Bureaucracy

• Bureaucracy

https://store.theartofservice.com/the-bureaucracy-toolkit.html

Bureaucracy

1 A bureaucracy is "a body of nonelective government officials" and/or "an administrative policy-

making group." Historically, bureaucracy referred to government

administration managed by departments staffed with nonelected

officials. In modern parlance, bureaucracy refers to the

administrative system governing any large institution.


Bureaucracy

1 Since being coined, the word "bureaucracy" has developed negative connotations for

some. Bureaucracies are criticized for their complexity, their inefficiency, and their inflexibility. The dehumanizing effects of

excessive bureaucracy were a major theme in the work of Franz Kafka, and were central to his masterpiece The Trial. The elimination of unnecessary bureaucracy is a key concept in modern managerial theory, and has been a

central issue in numerous political campaigns.


Bureaucracy

1 But even Weber saw bureaucracy as a threat to individual freedom, in

which the increasing bureaucratization of human life traps individuals in an "iron cage" of rule-

based, rational control.


Bureaucracy Word origin and usage

1 The term "bureaucracy" is French in origin, and combines the French word bureau –

desk or office – with the Greek word κράτος kratos – rule or political power. It

was coined sometime in the mid-1700s by the French economist Jacques Claude Marie

Vincent de Gournay, and was a satirical pejorative from the outset. Gournay never wrote the term down, but was later quoted at length in a letter from a contemporary:



1 The late M. de Gournay...sometimes used to say: "We have an illness in France which bids fair to play havoc

with us; this illness is called bureaumania." Sometimes he used

to invent a fourth or fifth form of government under the heading of

"bureaucracy."



1 Weber saw the bureaucracy as a relatively positive development; however by 1944, the Austrian

economist Ludwig von Mises noted that the term bureaucracy was

"always applied with an opprobrious connotation," and by 1957 the

American sociologist Robert Merton noted that the term "bureaucrat" had

become an epithet.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-bureaucracy-toolkit.html

Bureaucracy History

1 Ancient Egypt also had a hereditary class of scribes that administered the

civil service bureaucracy


Bureaucracy History

1 After the Empire split, the Byzantine Empire became notorious for its inscrutable bureaucracy, and the term "byzantine" came to refer to highly-complicated bureaucratic

structures.


Bureaucracy History

1 Within the bureaucracy, the positions were of a "graded civil service" and

competitive exams were held to determine who held positions


Bureaucracy History

1 But paradoxically, this led to even further growth of the

bureaucracy.


Bureaucracy History

1 By the early 19th century, bureaucratic forms of administration were firmly in place across

continental Europe, North America and much of Asia. Thinkers like John Stuart Mill and Karl Marx began to theorize about the economic functions

and power-structures of bureaucracy in contemporary life. Max Weber was the first to endorse bureaucracy as a necessary feature of

modernity, and by the late 19th century bureaucratic forms had begun their spread from

government to other large-scale institutions.


Bureaucracy History

1 The trend toward increased bureaucratization continued in the

20th century, and, in the modern era, practically all organized institutions

rely on bureaucracy to organize tasks. They do this by processing and controlling records and information

("the files"), and administer complex systems of rules.


Bureaucracy Karl Marx

1 He wrote that "The Corporation is civil society's attempt to become state; but the bureaucracy is the state which has really made itself

into civil society."


Bureaucracy John Stuart Mill

1 Mill wrote that ultimately the bureaucracy stifles the mind, and

that "A bureaucracy always tends to become a pedantocracy."


Bureaucracy Max Weber

1 Although he is not necessarily a fan of bureaucracy, Weber does argue that bureaucracy constitutes the

most efficient and (formally) rational way in which human activity can be

organized, and that thus is indispensable to the modern world.



1 Bureaucratic administration

means fundamentally domination through

knowledgehttps://store.theartofservice.com/the-bureaucracy-toolkit.html


1 Weber listed several precondititions for the emergence of

bureaucracy



1 Weber's ideal-typical bureaucracy is characterized by hierarchical

organization, delineated lines of authority in a fixed area of activity, action taken on the basis of and recorded in written rules,

bureaucratic officials need expert training, rules are implemented by

neutral officials, career advancement depends on technical qualifications

judged by organization, not individuals.



1 While recognizing bureaucracy as the most efficient form of organization, and

even indispensable for the modern state, Weber also saw it as a threat to individual

freedoms, and the ongoing bureaucratization as leading to a "polar

night of icy darkness", in which increasing rationalization of human life traps

individuals in a soulless "iron cage" of bureaucratic, rule-based, rational control.


Bureaucracy Ludwig von Mises

1 He believed that bureaucracy should be the target of universal

opprobrium, and noticed that in the political sphere it had few defenders,

even among progressives


Bureaucracy Robert K. Merton

1 While Merton agreed with certain aspects of Weber's analysis, he also considered the dysfunctional aspects of bureaucracy, which he attributed to a "trained incapacity" resulting

from "overconformity." He saw bureaucrats as more likely to defend their own entrenched interests than

to act to benefit the organization as a whole


Bureaucracy Further reading

1 Albrow, Martin. Bureaucracy. London: Macmillan, 1970.



1 On Karl Marx: Hal Draper, Karl Marx's Theory of Revolution, Volume 1:

State and Bureaucracy. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1979.



1 Marx comments on the state bureaucracy in his Critique of Hegel's

Philosophy of Right and Engels discusses the origins of the state in

Origins of the Family.



1 Ernest Mandel, Power and Money: A Marxist Theory of Bureaucracy. London: Verso, 1992.



1 On Weber: Watson, Tony J. (1980). Sociology, Work and Industry. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-

32165-4.



1 Neil Garston (ed.), Bureaucracy: Three Paradigms. Boston:

Kluwer, 1993.



1 Chowdhury, Faizul Latif (2006), Corrupt Bureaucracy and

Privatization of Tax Enforcement. Dhaka: Pathak Samabesh, ISBN 984-

8120-62-9.



