Building Technology - Dome Structures

Group 8 – Dome Structures [10.06.10] 1

BAROA, FRANZE EMMANUELLE C.GUTIERREZ, MARLIN NOAH P.

MENDOZA, ROBIEWILL B.PIEDAD, CHRISTINE JESUSA R.

RETERACION, REYMOND S.

BS ARCH IV-3D

10/6/2010

ARCH. NOEL DOMINGO| neo

GROUP 8:DOME STRUCTURES


Outline:

I. INTRODUCTIONII. DEFINITON AND BRIEF HISTORYIII. DOME BASICSIV. DIFFERENT TYPES OF DOME STRUCTURES

A. GEODESICB. MONOLITHICC. ECO-DOME

V. DIFFERENT CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES OF GEODESIC DOMESA. FLATTENED CONDUITB. TUBE AND HUBC. BEAM AND HUBD. PANELIZED TIMBER FRAMEE. STRESSED SKINF. MONOLITHICG. SPACE FRAMEH. BRICK AND FORMERI. FOAM AND RENDER

VI. DOME CONSTRUCTION PROCESS (DOME TECHNOLOGY)VII. TECHNOLOGY / APPLICATIONS

A. COATINGB. RECLAIM SYSTEMSC. DRIVE-THROUGH DOMESD. TUNNEL TECHNOLOGY

VIII. SAMPLE DETAILSIX. REFERENCES


INTRODUCTION

Domes have been popular in the construction of buildings since ancient times. This particular design hasthe important characteristic of withstanding adverse climatic conditions such as earthquakes,tornadoes, floods, hurricanes, or even tropical storms. Earlier domes were used only in religiousbuildings, however its usage has now been seen in constructing residence buildings as well. Houses withdome construction are usually found in regions which experience heavy winds and extreme climaticconditions. The trend is speedily catching up in constructing residential buildings and public structuressuch as schools and colleges.

BRIEF DEFINITION AND HISTORY

A dome is a structural element of architecture that resembles the hollow upper half of a sphere. Domestructures made of various materials have a long architectural lineage extending into prehistory.

Corbel domes have been found in the ancient Middle East in modest buildings and tombs. Theconstruction of technically advanced large-scale true domes began in the Roman ArchitecturalRevolution, when they were frequently used by the Romans to shape large interior spacesof temples and public buildings, such as the Pantheon. This tradition continued unabated after theadoption of Christianity in the Byzantine (East Roman) religious and secular architecture, culminating inthe revolutionary pendentive dome of the 6th century church Hagia Sophia. With the Muslim conquestof the Sassanid and the Byzantine Near East, the dome also became a feature of Muslim architecture.

An original tradition of using multiple domes was developed in the church architecture in Russia, whichhad adopted Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium. Russian domes are often gilded or brightly painted,and typically have a carcass and an outer shell made of wood or metal. The onion dome became anotherdistinctive feature in the Russian architecture, often in combination with the tented roof.

Domes in Western Europe became popular again during the Renaissance period, reaching a zenith inpopularity during the early 18th century Baroque period. Reminiscent of the Roman senate, during the19th century they became a feature of grand civic architecture. As a domestic feature the dome is lesscommon, tending only to be a feature of the grandest houses and palaces during the Baroque period.

Many domes, particularly those from the Renaissance and Baroque periods of architecture, are crownedby a lantern or cupola, a medieval innovation which not only serves to admit light and vent air, but givesan extra dimension to the decorated interior of the dome.

MODERN-DAY DOMES

The dome is a structurally sound design. These days they often made of concrete and reinforced bysteel. The main advantage of this style of design is that as it’s heavier in weight, it is difficult to lift it offits base. Moreover, besides the weight of steel and concrete, the shape of the dome itself makes it avery solid structure. According to architects, the arches of the dome are naturally strong and are hardlyinfluenced by extreme external forces like tornadoes. Also with no flat walls, these kinds of structureshave very few seams, leading to less penetration of water in the construction especially during tropical


storms. Moreover, using archways as gates on either side of the building can also help water to runstraight off without causing any lasting damage.

Today, modern construction techniques and materials reinforce the dome's position as the mostclassically versatile of all structures. The insulated concrete dome is the ideal solution wherever strengthcombined with low construction costs are called for. Compared to other types of structures, the domesenclose more volume with the greatest floor area, and the least amount of surface area and perimeter.Superbly energy-efficient, fire-safe, and with an inherent strength that enables it to withstand whatevernature throws at it, hurricanes, earthquakes, even tornadoes. It's no wonder that the modern concretedome is experiencing a surge of popularity throughout the world.

