BBBURIEDURIEDURIEDBBBOTTLESOTTLESOTTLES:::TTTHEHEHEAAARCHAEOLOGYRCHAEOLOGYRCHAEOLOGYOFOFOFWWWITCHCRAFTITCHCRAFTITCHCRAFTANDANDANDSSSYMPATHETICYMPATHETICYMPATHETICMMMAGICAGICAGIC

M.CHRISMANNINGM.CHRISMANNINGM.CHRISMANNINGDEPARTMENTOFANTHROPOLOGYDEPARTMENTOFANTHROPOLOGYDEPARTMENTOFANTHROPOLOGY

REFERENCES

Alexandrowicz,J.Stephen1986TheMarketStreetWitchBottle,Pittsburgh,Pennsylvania.ProceedingsoftheSymposiumonOhioValleyUrbanandHistoricArchaeologyIV:117

132.Anderson,JeffreyE.2005ConjureinAfricanAmericanSociety.LouisianaStateUniversityPress,BatonRouge.Andrews,MarkE.2009Bottlesandblades.BritishArchaeology108(September/October).Electronicdocument,http://www.britarch.ac.uk/ba/ba108/letters.shtml,

accessedApril19,2011.Barber,JenniferL.2006PhaseIIandIIIArchaeologicalExcavationsattheArmstrongFarmstead(15Fa185),FayetteCounty,Kentucky.ReportonfilewithCultural

ResourceAnalysts,Inc.,Lexington,Kentucky.Becker,MarshallJ.1978AnEighteenthCenturyWitchBottleinDelawareCounty,Pennsylvania.PennsylvaniaArchaeologist48(12):111.2005AnUpdateonColonialWitchBottles.PennsylvaniaArchaeologist75(2):1223.Blanchard,Kevin2004BottlesofhoodootakenfromVermilionRiver.TheAdvocate(BatonRouge,Louisiana),September3.Geddes,Linda2009Londonsmagicalhistoryuncorkedfromwitchbottle.NewScientist(June4).Electronicdocument,http://www.newscientist.com/article/ dn17245londonsmagicalhistoryuncorkedfromwitchbottle.html,accessedSeptember15,2009.Godbeer,Richard1992TheDevilsDominion:MagicandReligioninEarlyNewEngland.CambridgeUniversityPress,NewYork.Hoggard,Brian2004Thearchaeologyofcounterwitchcraftandpopularmagic.InBeyondtheWitchTrials:WitchcraftandMagicinEnlightenmentEurope,editedby Owen DaviesandWillemdeBlecourt,pp.167186.ManchesterUniversityPress,NewYork.Hyatt,HarryMiddleton1935FolkLorefromAdamsCounty,Illinois.AlmaEganHyattFoundation,NewYork.King,JuliaA.1996ThePatuxentPointSite.InLivingandDyingonthe17thCenturyPatuxentFrontier,JuliaA.KingandDouglasH.Ubelaker,editors,pp.1546.

MarylandHistoricalTrustPress,Crownsville.Mather,Increase1684AnEssayfortheRecordingofIllustriousProvidences.Merrifield,Ralph1955WitchbottlesandMagicalJugs.FolkLore66(March):195207.1987TheArchaeologyofRitualandMagic.NewAmsterdam,NewYork.Morehouse,Rebecca2009WitchBottle.JeffersonPattersonPark&Museum,MarylandDepartmentofPlanning.Electronicdocument,http://www.jefpat.org/

CuratorsChoiceArchive/2009CuratorsChoice/Aug2009WitchBottle.html,accessedApril17,2011.Painter,Floyd1980AnEarly18thCenturyWitchBottle.Chesopiean18(6):6271.Pitts,Mike2009UrinetoNavelFluff:TheFirstCompleteWitchBottle.BritishArchaeology107(July/August).Electronicdocument,http://www.britarch.ac.uk/ba/

ba107/news.shtml,accessedSeptember15,2009.Powell,Nicky2008TheHolywellwitchbottle.MuseumofLondon.Electronicdocument,http://www.museumoflondonarchaeology.org.uk/News/Archive/News08/

