generate supporting elements (such as notes, indexes, tables of contents. o Print documents. o Distribute documents (using such tools as mail merge and fax machines)

Technology helps you create electronic documents usch as e-mail, documents that are created, transmitted, and read entirely on computer.

E-mail networks can be set up within an office, across the country, or around the world. E-mail has changed the style of business communication

o By opening new channels of communication inside the organization. o By being an informal communication channel. o By encouraging people to drop their inhibitions and speak out.

TECHNOLOGY IN ORAL COMMUNICATION

Technology helps you improve oral communication between individuals (via telephone tools such as call management systems, PBS systems, pagers, and voice mail).

Technology helps you improve oral communication between groups (via teleconferencing, overhead transparencies, 35-mm slides, computer-driven presentation, and group decision support systems.

HOW TECHNOLOGY IS CHANGING COMMUNICATION

Technology both positively and negatively affects o Information flow o Communication ease o Organizational structure o Profits o People with no access to technology o Pressure levels on people to perform

Technology adds complexity, costs a lot, and is only as good as the person using it.

PLANNING BUSINESS MESSAGES

UNDERSTANDING THE COMPOSITION PROCESS

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The composition process varies in the order and the duration of stages. Three categories in the composition process:

ProcessItems

Planning Define purposeAnalyze audience

Establish main ideaSelect channel and medium

Composing Organize messageFormulate message

Revising Edit messageRewrite message

Produce messageProof message

Because composition is often a team effort, with different people handling different stages, collaborative writing is an important influence on the composition process.

Scheduling also affects the composition process (try allotting half of the time for planning, less than a quarter for composing, and more than a quarter for revising).

DEFINING YOUR PURPOSE

The purpose guides many decisions about a message, including o Whether sending the message is worthwhile. o Whether the message addresses the audience's needs. o What to include and exclude. o What channel and medium to use.

Common general purposes of business messages: to inform, persuade, or collaborate. Specific purpose: what the audience should think or do after considering the message. Multiple purposes are acceptable as long as they are compatible:

o Establish clear priorities, with one major purpose. o Subordinate personal goals to business goals.

To test the purpose, ask these questions: o Is the purpose realistic? o Is this the right time? o Is the right person delivering the message? o Is the purpose acceptable to the organization?

ANALYZING YOUR AUDIENCE

Develop your audience's profile so that you can tailor your message to fit your audience: o Choose a channel and medium geared to size and composition of the group. o Slant the message to appeal to the audience's common interests. o Include something for everyone.

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o Identify key members of the audience and design the message around their needs and interests.

o Anticipate the audience's reaction; adjust the style and organization accordingly. o Gear information to the audience's level of understanding. o Consider your relationship with the audience; you'll need to

1. build credibility with an unfamiliar audience, 2. compensate for the audience's preconceptions about you, and 3. adopt a style appropriate to your status.

The audience has three types of needs: informational, motivational, practical. To tell people what they need to know in terms that are meaningful to them (to satisfy their

informational needs):

1. Find out what the audience wants to know by asking specific questions and determining the audience's priorities.

2. Anticipate unstated questions; provide something extra. 3. Provide all the required information: who, what, when, where, why, and how. 4. Check accuracy by ascertaining that commitments are achievable and by double-

checking facts, figures, and assumptions. 5. Emphasize ideas of greatest interest to the audience.

To make a message as appealing as possible (to satisfy motivational needs):

o Appeal to reason. o Appeal to emotions.

To make a message as convenient as possible (to satisfy practical needs): o Be aware that business audiences are pressed for time and face many

interruptions. o Be brief. o Make the message easy to follow.

ESTABLISHING THE MAIN IDEA

Main idea: central point that sums up the message; theme; "hook," as in advertising. Difference between topic and main idea:

o Topic is the broad subject of the message. o Main idea makes a statement about the subject and motivates the audience to

accept your point of view. P rewriting techniques for identifying the main idea:

o Storyteller's tour: two-minute narrative about the message. o Random list: list of points, analyzed for relationships. o FCR worksheet: findings, conclusions, recommendations. o Journalistic approach: who, what, where, when, why, and how. o Question-and-answer chain: answers to all of the audience's possible questions,

from general to specific. The main idea must be geared to constraints on length; it takes time to explain complex

ideas, establish credibility, and overcome resistance. Stick to three or four major points to support the main idea, developed in more or less

detail depending on

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o Nature of the subject. o Audience's familiarity with the topic. o Audience's receptivity. o Your credibility.

SELECTING THE APPROPRIATE CHANNEL AND MEDIUM

The choice of channel and medium is affected by the o nature and purpose of the message, o the location of the audience, o the need for speed, and o The formality of the situation.

The channel and the medium affect how the message is formulated and perceived. Three basic channels: oral, written, and electronic. Oral communications permits immediate feedback and is therefore good for dealing with

questions, making group decisions, presenting controversial information. Forms of oral communication include unplanned conversations, telephone calls,

interviews, small group meetings, seminars, workshops, training programs, formal speeches, and presentations.

Size of audience determines amount of interaction and level of formality. Written communication gives the writer a chance to plan and control the message and is

therefore good when information is complex, documentation is required, audience is large and dispersed, or feedback is required.

The most common forms of written business messages are letters, memos, reports, and proposals:

o Memos and letters are relatively brief documents, memos internal and letters external.

o Reports and proposals (factual, objective documents for internal or external audiences) are generally longer and more formal than letters and memos.

Electronic communication affords the communicator speed, overcomes time-zone barriers, and reaches a widely dispersed audience personally.

Electronic communication includes voice mail, teleconferencing, videotape, fax, e-mail, and computer conferencing.

COMPOSING BUSINESS MESSAGES

ORGANIZING YOUR MESSAGE

Four common organizational problems: o taking too long to get to the point o including irrelevant material o getting ideas mixed up o leaving out necessary information

Hallmarks of good organization: o subject and purpose are clear o all material is related to subject and purpose o ideas are grouped and presented in a logical way

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o all necessary information is included Importance of good organization:

o helps audience identify main points and comprehend information. o helps audience accept the message, which is more clear and more credible. o saves audience's time by eliminating unnecessary information and putting

information in logical order. o simplifies communicator's job by speeding up the composition process and

facilitating collaboration.

HOW GOOD ORGANIZATION IS ACHIEVED

Organization is a two-step process: 1. define and group ideas, and 2. establish sequence with organizational patterns.

An outline reveals the relationships among points. Advantages of working from an outline:

reduces tendency to ramble. helps writer achieve proper order and emphasis. clarifies transitions.

Types of outlines: traditional alphanumeric format schematic organization chart (hierarchy of ideas, based on company organization chart

format)

Steps in the outlining process: 1. Define the main idea: what the audience should do or think after absorbing the message

and why they should do it or think it. 2. State four or fewer major points. 3. Identify supporting points, translating general concepts into tangible facts and figures.

Purpose determines organization: For informational messages, follow the natural order suggested by your subject (such as

activities to be performed, functional units, spatial or chronological relationships, or parts of the whole).

For persuasive or collaborative messages, use logical order based on reasons.

The amount of evidence to use depends on your topic and audience: Provide more details for complex, unfamiliar subjects and skeptical audiences. Use fewer details for routine, familiar subjects and receptive audiences.

Various types of evidence add interest: Facts and figures: statistical evidence Narration: chronological story Description: word picture of person, place, or thing Example: typical case that illustrates point References to authority: quotations or informed opinions Visual aids: graphs, charts, or tables

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Use organizational plans to establish the sequence of ideas. Two basic sequences:

Direct (deductive) approach: main idea presented first. Indirect (inductive) approach: evidence precedes statement of main idea.

The choice of organizational approach depends on the audience's probable reaction: Use direct approach for receptive audiences. Use indirect approach for resistant audiences.

Four organizational plans for shorter messages: Direct requests use a straightforward approach because the audience will be willing to

comply: 1. Begin with the request or main idea, 2. Provide necessary details, and 3. Close with a statement of the desired action.

Routine, good-news, and goodwill messages emphasize the positive because the audience will be neutral or pleased by information:

1. Begin with the main idea or good news, 2. Provide necessary details, and 3. Close with reference to the good news or positive comment.

Bad-news messages cushion the blow when the audience will be displeased: 1. Begin with a neutral buffer, 2. Justify the negative point with evidence, 3. State the bad news in positive terms, and 4. Close cordially.

Persuasive messages provide motivational incentives when the audience is unwilling to comply or uninterested in the message:

1. Begin with an attention-getter, 2. Build interest by describing the general idea, 3. Explain benefits to create desire, and 4. Request action.

Two organizational approaches for longer messages: informational and analytical. Informational reports/presentations follow a natural order imposed by the subject:

order of importance. sequential order. chronological order. spatial order. geographical order. categorical order.

Analytical reports/presentations are organized according to the audience's probably reaction: If audience is receptive, organize around conclusions and recommendations. If audience is skeptical or hostile, organize around the reasons your point of view is

correct.

FORMULATING YOUR MESSAGE

Focus on getting ideas on paper; revise later.

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Use tools and techniques that facilitate the revision process. Difference between style and tone:

o Style: the way words are used to create effects. o Tone: the overall effect; the result of style.

Tips for achieving the right style and tone: o Strive for a businesslike tone: objective, rational, efficient. o Use the "you" attitude; present the message from the audience's point of view. o Emphasize the positive. o Establish credibility. o Be polite. o Project the company's image.

To achieve a businesslike tone: o Avoid being too familiar or folksy. o Watch the use of humor. o Avoid obvious flattery. o Avoid preaching or bragging. o Be yourself.

How to achieve the "you" attitude: o Substitute you and yours for I, me, mine, we, us,and our. o Don't use too many pronouns; focus on conveying genuine empathy. o Avoid the use of you in a judgmental, blaming context.