1 Ludwig von Mises, Bureaucracy, Yale University Press, 1962. Liberty Fund

(2007), ISBN 978-0-86597-663-4



1 Weber, Max. The Theory of Social and Economic Organization.

Translated by A.M. Henderson and Talcott Parsons. London: Collier

Macmillan Publishers, 1947.


Jerry Pournelle - Iron Law of Bureaucracy

1 Pournelle has suggested several "laws". His first use of the term

"Pournelle's law" appears to be for the expression "one user, one CPU." He has also used "Pournelle's law" to apply to the importance of checking cables connections when diagnosing computer problems. His best-known

"law" is "Pournelle's Iron Law of Bureaucracy":



1 In any bureaucracy, the people devoted to the benefit of the

bureaucracy itself always get in control and those dedicated to the

goals the bureaucracy is supposed to accomplish have less and less influence, and sometimes are

eliminated entirely.



1 ...in any bureaucratic organization there will be two kinds of people:

those who work to further the actual goals of the organization, and those who work for the organization itself



1 Some of Pournelle's standard themes that recur in the stories are: Welfare

States become self-perpetuating, building a technological society

requires a strong defense and the rule of law, and "Those who forget

history are condemned to repeat it."


Anarcho-primitivism - Hierarchical organizations, division of labor, and bureaucracy

1 Green and black flag of green anarchism,

also used for anarcho-primitivism



1 Anarcho-primitivists tend to see division of labor and specialization as fundamental and

irreconcilable problems, decisive to social relationship within civilization. They see this

disconnecting of the ability to care for ourselves and provide for our own needs as a

technique of separation and dis-empowerment perpetuated by civilization.

Specialization is seen as leading to inevitable inequalities of influence and undermining

egalitarian relationships.



1 Primitivists state that organizational models only provide us with more of the same



1 Rather than the familiar organizational model, primitivists

advocate the use of informal, affinity-based associations that they claim tend to minimize alienation from decision-making processes, and reduce mediation between our

desires and our actions.


Organization studies - Bureaucracy

1 Perrow argues that all organizations can be understood in terms of

bureaucracy and that organizational failures are more often a result of

insufficient application of bureaucratic principals.Perrow,

Charles (1972)



1 Weber's principals of bureaucratic organisation:



1 * Organization by functional speciality and selecting people based

on their skills and technical qualifications



1 * An up-focused (to organization's board or shareholders) or in-focused (to the organization itself) mission



1 * Purposefully impersonal to apply the same rules and structures to all people


Public choice theory - Bureaucracy

1 William Niskanen is generally considered the founder of public

choice literature on the bureaucracy.


Law - Bureaucracy

1 The etymology of bureaucracy derives from the French word for office (bureau) and the Ancient Greek for word power

(kratos).[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=bureaucracysearchmode

Bureaucracy], Online Etymology Dictionary Like the military and police, a legal system's government servants and

bodies that make up its bureaucracy carry out the directives of the executive


Law - Bureaucracy

1 The real spirit of the laws in France is that bureaucracy of which the late

Monsieur de Gournay used to complain so greatly; here the offices,

clerks, secretaries, inspectors and intendants are not appointed to

benefit the public interest, indeed the public interest appears to have

been established so that offices might exist.Albrow, Bureaucracy, 16


Law - Bureaucracy

1 Cynicism over officialdom is still common, and the workings of public servants is typically contrasted to

private enterprise motivated by Maximization (economics)|profit.Mises, Bureaucracy, II,

[http://www.mises.org/etexts/mises/bureaucracy/section2.asp Bureaucratic Management] In fact private

companies, especially large ones, also have bureaucracies.Kettl, Public Bureaucracies, 367 Negative perceptions of red tape aside, public

services such as schooling, health care, policing or public transport are considered a crucial state

function making public bureaucratic action the locus of government power.


Law - Bureaucracy

1 Writing in the early 20th century, Max Weber believed that a definitive

feature of a developed state had come to be its bureaucratic

support.Weber, Economy and Society, I, 393 Weber wrote that the

typical characteristics of modern bureaucracy are that officials define

its mission, the scope of work is bound by rules, and management is

composed of career experts who manage top down, communicating through writing and binding public

servants' discretion with rules.Kettl, Public Bureaucracies, 371


Private finance initiative - Bureaucracy

1 The National Audit Office (United Kingdom)|National Audit Office has

accused the government's PFI dogma of ruining a £10bn Ministry of

Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence project


Organizational theory - Efficiency and teleological arguments in Weberian bureaucracy

1 There are certainly both positive and negative consequences to

bureaucracy, and strong arguments for both the efficiency and

inefficiency of bureaucracies.



1 Not only does bureaucracy make it much more difficult for arbitrary and unfair personal favors to be carried out, it also means that promotions and hiring will generally be done

completely by merit.



1 His rationale comes from the knowledge that the strict methods of administration and legitimate forms

of authority associated with bureaucracy act to eliminate human

freedom.



1 149.ISBN 978-0-324-59455-3 The teleological view of Weberian

bureaucracy postulates that all actors in an organization have

various ends or goals, and attempt to find the most efficient way to achieve

these goals.


Organizational theory - Criticism of the Weber's Theory of Bureaucracy

1 Weber’s theories were purposed to set a stage for other organizations to follow, and the characteristics are so ideal that they may be impossible for any actual organization to succeed



1 “There is dangerous risk of oversimplification in making Weber seem cold and heartless to such a degree that an efficiently-run Nazi

death camp might appear admirable” (Bureaucracy Theory)



1 Put all of them together, and we have the ideal organization, but since

a pure bureaucracy is nearly impossible to obtain, efficiency takes

the back seat in his beliefs



1 “Think of the concept as a bureau or desk with drawers in it, which seems

to call out to you, demanding that everything must fit in its place”

(Bureaucracy Theory)



1 Open communication is a very important part of Weber’s ideal bureaucracy, and is practiced

today



1 It is hard to critique Weber’s theories strictly because of the fact that they

are theories; they are nearly impossible to perform in real life,

therefore how can we know if they work or not? They are merely a set of

guidelines that make up bureaucracy, which today many believe is the best way to run organizations in all aspects.