witchbottle.htm,accessedApril19,2011.Puckett,NewbellNiles1926FolkBeliefsoftheSouthernNegro.UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,ChapelHill.Yronwode,Catherine2000WitchBottles:HoodooandBritish.TheArcaneArchive.Electronicdocument,http://www.arcanearchive.org/occultism/magic/folk/ hoodoo/witchbottleshoodooandbritish1.php,accessedMarch14,2011.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Iam indebtedtothe following individuals:Dr.MarkGroover,Dr.ColleenBoydandDr.RonHicks, forservingonmythesiscommittee;Dr.MarshallBecker,forhisinsightfulcorrespondenceonAmericanwitchbottles;DanDavis,forfirstrecognizingtheArmstrongwitchbottleandproviding importantdetailson the find;KevinCupkaHeadandDr.OwenDavies,whohelped trackdown theArmstrong Farmstead sitereport;andfellowresearchersBrianHoggardandMeganSpringate,fortheircontinuedprofessionalsupportandencouragement.

21STCENTURYADAPTATIONS

In theUnitedStates, theEnglish traditionofwitchbottlesascountermagicappears tohavemergedwith African religious andmagical traditions.Hoodoo, a syncretic beliefsystem incorporating elements from both African and European sources, was (andappearstostillbe)widelypracticedintheSouth,particularlyamongBlackAmericans.Itappearsthatconjurebottlestooktheplaceofmalevolentconjurebags insomeareas,particularly those settledby theEnglish (Anderson2005:61).The contentsof conjurebottles are adapted to a wide variety of magical functions and frequently containtypicallyAfricanelementssuchashotredpepperpowder,graveyarddirt,and/orgooferdust, plus a piece of paper containing the intended victims name (Yronwode 2000).Furthermore,modernor NewAgewitchesthosewhosubscribetotheWicca faithconstruct bottle spells in a similar fashion. In the case of both hoodoo and Wiccaassemblages,thetermwitchbottleisnotbeappropriateandthemoregeneraltermsofconjurebottle,bottlespellorbottlecharmarepreferable.

Bottle charms continue tobemade todayand provide an interesting comparison tohistoricwitch bottles (Yronwode 2000). In1988, a small plastic medicine bottlecontaining a halfpenny, a dime, teeth, awrappedpieceofmetal,andasmallvialofoil was found on the banks of EnglandsThames River (Powell 2008). In Ontario,Canada,apoliceofficerapprehendedaman inpossessionofaplasticbottlecontainingurine and razor blades, for protection from bad people (Andrews 2009), while inLouisianamorethanfourdozenbrownplasticprescriptionbottlesfilledwithpowderandwrittenspellshavebeenrecoveredfromtheVermilionRiver(Blanchard2004).

AAAMERICANMERICANMERICANWWWITCHITCHITCHBBBOTTLESOTTLESOTTLES

OnlyahandfulofexamplesofwitchbottleshavebeendocumentedintheUnitedStates,theearliestdatingtothemid18thcentury.Although therearemanyparallels,Americanwitchbottlesdiffer fromEnglishexamples in thattheyareallglassbottlesorvials insteadofstoneware jugs.Thosethathavebeen identifiedtodatehaveallbeenfoundintheNewEnglandorMidAtlanticregions,withtheexceptionofapossibleexamplefromKentucky(Barber2006;Davis,pers.comm.2011).ArchaeologistMarshallBeckerwasthefirsttoidentifyawitchbottleintheUnitedStates, laterreporting fiveadditionalexamplesthathad largelygoneunpublished (Becker1978,2005). Inrecentyears,twomoreexamplesofpotentialwitchbottleshavebeenexcavated(Barber2006;King1996),althoughnoteveryoneisconvincedthattheselatestcasesareindeedwitchbottles(Becker,pers.comm.2011).

ESSINGTONWITCHBOTTLE,TINICUMISLAND,DELAWARECOUNTY,PENNSYLVANIATheEssingtonwitchbottlewasthefirstexample identified intheUnitedStates(Becker1978). It isdescribedasasquat,darkolivegreenwinebottledatedto174050,containingsixbrasspinsandtightlysealedwithawhittledwood stopper (Becker1978,2005).Thebottlewas foundduring theexcavationofamid17th century structureoccupiedbyanEnglishfamilyduringmuchofthe18thcentury,whenitisbelievedthebottlewasdeposited(Becker1978).Thebottlewasfound inan invertedposition inasmallholedugnearthebaseofachimney.Inadditiontothebottle,asherdofblackglazedredwareandthelongboneofabird(possiblyapartridge)werealsofoundinthefeature,directlyundertheshoulderofthebottle.Inaddition,Becker(1978,2005)hassuggestedthatatonetimethebottlealso containedurineanda feltheart long sincedecayedorevaporated,althoughphysicalevidence isinconclusive.