Emphasizing the positive means o Calling attention to bright side of things. o Focusing on opportunities for improvement, not on mistakes or problems. o Pointing out benefits from the audience's standpoint. o Substituting euphemisms for offensive terms without resorting to double-talk.

Be polite, especially in written messages. o Be tactful and restrained when expressing yourself. o Do extra little thins, like sending birthday cards. o Be prompt in handling correspondence.

To project the company's image, adopt the style that is favored by the organization. To establish credibility (which is particularly important when dealing with strangers):

o Emphasize points in common (such as similar occupations). o Present credentials in an unboastful way. o Mention credible references. o Support ideas with facts. o Avoid exaggeration. o Avoid insincere compliments. o Avoid false modesty and hesitant phrasing.

REVISING BUSINESS MESSAGES

EDITING YOUR MESSAGE

Three steps in the editing process; 1. Evaluate content and organization.

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2. Evaluate style and readability. 3. Assess word choice.

When editing for content and organization, check the

o order of points o mix of general and specific o balance among points o emphasis o quality and quantity of evidence o irrelevant information o quality of introduction and conclusion

When editing for style and readability, check the o tone o interest level o clarity and readability

Fog Index: readability formula based on sentence length and word length. Other aspects of readability:

o sentence structure o order and flow of ideas o paragraph construction o transitions o appearance of text

Two goals when assessing word choice: correct usage and effective style. Plain English is a way of writing so that your audience can understand your meaning. the focus on plain-English laws has resulted in clearer contracts, credit application forms,

and insurance policies. Two types of words:

o functional words (conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns) and o content words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs)

Functional words: o express relationships. o have one fixed meaning.

Content words: o carry meaning of sentence. o are subject to many interpretations. o vary in degree of abstraction

Denotative meaning is the literal, dictionary meaning; connotative meaning consists of the associations and feelings evoked by the word.

Concrete terms: o anchored in the tangible, material world (for example, chair, table, horse. o Vivid, clear, exact.

Abstract terms: o Concepts, qualities, characteristics. o Necessary part of sophisticated communication. o Sometimes ambiguous or boring.

Tricks of the wordsmith's trade: o Use strong words such as verbs and nouns, and use specific terms (pioneer, not

person who led the way to new territory).

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o Use familiar words and the vocabulary of the audience (earth, not terrestrial sphere); avoid cliches (on a roll, cutting edge, alternative lifestyle).

o Rely on short words (making money, not revenue generation). o Avoid changing verbs into nouns and adjectives with such endings as -ion, -ment,

-ency (Winners will be notified by December 15, not Notification of winners will occur by December 15).

The goal of bias-free language is to avoid appearing insensitive. To avoid gender-biased language:

o Don't use man in the broad sense of mankind (workforce, not manpower; synthetic, not man-made, business person, not businessman.

o Avoid female-gender words (author, not authoress. o Don't use he to refer to both males and females (The average worker. . . he or

she, not The average worker. . . he. o Avoid ascribing gender to certain roles (not all nurses are women, not all bosses

are men). To avoid racial and ethnic bias:

o Eliminate references to stereotypes (poor ghetto black. o Eliminate racial/cultural labels (Harry Golberg, Jewish lawyer).

Eliminate age references unless relevant (John Marston, not John Marston, a spry octogenarian).

Downplay references to disabilities; avoid reference entirely; avoid words such as handicapped, crippled, or retarded; emphasize the person rather than the disability.

REWRITING YOUR MESSAGES

Sentence: chain of words that expresses a complete thought; includes a subject (noun or noun equivalent) and predicate (verb or verb phrase).

Three types of sentences: o Simple: has a single subject and a single predicate (Profits have increased); may

have object and modifiers. o Compound: expresses two or more independent but related thoughts of equal

importance, joined by and, but, or or (Wage rates have declined, and turnover has been high).

o complex sentence: expresses one main thought (independent clause) and one or more subordinate thoughts (dependent clauses) (Although the sales force is strong, the business depends heavily on advertising to reach consumers).

Use a mix of sentence types for variety; select the type that best fits the thought. Match sentence style to the audience and the subject. Keep sentences short--20 words on average--but vary length to make writing interesting. Keep verbs in active voice (subject before verb), but use passive voice to soften criticism

(The shipment was lost, not You lost the shipment). Eliminate unnecessary words and phrases, such as

o Legalistic language (on the occasion of). o Redundancy (visible to the eye). o Unnecessary relative pronouns (who, that, which). o Excessive articles (usually the). o Needless repetition of words. o Double modifiers (modern, up-to-date equipment).

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Avoid obsolete or pompous language, including big words, trite phrases, and elaborate sentences (I will fill the order when I receive more supplies, not Upon procurement of additional supplies, I will initiate fulfillment of the order).

Avoid gushy, overblown terms (extremely, exceptionally, deeply, importantly). Divide long, strung-out sentences into two or three shorter sentences. Avoid hedging words such as seems or may. Watch out for indefinite pronoun starters such as it and there (Five new employees start

today, not There are five new employees who start today). Express parallel ideas in parallel form (He came, he saw, he conquered). Eliminate awkward pointers, even if they save a few words; readers are confused by terms

such as respectively, the former, the latter. Correct dangling modifiers (Working as fast as possible, the committee completed the

budget, not Working as fast as possible, the budget was soon completed. Avoid long noun sequences by putting some of the nouns in modifying phrases (The

committee on reducing paperwork will complete its report on Friday, not The paperwork reduction committee will complete its report on Friday).

Keep words together that work together; too many intervening modifiers are confusing (instead of writing We will mark down the refrigerator that you ordered last week this Friday, write This Friday, we will mark down the refrigerator that you ordered last week.

Emphasize key thoughts: o Give the most space to the most important thoughts. o Put key thoughts in power positions: the beginning and end of the sentence. o Make the key thought the subject of the sentence.

Paragraph: a series of sentences related to a single thought. Paragraphs are indicated

o in oral communication with pauses and inflections. o in written communication with typographical devices.

Three basic elements of the paragraph:

1. topic sentence, 2. related sentences, 3. transitional elements.

Topic sentence: summary of main idea; usually comes first. Because related sentences explain the main idea, they must

o all pertain to the main idea. o be more specific than the topic sentence.

Transitional elements link sentences and paragraphs, and they establish the relationships among ideas. Transitional elements may take several forms:

o Using connecting words and phrases (and, however, in addition) o Repeating words or phrases from previous paragraph or sentence (The system

should . . .In reviewing the system. . .) o Using a pronoun that refers to the antecedent (Ms. Arthur. . .She has . . .) o Using frequently paired words (minimum, maximum).

Of the five ways to develop a paragraph, the one that is used should reflect the topic, audience, and purpose of the message:

o Illustration: examples that demonstrate the general idea. o Comparison or contrast: similarities or differences among thought. o Cause and effect: reasons for something.

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o Classification: division of idea into subcategories. o Problem and solution: what's wrong and how to fix it.

PRODUCING YOUR MESSAGE

Design elements (such as white space, margins, headings, typefaces, and type styles) provide visual clues to the importance of various ideas and their relationships.

Design decisions demand attention to o consistency o balance o restraint o detail

PROOFING YOUR MESSAGE

Proofing messages for mechanics and format ensures a professional appearance. Grammar and spell checkers are useful tools as long as writers don't rely on them too

heavily.

WRITING DIRECT REQUESTS

INTERCULTURAL REQUESTS

Requests are most effective when they follow the customs of the audience.

ORGANIZING DIRECT REQUESTS

Use the plan for direct requests when the audience is interested and cooperative. Be tactful. Follow the direct plan: (1) main idea, (2) details, (3) request for action. Open with a direct statement of the request or main idea:

o Be specific when stating the scope of the request. o Explain the overall reason for writing (use a question but without a question mark). o Save detailed questions for later paragraphs.

Provide justification, explanation, and details in the middle of the message: o Explain the reason for the request o Emphasize the benefits of complying with the request

For complex requests, use a series of specific questions in descending order of importance:

o When requesting several items or answers, use an itemized list. o Limit questions to those dealing with the main idea. o Don't use questions for which you can find answers yourself. o Match the form of the question to the type of information required (yes-or-no

questions for specific information; check-off forms when asking the same question of many people; open-ended questions for more general requests).

o Avoid leading questions.

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o Limit each question to one topic. Close with a request for specific action:

o Express goodwill. o Mention time limits. o Include phone number, office hours, or other information. o Save thank-you note for later, after the transaction has been completed.

PLACING ORDERS

Get right to the point; the audience will be interested and cooperative. Use a mail-order form as a model. Include necessary details:

o Date; an offer to make a purchase; description of goods (catalog number, quantity, color, size, price, amount due); delivery and billing address(es); shipping arrangements; payment details.

Give a detailed description for unusual or nonstandard orders: o Explain how the item will be used. o Include drawings.

Keep a copy of the order on file.

REQUESTING ROUTINE INFORMATION AND ACTION

Any request is an important tool for building a favorable image of the company. In requests to company insiders,

o Use memo format. o Follow direct plan: (1) state purpose, (2) explain and justify request, (3) close with

reminder of request and instructions for complying. o Use matter-of-fact style.

A typical purpose of a request to another business: to obtain information about products. When requesting information from other businesses in response to advertisements,

o Fill out and return the response card, if available. o If not, write a sentence or two requesting information and mentioning where you

saw the advertisement. o Enclose a handling fee, if required.

for other product inquiries, provide more explanation: o Describe the request. o Indicate any reader benefit for replying with the request (generally, possibility of

doing business). o Make compliance easy.

Typical purposes of requests to customers and other outsiders: to ask for information, request simple actions, reestablish a relationship.

Requests to customers and other outsiders can often be handled with a short, simple letter.

When a longer, more detailed approach is necessary: o Explain the request. o Break the procedure for complying into steps. o Justify request, emphasizing benefits to the reader. o Make compliance easy; include a stamped, preaddressed reply envelope if

customer is an individual.