1 '[http://www.drtomoconnor.com/4090/4090lect02.htm Bureaucracy

Theory]. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Nov. 2012.[http://faculty.babson.edu/krollag/org_site/encyclop/bureaucracy.html Bureaucracy (Weber)]. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Nov. 2012.

[http://faculty.babson.edu/krollag/org_site/encyclop/weber_crit.html Criticism of

Weberian Bureaucratic Theory]. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Nov. 2012.'


Organization theory - Efficiency and teleological arguments in Weberian bureaucracy

1 There are certainly both positive and negative consequences to

bureaucracy, and strong arguments for both the efficiency and

inefficiency of bureaucracies.


Constitutional democracy - Bureaucracy

1 Supporters of democracy point to the complex bureaucracy and regulations

that has occurred in dictatorships, like many of the former Communist

states.


Constitutional democracy - Bureaucracy

1 The bureaucracy in Liberal democracies is often criticised for a claimed slowness and complexity of their decision-making. The term Red

tape is a synonym of slow bureaucratic functioning that hinders quick results in a liberal democracy.


Bureaucratic - Ancient Bureaucracy





1 The reforms of Diocletian doubled the number of administrative

districts and led to a large-scale expansion in Roman bureaucracy.As taken from the Laterculus Veronensis or Verona List, reproduced in Barnes,

New Empire, chs



1 Within the bureaucracy, the positions were of a graded civil service and competitive exams were held to

determine who held positions


Bureaucratic - Modern bureaucracy

1 According to Niall Ferguson, the bureaucracy was based on

recruitment by examination, training, promotion on merit, regular salaries

and pensions, and standardized procedures



1 The implementation of Her Majesty's Civil Service as a systematic,

meritocratic civil service bureaucracy, followed the Northcote-

Trevelyan Report of 1854, which recommended that recruitment

should be on the basis of merit and promotion should be won through

achievement.



1 France also saw a rapid and dramatic expansion of government in the

18th-century, accompanied by the rise of the French civil service; a

phenomenon that became known as bureaumania, in which complex

systems of bureaucracy emerged. In the early 19th century, Napoleon

attempted to reform the bureaucracies of France and other territories under his control by the

imposition of the standardized Napoleonic Code. But paradoxically, this led to even further growth of the

bureaucracy.



1 By the mid-19th century, bureaucratic forms of administration were firmly in place across the industrialized world. Thinkers like John Stuart

Mill and Karl Marx began to theorize about the economic functions and power-structures of

bureaucracy in contemporary life. Max Weber was the first to endorse bureaucracy as a

necessary feature of modernity, and by the late 19th century bureaucratic forms had

begun their spread from government to other large-scale institutions.



1 The trend toward increased bureaucratization continued in the 20th century, with the public sector employing over 5% of the workforce

in many Western countries



1 The 1980s brought a backlash against bureaucratic forms of rule.

Politicians like Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan gained power by

promising to eliminate government regulatory bureaucracies, which they

saw as overbearing, and return economic production to a more

purely capitalistic mode, which they saw as more efficient. In the business

world, managers like Jack Welch gained fortune and renown by

eliminating bureaucratic structures inside the corporations themselves.



1 Still, in the modern world practically all organized institutions rely on bureaucratic systems to manage information, process and control records, and administer complex systems of rules, although the

elimination of paperwork and the widespread use of electronic

databases is transforming the way bureaucracies function.


Legal act - Bureaucracy

1 Cynicism over officialdom is still common, and the workings of public servants is typically contrasted to

private enterprise motivated by Maximization (economics)|profit.Mises, Bureaucracy, II,

[https://www.mises.org/etexts/mises/bureaucracy/section2.asp Bureaucratic Management] In fact private

companies, especially large ones, also have bureaucracies.Kettl, Public Bureaucracies, 367 Negative perceptions of red tape aside, public

services such as schooling, health care, policing or public transport are considered a crucial state

function making public bureaucratic action the locus of government power.


Bureaucracy (disambiguation)

1 'Bureaucracy' is an organizational structure with the task of

implementing the decisions and policies of its governing body.



1 * Automated Bureaucracy, an organizational

structure



1 * Bureaucracy, one of the five seasons of the

Discordian calendar



1 * Bureaucracy (book)|Bureaucracy (book), a 1945 political treatise by Ludwig von Mises



1 * Bureaucracy (video game)|Bureaucracy (video game), a 1987 Infocom game by

Douglas Adams



1 * Bureaucracy: What Government Agencies Do and Why They Do It, a 1989 book by

James Q. Wilson



1 * Celestial bureaucracy, the pantheon of Chinese

mythology



1 * Red tape, excessive regulation or adherence to

standardized procedure



1 * Street-level bureaucracy, individuals who implement laws and public policies


Iron cage - Rationalization and bureaucracy

1 Weber states, “the course of development involves… the bringing in of calculation into the traditional

brotherhood, displacing the old religious relationship.”Weber, Max. General Economic History. Dover

Publications, 2003. 356.


Iron cage - Rationalization and bureaucracy

1 According to Weber, the shift from the old form of mobility in terms of kinship to a new form in terms of a strict set of rules was a direct result

of growth in bureaucracy and capitalism.Weber, Max, Talcott

Parsons, and Rh Tawney


Iron cage - Iron cage of bureaucracy

1 Bureaucracy puts us in an iron cage, which limits individual human

freedom and potential instead of a “technological utopia” that should

set us free.[http://google.com/search?

q=cache:25ERckNMKK0J:www.faculty.rsu.edu/~felwell/Theorists/Four/

Presentations/Weber/Weber.ppt+weber+Bureaucracy+limits+individual+human+freedom+and+potentialhl=enct=clnkcd=1gl=us]B

enhabib, Seyla, and Fred R



1 Laws of bureaucracies:Weber, Max. Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology. University of

California Press, 1978. 220-221.