DOME BASICS

VARIETY OF SHAPES

TERMINOLOGY


BASIC STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES

SUITABILITY OF DOMES

DIFFERENT TYPES OF DOME STRUCTURES


GEODESIC DOMES

A geodesic dome is a sphere-like structure composed of acomplex network of triangles. The triangles create a self-bracingframework that gives structural strength while using a minimumof material. The term geodesic is from Latin, meaning earthdividing. A geodesic line is the shortest distance between anytwo points on a sphere.

The the idea of combining triangles with the arch was pioneeredby German engineer Dr. Walther Bauersfeld when he designedthe world's first projection planetarium, built in Jena, Germanyin 1922. However, it was Buckminster Fuller ("Bucky") whoconceived the concept of geodesic dome homes. Fuller's firstpatent for a geodesic dome was issued in 1954.

Geodesic domes are efficient, inexpensive, and durable. For $350, an African family can be housed in acorrugated metal dome. Plastic and fiberglass domes used for sensitive radar equipment in Arcticregions and for weather stations around the world. Geodesic domes are also used for emergency shelterand mobile military housing.

Examples of Geodesic Domes:

Spaceship Earth, the AT&T Pavilion at Epcot in Disney World, Florida, is an adaptation ofBuckminster Fuller's geodesic dome

Tacoma Dome in Washington State Milwaukee's Mitchell Park Conservatory Biosphere desert project in Arizona Des Moines Arboretum, a self contained ecosphere Biosphere, constructed for 1967 Expo in Montreal, Canada. Fuller claimed that it would be

possible to enclose mid-town Manhattan in New York City with a two-mile wide temperature-controlled dome like this one. The dome, he said, would pay for itself within ten years... justfrom the savings of snow-removal costs.

ECO-DOMES

The Eco-Dome is a small home design of approximately 400 square feet (40 sq. meters) interior space. Itconsists of a large central dome, surrounded by four smaller niches and a wind-scoop, in a clover leafpattern.

Learning and building an Eco-Dome is the next stage after building a small emergency shelter andprovides hands-on learning experience in the essential aspects of Superadobe construction. It's smallsize of approximately 400 square feet (interior space), makes it a manageable structure for the first timeowner builder.


The finished "very small house" is self-contained and can become a small guest house, studioapartment, or be the first step in a clustered design for community use in an Eco-Village of vaults anddomes.


Some features of the Eco-Dome include:

1. Built from local earth-filled Superadobe coils (earth stabilized with cement or lime).2. Tree free.3. Maximum use of space through alternative options. The main dome and four niches, depending

on local code approval, can function as:1. main living room, entrance hall, kitchen, bathroom, bedroom (called "bed-womb"

because of it's small, organic form!)2. living room, entrance hall, and three bed-rooms.3. living room, entrance hall, two bedrooms, and a bathroom.

4. Self-contained single unit (potential for a guest house or studio apartment) or double unit(larger family residence).

5. Can be repeated and joined together to form larger homes and courtyard houses.6. Can be built by a team of 3-5 persons.7. Designed with the sun, shade and wind for passive cooling and heating.8. Wind-scoop can be combined with a rated furnace unit, depending on local code approval. Solar

energy and radiant heating may be incorporated.9. Interior furniture can be built-in with same material.

The Blueprints for this design have been previously approved and built in Hesperia City and SanBernardino County, California, as well as other regions nationally and internationally.


1. The Eco-Dome construction kit package (single unit) includes:documentary step-by-step DVD "Eco-Dome, building a small home", construction documents(mini-version, including the construction specification), unfilled Superadobe roll/earth-bags,educational book on Superadobe construction entitled "Sandbag Shelter and Eco-Village".

2. The full Eco-Dome blueprint package (double unit) includes:construction document blueprints, engineering calculations as permitted under the 1997 UBC /2001 California Code, construction specification, title 24 energy calculations, and theengineering record. All plans are numbered. The above plans and materials are used in the Cal-Earth apprenticeship courses.