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REQUESTING CLAIMS AND ADJUSTMENTS

Most companies are happy to honor reasonable claims, because doing so quickly and cheerfully often saves the most dishonest customer.

Use the direct plan. Employ a positive, unemotional tone. Document a claim with photocopies of invoices, receipts, canceled checks, and the like. Be specific about what you want the company to do, or explain the problem and ask the

company to suggest a remedy.

MAKING ROUTINE CREDIT REQUESTS

Write to ask for a credit application form. Credit applications require the name of your company, the length of time in business, the

name of your bank, the addresses of businesses where you have existing accounts, a financial statement, and a balance sheet.

To obtain commercial credit when placing a first-time order for goods, open with a request for credit, explain the order, and offer evidence of credit worthiness.

INQUIRING ABOUT PEOPLE

Legal liability makes companies reluctant to answer inquiries about people, but some organizations still ask for references when selecting candidates for jobs, memberships, awards, and the like.

The purpose of letters requesting a recommendation: to get someone to serve as a reference for you.

In a letter requesting a recommendation, o Use direct approach. o Explain the situation. o Remind the reader who you are. o Include a copy of your resume or equivalent description of your qualifications. o Close with a summary of the request and the details on how to comply. o Include a stamped, preaddressed envelope to encourage a reply.

In a letter checking on a reference given by a job or credit applicant, o Use the direct approach. o Explain the applicant's situation and requirements of the position. o State why you value the reader's opinion. o Mention that the request was authorized. o Do not include a stamped, preaddressed envelope if the request is directed toward

a business. o Promise to keep the recommendation confidential.

WRITING ROUTINE, GOOD-NEWS, AND GOODWILL MESSAGES

ORGANIZING POSITIVE MESSAGES

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Use the direct approach for this common form of correspondence: (1) main idea, (2) necessary details, (3) courteous close.

The main idea is the single most important idea, concisely stated. Necessary details:

o Satisfy reader's information needs. o Reinforce positive tone. o Emphasize positive aspects of disappointing news.

Courteous close: o Summarizes main point. o Indicates what should happen next. o Highlights reader benefit.

WRITING POSITIVE REPLIES

Send a confirmation that an order is being filled when it is a large order, a first order from a customer, or an order that can't be filled right away.

Order acknowledgments are often handled with standard paragraphs, personalized to fit the reader.

Order acknowledgments follow the direct plan: 1. Statement that order is being processed. 2. Summary of transaction (delivery and payment details) 3. Selling information (resale and sales promotion) and references to enclosed

brochures or order blanks. 4. Reminder of order benefits and offer of additional services.

Resale information: reassures buyer about purchase. Sales promotion: alerts buyer to other goods and services. Replies to requests for information and action.

o Are courteous and prompt. o Require careful consideration; responses on letterhead are legally binding. o Can often be handled with form responses.

Two types of requests for information and action: o Requests from potential customers. o Requests that do not involve a potential sale.

Three main goals when responding to requests from potential customers: o Answer customer's questions. o Encourage sale. o Create good impression of firm.

Two main goals in responding to those who request information and action not related to a potential sale:

o Answer individual's questions. o Create good impression.

RESPONDING FAVORABLY TO CLAIMS AND ADJUSTMENT REQUESTS

Assume the customer has a legitimate claim, unless o The same customer repeatedly submits dubious claims. o The customer is obviously dishonest. o The dollar amount involved is very large.

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use the direct approach. Objectives when answering adjustment requests:

o Repair company's image. o Regain customer's good will.

HANDLING ROUTINE CREDIT REQUESTS

Two types of positive responses to routine credit requests: o Credit approvals o Credit references

Credit approvals mark the beginning of a business relationship with a customer, so the goal is to convey the necessary information while building good will.

Use the direct approach:

1. Open with good news that credit has been approved. 2. Explain credit arrangements using a positive tone. 3. Close by emphasizing the benefits of doing business with the firm (resale

information and sales promotion) Credit arrangements to be discussed:

o Upper limits of account. o Billing dates. o Arrangements for partial payments. o Discounts for prompt payment. o Interest charges on unpaid balances. o Due dates.

Avoid legal problems when providing credit references by o Making sure request for credit reference is legitimate. o Offering only facts, not opinions.

CONVEYING POSITIVE INFORMATION ABOUT PEOPLE

Positive information about people includes o Recommendation letters. o Good news about employment.

Goal of recommendation letters: to convince the reader that the person being recommended deserves the job or award.

Recommendation letters mention o full name of candidate. o job or benefit that candidate seeks. o quality that prompted writer to offer recommendation. o relationship between writer and candidate. o facts relevant to candidacy. o Overall evaluation of candidate's suitability.

To achieve credibility, use specific examples that illustrate the candidate's abilities. Two choices when writing recommendation letters for candidates with limitations:

o Ignore candidate's bad points. o Provide honest, balanced appraisal.

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The risk in providing negative information is that the candidate may sue for libel. Libel: false and malicious written statement that injures candidate's reputation. To minimize legal risks,

o Don't mention shortcomings that are irrelevant to the job. o Be honest about serious shortcomings, but stick to facts. o Avoid value judgments. o Put negative comments in positive context.

The goal of a good-news message about employment: to offer the candidate a job and explain the necessary details.

Good news about employment (a job offer) includes: o job title o starting date o salary o benefits o friendly, welcoming tone

A job offer is legally binding. To avoid implying that the employee will be kept on for a full year, no matter what:

o State salary in monthly increments. o Be vague about timing of performance reviews and raises.

WRITING DIRECTIVES AND INSTRUCTIONS

Directives: memos that tell employees what to do. Instructions: messages that tell someone how to do something. The objective of both directives and instructions is to make the message crystal clear. Use direct order. Be concise but complete: who, what, when, where, why, how Instructions:

o May be in form of letter, memo, or booklet. o Require more detailed development than directives. o Are often presented as numbered series of steps.

CONVEYING GOOD NEWS ABOUT PRODUCTS AND OPERATIONS

Some positive developments that companies might want to publicize: opening new facilities, appointing a new executive, introducing goods or services, sponsoring community events.

Good news to a limited audience may be put in letter or memo format. For mass audiences, good news is generally handled through news (or press) releases. Format for news releases:

o Type on plain 8 1/2 by 11 inch paper or on special letterhead for press releases. o Double-space for print media; triple-space for electronic media.

Style for news releases: o Use direct plan: good news, details, positive close. o Write in third person, in journalistic style. o Avoid blatant plugs for the firm; stick to facts.

WRITING GOODWILL MESSAGES

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Purpose of writing goodwill messages: to build a good personal relationship with the reader.

Tone is particularly important: o Be sincere. o Avoid exaggeration. o Back up compliments with specific points.

Offer help if appropriate, but don't promise more than you can deliver. Three main types of goodwill messages:

o Congratulations o Messages of appreciation o Condolences

Objective of congratulations: to recognize happy events (such as weddings and births) and praiseworthy accomplishments (such as business achievements).

Congratulatory form letters mailed to people mentioned in newspapers can be used to build a mailing list and introduce the firm--but avoid a direct sales pitch.

Objective of messages of appreciation: to recognize contributions of employees and associates.

Messages of appreciation o Serve as a record of good performance in personnel file. o Motivate recipient to keep up good work.

Reasons to send message of appreciation: o To praise employee for good work. o To thank supplier for special service. o To recognize long-term support or productive relationship. o To thank speaker. o To acknowledge donations.

Objective of condolences: to express sympathy in times of sorrow (such as health problems, death, business misfortune).

Use the direct plan for condolences: o Begin with statement of sympathy. o Mention subject's good qualities and contributions. o State what subject meant to you. o Close with positive, uplifting thought. o Offer help if appropriate and sincere.

When writing condolences, o Be brief. o Use own words. o Be tactful. o Be accurate. o Write about special qualities of the deceased. o Write about special qualities of the bereaved.

WRITING BAD-NEWS MESSAGES

ORGANIZING BAD-NEWS MESSAGES

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Objective of bad-news messages: to convey the bad news without bruising the reader's feelings.

Two basic issues to decide when planning a bad-news message: tone and organization. Adopt a tone that achieves three objectives:

o Makes audience aware that decision is firm. o Makes audience agree that decision is fair. o Leaves audience with positive attitude toward the organization--and perhaps

toward you. The issue of organization concerns a choice between the indirect and the direct plan. Objective of indirect plan: to ease the audience into the part of the message that justifies

the decision or builds goodwill. Four parts of indirect plan for bad-news messages:

1. buffer 2. reasons 3. bad news 4. positive close

Buffer: neutral, noncontroversial statement closely related to the point of the message. Tips for formulating a buffer:

o Don't beat around the bush; stick to subject. o Don't build up false hopes of positive answer. o Avoid saying no. o Avoid know-it-all tone. o Avoid wordy, irrelevant phrases. o Don't apologize. o Don't be long-winded.

Buffer should be pleasant, relevant, and neutral, and it should lead smoothly into the reasons that follow.

Tips for providing reasons in bad-news messages: o Begin with most positive points; move on to less positive ones. o Don't blame decision on company policy unless explanation would help audience

meet requirements later. o Don't apologize; apology implies that organization made a mistake. o Use positive, nonjudgmental tone. o Skip reasons if they are confidential, purely negative, self-serving, or complicated.

Tips for stating the bad news: o Make answer clear, but present it in positive, impersonal language. o Minimize space or time devoted to bad news. o Subordinate bad news in compound or complex sentence. o Embed bad news in middle of paragraph. o Use "if" or "when" statement to suggest conditions under which positive answer

might be possible. o Focus on what you did do, not on what you didn't do. o Avoid blunt or offensive phrases.

Tips for providing a positive close: o Conclude on upbeat note. o Propose attainable solution.