1 # The official is subject to authority only with respect to their official obligation



1 # The official has a free contractual relationship; free

selection



1 # Officials are selected through technical

qualification



1 # The office is the primary occupation of

the official



1 # Promotion is based on an achievement which is granted by the judgment of superiors



1 # The official is subject to strict and systematic discipline within the office


Street-level bureaucracy

1 'Street-level bureaucracy' is the subset of a public agency or

government institution containing the individuals who carry out and

enforce the actions required by laws and public policies. Street-level

bureaucracy is accompanied by the idea that these individuals vary the extents to which they enforce the rules and laws assigned to them.


Street-level bureaucracy - Street-level bureaucrats

1 The concept of street-level bureaucracy was first coined by Michael Lipsky in 1980, who argued that policy implementation in the end comes down to the people who actually implement

it.Lipsky, M., Street-level Bureaucracy; Dilemmas of the Individual in Public Services, 1980,

[http://www.odi.org.uk/Rapid/Projects/R0163/Communications/Comms_Abs_47.html view summary]

He argued that state employees such as police and social workers should be seen as part of the policy-making community and as exercisers of

political power


Street-level bureaucracy - Examples of street-level bureaucrats

1 Street-level bureaucrats include police|police officers, firefighters, and

other individuals, who on a daily basis interact with regular citizens and provide the force behind the

given rules and laws in their areas of expertise.


Street-level bureaucracy - Problems with street-level bureaucracy

1 Tony Evans and John Harris.Evans, T and Harris, J, Street-Level

Bureaucracy, Social Work and the (Exaggerated) Death of Discretion,

British Journal of Social Work, vol.34, no.6, September 2004,

[http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/oup/social/2004/00000034/00000

006/art00871 view abstract] argue that the proliferation of rules and

regulations should not automatically be equated with greater control over professional discretion; paradoxically,

more rules may create more discretion



1 A 2003 United States|American study, conducted by Steven Maynard

Moody of the University of Kansas, reiterated the significance of street-

level bureaucrats in the political process, asserting that street-level

workers actually make policy choices rather than simply implement the

decisions of elected officials.Maynard-Moody, S and Musheno, M, Cops, Teachers,

Counselors: Stories from the Front Lines of Public Service, University of

Michigan Press, 2003, [http://www.politicalreviewnet.com/polrev/reviews/PUAR/R_0033_3352_214_1005289.asp view summary] They

also claim, based on a study of 48 street-level state employees in two states, that workers' beliefs about

the people they interact with continually rub against policies and rules and that the prejudices of the street-level bureaucrats influence

their treatment of citizens.Also see Norma M



1 In 2007, Emil Mackey confirmed that even the Resident Assistants in campus housing exercise

their discretion to change policy at the implementation level. Furthermore, these policy implementation changes reflected the individual

values of each street-level bureaucrat rather than the will of policymakers. Therefore, this research not only confirmed previous street-level bureaucrat research and literature, but

also expanded it to include the Higher Education policy environment.


Business agility - Agile enterprise versus bureaucracy

1 There are several key distinctions between the agile enterprise and the traditional bureaucratic organization.



1 The most notable is the agile enterprise’s use of fluid role

definitions that allow for dynamic decision making structures



1 Similarly, agile enterprises do not adhere to the concept of sustained competitive advantage that typifies

the bureaucratic organization



1 Lastly, the agile enterprise is populated with individuals pursuing serial incompetenceGodin, S. (2000). In the Face of Change the Competent are Helpless. Fast Company, January–February: 230–234.—they work hard to obtain a certain

level of proficiency in one area but are driven to move on to the next “new” area to develop

expertise. There are no “subject-matter experts” specializing for years in one topical

area, as found typically in a traditional bureaucracy.


Organisational theory - Bureaucracy

1 Charles Perrow extended Weber's work, arguing that all organizations

can be understood in terms of bureaucracy and that organizational

failures are more often a result of insufficient application of

bureaucratic principles.Perrow, C



1 Weber's principles of bureaucratic organization:



1 * Organization by functional specialty and selecting people based on their

skills and technical qualifications



1 * Purposefully impersonal, applying the same rules and structures to all

members of the organization


Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy

1 The Byzantine Empire had a complex system of aristocracy and

bureaucracy, which was inherited from the Roman Empire


Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy

1 Over the more than 1000 years of the Empire's existence, different

titles were adopted and discarded, and many lost or gained prestige


Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy - Background history

1 In the early Byzantine period (4th to early 7th century) the system of government followed the model established in late Roman times

under Diocletian and Constantine the Great, with a strict separation

between civil and military offices and a scale of titles corresponding to

office, where membership or not in the Byzantine Senate|Senate was the

major distinguishing characteristic.Kazhdan (1991), p


Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy - Background history

1 The 10th and 11th centuries saw a rise in importance of the aristocracy,

and an increased number of new families entering it


Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy - Imperial titles

1 These were the highest titles, usually limited to members of the imperial

family or to a few very select foreign rulers, whose friendship the Emperor

desired.


Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy - Titles used by the emperors

1 * 'Basileus' (βασιλεύς): the Greek language|Greek word for Monarch|

sovereign which originally referred to any king in the Greek-speaking areas

of the Roman Empire



1 * 'Porphyrogennetos|Porphyrogennētos'

(πορφυρογέννητος) — born in the purple: Emperors wanting to

emphasize the legitimacy of their ascent to the throne appended this title to their names, meaning they

were born in the delivery room of the imperial palace (called the Porphyra because it was paneled with slabs of

purple marble), to a reigning emperor, and were therefore

legitimate beyond any claim to the contrary whatsoever.



1 * 'Autokrator|Autokratōr' (αὐτοκράτωρ) — self-ruler: this title

was originally equivalent to imperator, and was used by the

emperors.


Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy - Titles used by the imperial family

1 * 'Despotes|Despotēs' (δεσπότης) – Lord: This title was used by the

emperors themselves since the time of Justinian I, and was an honorific

address for the sons of reigning emperors



1 * 'Sebastokrator|Sebastokratōr' (σεβαστοκράτωρ) – Venerable Ruler: a title created by Alexios I Komnenos as a combination of autokratōr and

sebastos (see below)



1 * 'Caesar (title)|Kaisar' () – Caesar: originally, as in the late Roman

Empire, it was used for a subordinate co-emperor or the heir apparent, and

was first among the awarded dignities



1 * 'Nobelissimos' (νωβελίσσιμος) – from the Latin Nobilissimus (most

noble): originally a title given to close relatives of the Emperor, subordinate

only to the kaisar



1 * 'Curopalates|Kouropalatēs' (κουροπαλάτης) – from the Latin cura

palatii, charge of the palace: First attested in the time of Justinian I, it

was the official in charge of the running of the imperial palace



1 * 'Sebastos' (σεβαστός) – August One this title is the literal Greek translation of the Latin term Augustus or Augoustos, was

sometimes used by the emperors


Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy - Court titles from the 8th to 11th centuries

1 In the 8th–11th centuries, according to information provided by the Taktikon Uspensky,

the Kletorologion|Klētorologion of Philotheos (899) and the writings of Constantine

Porphyrogennetos, below the imperial titles, the Byzantines distinguished two distinct categories of dignities (): the dignities by award (), which

were purely honorific court titles and were conferred by the award of a symbol of rank, and

the dignities by proclamation (), which were offices of the state and were conferred by

imperial pronouncement


Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy - Titles for the Bearded Ones

1 * 'Proedros' () – president: Originally reserved for eunuchs (see below), it

was opened up in the mid-11th century to Bearded Ones as well,

especially military officials.



1 * 'Magistros' () – in the early Byzantine state, the magister

officiorum was one of the most senior officials, but as his duties were

gradually relegated to other officials, by the 8th century, only the title was

left



1 * 'Vestarches' () – head of the vestai, adopted in the latter half of the 10th century for high-ranking eunuchs, it

was awarded to bearded senior military officers and judicial officials of Constantinople from ca. 1050 on.

It disappeared in the early 12th century.Kazhdan (1991), p. 2162



1 * 'Vestes' () – senior honorific title, first attested under John I Tzimiskes. Awarded to both eunuchs and non-eunuchs, it survived until the early

12th century. The term is etymologically connected to the

vestiarion, the imperial wardrobe, but despite earlier attempts to

connect the vestai and the related title of vestarchēs, the head of the

class of the vestai (see above), with the officials of the vestiarion (see

below), no such relation appears to have existed.



1 * 'Anthypatos' () – proconsul: Originally the highest rank for

provincial governors, it survived the creation of the Theme system, until, in the 9th century, it too became a purely honorific title. The variant

'prōtanthypatos' was created in the 11th century to counter its decline in importance, but both disappeared by

the end of the 12th century.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-bureaucracy-toolkit.html


1 * 'Patrikios' () – patrician: Established as the highest title of nobility by

Constantine the Great, it remained one of the highest dignities until its

disappearance in the Komnenian period, awarded to high-ranking officials, including eunuchs, and foreign rulers. The spouses of

patricians bore the title patrikia (not to be confused with zostē patrikia,

see below).Kazhdan (1991), p. 1600https://store.theartofservice.com/the-bureaucracy-toolkit.html


1 * 'Protospatharios|Prōtospatharios' () – first

spatharios



1 * 'Dishypatos' () – twice consul. A very rare dignity, which originated

possibly in the 8th century.Bury (1911), p. 27



1 * 'Spatharokandidatos' () – a portmanteau of the titles spatharios and kandidatos, both of which were

types of palace guards in the 4th–6th centuries. The earliest references to the title occur in early 8th century

and the title is clearly attested only from the early 9th century on. Its distinctive badge (brabeion) was a

golden chain (maniakion) worn around the chest.[1][3]



1 * 'Spatharios' () – spatha-bearer: As their name signifies, the spatharioi

were initially a special corps of imperial guards (A spatha is a kind of

sword.) They performed specific duties inside the imperial palace. The

title survived until the early 12th century.



1 * 'Hypatos' () – Roman consul|consul: As in the Roman Republic and

Empire, the title was initially given each year to two distinguished

citizens (the ordinary consuls), until Justinian I halted the practice due to

the extraordinary expenditure it involved



1 * 'Kandidatos' () – from the Latin candidatus, so named because of

their white tunics. They were originally a select group of guards, drawn from the Scholae Palatinae.

The title disappeared in the Komnenian period.



1 * 'Vestitor|Vestētōr' (), were officers of the imperial wardrobe (Latin vestiarium).Bury (1911), p. 25



1 * 'Silentiarios' (), originally a group of courtiers responsible for the

maintenance of order (including respectful silence) in the palace.



1 * 'Stratelates|Stratēlatēs' (), a translation of the Latin magister

militum, and 'apoeparchōn' ( or ), a translation of the Latin ex praefectis. These two titles are listed as equal by Philotheos. Both were still high

dignities in the 6th century, but were devalued afterwards.Bury (1911), pp.

21, 23–24


Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy - Titles for the eunuchs

1 By descending order of precedence, the by award titles for the

eunuchs were:



1 * 'Proedros' () – president: This was an entirely new rank introduced in

the 960s by Nikephoros II Phokas and first awarded to Basil Lekapenos, the

eunuch parakoimōmenos



1 * 'Vestarches' () – adopted in the latter half of the 10th century for

high-ranking eunuchs, it was awarded to bearded senior military

officers and judicial officials of Constantinople from ca. 1050 on. It

disappeared in the early 12th century.



1 * 'Praipositos' () – from the Latin

praepositus, placed before.



1 * 'Primikerios|Primikērios' () – from the Latin primicerius, first in the list.



1 * 'Ostiarios' (ὁστιάριος) – from the Latin ostiarius, doorkeeper, usher



1 * 'Koubikoularios' () – from the Latin

cubicularius, chamberlain.



1 * 'Nipsistiarios' () – from Greek νίπτειν, to wash hands), the

nipsistiarios was tasked with holding a gold, gem-encrusted water basin

and assisting the emperor in performing the ritual ablutions before

he exited the imperial palace or performed ceremonies.