DIFFERENT CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES OF GEODESIC DOME

1. Flattened conduit

Probably the simplest way to build a geodesic dome frame, all you do is flatten the end of somemetal tubing bend it slightly then drill a hole. Do these to both ends get yourself a bag of bolts andyou can easily build a dome framework in a day. Used for burning man, climbing frames and othersmall projects.

This method may be a bit crude but it’s cheap and easy to implement. Use this technique forbuilding geodesic tent structures, climbing frames and other small homebrew projects.

Making the struts

Use the dome calculation tools to find the strut lengths and number of struts to build your dome.Strut length is from hole centers so you need to cut your tube a little longer to allow for this.

Building the frame

Once you have your tubing cut to length you will need to flatten the end and put a slight bend in,the angle doesn’t have to be exact because the bolts will pull everything together when youassemble your dome framework.

Construction tips

Using a thin wall tube will make flattening the ends easier but don’t go too thin if you’re making aclimbing frame.

Colour coding the struts will make it easier to assemble, try using different coloured insulation tape.

Use wing nuts for quick assembly/disassembly.


Covering the framework

This type of dome framework is usually covered in canvas or similar material, which can be quitedifficult to get tight and crease free over the structure. Also of the unevenness of the joints canmake it difficult to cover cleanly.

Conclusion

This method is a bit rough and ready but it’s cheap and simple to build a dome framework. Coveringis quite difficult to get crease free and I wouldn’t recommend trying to cover with a hard coveringmaterial. This technique is best suited to building climbing frames and small experimental projectsto get the feel for building geodesic structures.

2. Tube and hub

Another simple construction technique, slightly more work than the flattened conduit method but isa more professional and flexible system. Instead of joining the struts directly together a largerdiameter pipe is used as a hub holes are drilled through the hub and the struts are bolted to it.

Advantages: Makes a nice neat job with all struts finishing level while still being cheap and easy tobuild.

Disadvantages: Great for material covers but there is no easy way to fix a hard covering material.

This is a great technique for building a tubular dome framework, much nicer and more flexible thanthe flattened conduit method but still simple to build.


Making the struts

This is very similar to the flattened conduit method except you’ll need to bend the ends just less than 90degrees. There are other ways of connecting the struts to the hubs

Making the hubs

The hubs are real easy to make all you do is take some large diameter metal tube cut it into shortlengths and drill the appropriate number of holes evenly around the side. The only thing you’ll need tobe careful of is making sure the tube is big enough so you can get a spanner in to tighten the bolts whenyou come to assemble the dome.

Building the frame

This method uses tubing with a flattened end like the flattened conduit method but instead ofoverlapping the ends a hub is used at each vertex. This has many advantages not least being able to takeone strut out at a time. The only downside is that you’ll need five or six times as many nuts and bolts,what the heck bolts are cheap anyway.

Construction tips

Make sure that the pipe used for the hub is of sufficient diameter to allow up to six connections and stillget the spanner in to tighten the bolts.


Covering the framework

This system is great for making canvas domes. Cut and stitch a canvas dome slightly smaller than theframework then pull the canvas tight through the centre of each hub (see picture below)

This makes a very professional and tidy job and also shows off the framework, very cool.


3. Beam and hub

Wooden beams are attached to specially made hubs to form the dome framework; the anglesare taken care of by the hubs so all you have to do is cut the beams to the correct length. Moreexpensive to build than a tube type framework but makes a solid permanent dome.

Advantages: Simple dome construction system that doesn’t require specialist tools orknowledge to build.

Disadvantages: The hubs can be expensive and hard to find because they have to be speciallymade. When the beams have board nailed on both sides there is no way to ventilate the voidbetween, in a heated dome this can lead to damp, dry rot and a number of other problems.

4. Panelized timber frame

This system uses wooden beams but instead of metal hubs at the joints panels are made thatjoin at the edges and have the outside material attached (usually plywood). These panels arefactory made so all you have to do is nail them together in the correct order to build a dome.

Advantages: Simple and extremely fast way to build a permanent dome structure.

Disadvantages: Because the panels are factory made you don''t get much design choice.Ventilation problems can occur when material is fixed to both sides.

5. Stressed skin

Metal or fibreglass panels are bolted/riveted together to form the dome, there are no beams,hubs or separate support structure the skin does everything.

Advantages: Probably the most cost effective and efficient way to build a dome. Some simplefabrication is required but this can be easily sourced locally.

