Building Fabric 2014 2015_K.Koletsos

Upgrading the Fabric of

Athenian Hotels

Konstantinos Koletsos

Building Fabric 2014-2015

MSc in Environmental Design of Buildings

Welsh School of Architecture, Cardiff University

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Table of contents

5

Map of the world containing the average U-values required for windows for high indoor thermal comfort without radiators (ΔT external surface/room temperature = 4.2 K) . It is created based on the data from the EOSWEB climate database [NASA 2009] Source: (International Passive House Association 2014)

Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..3

Part 1 - Ranking of environmental aspects………………………………………………………………..4-8

1. Decision criteria

1.1 Thermal comfort

1.2 Visual comfort

1.3 Sound comfort

2. Main aspect

Part 2 - Thermal insulation & noise control……..……………………………………………………...9-15

3. Optimization of guest room

4. Standard envelopes in Greece

5. Optimal Layer Distribution

6. Types of insulation material

7. Windows efficiency

7.1 Type of frame

7.2 Glazing

Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….……16

References …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….17-19

Appendices …………………………………………………………………………………………………………...20-22

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Introduction

Hotels present a paradox to be resolved. They rely on the conservation of natural

resources to run their business and, at the same time, deplete them by being major energy consumers. Carbon-intensive accommodation and inefficient operations, as attested by a number of researchers (Farrou et al. 2012; Bohdanowicz and Martinac 2007; Dascalaki and Balaras 2004), appear responsible for considerably charging today’s environmental problems1. The European statutory environment for energy and carbon efficiency, alongside an increasing demand for lower operational costs in the competitive hospitality sector, urge for upgrading existing facilities (Karagiorgas et al. 2006, p.200). This paper is, in the first part, hierarchizing alternative environmental aspects in retrofitting the fabric of ageing Athenian hotels. This is done by investigating their applicability to local climate, energy demand and comfort variables in the guest room zone. Energy consumption in hotels and their potential for sustainable development are, after all, directly related to the presence of guests (Beccali et al. 2009, p.86). City hotels, operating year-round, are selected. In the second part, a main aspect is more thoroughly reviewed. Existing technologies are compared and the most appropriate to the building type and regional characteristics is proposed.

1The estimated annual hotel-based CO2 emissions are 160-200Kg/m2 of room floor area (Hotel Energy Solutions 2011a, p.2).

Figure 1: Southwest view of typical two and three star hotels in Athens built in the 1970s. Picture taken in a mild January afternoon.

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Part 1 - Ranking of environmental aspects

1. Decision criteria Energy is primarily used for space conditioning in Greek hotels, as shown below.

Potential energy savings in Euro-pean hotels also indicate the im-portance of heating and cooling in terms of minimizing the life cycle cost of their facilities.

Table 1: Estimated savings per energy end-use. ( Source: European Commission 1994 , cited in Dascala-ki and Balaras 2004, p.1091)

Alternative environmental strategies are thus evaluated and ranked primarily accord-ing to their heating and cooling capacity and consequently on their contribution to vis-ual and sound comfort. The final ranking decision rests on the principle that the “guest experience” upon which hotels build their brand and customer loyalty should not be compromised by energy efficiency alone (Quaintance et al. 2010, p.5).

1.1 Thermal comfort An initial step to designing an energy efficient building is to understand the local cli-mate. Climate Consultant was used to determine the hours of the year the climate of Athens is within the comfort ranges for a particular strategy. Athens is a Csa climatic region, i.e. a temperate climate with hot and dry summers, according to Köppen-Geiger classification (Gialamas 2011).

ASHRAE standard 55-2004 using the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) was used in setting the thermal comfort criteria. An adaptive approach would not be appropriate in hotel design as any occupant adjustments in response to outdoor temperature changes would occur gradually (CIBSE Guide A 2006, p.16) over a period slightly exceeded by the 9-night average stay of guests in Greek hotels (Rerres et al. 2013, p.18).