1 There is also a single special title reserved for women, that of 'zoste patrikia|zostē patrikia' (, Girded patrikia). This title was given to the empress' ladies of honour, and, according to

Philotheos, ranked very high in hierarchy, above even the magistros and proedros and

just below the kouropalates. The title is known from the early 9th century, and

disappeared in the 11th century.Kazhdan (1991), p. 2231 Otherwise women bore the

female forms of their husbands' titles.


Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy - Palace offices

1 *'Parakoimomenos' – literally, one who sleeps nearby, was the High Chamberlain who sleeps in the

Emperor's bedchamber. Usually a eunuch, during the 9th–10th

centuries, the holders of this office often functioned as de facto chief

ministers of the Empire.



1 *'Protovestiarios' – usually a minor relative of the emperor, who took

care of the emperor’s personal wardrobe, especially on military

campaigns



1 *'Pinkernes' – originally the emperor's cupbearer, later a senior honorific title.



1 *'Epi tes trapezes' – Greek: ὁ ἐπὶ τῆς τραπέζης, the one in charge of the

table, official responsible for attending to the imperial table during

banquets.


Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy - Army

1 *'Exarchos' – The exarchs were governors of remote parts of the

empire such as Italy or Africa. They enjoyed a greater degree of

independence than other provincial governors, combining both civil and military authority, practically acting

as viceroys.



1 *'Domestikos' – the domestikoi were originally imperial guards, who later functioned as senior staff officers in

the Late Roman army. In the Byzantine period, they were among

the highest military offices, and included:



1 **'Domestikos ton scholon|Domestikos tōn scholōn' (Domestic of the Schools) – the commander of the

Scholai, originally a number of guards units, later a tagma (military)|

Tagma. This was a very prestigious title, and by the late 9th century, its holder functioned as commander in

chief of the army. In ca. 959, the post was divided, with one domestic for

the East and one for the West.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-bureaucracy-toolkit.html


1 **'Domestikos tou thematos' (Domestic of the Themes) – the

commander and organizer of the military themes; there was one for the European themes and one for

Asian themes.



1 *'Katepano|Katepanō' – The governor of a greater area combining two or

more themes, such as the Catepanate of Italy|Catepan of Italy, a title developed in the 9th century.



1 *'Strategos#Byzantine use|Stratēgos' – a military and later also civil

commander of a theme, who often also had the title of Dux|doux. The

term is basically equivalent to general or admiral, as it was used in

both branches of service.



1 *'Tourmarches|Tourmarchēs' – the commander of a tourma, a military unit of battalion size.



1 *'Protostrator|Prōtostratōr' – initially the Emperor's Stable Master|stable master, under the Komnenian and Palaiologan emperors the term was

used for the second-ranking commander of the army.



1 *'Stratopedarches|Stratopedarchēs' (Master of the Camp) – This official was in charge of making sure the army was stocked with food and

arms.



1 *'Hoplitarchēs' or 'archēgētēs' – commander of all infantry in a large army, the title first appears in the

mid-10th century, when the infantry is reorganized and gains in

importance.



1 *'Prōtokentarchos' and 'kentarchos' – commanders of a smaller division of the army in the field. The name was

derived from the Latin centurion.



1 *'Merarches|Merarchēs' – commander of a division (meros) of the army. Usually, each army was

divided into two to three such commands.



1 * 'Kavallarios' – A title borrowed from the Latin caballarius, it originally

meant a cavalry soldier. During the Palaiologan period, it became a

minor court title.Mark C. Bartusis, The Kavallarioi of Byzantium in

Speculum, Vol. 63, No. 2 (Apr., 1988), pp. 343–350


Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy - Navy

1 *'Megas doux' – The Megaduke or Grand Duke, was the basic

equivalent of the modern Admiralty|Lord High Admiral. The office was

created by Alexios I Komnenos, when he amalgamated the remnants of the

imperial and thematic fleets into a single imperial fleet. By the end of

the Palaiologos dynasty the megaduke was head of the

government and bureaucracy, not just the navy.



1 *'Amirales' – The Greek version of Admiral, introduced via Sicilian

practice. An office founded in the late Palaiologan era for Western

mercenary leaders and rarely held, the amirales was the deputy of the

megas doux.



1 *'Droungarios#Byzantine navy|Megas droungarios' – Initially the

commander-in-chief of the Byzantine navy, after the creation of the megas doux his lieutenant, in charge of the

naval officers.



1 *'Droungarios' – The title existed both in the army and the navy. In the

navy of the 8th–11th centuries, a droungarios headed a fleet, either the central imperial fleet or one of the thematic fleets; in the army he

headed a Droungos, roughly a battalion-sized grouping.



1 *'Kentarchos' or 'Navarch|nauarchos' – the captain of a

ship.


Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy - Other military titles

1 *'Konostaulos' – Greek form of Latin Comes stabuli 'count of the stable' and various European feudal titles

such as English constable – the chief of the Franks|Frankish mercenary|

mercenaries.



1 *'Hetaireiarches|Hetaireiarchēs' – the chief of the barbarian mercenaries,

the Hetaireia, successor to the Foederati. Initially subdivided into

Greater (Megalē), Middle (Mesē) and Little (Mikra) Hetaireia.



1 *'Akolouthos' – Acolyte, the chief of the Varangian Guard from the Komnenian era

onwards.



1 *'Manglavitai' – A category of palace guards, armed with sword and cudgel (manglavion). Under the command of

a Prōtomanglavitēs.



1 *'Topoteretes|Topotērētēs' – meaning place-holder, lieutenant. Found at various levels of the hierarchy, as deputies to commanders of the imperial tagmata, deputy to a

drungarios.


Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy - Administrative offices

1 The vast Byzantine bureaucracy had many titles, and varied more than aristocratic and military titles. In

Constantinople there were normally hundreds, if not thousands, of

bureaucrats at any time. Like the Church and the military, they wore elaborately differentiated Byzantine

dress|dress, often including huge hats. These are some of the more

common ones, including non-nobles who also directly served the emperor.