Disadvantages: Metal sweats when it gets cold so some form of insulation has to be glued to theinside of the panels to prevent condensation forming. Cutting holes for doors and windows canseriously weaken the dome structure.

6. Monolithic

There are basically three stages involved in building a monolithic dome: First an airformmembrane made from PVC is inflated on the site were the dome is to be built; this acts as theout weatherproof skin on the finished dome. Next the inside is sprayed with polyurethane foam


to insulate the structure; reinforcing bar is fixed to the foam ready for the next stage. Finally aconcrete mix is sprayed on top of the urethane to finish.

Advantages: Very strong efficient structure requiring very little in the way of heating/cooling.

Disadvantages: The outer airform that acts as a weatherproof membrane can be damaged easilyallowing water into the insulation layer. Both the PVC airform and the urethane foam insulationare oil based chemical materials, which are not that environmentally friendly. Most monolithicdomes require dehumidifiers or heat exchange systems due to the fact that they are so airtight.

7. Space frame

Building domes using space frame is actually quite simple, the struts are made from solid barand they are connected together with solid balls that have fixing points machined into them.Very commonly seen at airports and exhibition halls. Too expensive for the DIY builder but stillinteresting, the Eden project was built using a space frame.

8. Brick and former

This building method dates back hundreds of years and was also used to build arches, bridgesetc. A wooden former is made to the shape required then stone, brick, or concrete is laid on topof the former to produce the final dome shape. The former is used to hold the brick, stone orconcrete in place until it sets and is able to support its own weight. Usually the former isremoved but there is no reason why it couldn’t be left in place.

Advantages: Makes a very strong long lasting dome that can be built using reclaimed materials.

Disadvantages: A lot of expense is involved in making the former that MUST support the wholeweight of the dome when the dome is finished the former becomes redundant. Building verylarge domes is not cost effective using this system.

9. Foam and render

This method uses polystyrene foam or urethane foam as a former. Cut and glue the foamtogether to form the dome shape. Next tie chicken wire over the foam to act as reinforcingmesh. Finally apply a thin layer of cement render over the whole structure to weatherproof andfinish the dome.

Advantages: Easy to change or alter the foam former

Disadvantages: Only suitable for very small domes.


DOME CONSTRUCTION PROCESS (DOME TECHNOLOGY)

Many memorable structures throughout history, like the Pantheon, have been built using the thin shellhemispherical shape of the dome. These time-tested monuments surpass many in beauty and longevity.Continuing in the tradition of these magnificent edifices, Dome Technology engages the latestengineering and architectural technologies to produce aesthetic, functional, and economical schools,gymnasiums, waterparks, community centers, and industrial facilities. At a fraction of the cost of aconventional structure, each building benefits from unobstructed views, seating efficiency, greatacoustics, and space utilization.

Modern insulated concrete dome construction combines several materials to create a strong, efficient,weather-proof structure. Compared to other types of structures for the same application. Insulatedconcrete dome construction consists of four main phases.

Ring Beam Footing

Continuous reinforcing bars are embedded in the ring beam foundation. These rebar dowels securelyconnect the dome to its footing. The ring beam creates a solid base on which to construct the dome.

Inflate airform®

Made of tough, weather-impermeable material, the airform® is attached to the ring beam footing. Theairform® is then inflated with dual inflator fans. The airform® determines the final shape of the domeand becomes a protective cover when the dome is completed.

Polyurethane foam

The foam is spray applied from in the interior to stiffen the airform®, and provide a secure surface towhich reinforcement bar is affixed. The foam hardens and creates a superior insulation layer in the finalstructure.

Shotcrete

A framework of rebar is attached to the interior surface of the foam. Application of sprayed concrete(shotcrete) to the reinforcement bar framework comprises the final step in construction of the dome.


TECHNOLOGY/APPLICATION

COATING

Polyurethane Foam

In the earlier years of dome construction, it was common practice to remove the airform® after thedome was complete. At the time it seemed like a good idea. This saved the customer some money sincethe cost of the airform® out weighed the cost of exterior paint. Unfortunately, this left a veryunattractive finished product and waterproofing proved to be a great challenge. If left untreated,exposed polyurethane decomposes in sunlight at a rate of 1/16th-inch per year.