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o Provide resale and sales promotion. o Make sure audience understands any action required. o Don't repeat bad news. o Don't apologize. o Don't urge additional communication. o Don't anticipate problems. o Don't include insincere cliches. o Don't express doubt that audience will remain a customer.

Direct plan: bad news first, followed by reasons and a courteous close. Advantages of using the direct plan:

o Allows shorter message. o Gets directly to point.

When to use the direct plan for bad-news messages: o for internal memos. o For routine bad-news messages to other businesses. o For audiences who prefer direct approach. o For situations that demand firmness.

CONVEYING BAD NEWS ABOUT ORDERS

Order may be unclear, product may be out of stock or discontinued, or customer may not have met ordering requirements.

Objectives: o To work toward eventual sale comparable to original order. o To keep instructions or additional information clear. o to maintain audience's interest and goodwill.

Use the indirect approach to clarify an order:

1. Buffer confirms order and provides resale information. 2. Middle explains why order cannot be filled and emphasizes positive side of

situation. 3. Close explains what is required and describes benefits of acting promptly.

Back orders represent two possible types of bad news:

o Only part of order can be shipped. o None of order can be shipped.

Organizational plan for notifying customer about shipment of a partial order:

1. Buffer announces good news (part of order en route). 2. Middle explains why rest of shipment is delayed and states or implies bad news. 3. Close encourages favorable attitude toward transaction.

The same pattern can be used when none of the order can be shipped, but the buffer can only confirm the order.

If substitution is necessary because an item is no longer available, send the substitute if the audience is sure to want it.

When in doubt about the customer's willingness to accept the substitute, write a sales letter first:

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o Use indirect plan. o Put resale information in buffer. o If substitute is more expensive, emphasize added features and superior quality. o Don't refer to new item as "substitute." o In close, make it easy for audience to order substitute.

When the order cannot be filled at all, suggest an alternative source. Use this organizational plan for unfillable orders:

1. Compliment audience on good taste. 2. Explain why order cannot be filled; state bad news. 3. Close with helpful suggestion and reference to future business.

COMMUNICATING NEGATIVE ANSWERS AND INFORMATION

Use the direct plan if the audience will not be deeply disappointed; otherwise, use the indirect plan.

Possible buffers: o Express appreciation for being thought of. o Assure audience that request received careful consideration. o Compliment audience. o Express understanding of situation and audience's needs.

In the middle, (1) explain the reasons for the bad news, (2) state the bad news, and (3) provide suggestions for handling the situation and offer help, if appropriate.

In the close, express interest, encouragement, and goodwill. When providing bad news about products,

o Use direct approach if message will have little emotional impact. o Use indirect approach when audience will be seriously affected.

When denying cooperation with routine requests, o Choose direct or indirect plan, depending on emotional impact of message. o Use warm, positive tone. o Avoid cliches, stodgy language, and abrupt or negative phrasing.

When declining requests for favors, choose the direct or indirect plan, depending on your relationship with the audience:

o Direct plan with close friends and associates. o Indirect plan with relative strangers.

REFUSING ADJUSTMENT OF CLAIMS AND COMPLAINTS

Use a tactful, courteous tone. Use the indirect plan.

1. Buffer: brief, positive, noncontroversial statement 2. Middle: explanation of reasons, followed by indirect statement of bad news,

presented as positively as possible. 3. Close: expression of interest in future relationship.

REFUSING TO EXTEND CREDIT

Use the indirect plan to soften the audience's disappointment.

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When the credit applicant may qualify at a later date, offer encouragement: o Avoid condescending lecture on "earning" credit. o Emphasize firm's interest in doing business with applicant.

When applicant is a business as opposed to an individual, o Emphasize reasons credit is being denied. o Suggest alternatives (cash purchases, third-party loans). o Explain what applicant must do to qualify. o Emphasize positive aspects of situation (discounts for cash purchases).

Consider the decision to deny credit carefully; denying credit can seriously damage the applicant's reputation or business.

CONVEYING UNFAVORABLE NEWS ABOUT PEOPLE

Four types of unfavorable news about people: o Refusals to write recommendation letters. o Rejections of job applicants. o Negative performance reviews. o Terminations of employees.

Use the direct plan for messages to prospective employers, the indirect plan for messages to job applicants and employees.

When writing to an applicant to turn down the opportunity to write a recommendation letter, use the indirect plan:

o Open with positive comment about applicant. o State refusal indirectly. o Suggest alternatives. o Close with polite encouragement.

When rejecting job applicants, be brief and impersonal. When giving negative performance reviews,

o Mention positive points. o Explain how employee is falling short. o Suggest ways to improve.

Objectives when terminating employees: o To present reasons for decision. o To avoid statements that might pose legal problems. o To promote best relationship possible under circumstances.

For legal purposes, termination letters should present specific, objective, verifiable, measurable reasons.

WRITING PERSUASIVE MESSAGES

MOTIVATING WITH PERSUASIVE MESSAGES

Persuasion: the process of changing people's attitudes or influencing their actions, either immediately or at some time in the future.

How to set the course for effective persuasion: o State the problem (preferably in one sentence) o Identify the audience

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o Determine the desired outcome Four strategic elements:

o Needs and appeals o Emotion and logic o Credibility o Semantics

In general, only after more basic needs have been met will an individual strive to meet higher-level needs (Maslowe's Heirarchy of Needs)

Various audiences have different needs and therefore respond to different appeals People respond emotionally when their needs are not being met Logic provides justification for and reinforces emotional decisions Audiences resist those who lack credibility Facts that build credibility:

o Testimonials o Documents o Guarantees o Statistics o Research results

Qualities that enhance personal credibility: o Enthusiasm o Objectivity o Sincerity o Expertise o Good intentions o Trustworthiness o Similarity

Word choice also affects the credibility of a message Semantics: the meaning of words and other symbols Abstractions (words with many connotations) permit many interpretations and often have

broad appeal Specifics help prevent misinterpretation of abstractions

ORGANIZING PERSUASIVE MESSAGES

Use an indirect approach for organizing persuasive messages One four-part plan commonly used is the AIDA plan:

o Attention Spark audience's curiosity Avoid extravagant claims and irrelevancies

o Interest Relate message to audience's needs Provide factual description of item or service Mention benefits to audience

o Desire Provide evidence to back claims Draw attention to enclosures Build audience's willingness to take action

o Action State desired action

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Summarize benefits Make action easy

o Action ending: close of persuasive message that suggests a specific step the audience may take

WRITING PERSUASIVE REQUESTS FOR ACTION

Need for such messages: o Motivate inside audiences to change policies, approve investments, promote

individuals, protect turf Motivate outside audiences to provide funds or perform favors

Two-fold challenge: o Must motivate someone who is busy and may not receive any tangible reward o Must compete with many othe requests

Key to success: highlight direct and indirect benefits The attention-getter reflects an understanding of the audience's interests The middle section establishes credibility and convinces the audience of the value of your

cause Keep the request within bounds

WRITING SALES LETTERS

Because sales letters are binding contracts, avoid even implying offers or promises you can't deliver

Legal problems can result from o Making a false statement o Misrepresenting price, quality, or performance o Using a person's name, photo, or other identity without permission o Publicizing a person's private life

Make every attempt to persuade without manipulating Planning involves:

o Determining selling points and benefits o Defining audience o Planning format and approach

Selling points: the most attractive features of a product Consumer benefits: particular advantages buyers will realize from those features Identify selling points and benefits by analyzing the product and the potential buyer Demographic characteristics: age, gender, occupation, income, education Psychographic characteristics: personality, attitude, lifestyle To define the audience, form a mental image of the typical buyer Variables to consider when planning the format and approach:

o Number of pieces (letter, brochure, sample, response card, and so on) o Graphics: type style, color, special symbols, logos o Number of pages in sales letter o Overall makeup of campaign: one mailing or several, telephone or in-person

follow-up In general, expensive items and hard-to-accept propositions call for a more elaborate

campaign Typical attention-getters in a sales letter:

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o Piece of news o Appeal to audience's emotions and values o Statement of most attractive feature and corresponding benefit o Intriguing number o Sample of product o Illustration with story appeal o Specific trait shared by audience o Provocative question o Challenge o Soltion to problem

Attention-getting format devices for sales letters: o Persoanlized salutations o Special type o Underlining o Color o Indentions

Emphasizing the central selling point means focusing on the single most important feature Determine the central selling point by asking three questions:

o What does competition have to offer? o What most distinguishes firm's product? o What is buyer's primary concern?