1 *'Praetorian prefect' – The Praetorian prefect was originally an old Roman

office used for the commander of the army in the Eastern and Western

portions of the Empire



1 * 'Basileopator|Basileopatōr' (βασιλεοπάτωρ)– Father of the Emperor: an exceptional title,

granted only twice in Byzantine history



1 *'Protasekretis' – First Secretary an earlier title for the head of the

wikt:chancery|chancery, responsible for keeping official government records and head of the class of

senior secretaries known as asekretis. Other subordinates

included the chartoularios (in charge of imperial documents), the

kastrensios (a chamberlain in the palace), the mystikos (a private secretary), and the eidikos (a

treasury official).



1 *'Logothetes' – one who accounts, calculates or ratiocinates, literally

one who sets the word; a secretary in the extensive bureaucracy, who did various jobs depending on the exact position. Logothetes were some of the most important bureaucrats.

They included:



1 **'Megas logothetes' (Grand Logothete) – the head of the

logothetes, personally responsible for the legal system and treasury, somewhat like a chancellor in

western Europe.



1 **'Logothetes tou dromou' (Drome Logothete) – the head of diplomacy and the mail|postal

service.



1 **'Logothetes tou genikou' (General Logothete) – responsible for taxation.

Also acts as a secretary in later cases.



1 **'Logothetes tou stratiotikou' (Military Logothete) – a civilian, in charge of distributing pay to the

army.



1 *'Chartoularios tou vestiariou' Literally keeper of documents for the

Public Wardrobe (see Vestiarion); responsible for minting gold and

silver coins and equipping the fleet.



1 Logothetes originally had some influence on the emperor, but they eventually became honorary posts.

In the later empire the Grand Logothete was replaced by the mesazon|mesazōn (mediator).



1 Other administrators included:



1 *'Eparch of Constantinople' – Governor of the urban prefect of Constantinople.



1 *'Quaestor sacri palatii|Quaestor' – Originally an accountant or auditor,

the office eventually became a judicial one for Constantinople.



1 *'Tribounos' – translation of Latin tribune; responsible for maintenance of roads, monuments, and buildings in Constantinople (which were the responsibility of the Aedile, not the Tribunes in earlier Latin speaking

times.)



1 *'Magister' (magister officiorum, magister militum, maistor in Greek) – an old Roman term, master of offices and master of the army; by the time of Leo III the Isaurian|Leo III, these

had become honorary titles and were eventually discarded.Bury (1911), p.

32



1 *'Sakellarios' – Treasurer; purse-bearer. Under Heraclius, an honorary

supervisor of the other palace administrators, logothetes, etc.

Later, the chief financial comptroller of the Empire.



1 *'Praetor' – Latin for Man who goes before; first man. One of the oldest

of Roman titles, predating the Roman Republic, the title's use morphed

considerably through the years. By the time of Theodosius I (379-395) it

meant the leading municipal magistrate (like a modern Mayor) but from late 10th century until 1204, a

civil governor of a theme.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-bureaucracy-toolkit.html


1 *'Kephale (Byzantine Empire)|Kephale' – head, the governor of a

small province, usually a town and its surrounding territory, in the

Palaiologan period



1 *'Horeiarios' – in charge of distributing food from

the state granaries.



1 The protasekretis, logothetes, prefect, praetor, quaestor, magister, and sakellarios, among others, were members of the Byzantine Senate|

senate.


Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy - Court life

1 At the peaceful height of Middle Byzantium, court life passed in a sort of ballet,Steven Runciman, Byzantine Style and Civilization, 1975, Penguin with precise ceremonies prescribed

for every occasion, to show that Imperial power could be exercised in harmony and order, and the Empire could thus reflect the motion of the

Universe as it was made by the Creator, according to the Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus, who

wrote a Book of Ceremonies describing in enormous detail the

annual round of the Court


Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy - Court life

1 However, even by the time of Anna Comnena, with the Emperor away on military campaigns for much of the time, this way of life had changed considerably, and after the Crusader occupation it virtually vanished. A

French visitor was shocked to see the Empress going to church far less well

attended than the Queen of France would have been. The Imperial family largely

abandoned the Great Palace for the relatively compact Palace of Blachernae.


Habsburg Spain - Administration and bureaucracy

1 The Spanish received a large but short lived influx of gold from the

colonies in the New World as plunder when they were conquered, much of which Charles used to prosecute his

wars in Europe



1 Inflation - both in Spain and in the rest of Europe - was primarily caused

by debt, but a level of debt made possible later by the rising silver

imports; Charles had conducted most of his wars on credit, and in 1557, a year after he abdicated, Spain was

forced into its first debt moratorium, setting a pattern that would be

repeated with ever more disruptive economic consequences.



1 Few Spaniards initially gave a thought to the wholesale slaughter, enslavement, and forced conversion of Native Americans either, although some men such as Bartolomé de las

Casas argued for more humane treatment of them



1 Faced with the growing threat of piracy, in 1564 the Spanish adopted

a convoy system far ahead of its time, with Spanish treasure fleet|

treasure fleets leaving the Americas in April and August



1 The growth of Spain's empire in the New World was accomplished from

Seville, without the close direction of the leadership in Madrid



1 The patchy empire, held together by a determined king keeping the bloated bureaucracy together,

unraveled when a weak ruler came to the throne



1 Without the firm hand and diligence of Charles I and Philip II, the

bureaucracy became increasingly bloated and corrupt that, by

Olivares's dismissal in 1643, its deterioration had rendered it largely

ineffective.