MARKETSTREETWITCHBOTTLE,PITTSBURGH,PENNSYLVANIAIn 1981, during excavations at theMarket Street Site in downtown Pittsburgh, an Americanmade, freeblown,aquamarineglassbottlewasexcavatedfromthebottomofabricklinedcistern.Thebottlewastightlysealedwithacorkandcontainedamurkyfluidthatmighthavebeenurineaswellastwofabricshoeinsolepatternswrappedup inside a roughly triangular or heartshaped piece of felt pierced with nine brass pins and three needles(Alexandrowicz1986;Becker2005:1920).Thepinshadstampedheads,aprocesspatentedin1824,whichdatesthebottleto the firsthalfofthe19thcentury.Thepresenceof theshoe insolepatterns isparticularly interesting,asthere is evidence that shoes served a magical or apotropaic function in both England and the United States(Merrifield1987).Becker,however,hassuggestedthatthevictimofthebewitchmentmayhavehadsometypeoffootdisorder,possiblywithbilateralsymptoms,andattemptedtousethesepatternsasameansofcounteractingitseffect(Becker2005:19).

LEWESBOTTLE,DELAWAREInthe1960s,aglassbottlecontainingpinswasexcavatedatthesiteofacolonialDutchfort,fromanintrusivepitfeaturebelievedtobeassociatedwiththedoorwayofamorerecentfarmhouse.Thebottleanditscontentsarenotdescribedintheoriginalreport,butBecker(2005)datesthebottleto170050.Unfortunately,nootherdetailsareavailableconcerningthisexample,asitwasnotwelldocumentedatthetimeofexcavation.

COVELANDSCHARM,PROVIDENCE,RHODEISLANDAsmall,handblownclearglassmedicinevialcontainingsixstraightpinswasrecovered from thesiteofanearly19th century building near Providence, Rhode Island. The vial has been dated to 17801820 and is probablyassociatedwithanearlierstructurethatoncestoodonthesite(Becker2005:18).

HORNPOINTWITCHBOTTLE,DORCHESTERCOUNTY,MARYLANDDuringexcavationsatamid19thorearly20thcenturytenanthousesiteonMarylandsEasternshore,thebrokenneckofanolivegreenglasswinebottledating to themid18th centurywas recovered.Partof the stopper stillremainedinthebottleandatotalof17nickelplatedcopperpins,bothstraightandbent,werestuckintoboththeinsideandoutsidesurfacesofthecork(Becker2005:1718;Morehouse2009).

GREATNECKWITCHBOTTLE,VIRGINIABEACH,VIRGINIAIn1979,asmall,narrow,lightgreenglassmedicinevialwasdiscoveredattheedgeofacliffnearthesiteofa17thcentury structureatVirginiaBeach.The vial,dated to16901750,was foundburied inan invertedpositionandcontainedapproximately25brasspinsandatleastthreeironnailsfusedtogetherbyoxidation.Therealsoappearedtobealightambercoloredfilminthelowerportionofthevialthatwasinterpretedashumanurinebutwasnevertestedduetocontaminationduringinitialcleaning(Becker2005:18;Painter1980).

PATUXENTPOINTSITE(18CV271),CALVERTCOUNTY,MARYLANDDuring salvageexcavationsatanearly colonial site inCalvertCounty,Maryland,occupied from16581680,apitfeaturewasfoundtocontaintheremainsoffourglasscasebottleswhichappeartohavebeenplacedinthepitinaninvertedornearinvertedposition(King1996:27).Inadditiontohundredsoffragmentsofbottleglass,thepitalsocontainedtheremainsofthreeironnails,apigspelvicbone,thelowerjawboneofapossumorraccoon,andanoystershellandchertflake(bothbelievedtoberedepositedprehistoricartifacts).Theuniquenatureofthepitdeposithasbeennoted,andbasedon the invertedpositionof thebottles, thepresenceof ironnailsandtwounusualanimalbones,aswellasthefeatureslocationnearadomesticstructureithasbeenproposedthattheartifacts represent the remainsof fourwitchbottles (King1996:28).AsKing (1996)admits,however, there isnoindicationofmanyoftheusualcontentsofawitchbottlesuchaspinsorothersharpobjects,afeltheart,humanhairornailclippings,orurine.Asa result, somearchaeologistshaveexpresseddoubt that theseare indeed theremainsofwitchbottles(Becker,pers.comm.2011).Ifthedepositdoesrepresentoneormorewitchbottles,theywouldbetheearliestknownexamplesintheUnitedStates.