Highlight the consumer benefits associated with the central selling point Mention the most important benefit several times, near the beginning and end of the letter Refer to other benefits throughout the body of the letter Choose words with strong emotional impact, such as verbs and colorful adjectives, but

avoid exaggerations that destroy credibility The price that customers will pay is related to prices for similar products, the state of the

economy, and their psychology Pave the way for your price by giving hints like "economical" or "luxurious" before

mentioning the specific price If the price is low, compare features to the competitor's to show relative value; if price is a

major selling point, mention it in a prominent position (first or last or highlighted graphically) If the price is high, stress features and benefits to justify it To de-emphasize price:

o Omit reference o Mention in accompanying brochure o Mention in middle of paragraph, clsoe to end of letter, after explaining selling

points o Break quantity price into units o Compare favorably to some other product or activity

Typical methods for supporting claims about the product: o Samples o Testimonials o Photographs o Examples o Statistics o Guarantees

Purpose of sales letter: getting someon to do something

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To motivate action, whether it is making an immediate purchase, requesting more information, or authorizing a representative to call:

o Stress importance of acting immediately o Mention deadline if appropriate o Offer discounts, prizes, and special offers for early orders o Encourage use of credit cards and toll-free numbers o Offer free trial, unconditional guarantee, or no-strings request card

Five traditional elements of direct-mail packages: o Outer envelope telegraphing message o Multipage sales letter o Brochure (usually color) o Order blank o Postage-paid return envelope

One popular alternative to the traditional package is a self-mailer, a single piece of folded paper that can be returned to place na order; another is a simulated telegram or invitation

Persoanlized letters are often effective but have drawbacks: overexposure and expense Long letters (about four pages) are typically more effective than short ones, as long as

typographic devices are used to highlight the main points One problem with direct mail is finding people who would definitely be interested in hearing

about your product; the solution is to select a mailing list that focuses on likely customers Three types of mailing lists:

o House lists: names of previous customers and people who have inquired about product

o Compiled lists: names obtained from accessible sources, such as phone book and auto registration lists

o Mail-response lists: names compiled by other companies; often purchased through list brokers

WRITING COLLECTION MESSAGES

Most people have good intentions about paying their bills Two objectives in sending collection messages

1. To maintain goodwill 2. To collect debt

Three factors determine the approach used in a collection message:

o Amount due, time elapsed, nature of agreement, creditor's attitude o Debtor's values, self-esteem, sense of responsibility o Debtor's ability to pay and to withstand pressure

Fair Debt Collection Practices Act of 1978 outlines a number of restrictions A positive approach, an emphasis on the benefits of paying, is most likely to defuse the

debtor's defensiveness and hostility Postive appeals to use in collection messages:

o Sense of pride o Need to belong o Sense of fair play o Need to follow rules o Recognition of mutual effort o Need for closure

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If positive appeals fail, politely point out the consequences of failure to pay: o Reporting debtor to credit agency o Repossessing item o Demanding surrender of collateral o Turning account over to collection agency o Taking matter to court

The collection series: sequence of messages that get tougher the longer the debtor fails to pay

The typical collection series includes five messages, although the number and timing of the messages may vary depending on the company and the situation

Steps in the collection series:

1. Notification: form letter or card indicating amount due, due date, penalties for late payment

2. Reminder: brief form letter or copy of notification sent a few days after due date has passed; tone reflects assumption that some minor problem has delayed payment

3. Inquiry: personalized letter asking customer what's wrong and indicating willingnes to work out solution; avoids suggesting that customer may be dissatisfied with merchandise or service

4. Urgent notice: personalized letter emphasizing desire to collect payment immediately; often signed by top official; may use negative appeal

5. Ultimatum: final message, often using direct approach; negative appeal, but businesslike, impersonal tone

WRITING SHORT REPORTS

WHAT MAKES A GOOD REPORT

Report: written, factual account that objectively communicates information about some aspect of a business.

Six general purposes of reports: o Monitoring and controlling operations o Implementing policies and procedures o Complying with legal or regulatory requirements o Obtaining new business or funding o Documenting work performed for a client o Guiding management decisions

Reports may be initiated by the writer (voluntary reports) or by the reader (authorized reports); a voluntary report requires more background information and a more complete explanation of the purpose.

The subject of a report influences its vocabulary and format; if the reader knows the subject, the discussion can be at a higher level.

Reports prepared on a regular basis (routine reports) require less introductory and transitional material than nonrecurring reports (special reports), which require more complete development.

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Reports sent to someone within the organization (internal reports) may be relatively informal and use the memo or manuscript format; reports sent to outsiders (external reports) are relatively formal and use the letter or manuscript format.

Reports prepared chiefly to present facts (informational reports) are organized around subtopics; reports prepared to present facts plus analysis, interpretation, conclusions, or recommendations (analytical reports) are organized around logical arguments.

If the reader is receptive and likely to agree with the report's contents, it may be organized in direct order; if the reader is likely to have reservations, it should usually be organized in indirect order.

If the reader is receptive and likely to agree with the report's contents, it may be organized in direct order; if the reader is likely to have reservations, it should usually be organized in indirect order.

Three common qualities of good reports: (1) accuracy, (2) good judgment, (3) audience-centered format, style, and approach.

To achieve accuracy: o Describe facts or events in concrete terms o Report all relevant facts o Put facts in perspective o Give plenty of evidence for your conclusions o Present only valid evidence and supportable conclusions o Keep personal biases in check

To show good judgment: o Be discreet about putting things in writing o Gear report to manager's likes and dislikes

What managers like in reports: o Main idea at beginning o Facts o Whole story o Language they can understand o Useful information

To meet readers' needs with a responsive format, style, and organization decide: o Whether to use letter, memo or manuscript o Whether to group ideas one way or another o Whether to use a formal or an informal style

Questions to consider when deciding on format, style, and organization: o Who initiated report? o What subject does it cover? o When is it prepared? o Where is it being sent? o Why is it being prepared? o How receptive is the reader?

PLANNING SHORT REPORTS

o Your audience, purpose, and subject matter influence (1) the format and length of your report and (2) the basic structure of your report.

o Format and length of a report are often predetermined by the recipient; the reader's needs are the key consideration.

o When selecting a format for your written report, you have four options:

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Preprinted form Letter Memo Manuscript

o Length depends on the audience's attitude and needs and the nature of the subject.

o Establishing a basic structure involves three major decisions: What to include? what order to follow? How to group ideas?

o When deciding what to include, the objective is to answer all the audience's questions in the order that makes the most sense:

11 Look for main question: Why does reader want report? 11 Sketch general answer based on results of research. 11 Create question-and-answer chain by breaking general questions and

answers into more specific questions and answers. o Content should include both broad concepts and supporting detail:

Balance between general and specific depends on nature of report. Every detail must relate to the main question.

o The order to follow when presenting the content depends chiefly on the audience's attitude toward your main idea:

For receptive audiences, use direct approach. For skeptical or status-conscious audiences, consider indirect approach. Many effective reports are hybrids, gradually revealing conclusions and

recommendations throughout the report. o Direct approach:

Opens with summary of key findings, conclusions, recommendations. Is most efficient, convenient approach because it facilitates skimming. Is most forceful approach and conveys confidence.

o Indirect Approach Gradually unfolds information and puts conclusions and recommendations

last. Conveys impression of objectivity. Has serious drawbacks, especially in long reports: hard to follow and may

induce impatient reader to skip to end, thereby missing carefully constructed argument

ORGANIZING SHORT REPORTS

o The way ideas are divided depends on the purpose of the report: Organization of informational reports mirrors topic Organization of analytical reports reflects problem-solving process

o Purpose of informational report: to explain something in straightforward terms. o Common types of informational reports: monitor/control reports, policies,

procedures, compliance reports, personal activity reports, some justification reports, some reports documenting client work, and some proposals.

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o The audience for informational reports is generally receptive, so direct order is commonly used.

o The nature of the subject usually suggests a basis for grouping ideas in informational reports:

Geographic units Components of a whole Chronological series of events Sequential steps in process Categories established by client Items in order of importance

o The interim progress report used as an example of an information report does the following:

Documents work performed for a client. Is submitted on a nonrecurring basis. Is in letter format. Uses direct order. Is organized to present (1) an overview of what has been accomplished

during the reporting period, (2) a discussion of tasks performed, (3) a preview of the plans for the coming period, and (4) an analysis of any problems.

o Key to success in an interim progress report: Be honest about problems as well as accomplishments.

o The personal activity report used as an example of an informational report is A form of monitor/control report that gives an individual's account of a

nonrecurring event such as a convention, trip, or business meeting. In memo format. In direct order, using chronological organization ore topical structure

based on the reader's interests. o Key to success in a personal activity report: Focus on important points; avoid

blow-by-blow account. o Purpose of analytical report: to persuade readers to accept conclusions or

recommendations. o In an analytical report, facts are a means to an end, not an end in themselves. o Typical examples of analytical reports: decision-oriented reports, many proposals,

many final reports to clients. o How to organize an analytical report:

Direct order for receptive audience; use conclusions or recommendations as main points of outline.

Indirect or hybrid order for skeptical audience; use logical arguments (reasons why readers should accept conclusions and recommendations) as main points of outline.

o In a justification report: Introduction established need for action, benefits of action, and steps

required to achieve benefits. Required steps (recommendations) serve as main headings. Final section summarized recommendations and benefits.

o Organization based on logical arguments: For status-conscious or skeptical audience, rationale must be

emphasized.

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Main points on outline correspond to points in favor of conclusions or recommendations.

o Lia Chung's new business proposal is organized very simply: Here's the problem, here's the solution, here's the price.

o Key characteristics of Lia Chung's new business proposal: Authorized Internal, move upward Special (nonrecurring) Memo format Fully developed style Analytical Receptive reader (direct order)

o In a troubleshooting report: Main points in outline are independent reasons of varying importance that

collectively add up to position writer is trying to prove. Writer has variety of reasons but no single reason that is particularly

overwhelming. Introduction discusses purpose, scope, and background and summarizes

reasons why writer's case should be accepted. Approach is softened by using descriptive rather than informative phrasing

to introduce reasons. final section summarizes reasons and develops any recommendations.

MAKING REPORTS AND PROPOSALS READABLE

o The proper degree of formality to use in a report or proposal depends on the relationship between writer and reader:

Informal tone is appropriate for letter and memo reports sent to familiar audience.

Formal tone is appropriate for formal reports submitted to unfamiliar or high-ranking audiences.

o To achieve informality: Use personal pronouns, employ relatively colloquial language.

o To achieve formality: Avoid personal pronouns, use businesslike language, present points in an objective manner.

o If you have questions about which tone to use, refer to other reports of a similar type and purpose.

o Structural clues keep the reader form getting lost, especially in long reports. o Four structural clues used in reports:

Opening Headings and lists Transitions Ending

o The opening: Introduces subject, indicates why it is important, and previews main ideas. Should be phrased to match audience's receptivity. Should take informative approach with receptive audience and descriptive

approach with skeptical audience. o Headings and lists:

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Provide visual clues to relationship among ideas and help readers scan document.