Heating Cooling Lighting DHW

15-20% 5-30% 7-60% 40-70%

Figure 1: Energy breakdown in a Greek hotel. (Source: Hotel Energy Solutions 2011b, p.19)

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A residential building analysis was selected since guestrooms offer the same adaptive options to indoor conditions as residences. The balance heating temperature of the Internal Heat Gains zone (IHGs) was set at 17.1°C to adjust to the 0,50 utilization factor assigned to hotel guestrooms in Greece.2 Large city center terrain was selected for the natural ventilation cooling zone. Although it is reported that “rented rooms remain unoccupied for approximately 60 - 65 per cent during the day” (Hotel Energy Solutions 2011a, p.4), no available data related exclusively to city center hotels and their specific operations were found. Two bioclimatic charts were thus produced for combinations of activity and clothing based on hourly temperature, relative humidity and wind speed data. In the first combination, from 8am to midnight, light sedentary activity at 1,1met and light clothing factors of 0,8Clo for the winter and 0,5Clo for the summer were selected. In the nighttime combination, from midnight to 8am, activity was set at 0,9met to account for sleeping and clothing insulation at 0,5Clo for both seasons.

Listed high mass passive strategies apply only in part to the retrofit context of our analysis since existing fabrics in most Greek hotels consist of both uninsulated (Farrou et al. 2012, p.557) and low inertia elements, such as cavity walls made up of lightweight perforated bricks (Stazi et al. 2014, p.5). Unless the enclosure is insulated first, there is a risk of unwanted, stored heat being flushed into the room overnight during a hot period deteriorating the existing conditions (Hampton 2010, p.3). 2 A utilization factor of 0,75 is assumed in residences for setting the IHGs zone balance temperature. For hotel bedrooms it is 0,50 (Τ.Ο.ΤΕ.Ε. 20701-1; Technical Chamber of Greece 2010, p.35). This figure agrees with the 55% annual average occupancy ratio of Greek hotels (Association of Greek Tourism Enterprises 2010, p.22).

Figure 2: Psychrometric Chart for day-time schedule. (Source: Climate Con-sultant)

The tables of effective passive strategies of both charts showed that the climate in Athens is in the comfort range for 1.098 hours a year, while 2.115 hours account for inter-nal heat gains. For 3.586 hours additional heating and cooling is needed, all passive strategies considered.

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Moreover, decreasing diurnal swings due to the heat island effect, not counted in the weather data generated from a suburban station, and the higher number of predicted tropical nights with temperatures above 20oC (Zerefos et al. 2011, pp.61-62) curtail high mass strategies from producing viable cooling comfort. Passive strategies for heating, such as direct solar gains for low mass, and passive cooling through natural ventilation and evaporative means account for 2.498 hours in total.

According to the number of hours that relevant strategies meet the comfort criteria over a year, for both daytime and nighttime schedules, their ranking is the following:

Figure 4: Ranking of strategies in

terms of thermal comfort hours

Figure 3: Psychrometric Chart for nighttime schedule. (Source: Climate Consultant)

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1.2 Visual comfort Good daylight levels in guest rooms is the desired outcome in weighing the daylighting strategy. “In conventional buildings [with window to wall ratios significantly lower than the ones expected in hotel guest rooms3] daylight penetrates about 4 to 6m from the external walls” (European Commission 1994, p.6). The guest room zone in a five star Greek hotel has a minimum depth of 5,3m according to the local codes (Hellenic Republic Directive No 43 2002, p.517) hence during sunshine hours most of the room could be adequately lit from natural daylighting. In particular, a west facing wall in Athens receives mean annual radiation of 180W/m2, i.e. approximately 18.000 lux of illumination, as seen in figure 5.

That could bring 3,6 times more natural light on average within the room than the 250 lux recommended for hotel guest rooms (Androutsopoulos 2012, p.29) at an assumed daylight factor of 5% for a predominantly day-lit appearance (McMullan 2012, p.165). Although overshadowing is anticipated in the city center, we could reasonably argue that natural illumination would suffice in most planning schemes without resorting to electric lighting, saved task and bathroom illumination.

3 Doors (opening height > 2,0m) are often employed in guest rooms for allowing access to balconies as required in hotel ratings

Figure 5: Incident radiation on a west-ern vertical surface in Athens with 35% ground reflectance. Source: Cli-mate Consultant.