ARMSTRONGFARMSTEAD(15FA185),FAYETTECOUNTY,KENTUCKYSalvageexcavationsattheArmstrongFarmsteadinKentuckyrecoveredasmall,handblownglassmedicinevial,sealedwithacork,withfourstraightpinsinside.Thebottle,whichwasdatedto181050,isassociatedwithasmallstructureandisdescribedasveryunique(Barber2006:164).Althoughitisnotidentifiedasapossiblewitchbottleintheofficialreport,anarchaeologistwhoreviewedthereportrecognizedthesimilaritytoknownexamples(Davies,pers.comm.2010;Davis,pers.comm.2011).Furthermore,tenadditionalpinswerefoundbytheentrancetoanotherstructureatthesite(Davis,pers.comm.2011).Atleastoneofthepinsfromthesite(althoughnotnecessarilyfromtheentrance)waspurposefullybentintoauniquecircularorwhorlshape.Althoughthebentpinappearsinaphotointhereport,nodiscussionofthepinoritslocationappearelsewhereinthereport.OtherrelevantitemsexcavatedfromthesitethatarenotdiscussedinthereportbutwhichmightindicatethepresenceoffolkmagicincludeaCatholicmedallionandapiercedsilvercoin(Davis,pers.comm.2011).

OOOPENINGPENINGPENINGANANANEEENGLISHNGLISHNGLISHWWWITCHITCHITCHBBBOTTLEOTTLEOTTLE

In 2004, a sealed saltglazed ceramic Bellarmine jug was excavated from a site inGreenwich, London.Because theGreenwichexamplewas recognizedasawitchbottleearlyon, researcherswereable to conductextensiveanalysis in laboratory conditions,thefirstsuchwitchbottletobestudiedinthisway.

Xrays,CTscans,andgaschromatographyanalysisshowedthebottlecontainednailsandpinsandwaspartially filledwith liquid.Furthermore, thepositionof theoxidizednailsandpins intheneckofthebottlesuggested ithadbeenburied inan invertedposition.Uponopeningthebottle,itwasfoundtoincludeeightbentbrasspins,twelveironnails,ten fingernailclippings fromawellmanicuredhand (suggestinghigher social status),apiece of heartshaped leather pierced with a bent nail, human hair, navel fluff, andhumanurine (whichchemicalanalysisshowedcontained tracesofnicotine).Therewasalsochemicalevidenceofbrimstoneorsulfurinthebottle(Geddes2009;Pitts2009).

Suspected witch bottle and associated artifacts from the Patuxent Point Site, Maryland (left)(King1996);glassmedicinevialcontainingfourstraightpins,andanunusualwhorledpin,bothexcavatedfromtheArmstrongFarmstead,Kentucky(right)(Barber2006).

XrayimageandpartialcontentsoftheGreenwichWitchBottle(Geddes2009).

WITCHBOTTLESINTHEORALANDWRITTENRECORD

Accountsofwitchbottlesarecommon inbothEnglandand theUnited States from the 17th century onward, appearing inwitchcraft trial proceedings, printed sermons and essays, andcollectionsoffolklore.

In his 1684 sermon against socalled white magic, IncreaseMatherwonderedHowpersons thatshallunbewitchothersbyputtingUrinintoaBottle[...]canwhollyclearthemselvesfrombeing witches (Mather 1684:269). Seven years later his son,Cotton Mather, also expressed his disapproval of the Urinaryexperiment inwhichtheUrinemustbebottledwithNailsandPinns,andsuchInstrumentsinitascarryaShewofTorturewiththem, if it attain its End (Mather 1691, quoted in Godbeer1992:44).

In the first decades of the 20th century, American folkloristscollectednumerousaccountsof thecontinueduseofwitchbottlesandsimilarmagicalobjects. Puckett (1926) recorded amethod for curing someonewho is conjured. TheAfricanAmerican informantdescribedhowanafflictedpersoncouldgetnineneedles,ninebrasspins,andninehairsfromyourownhead.Corktheseupinabottlewithsomeof your urine and set the bottle in the back of your fireplace. [. . .]When the bottlebursts, all your ailments will leave you (Puckett 1926:299). Hyatt (1935) recorded asimilaraccountfromaGermanAmericaninformantinAdamsCounty,Illinois:Wehadaneighborwhowethoughtwasbewitchingmyson.SoItookabottleandgotapaperofpinsandputthem inthebottle,thenputmyurine inandcorkthebottleupandput itdown in thecellar inadarkplace.Andsureenough, thatneighborcame toourhousewithherfaceallfulloflittlepinholes.Andmysongotwellafterthat(Hyatt1935:544).