Should be phrased in grammatically parallel terms. Should follow company format or use attractive, consistent pattern. Emphasize key points or show sequence.

o Transitions Help readers connect one idea to next. Are used in long reports to link major sections; serve as mini-

introductions. Are used in shorter reports to connect paragraphs. Should emphasize nature of connection. May demonstrate that link is additional detail, causal relationship,

comparison, contrast, illustration, time sequence, intensification, summary, repetition.

o The ending: Recapitulates main points in order in which they appeared. Emphasizes conclusions and recommendations (in analytical reports).

PLANNING LONG REPORTS

FIVE STEPS IN PLANNING REPORTS

The foundation of any report is formed by five steps:

1. Define the problem and the purpose2. Outline the issues for investigation3. Prepare a work plan4. Conduct research5. Analyze and interpret data, draw conclusions, and develop recommendations

DEFINING THE PROBLEM

The definition of the problem establishes the scope of the investigation; the person authorizing the study typically defines the problem.

The problem statement should specify: o What needs to be determined? o Why issue is important? o Who is involved in situation? o where trouble is located? o When it started? o How situation originated?

The statement of purpose clarifies the goal of the investigation. The statement of purpose can take three forms:

o Infinitive: the purpose is to determine which candidate is best qualified for the job. o Question: Which candidate is best qualified?

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o Declarative statement: The best qualified candidate will be identified. After a written statement of purpose is prepared, it should be confirmed with the person

who authorized the report.

OUTLINE ISSUES FOR INVESTIGATION

Problem factoring: breaking a general problem into a series of specific questions. The outline of issues for analysis is often different from the outline of the resulting report. Outlining the issues to be addressed during an investigation leads to development of

alogical structure for the resulting report. The overall purpose of the study determines whether an informational or analytical

approach is more logical; however, many assignments require both information and analysis.

Informational assignments (with very little analysis or interpretation) are factored on the basis of subtopics:

o In order of importance o Sequentially o Chronologically o Spatially o Geographically o Categorically

Analytical assignments (with analyses, conclusions, or recommendations) are factored on the basis of problem-solving methodology:

o Hypotheses: to discover causes, predict results, identify solutions to a problem. o Relative merits or bases of comparison: to compare alternatives against criteria.

The rules of division: o Divide a topic into at least two parts. o Choose a significant, useful basis or guiding principle for division. o Limit yourself to one basis at a time when subdividing whole into parts. o Make certain each group is separate and distinct. o Be complete when listing components of whole.

A preliminary outline provides a frame of reference for the study; it is especially important when the assignment involves collaboration or is extremely complicated.

The two most common outline formats: alphanumeric and decimal. Parallel construction in an outline--using the same grammatical form for all captions at a

single level of the outline--provides clues to the relationships among ideas and is considered the proper approach by most of those who might review the outline.

Outlines may be phrased in two ways: o Descriptive (topical) outlines identify topics (for example, "Market growth"). o Informative (talking) outlines, which suggest something about topics, may take

form of question or brief phrase (for example, "How rapidly is market growing?" or "Market growth has slowed").

Informative outlines, especially in question form, are generally more useful than descriptive outlines for guiding research.

PREPARING THE WORK PLAN

The work plan explains how you will solve the problem: steps required, their sequence and timing, sources of information.

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A formal, written work plan for a major investigation should include: o Problem statement o Statement of purpose and scope of investigation o Discussion of tasks, methods, and constraints o Description of end products o Review of assignments, schedules, resource requirements

CONDUCTING THE RESEARCH

Business research uses a mix of primary and secondary sources: o Secondary sources: information that has already been collected o Primary sources: firsthand information not previously compiled

Secondary sources commonly used in business research: general reference works, popular publications, government documents, on-line databases, internal reports, company databases, brochures, newsletters, annual reports.

How to make the best use of secondary sources: o Be selective; choose recent, respected material. o Stop when you reach the point of diminishing returns. o Take notes.

Four main types of primary sources: documents, observations, surveys, experiments. Documents: company files, such as sales reports, balance sheets, income statements,

policy statements, correspondence, contracts, log books; government documents; legal documents.

The same document can be both a primary and a secondary source. For example, if you use financial information from an annual report, the annual report is a secondary source; if you compare the features of the annual report to those of other annual reports, it is a primary source.

observations: information obtained formally or informally by using the five sense. Observations are useful for studying physical activities, objects, processes, the

environment, and human behavior. The value of an observation depends on the objectivity and reliability of the observer. Surveys: information obtained by asking qualified people for their opinions. A survey may take the form of (1) an interview with an expert or (2) a large-scale survey

based on a questionnaire. Three decisions must be made before conducting a survey:

o Should you use face-to-face interviews, phone calls, or printed questionnaires? o How many people should you contact to get reliable (reproducible results, and who

should they be? o What specific questions should you ask to get a valid (true) picture?

When designing a questionnaire, use a mix of question types: o Open-ended o Either-or o Multiple choice o Scale o Checklist o Ranking o Fill in the blank

Follow these tips when constructing a questionnaire: o Make instructions clear.

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o Keep questionnaire short and easy to answer. o Formulate questions that provide easily tabulated or analyzed answers. o Avoid leading questions. o Limit each question to one point. o Ask only one thing at a time. o Avoid vague or abstract questions. o Include questions that rephrase earlier questions as cross-check on validity of

earlier responses. o Pretest questionnaire.

Experiments: information obtained through controlled testing; most useful in scientific fields.

the difficulty of controlling all variables limits the value of experiments in most business situations.

ANALYZING AND INTERPRETING DATA

The analytical process is a search for relationships among various pieces of evidence and the formulation of conclusions and recommendations based on that evidence.

Numerical data can be manipulated to produce statistics, which can be interpreted to reveal the significance of the data.

Three important types of statistics: averages, trends, and correlations. Average: number representative of a group of numbers. Three types of averages: mean, median, and mode. Mean: sum of all the items in the group divided by the number of items in the group; useful

when you want to compare one item or individual with the group, but can be misleading if one of the numbers is extreme.

Mode: most frequently occurring number, the case that occurs most often; useful when you want to know what case you are most likely to encounter, easier to calculate than the median, and not affected by extreme numbers.

Trend: pattern exhibited by data over a period of time. Correlation: consistent relationship between variables, but not necessarily indicative of

cause and effect. Statistics provide a foundation for conclusions. Conclusions: interpretations of what the facts mean, which are influenced by assumptions

and value judgments. the validity of conclusions depends on the skill and objectivity of the analyst. Teamwork often leads to the best conclusions because each member of the team acts as

a balance on other members' reasoning process. Recommendations differ from conclusions:

o Conclusions: what all facts add up to; interpretation of what information means. o Recommendations: what should be done in light of facts and their meaning.

Useful recommendations o are practical, o are acceptable to the audience, and o indicate what should happen next and who should do what.

PREPARING THE FINAL OUTLINE

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The preliminary outline that guided research is seldom used as the blueprint for the final report; it must be reworked to take into account purpose, audience reaction, and the things learned during the study.

The placement of conclusions and recommendations depends on the audience's probable response:

o in front if a positive reaction is expected, or o at the end if resistance is anticipated.

Once the final outline is in mind, begin identifying which points can and should be illustrated with visual aids (tables, graphs, schematic drawings, or photographs)

When planning the illustrations for your report or presentation, aim to achieve a reasonable balance between the verbal and the visual.

WRITING LONG REPORTS

REPORT PRODUCTION

Report Production varies, depending on the size and nature of the organization: o Collaborative effort common in large companies. o Solo approach more common in small companies.

Collaborative report writing: o Several authors write as team. o Editor assembles pieces. o Secretarial staff and art department handle format and illustrations.

Computer simplifies preparation process; o Handles formatting automatically. o Checks spelling and readability. o Creates artwork.

A realistic schedule for putting a draft into final form: o Typing time: 8 pages per hour. o Editing/proofreading time: 15 minutes per page. o Artwork time: 1 hour per exhibit (hand-drawn). o Review time: as much as possible.

After submitting a report, solicit feedback so that you can learn from the reader's responses.

REPORT PRODUCTION

Regardless of length, organizational approach, or intended audience, formal reports use manuscript format and a relatively impersonal tone.

Length determines the number of components in a formal report; several elements may be combined in shorter reports.

A formal report has three categories of elements: 1. Prefatory parts 2. Text 3. Supplementary parts

Prefatory parts, which are usually prepared last, may include

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o Cover o Title fly o Title page o Letter of authorization o Letter of acceptance o Letter of transmittal o Table of contents o List of illustrations o Synopsis or executive summary

The cover should be o Sturdy, appropriate, and attractive o Labeled with title, writer's name, and date

The title of a formal report should be succinct but specific (who, what, when, where, why, and how)

The title fly, an optional element, is blank except for the title. The title page, which may serve as a cover, includes

o Title of report o Name, title, and address of person/organization that authorized report (reader) o Name, title, and address of person/organization that prepared report o Submission date.

The letter of authorization and letter of acceptance are optional but may be included "for the record"; they may be in memo or letter format, depending on whether report is internal or external.

o Letter of authorization follows direct-request plan; gives instructions for assignment.

o Letter of acceptance follows good-news plan; confirms arrangements for assignment.

The letter (memo) of transmittal o "Hands" the document to the reader o Precedes the table of contents o May appear in only selected copies o Follows routine, good-news plan o Specifies methods, scope, and limitations o Highlights important points o Provides helpful background information o Acknowledges contributors o May take the place of a synopsis

The table of contents o Gives readers an overview of the report's structure. o May list all headings or only the top two or three levels of headings. o Gives the page number where each heading appears. o Mirrors the wording of the headings precisely. o Lists all prefatory parts following the table of contents and all supplementary parts. o May list the visual aids if the number of them is limited.

The list of illustrations o Gives titles and page numbers of illustrations. o May be typed on the same page as the table of contents or be presented on the

next page. All visual aids may be listed together as exhibits, or tables and figures may be listed

separately.