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1.3 Sound comfort Hotels are customer responsive businesses. Noise control in facilities located in dense urban environments with high traffic noise is a chief concern in attaining comfort. Quietness was reported among the basic reasons for selecting a hotel in Greece, according to a study conducted by the (Association of Greek Tourism Enterprises 2010, p.16). Road traffic noise according to another survey conducted in the city of Rhodes is the primary cause of tourist annoyance (Frantzeskakis et al.1999, cited in Vogiatzis et al. [no date] p.42). The majority of tourists who were questioned expressed a negative viewpoint on the quality of sleep due to exterior noise levels. Although the role of acoustics may not be directly related to energy consumption, its importance in the appreciation of the facilities is crucial and should be addressed at an early stage of the planning process, as “...4 in 5 people would not return to a hotel if they found it noisy.” (Vincent 1992 cited in Vogiatzis et al. [no date] p.44)

2. Main environmental aspect Based on the previous analysis, the main aspects that should be prioritized in a design strategy for retrofitting Athenian hotels are thermal insulation and noise control.

Prioritizing thermal insulation is also responding to a voluntary assessment of hotel facilities by eco-certifications, such as ELTAS (EU flower), addressed to a European level. It has been argued (Butler 2012 cited in Zhang et al. 2014, p.6) that such schemes improve the operational efficiency of hotels and, therefore, they could be integrated early on in the design framework. According to EU Flower’s mandatory criteria, only window insulation among the above listed aspects relates directly to the specificity of the building fabric (European Commission 2009 cited in Hotel Energy Solutions, 2011b, p. 13).

Moisture control

Thermal mass & storage

Daylighting

Solar control

Natural ventilation & infiltration

Passive heating & cooling

Noise control

Thermal insulation

Illustration of relative importance

Figure 6: Final ranking of aspects

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Part 2 - Thermal Insulation & Noise Control

Thermal insulation is further reviewed in this part with respect to the building type requirements, the existing conditions, its contribution to thermal and sound comfort and, finally, its energy savings potential. The review focuses on the following two elements, as they pertain to all guest room floors:

1. Exterior wall assemblies 2. Windows efficiency

3. Optimization of guest room area

“Planning the guest room floor (Ronstedt and Frey 2014, p.106) is crucial in hotel business as every error multiplies itself by the number of identically stacked floor plans.” The objective is to accommodate as many guest rooms per floor as possible by reducing room sizes to the acceptable standards set by state regulations for each hotel category.4

In Athens the majority of existing city hotels are two and three star hotels5 in which the minimum double bed guest room floor area is 11m2 or 12m2 for 2,80m and 3,00m minimum bay widths respectively in a two star hotel and 13m2 or 14m2 for 3,00m and 3,20m bay widths in three star hotels (Hellenic Republic Directive 43 2002, p.517). An additional interior insulation layer at 10cm thickness of a conventional insulant for a wall U-value=0,3 Wm-2 K-1 (INZEB 2014, p.14) placed on the exterior and the adjoining side walls to avoid thermal bridges would detract 5,6% of usable floor making this measure functionally problematic (Approved Document L2B 2014, p.22).

4 “For the hotelier five additional rooms per floor mean 23% increase in rentable rooms at equal building cubature” as illustrated in the example presented by (Ronstedt and Frey 2014, p.106). 5 418 hotels from a total of 692 located in Athens according to a 2003 census (Source: Hellenic Chamber of Hotels)

Figure 7: typical guest room layout of 3,2m bay width with mo-bility features (U.S Department of Justice 2010, para. Transient lodging guest room floor plans and related text).

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4. Standard envelopes in Greece

Most Greek hotels were constructed in the 1970s and 1980s (Dascalaki and Balaras 2004, p.1092) with little or no insulation and poor performing glazing (see Appendix 2) thus causing a great percentage of summer and winter discomfort. Typical construction of this period is characterized by the following elements:

· Reinforced concrete bearing frame · Cavity walls with perforated clay bricks · Single or double pane, aluminum framed windows without thermal block. Low

air tightness · Flat concrete roof slabs usually finished with bitumen covering. Comparable

construction to that of storey floors It will be necessary to significantly change the thermal and sound performance of these enclosures if they are to comply with minimum current standards (see Appendix 3).