WHATISAWITCHBOTTLE?

Nearly200ceramicandglassjars,jugs,bottlesandvialscontainingbentnailsandpins,bitsoffabric,humanhair,fingernail clippings, and other unusual artifacts, havebeenreportedinEnglandandtheUnitedStates(Becker2005; Hoggard 2004). Known as witch bottles, theyrepresent a form of sympathetic magic intended tocounter the harmful spell of a suspected witch or toprotectahouseholdfromevilandmisfortune.

The earliest known examples of witch bottles date tothemid16thcenturywhenwitchcraftandmagicwereapartof everyday life (Merrifield 1955, 1987).HistorianshavegenerallyassumedthatbeliefinwitchcraftinbothEuropeand theUnitedStatesgraduallydeclined in the18th century, disappearing with the emergence andspreadoftheEnlightenment (Becker1978:2).However,thereisevidencetosuggestthatthepracticecontinuedmuchlongerthatpreviouslyrealized,andinsomeareasisstillaliveandwelleventoday.

TheHolywellWitchBottle,anEnglishexampleof a 17th century Bellarmine jar thatcontained60bentpins(MuseumofLondon).

HOWDIDTHEYWORK?

Witch bottles can be recognized by their unusualcontentsgenerally a combination of pins, needles andnails, or less frequently, other sharp objects such asthorns,shardsofglass,andsplintersofwood.Alongwithsharp objects, witch bottles usually contain elementsconducive to sympathetic or image magic, includinghumanhair,fingernailclippingsandurine.Onoccasion,aheartshapedpieceof felt, fabricor leatherpiercedwithpinsandneedleshasalsobeenfound.

Fromdocumentaryevidenceweknowhowwitchbottleswere both constructed and used. When someoneexperiencedunexplainedillnessormisfortune,witchcraftwasoftensuspected.Tocuretheafflicted,thenecessaryingredientswereput insideabottlethatwasthentightlysealedandplaced inahotfireplace.Asthecontentsofthebottlesimmered,thewitchresponsibleforattackingtheunfortunatevictimwouldexperienceexcruciatingpainandhave trouble urinating. If the bottle exploded (as it often did), the witch would be

instantly killed. To induce a slower death,thebottlecouldbeburied,preferablynearthehearthwheretheheatofthefirewouldcontinue to warm the contents, therebyamplifyingthepain.

AsurveyofEnglishwitchbottlesconductedby Hoggard (2004) reveals that amongbottleswithknowncontents(abouthalfofthe sample), 90% contained iron pins ornails, suggesting theyareagood indicatorof this artifact type. In addition, witchbottlesarefrequentlyfound inan invertedposition,buriedunderornearhearthsandchimneys, or under thresholds,walls, andfoundations. Merrifield (1955) has alsoobserved that in certain parts of England,witch bottles were regularly deposited inrivers, streams, and ditches as well as inchurchyards.

Bellarmine witch bottle and contents,found in the mud of the Thames River,London(Merrifield1955).

Written spell found insidea plasticbottle charm recovered fromLouisianas Vermilion River (left); modern plastic bottle charmrecoveredfromtheThamesRiver(right).

Databasedonasurveyof187witchbottles,approximatelyhalfofwhichhadnoassociatedcontents(Hoggard2004).

EssingtonWitchBottle(top),thewoodstopperandfourpinsfoundinside,andanassociatedredwaresherdandbirdbone(bottom)(Becker1978,2005).

LinedrawingoftheMarketStreetWitchBottleanditscontents,includingaheartshapedpieceoffeltpiercedwithpinsandneedles,andtwofabricshoeinsolepatterns(Alexandrowicz1986).

BrokenbottleneckwithstraightandbentpinsfromtheHornPointWitchBottle,Maryland(left)(Morehouse2009); linedrawingof theGreatNeckWitchBottleandpins fromVirginiaBeach,Virginia(right)(Painter1980).

IncreaseMathersIllustriousProvidences(1684).