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The synopsis o Is a one-page (ore less) overview of the main points. o Is common in long technical/academic reports. o May be distributed separately from the report. o May be informative or descriptive, depending on style of text.

The executive summary o Is more frequently used in business reports than the synopsis is. o Is longer and more fully developed than the synopsis. o Provides a "mini" report for readers who don't want to read the entire text. o May contain headings, transitions, and visual aids. o Is organized like the text, using direct or indirect order depending on the

audience's attitude. o Contains enough detail for the reader to decide about the issues covered without

reading further. The length of the report determines the need for a synopsis or executive summary:

o Most useful in documents over 30 pages. o Often omitted or combined with letter of transmittal in shorter documents.

The text of the report includes the following: o Introduction o Body o Summary o Conclusions o Recommendations o Notes

The format of the report, which helps readers understand the message, may be dictated by company policy.

Several devices help focus attention on major points in the text: o Headings, which facilitate the skimming process, should be emphasized with

typography and white space. o Visual aids dramatize key points. o Previews and section summaries help orient the reader.

The introduction o Puts the report in perspective. o Indicates purpose. o Previews the contents. o Establishes the tone.

The introduction, which varies in length from a paragraph or two to several pages, may discuss

o Authorization for the report. o The problem studied and the purpose of the report. o Scope. o Background. o Sources and methods. o Definitions. o Limitations. o Report organization.

The introduction should be prepared to supplement the prefatory parts, so that unnecessary duplication of information is avoided.

The body of the report o Contains major sections or chapters.

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o Should be long enough to adequately support your position and respond to the reader's needs.

o May or may not include conclusions. The final section "wrapping up" the text of the report may include one or more of the

following: o Summary: key findings paraphrased. o Conclusions: writer's analysis of what findings mean. o Recommendations: writer's opinion of what should be done.

The length of the final section of the text depends on how the rest of the report is structured:

o If the report uses direct order, the final section may be a fairly brief recapitulation. o If the reports uses indirect order, the final section tends to be longer and more

detailed. The summary, conclusions, and recommendations may be combined or listed separately

for added emphasis. Recommendations, which are especially important in reports intended to lead to action,

o spell out what should happen next. o explain difficulties. o provide a schedule. o assign responsibilities.

Reference notes satisfy your moral and legal obligation to credit sources of information and help establish your credibility.

In a business report, excessive footnotes hamper communication; simply mentioning sources in the text is often an acceptable alternative.

Let company tradition be your guide when deciding on the number and treatment of reference notes.

Types of visual aids: Tables Line and surface charts Bar charts Pie charts Flow charts and organization charts Maps Drawings, diagrams, and photographs

Tables are good for presenting detailed, specific information; they should be designed for accuracy, consistency, and convenience.

Parts of a table: o Vertical columns, identified with column heads (include units of measure). o Horizontal columns, identified with line heads.

Variables in constructing tables: o Length and complexity (simplify for slide presentations) o Placement (on separate page with title or embedded in text as text table) o Content (word table or numerical table)

Line and surface charts are used to illustrate trends over time or to plot the interaction of two variables.

In line and surface charts, the vertical axis shows amount and the horizontal axis shows time (in a trend chart) or another variable; both axes typically begin at zero and are marked in standard increments, but treatment can vary depending on the nature of the data.

Several lines can be plotted on the same chart to compare the behavior of different items.

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Surface charts are line charts with a cumulative effect; they show trends in composition of a whole over time.

The scale of the axes affects the slope of the line and thereby the apparent significance of the results; choose a scale that gives a realistic picture.

Bar charts, which consist of one or more bars representing quantities, are useful for four purposes:

o To compare the size of several items at one time. o To show changes in one item over time. o To indicate the composition of several items over time. o To show the relative size of components of a whole.

Variations in bar charts: Vertical or horizontal alignment Multiple bars or single bar Negative or positive quantities Pictograms (using lines of symbols) instead of bars

Pie charts are useful for showing the composition of a whole. Design considerations for pie charts:

Limit number of slices to seven. Position largest or most important slice starting at 12 o'clock and arrange

the rest clockwise in descending order. Use shading and color to differentiate slices. Label all segments. Be sure segments add up to 100 percent.

Flow charts and organization charts are useful for showing physical or conceptual relationships:

o Flow charts illustrate processes, procedures, and relationships using pictorial symbols or geometric shapes.

o Organization charts illustrate positions, units, or functions of an organization. Maps are useful for showing any geographically based information; blank maps can be

obtained at office supply stores. Drawings, diagrams, and photographs are useful for showing how something looks,

especially in technical reports: o Drawings and diagrams range from hand-drawn sketches to computer-generated

images. o Photographs are becoming more common with improvements in photocopying

machines. The style of a visual aid should be appropriate for the occasion; save elaborate graphics

for major messages. How to introduce visual aids in the text:

o Refer to visual aids by number before they appear. o Explain importance of exhibit, emphasizing main point. o Do not repeat details of exhibit in the text.

How to number visual aids: o Number tables and figures separately (Table X, Figure X), or call all visual aids

exhibits and number consecutively. o Number visual aids by chapter or consecutively throughout the document.

Place a visual aid as close as possible to the paragraph it illustrates: o On the same page if practical. o On a separate page immediately after the reference.

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o Clustered with other exhibits at the end of the report. Use titles and captions that convey a complete message independently of the text; some

readers will skim the text and rely primarily on the visual aids: o Thorough titles and captions are especially important if exhibits are widely

separated from related text. o Captions, which are generally phrased as complete sentences, are optional; they

are most useful when text explanations are thin. o Together, title, labels, and caption should cover who, what, why, where, when, and

how. o Type of title (descriptive or informative) should match style of headings used in

text. o Format of titles and captions should be consistent throughout the document.

Supplementary parts follow the text and include Appendixes Bibliography Index

Appendixes contain relevant material that is too detailed to present in the text, such as sample questionnaires, forms, computer printouts, statistical formulas, glossary of terms (may be a separate section), and visual aids (if not included in the text).

Each type of material requires a separate appendix. Each appendix should be referenced in the text and listed in the table of contents. Bibliography: list of sources used in preparing the report. Index: alphabetical listing of names, places, and subjects mentioned in the report (rarely

included in unpublished reports).

COMPONENTS OF A FORMAL PROPOSAL

The format of formal proposals is similar in most respects to that of other formal reports. Three prefatory parts in a proposal are handled somewhat differently:

o Copy of RFP (or a portion of it) replaces letter of authorization. o Letter of transmittal in a solicited proposal uses good-news pattern; letter of

transmittal in an unsolicited proposal uses persuasive pattern. o Synopsis or executive summary is generally omitted; introduction or letter of

transmittal takes its place. The text of the proposal persuades the client to grant the contract and explains the terms

of the contract. The organization of a solicited proposal is governed by the RFP because having all

proposals organized alike facilitates comparison of competing bids, especially when evaluation is handled by a team.

Typical subheads in the introduction to a proposal include the following: o Background or statement of problem: review of client's situation. o Overview of the approach: the key selling points. o Scope (or limitations): what you will or will not do. o Report organization.

The body of the proposal should cover four areas: o Proposed approach. o Work plan. o Qualifications to perform work. o Costs.

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The section describing the proposed approach (also called technical proposal, research design, issues for analysis, or work statement) should provide the following:

o Description of what you have to offer. o Benefits and advantages of your approach

The work plan, which tells how you will accomplish the work, should cover the following: o Steps to be taken and their timing. o Methods and resources to be used. o Individuals who will be responsible.

A work plan is contractually binding, so it must be realistic. The statement of qualifications covers experience with similar contracts, personnel, and

facilities. The cost section

o is a detailed breakdown of such factors as labor, materials, and overhead. o often determines whether you win or lose the job. o is neither too high nor too low. o is well documented.

The summary is a brief recapitulation of your approach, emphasizing benefits to the reader.

WRITING RESUMES AND APPLICATION LETTERS

THINKING ABOUT YOUR CAREER

Three steps in career planning: 1. Analyze what you have to offer employer. 2. Determine what you want out of a job. 3. Seek employment opportunities that match your interests, capabilities, and goals.

You offer an employer

o Skills: general abilities that cut across functional lines, such as speaking ability. o Employment qualifications: educational preparation, work experience, activities,

achievements. o Personal characteristics: personality traits (such as curiosity, aggressiveness,

persistence, friendliness) and personal values (such as helping others or having freedom to create things).

Some ways to analyze what you have to offer: o List ten achievements; look for skills common to those achievements. o Ask your friends and family to list your abilities; compare lists. o List jobs that your work experience, education, and other experiences have

prepared you to do. o List four or five most important personal characteristics; ask friends and family to

make similar list. o Undergo vocational testing in school counseling office to determine interests and

abilities. o Identify values satisfied in previous job or volunteer project. o List things you enjoy doing.

Know what you want to do by considering o what you like doing every day (for example: "I would like a job in which I can use

my artistic talents").

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o What you hope to accomplish (how much you hope to make financially, how far you hope to advance, and how rapidly you hope to progress).

o What environment you prefer (what kind of organization appeals to you--size, location, product orientation, working hours, facilities).

Sources of information on various industries, regions, and occupational fields: o Business pages of newspapers. o Business-oriented TV programs and news reports. o Business magazines. o Government publications. o Professional and trade journals.

Sources of information on specific companies, organizations, and job openings: o Directories of employers. o Company brochures, annual reports. o Visits to company, interviews with employees. o Newspaper advertisements. o Trade and professional journals. o College placement office. o Government placement offices.

WRITING A RESUME

Resume: a form of advertising that emphasizes a job applicant's strong points and downplays disadvantages; its purpose is to create desire for an interview.