Window R’w=31dB. Min requirement of sound protection from exterior noise LAeq,h=35dB for a standard level of comfort in guest rooms (Greek building regulations, article 12)

Figure 8: Typical wall section of uninsu-lated buildings in Greece built in the 1970s. (Source of U-values : Laskos et al. 2010, pp. 8-9)

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5. Optimal layer distribution

It has been argued that “the best thermal performance of the building fabric can be achieved by placing the insulating material to the inside for climatic regions where winter heating is dominant and to the outside where cooling is dominant” (Al-Homoud 2005, p.354). Recent studies, though, on optimally upgrading the thermal performance of cavity brick walls in a typical Mediterranean climate, with two distinct seasons, show that exterior insulation outperforms the interior in terms of achieving less temperature variations, better interior surface temperatures and lower energy consumption year-round (Stazi et al. 2013; Kolaitis, et al. 2013). Specifically, in the study conducted by (Stazi et al. 2013), the effects of insulation layer distribution on a brick cavity wall performance were compared under identical roof, floor and window conditions and under similar occupancy schedules to the intermittent use of the heating and cooling systems expected in a hotel’s guest room zone for the following cases:

1. Unfilled brick cavity wall, as built 2. Added internal insulation, 9cm Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) 3. Cavity insulation, 9cm Polyurethane Foam 4. Added external insulation, 9cm EPS 5. Added ventilated external insulation, 9cm EPS. Air channel closed in winter and

ventilated in summer.

The study concluded (Stazi et al. 2013, p.441) that a considerable thickness of thermal insulation in cavity walls is beneficial for both winter and summer conditions, while the ventilated external insulation scenario proved better performing year-round. Moreover, it outperformed traditional exterior insulation attached to existing walls in terms of avoiding overheating during summertime, while the additional air space of closed vents resulted in lower thermal transmittance in the winter. 6 External insulation outperformed the internal configuration by 8% in total energy requirements (Kolaitis et al. 2013, p. 131).

Figure 9: Internal surface temperatures for uninsulated, externally insulat-ed, and externally insulated ventilated system (Stazi et al. 2013, p. 438).

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The benefits of a dynamically ventilated exterior insulation layer, sealed in wintertime and open in summer are additionally illustrated in a 2014 study on the behavior of traditional envelopes in Mediterranean climates (Stazi et al. 2014). The research team has further developed “...a patented pre - assembled system with air vents made of insulating material...” (Stazi et al. 2014, p.4) that claims to surpass the installation complexity and poor winter thermal performance of the existing technology.

Still, ventilated façades in general need detailed design and skilled execution as any future repairs are difficult and cost-intensive. As (Lemieux and Totten 2010, para. Cavity Wall) point out, possible corrosion of steel members and interior mold growth remain undetected for a period of years before the problem is exposed in a location accessible for repair.

Figure 10: Schematic representation of a ventilated exterior wall insulation (Source: Lemieux and Totten 2010)

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6. Types of insulation material

Moisture tolerance, as indicated in figure 10, and low thermal conductivity are the main properties in the evaluation of insulants placed in ventilated walls. In Mediterranean climates, an average thickness of 15cm7 of traditional insulation materials with thermal conductivities between 0,030 to 0,040W/(mK) suffice to meet the low heat transfer criteria of passive buildings (Bank of Greece 2010, p.307). State-of-the-art products, such as Vacuum Insulated Panels (VIPs) and Aerogels, which could be beneficial in lowering the logistics and technical skill cost of big thickness insulation up to 50cm required in northern climates (Jelle 2011, p.2533), would not offer a distinctive advantage to most of today’s retrofitting projects in Athens.

Among traditional insulation materials, the least thermal conductivity under increasing moisture content is provided by Polyurethane (PUR). Still, its hazardous toxicity when burnt, would not make it the safest choice. The second best choice would be Extruded Polystyrene (XPS) or Expanded Polystyrene (EPS). Both have a low thermal conductivity while offering excellent and good moisture resistances respectively (Jelle 2011, pp. 2551-2552; Al-Homoud 2005, p.362).

In noisy urban sites, the option of Elastic Expanded Polystyrene (EEPS) should also be considered as an alternative. EEPS can improve noise control in solid and cavity walls by a frequency range average of 10dB, in contrast to standard EPS, XPS and PUR rigid boards that may even deteriorate the sound performance when directly fixed to the wall surface (Chené and Baux 2012, p.11; Wetzel and Vogdt 2007, p.44).

7 Indicative insulation thickness in scenarios for minimizing energy demand in Greek buildings as a response to climate change (Bank of Greece 2010).

Figure 11: Typical peak hours in the streets of

Athens. Part of a hotel’s view is shown on the

left.