How To Inspect Your Dome Covering

No matter what covering is currently protecting your dome, a periodic inspection is required to insurethat the polyurethane insulation is not in danger of being exposed. The following applicable guidelinescan be used for the inspection:

Mechanical Damage: Check for any signs of tears, rips, burns or holes. PVC Degradation: This is usually evidenced by a light colored, chalky appearance. Seam Failure: Look at each seam paying particular attention to corners where horizontal and

vertical seams meet. If the corners are starting to curl it may indicate that the vinyl has brokendown and lost its plasticity.

Vinyl Breakdown. The telltale sign of this condition is if you can see the threads of the polyesterfabric.

Paints, stuccos and other similar coatings. Besides the applicable steps listed above, check forcracking, flaking or peeling of the coating. Press firmly on the coating in questionable areas. Thefoam underneath should feel firm, if it seems spongy there is a chance that water has migratedinto the foam.

Suspect areas: Press firmly on any suspect areas. The foam underneath should feel firm. If it isspongy, water has probably migrated under the coating and saturated the urethane.

Records Review: Check your maintenance records to see how long the current coating has beenin place versus the manufacturers recommended service life.

Coatings Now Available

For years, we have been researching protective coatings. We place strict prerequisites on all potentialcoatings. These include:

Bondability to the airform® Water proofing ability Soil resistance Longevity UV protection Cost Warranty availability


Types of Coatings Available

Paints. We have a wide variety of paints available, ranging in colors and price. Custom designsare available, and we can even put your logo on the side of the dome.

Stuccos. For the south western look, we have special elastomeric stucco available that ranges intexture and can be custom colored to fit your needs.

Ceramic Tile. This finish is somewhat difficult to apply, but is very aesthetically pleasing anddurable.

Metal Shingles. Certainly the most durable, metal shingles can be special ordered to match yourcolor needs. Chemical resistant coatings and custom designs are also available.

RECLAIM SYSTEMS

Filling and Reclaim of Concrete Domes

The most common form of reclaim from dome structures is by front-end loader on a flat, horizontalfloor. However, unlike flat structures, material can be piled higher against the walls of a dome, meaningthat less floor area is required for a given amount of stored material. Hence, front-end loader reclaim ismore efficient than with flat structures, since there is less distance to travel.

The inherent strength of the dome's concrete wall allows a loader to scoop against the wall, and is ableto withstand blows by front-end loaders better than other conventional structures.

Service Access

Access for service of automated equipment is normally through a drive-in entrance. This entrance allowsthe use of front-end loaders as an auxiliary reclaim method. Service access can be through an opening atthe dome's apex, or anywhere else on the structure, as design and functionality requirements dictate.

Automated Reclaim Systems

Where automated reclaim systems are required, the concrete dome's shapeand structural characteristics make it adaptable to a wide variety of systems.

For products that can be fluidized, sloped floors with air slides have beeninstalled. Conventional stackers and reclaim systems are also frequentlyinstalled in concrete domes.


Conveyor Support

The inherent strength of a concrete dome also allows heavy loads fromconveyors to be supported on top of the dome. As much as 175,000 lbs. (80tons) of conveyor loads have been supported on the apex of the concretedome.

The dome's compact shape and high internal volume utilization mean thatconveyors can be shorter than those used with more conventionalstructures. Another significant saving results from the absence of many ofthe structural supports commonly used with conveyors.

DRIVE THROUGH DOMES

Why not combine the benefits of a storage silo with that of a load-outstation? Hence the birth of the drive through dome. The drive throughdome has the following benefits and components.

Drive-through Tunnel with Internal Surge-bin:

1. The product will be conveyed pneumatically in a pipeline at gradeto the base of the dome.

2. We can provide a walk-in entry and vertical chase internally fromgrade to the apex. This chase provides support for the in-fillpipeline, access to the roof dust collector and is typically used tomaintain the level controls for the storage facility.

3. The floor is covered with pneumatic extraction systems. Asneeded, these sections are momentarily activated to fluidize the ash into the collection channelor slot.

4. The central slot houses a pneumatic air gravity conveyor. In combination with the floor, literallyall of the material in the dome can be withdrawn.

5. The slot structure discharges to an air lift conveyor, which discharges to the surge bin. Therewould be a sump pump in this, the lowest point of the system.

6. The surge bin holds enough material for 4 trucks. Much of the storage volume is live to the surgebin. The mechanical floor system is therefore activated lessfrequently than each truckload.