Format and style of the resume are important because they determine the recruiter's initial impression:

o Use letter-size white bond paper, black ink, wide margins. o Keep to one page if possible. o Use layout and graphic design to emphasize strong points. o Check mechanics. o Use simple, direct writing style that makes use of short, crisp phrases and action

verbs. Essential elements in a resume:

o Name and address. o Academic credentials. o Employment history.

Without exaggerating or lying, present your strongest, most impressive qualifications and skirt areas that might raise questions.

Name and address: who you are, how you can be reached. Career objective (optional):

o Provide frame of reference for evaluating resume. o Tell what you want to do, why you are qualified. o Be specific but not too narrow.

Summary of qualifications and ate of availability (optional--may be used in place of career objective): a brief overview of qualifications; is useful for long resumes.

Education: o Emphasize if you are still in school. o List each postsecondary school attended, with most recent school first. o List off-campus training programs related to career goals. o Include grades if impressive and relevant to job.

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o Place education before experience if you are a new graduate; place experience first if you have been out of school a few years.

Work experience: o List places where you have worked, positions you have held. o Emphasize jobs related to career goals. o List in reverse chronological order, with most recent job first. o Include name, location, brief description of employer. o List your title and dates of employment. o Describe accomplishments related to career goals.

The relevant skills section includes such skills as foreign languages and computer expertise, as well as information such as the date you are available to start work.

Activities and achievements (optional): paid or unpaid activities that demonstrate your abilities.

Personal data (optional): o Omit references to race, age, gender, marital status, religion, national origin. o Include hobbies, military service if relevant to career goals.

Three organizational plans for resumes; choice depends on the applicant's background and goals:

o Chronological resume. o Functional resume. o Targeted resume.

Chronological resume: o Is traditional approach preferred by many employers. o Emphasizes directly related experience (or education for new graduates). o Lists positions (schools) in reverse chronological order. o Is best choice for person with strong work history looking for position similar to

current job. Functional resume:

o Is organized around list of accomplishments. o Discusses employment history and education in subordinate sections. o Is good for new graduates and people trying to redirect their career or minimize

breaks in employment. Targeted resume:

o Emphasizes what you can do for a particular employer in a particular position. o Lists capabilities first and then achievements. o Places employment history and education in subordinate sections. o Is good for people who have a clear idea of what they want to do and can

demonstrate ability in the targeted area. To write the "perfect" resume:

o Consider employer's needs. o Avoid such common mistakes as submitting resume that is too long, too short or

sketchy, wordy, too slick, amateurish, poorly reproduced, misspelled and ungrammatical throughout, lacking explicit or implicit career objective, boastful, dishonest, gimmicky.

WRITING AN APPLICATION LETTER

Tailor the application letter for specific employers. An application letter is a form of "sales" letter; use the persuasive plan (indirect approach).

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Use a confident, businesslike tone. The content should indicate knowledge of the employer. Solicited application letter: sent in response to an announced opening. Unsolicited application letter: sent "blind" to an organization that has not announced an

opening. In the opening paragraph of a solicited application letter,

o Mention where you learned of job. o Tell in general terms what you have to offer.

In the opening paragraph of an unsolicited application letter, o State what position you are applying for. o Get the reader's attention.

Ways to get attention in an unsolicited application letter: o Show how your strongest skills can benefit organization. o Describe job requirements, show how well you fit. o Mention name of someone reader respects. o Refer to publicized accounts of organization's activities. o Ask question that shows understanding of organization's needs. o Use catchy phrase.

Opening should state what position you are applying for. In the middle of the application letter, summarize your key selling points (your key

qualifications) and explain how they can benefit the employer: o Mention qualifications related to job; don't repeat resume. o Explain how you meet all requirements mentioned in ad (for solicited application

letters). o Present evidence to back up key qualifications. o Show evidence of such job-related qualities as diligence, intelligence, tact. o Include salary requirements only if asked to do so. o Mention your resume.

In the closing paragraph: o Ask for specific action--an interview. o Make action easy by providing a phone number and suggesting a time to call. o Remind reader of your key selling point.

The "perfect" application letter achieves one goal: It gets you an interview.

WRITING OTHER TYPES OF EMPLOYMENT MESSAGES

In job-inquiry letters, which are direct requests for an application form, o Use direct plan. o Provide some evidence of qualifications. o Consider applying in person instead of writing letter.

Application forms are standardized data sheets that simplify comparison of applicants' qualifications:

o Be complete, accurate, neat. o If form asks for salary requirements, say "open to negotiation" or consult

government survey to determine standard pay for particular job in given area. o Purpose of writing application follow-ups: to remind company of your interest and

to update your application.

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INTERVIEWING FOR EMPLOYMENT AND FOLLOWING UP

INTERVIEWING WITH POTENTIAL EMPLOYERS

Three steps in the interview process: 1. Preliminary screening (to eliminate unqualified applicants). 2. Initial evaluation (to narrow the field). 3. Final evaluation (to make hiring decision).

The preliminary screening is conducted by the personnel department; takes a structured, standardized approach; is often conducted on campus.

The initial evaluation is held at the organization's facilities. The final evaluation is conducted by the supervisor or department manager to whom the

employee will report. The best strategy for a screening interview is to follow the interviewer's lead and to keep

answers brief and pointed; the best strategy for a selection interview is to show interest, answer fully, and listen attentively.

Three basic forms of interviews: 1. Directed interview. 2. Open-ended interview. 3. Stress interview.

Directed interview.

o Is completely planned and controlled by interviewer. o Is good for gathering facts. o Is used when screening large number of preliminary applicants.

Open-ended interview. o Has open, relaxed format. o Encourages applicant to talk. o Is used in evaluation interviews.

Stress interview. o Reveals applicant's reaction to tough situations. o Consists of pointed questions, critical comments, hostile reactions.

Preemployment tests attempt to provide an objective, quantitative measure of an applicant's qualifications.

Preemployment tests try to measure either skills or psychological characteristics. Two things employers look for in an applicant:

o Suitability for job. o Good fit with organization.

Qualifications for the job consist of (1) the right functional and technical skills, and (2) the right personality type.

A good fit with the organization consists of

1. physical style (clothes, grooming, mannerisms) 2. age and maturity 3. personal interests and hobbies 4. attitudes and values.

In a job interview, applicants need to look for answers to seven questions:

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o Are these my kind of people? o Can I do this work? o Will I enjoy the work? o Is the job what I want? o Does the job pay what I'm worth? o What kind of person would I be working for? o What sort of future can I expect with this organization?

How to prepare for a job interview: o Do some basic research on company and industry. o Think ahead about questions. o Bolster your confidence. o Polish your interview style. o Plan to look good. o Be ready when you arrive.

In an interview, expect to be asked about your strengths, weaknesses, education, experience, values, career goals, and expectations.

Think about responses to likely questions. Prepare a list of questions to ask interviewer:

o Warm-up question to break the ice. o Mix of various types of questions (open, direct, indirect). o Questions that are easy to answer.

To bolster your confidence. o Think about your strengths, not your weaknesses. o Minimize or offset your shortcomings. o Remember that the interviewer is only human. o Defuse nervousness by analyzing its source. o Rehearse. o Prepare props to take to interview (copy of resume, information about employer,

samples of work). o Avoid nervous mannerisms.

Practice mock interviews to polish your style. Avoid these flaws:

o Shrinking in presence of authority. o Seeming too "laid back." o Talking too much or too little. o Being overwhelming.

Nonverbal behavior and vocal characteristics can be improved through analysis and practice as well.

Appearance is an important element in an interview: o Dress conservatively. o Check out organization's dress style in advance. o Be well groomed. o Stand up straight. o Smile.

Readiness is a matter of o Carrying copies of your resume and job-related papers. o Checking route to interview site and arriving on time. o Being patient and pleasant if you have to wait.

The correct approach to an interview depends on the stage in the process:

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1. Screening interview: differentiate yourself form other candidates; telegraph "headline".

2. Initial selection interview: broaden sales pitch; emphasize your three or four best qualifications; gather information on employer.

3. Final interview: determine psychological fit; clinch deal on favorable terms.

Three stages in every interview: (1) warm-up, (2) question-and-answer stage, (3) close. The warm-up is important because 50 percent of the interviewer's decision is made within

the first 30 to 60 seconds; focus on using body language effectively. In the question-and-answer stage,

o Think before you answer. o Ask questions to show interest and obtain information. o Listen attentively. o Pay attention to interviewer's body language.

In the close, o Evaluate your performance and correct any misconceptions. o Watch for signs that time is up. o If you get a job offer, ask for time to make decision. o Let the interviewer mention salary. o Negotiate, if you are in strong position and the organization is flexible.

Some tips on negotiating: o Test employer's flexibility on salary and benefits. o Evaluate strength of your bargaining position. o Consider noncash benefits.

Take notes immediately after each job interview: o Write down names and titles of interviewers. o Summarize answers to your questions. o Evaluate your own performance.

FOLLOWING UP AFTER THE INTERVIEW

A thank-you message o Should be sent within two days after interview. o Can be letter or telephone call. o Demonstrates interest and sets you apart from other candidates. o Should be brief and organized using direct approach. o Should exhibit "you" attitude.

An inquiry following a job interview o Can be letter or phone call. o Should be sent after decision date promised by interviewer or two weeks after

interview. o Is especially appropriate if you have another offer. o Should be organized to follow direct approach.

A request for a time extension o Is appropriate when you receive offer but need time to complete other interviews. o Should be organized like direct request. o Should begin with friendly opening. o Should ask for extension but emphasize your interest in position.

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o Should close with request for response and indicate willingness to compromise. A letter of acceptance

o Should be sent within five days of job offer. o Should open with good news, cover necessary details in middle, and conclude

with look toward future. A letter declining a job offer should use the bad-news plan, opening with a buffer and

closing with an expression of gratitude. A letter of resignation should also use the bad-news plan, opening with a favorable,

appreciative buffer; mentioning the date that the resignation is effective; and closing on a cordial note.

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