Majeerteen Sultanate - Bureaucracy

1 As with the Sultanate of Hobyo, the Majeerteen Sultanate exerted a

strong centralized authority during its existence, and possessed all of

the organs and trappings of an integrated modern state: a

functioning bureaucracy, a hereditary nobility, titled aristocrats, a state

flag, as well as a professional army.Horn of Africa, Volume 15,

Issues 1-4, (Horn of Africa Journal: 1997), p.130.Michigan State

University


Majeerteen Sultanate - Bureaucracy

1 The Majeerteen Sultanate's ruler, however, commanded more power

than was typical of other Somali leaders during the period


Majapahit - Bureaucracy officials

1 During his daily administration, the king is assisted by bureaucratic state officials that also included the close

relatives of the kings that hold certain esteemed titles. The royal order or edict usually transmitted from the king to the high officials

well to their subordinates. The officials in Majapahit courts are:



1 :* Rakryan Mahamantri Katrini, usually reserved for the king's

heir



1 :* Rakryan Mantri ri Pakira-kiran, the board of Minister (government)|ministers that conduct the daily

administration



1 :* Dharmmadhyaksa, the officials of laws, state laws as well as religious laws



1 :* Dharmma-upapatti, the

officials concerning religious affairs



1 Within the ministers of Rakryan Mantri ri Pakira-kiran there is the most important and the highest

minister titled Rakryan Mapatih or Patih Hamangkubhumi


Empress Dowager Cixi - Cleaning up the bureaucracy

1 Internally, both the national bureaucracy and regional authorities were infested with

corruption


Empress Dowager Cixi - Cleaning up the bureaucracy

1 Another significant challenge Cixi faced was the increasingly decrepit state of the country's Manchu elite


Bureaucracies - Ancient Bureaucracy




Bureaucracies - Modern bureaucracy

1 Still, in the modern world practically all organized institutions rely on bureaucratic systems to manage information, process and manage records, and administer complex

systems and interrelationships in an increasingly globalized world,

although the decline of paperwork and the widespread use of electronic databases is transforming the way

bureaucracies function.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-bureaucracy-toolkit.html

Byzantinism - Aristocracy and bureaucracy

1 The Byzantine Empire is a modern term applied by Westerners to the medieval Roman Empire and thus

had a complex system of aristocracy and bureaucracy which was derived from earlier Roman Empire|Roman

systems



1 Over the nearly fifteen hundred years of the empire's existence, different titles were adopted and discarded, and many lost or gained prestige



1 Among important qualities of the Empire was also the caesaropapism,

the subjugation of church to the state.Angelov 2003,

[http://books.google.com/books?id=XucseZUlNxYCpg=PA5vq=byzantinismdq=byzantinism+Leontievlr=as_brr=3hl=plsource=gbs_search_scad

=0 pp.4–5]


Politics of Canada - The Political Executive, Legislature and Bureaucracy

1 While Canada originally adopted a Cabinet Government style from

British tradition, it has evolved into a style dominated by the Prime

Minister, and the exertion of his or her special powers and privileges


List of landmark African-American legislation - Federal bureaucracy

1 *United States Commission on Civil Rights|Civil Rights Commission (created 1957)



1 *United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division|Civil Rights

Division in the Department of Justice (created 1957)



1 *Equal Employment Opportunity Commission

(created 1964)


Chilean passport - Bureaucracy

1 All passports are issued exclusively by the Registro Civil e Identificación. Within Chile, passport applications

are made in person at most offices of the Registro Civil e Identificación. For

applicants outside of Chile, applications are accepted by all

Consulate Generals. A photograph of the applicant is taken on site, as well as a fingerprint of the right thumb if

the applicant also requires an Identity Card, Cédula de Identidad.


Chilean passport - Bureaucracy

1 Passports applications in Chile have a turn-around time of 7 business days and must

be picked up at the office where the application was made, unless the applicant

requires the passport to be delivered for pick-up at in Santiago. The expected time of delivery for passport applications made outside of Chile is of about 6 weeks, unless the applicant requires an expedite service

for an additional cost.


Argentine passport - Bureaucracy

1 In accordance with President of Argentina|Presidential Decree

2015/66, in order to get an Argentine passport, a person must go to the nearest Civil Registry and present

his/her National Identity Document, birth certificate and a proof of marital

status (unless single)



1 Regular Passport price is 400 Argentine peso|ARS



1 Since January 2011, in all cases, Argentine passports are valid for 10 years. Beforehand, they were only

given in 5-year-periods.



1 Passports are not issued to persons who are under arrest because of

criminal offenses, or to those who appear as 'dangerous' in accordance

with the South American Police Agreement of 1920.


Corruption in Pakistan - Bureaucracy and secession of East Pakistan: 1954–1971

1 The bureaucratic influence was strong in the Administrative units of

Pakistan|western provinces of Pakistan while the East Pakistan|

eastern province retained a majority of the population


Corruption in India - Bureaucracy

1 A 2005 study done by Transparency International in India found that more than 62% of the people had firsthand

experience of paying bribe or peddling influence to get a job done in a public office. Taxes and bribes

are common between state borders; Transparency International estimates that truckers pay annually 222billion

( 4.5 billion) in bribes.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-bureaucracy-toolkit.html


1 Government regulators and police share in bribe money, each to the tune of 43% and

45% respectively



1 A 2009 survey of the leading economies of Asia, revealed Indian bureaucracy to be not only the

least efficient out of Singapore, Hong Kong, Thailand, South Korea, Japan, Malaysia, Taiwan, Vietnam, China, Philippines and Indonesia, but

also that working with India's civil servants was a slow and painful

process.[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/India/Indian-bureaucracy-ranked-worst-in-Asia-Survey/

articleshow/4612918.cms Indian bureaucracy ranked worst in Asia: Survey] The Times of India,

3 June 2009.


Economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina - Corruption and bureaucracy

1 Political corruption is one of the more acute problems in Bosnia and

Herzegovina, and the main one that accounts for low amount of tax

money used for the population, due to government inefficiency and

corruption, especially at the lowest levels.


Economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina - Corruption and bureaucracy

1 Bosnia-Herzegovina is also lacking a good E-governance structure to allow

easier investment and business climate. Today it takes between 3–5 weeks to register a company in the

country.


For More Information, Visit:

• https://store.theartofservice.com/the-bureaucracy-toolkit.html

The Art of Servicehttps://store.theartofservice.com





Documents

Bureaucracy