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7. Windows efficiency

As discussed, it is common for hotels to provide large apertures to offer access to balconies and exterior views. The thermal efficiency and noise control of windows, therefore, should be a priority in achieving an overall high performance of the building fabric. A window U-value between 1,20 and 1,60W/(m2K) would be required in Greece for a high thermal comfort throughout the year without relying on mechanical services (International Passive House Association 2014) and a capacity to reduce 35dB of exterior noise level. If we were to keep the sizes and orientation of the openings unchanged, the upgrading should be guided by the following parameters:

· Selection of a frame with UFrame ≤ 1,60W/(m2K) and a small area factor to decrease heat losses.

· Glazing with Ug ≤ 1,60W/(m2K). Small g-value to reduce the anticipated higher cooling load due to climate change (Bank of Greece 2010, pp. 92-93). High light transmission to enhance quality of views.

· Airtight sealing of the perimeter joints to eliminate installation thermal and sound bridges.

·

7.1 Type of frame Hinged windows should be preferred over sliding ones, as they generally have lower infiltration rates (U.S.DOE 2012a, Energy efficient windows, para. 19) and, therefore, better thermal and sound performance. Aluminum frames with a thermal break or insulated fiberglass frames are maintenance free while providing low U-values (U.S. DOE 2012b, Window types). Narrow, deep profiles could minimize the area factor.

7.2 Glazing

Replacement of existing single pane glazing with double or triple, low-e glazing could result in substantial energy savings. On east, and particularly on west elevations that receive up to 900W/m2 solar radiation in the summer afternoons (see figure 4), triple glazing with a low g-value of approximately 40% should be selected to avoid overheating. On south elevations, where traditional shading solutions are foreseen, heat absorbing glazing could be beneficial depending on site specific conditions. Better sound performance is accomplished by simply selecting panes at different thicknesses with a wider air space between them (Efficient Windows CollaborativeTM 2014, para. Emerging Technologies-Glass; McMullan 2012, p.221).

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Figure 10: Glazing comparison (Source: International Passive House Association 2014)

Vacuum insulated glass, one of today’s lower heat transfer solutions for glazing, could be appropriate for the climate of Athens as diurnal swings are below 35◦C, but the spacers used to stabilize the panes against wind pressure could negatively affect the views from hotel windows (Efficient Windows CollaborativeTM 2014, para. Emerging Technologies-Glass).

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Conclusion

Existing Athenian hotels could be substantially upgraded by adopting the following measures on their fabrics:

1. Add a dynamically ventilated exterior insulation layer of EEPS at an optimum thickness to bring the heat transfer coefficient of existing walls to passive standards and improve their thermal and sound performance.

2. Replace updated windows with energy efficient ones with dual or triple, low-e and low heat transmission, panes at different thicknesses.

Such measures would be an initial step towards carbon efficient facilities that comply with the most rigorous of today’s practices while offering the best possible environments to their guests.

Zero energy balance hotel, Stadhalle, Wien

(Source: https://www.hotelstadthalle.at/city-hotel-vienna)

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Appendices

1 Source: (Farrou et al. 2012, p. 557)

2

Values assigned to the climatic zone of Athens by KENAK (2010). Regulation for energy performance of buildings and technical guidelines of the Technical Chamber of Greece. Uw = 0,60 W/(m2K), max heat transfer coefficient for external walls in contact with outside air. UF = 3,00 W/(m2K), max heat transfer coefficient for windows and exterior doors. Source: (Laskos et al. 2010, pp. 8-9)

3

Improvement and deterioration of the sound insulation of an existing external wall by fitting ETICS (+)=improvement, (-)=deterioration Case study: Single shell construction of existing sound insulation of Rw=54dB

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Appendices

Source: (Wetzel and Vogdt 2007, p. 44)

4

EEPS MW EPS XPS & PUR Concrete 15cm

Source: (Chené and Baux 2012, p.10)

Rendering g<10Kg/m2

Rendering g>10Kg/m2

Bonded PS ETICS -2 dB -1 dB

Bonded PS ETICS with more elastic PS 0 dB +1 dB

Bonded and dowelled PS ETICS -1 dB -2 dB

Bonded and dowelled MF ETICS, MF 50mm -4 dB +4 dB

Bonded and dowelled MF ETICS, MF 100mm -2 dB +2 dB

PS ETICS with rail mounting + 2dB + 2dB

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Appendices

5

Μεταβολές του αριθμού ημερών με ισχυρές ανάγκες για ψύξη μεταξύ

(α) 2021-205 0 και 1961-1990, (β) 2071-2100 και 1961-1990

Documents

Building Fabric 2014 2015_K.Koletsos