7. Trucks will approach the loading location. There will be a driveraccess platform where the truck driver opens the fill hatch on thevehicle. Similarly, there will be a second location for an existingplatform to close the vehicle fill hatch.

8. The above grade scale will be located under the fill point which iscontrolled with a card-scan identification system. The driver willcontrol the fill hatch, and the amount of material transferred to the vehicle. A PLC will recordthe transaction, which can be electronically synchronized with your accounting system.


9. We can provide a building for the electrical room, mechanicalroom and control room of the terminal system over the truckscale.

10. Most drivers will set the lane productivity between 6 or 8trucks an hour, despite the best planning of terminal designers.The equipment is sized for 200 tph refill rate, 350 tph fill ratefrom the surge bin.

11. The ends of the tunnel are open, but certainly automatic doors could be optioned, if theyprovided some local advantages.

12. All of the scale and loading system is well out of the effects of weather in this arrangement.13. There is only the one dust collector on the dome for permitting purposes. Some states do

require the loading DC to be permitted.

TUNNEL TECHNOLOGY (DOME TECHNOLOGY)

Dome Technology has successfully designed and constructed several tunnels to compliment bulk storageprojects associated with our large storage domes. The basic design criteria that we incorporate with ourtunnel design is the basic arched roof geometric shape. This configuration has proved very successfulwith the following specific advantages:

The tunnels are built using steel reinforced shotcrete (a concrete product incorporating 900 lbs ofcement per cubic yard). Shotcrete is a product that Dome Technology, Inc has developed to provide thedurability and strength requirements of dome structures. Past history and experience with this materialat numerous locations has provided break tests as high as 6,000 psi from this product.

The arched form used for the tunnel provides increased strength allowing the tunnel to utilize a muchthinner wall, floor, and roof thickness compared to conventional rectangular shapes.

Dome Technology's method of tunnel design and construction provides an arched metal liner that actsas the tunnel's internal form and supports the reinforced shotcrete method of construction withoutadditional work. This simple factor allows the tunnels to be built in extremely long and continuoussections without downtime associated with extensive work forming techniques. The tunnel designprovides the following features:

The arched tunnel is very adaptable to junctions, arteries, etc. The metal liner provides a very clean finish to the inside of the tunnel. Our design is very adaptable to custom sizing associated with specific width or height

characteristics. The basic limitation of our standard tunnel is any width or height beyond a 6foot width – 3 foot tall radius.

The arch portion of the tunnel is a simple curve. The remaining height of the tunnel is createdusing vertical pony wall or stem wall procedures.

Some of the tunnel value engineering project improvements that we have constructed include:


United Arab Emirates Clinker storage dome system.

This project required and then utilized our tunnel system to construct approximately 900+ feet of tunnelunder a Clinker Storage Dome System to be utilized with a gravity reclaimer that empties the 100,000ton clinker storage upon demand.

Kosmosdale cement storage dome project, Kosmosdale, KY.

This Southdown Cement (now Cemex) project utilized one of our tunnel improvement designs to exitthe 100,000 ton cement storage dome. It also utilized some 500+ feet of our tunnel to cover and protectthe discharge conveyor between the transfer dome (buried dome structure) and the ship loading feedconveyor. This tunnel was constructed in a single run including the gradient and angle change at itsmidpoint. The transfer dome and tunnel system we constructed saved this client $50,000 and providedmore space and usable mechanical area. The system has proven very adaptable to later plantmodifications and use.

FMC phosphate byproduct storage in Pocatello, ID.

FMC utilized our tunnel design to house a combination discharge system above and below ground. Thetunnel above ground actually bisects half of the dome and is used as a push wall for the loaders thatprocesses the product into feeder holes in the top of the tunnel. The tunnel supports all of the conveyorsystems and keeps the product system moving efficiently. The tunnel starts in a deep access pit at oneside of the dome structure and rises completely out the ground prior to exiting the opposite side of thedome. The tunnel is approximately 12' wide and 10' high. The area of this project required structuresthat could absorb and function in spite of predicted differential settlement. Both the tunnel and domemet the settlement challenge and continue to work well.

REFERENCES

http://www.dragishak.com/dome/dome.htmlhttp://www.dometech.com/content/Technology.aspxhttp://architecture.about.com/od/domes/g/geodesic.htmhttp://fineprints/DomeConstruction.pmd

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Building Technology - Dome Structures