ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENTAGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AND EXTENSION GROUP -

SPECIAL REPORT NO. 2

Building a GlobalAgricultural Research System

Proceedings of an ESDAR SeminarSeptember 1996

Edited by

Pamela George

The World BankWashington, D.C.

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Please note that the Appendices are the original and unedited versions.

Contents

Acronyms and Abbreviations iv

1 Introduction 1

2 Summary of Discussions 3

3 Conclusions of the Seminar 5

4 The Ongoing Context 8

Appendices

I A Renewed Call for Agricultural Research 10Background Paper 10Summary of Major Discussion Points 17

II Agricultural Research and Farmers 19Background Paper 19Summary of Major Discussion Points 26

III Towards a Global Agricultural Research System 27Background Paper 27Summary of Major Discussion Points 35

List of Participants 36

iii

Acronyms and Abbreviations

CGIAR Consultative Group on Intema- NARDS National Agriculturaltional Agricultural Research Research and Development

CORAF Conference des Responsables de SystemRecherche Agronomique de NARS National Agricultural Researchl'Afrique de l'Ouest et du Centre System

ESDAR Agricultural Research and Exten- NARSs/S National Agricultural Researchsion Group (in the Environmen- System of the Southtally and Socially Sustainable NARSs/N National Agricultural ResearchDevelopment vice presidency System of the North

of the World Bank) NARI National Agricultural ResearchIARC International Agricultural Institute

Research Center OECD Organization for EconomicNADS National Agricultural Develop- Cooperation and

ment System Development

iv

Introduction

The world's basic objectives of poverty reduction, tural research, and in the process of providingfood security and sustainable natural resource man- and using technological innovations to pro-agement cannot be met unless rural well being in mote and enhance food security, poverty alle-general, and a prosperous private agriculture for viation and the sustainability of the naturalsmall and medium size holders in particular, are resource base. A renewed commitment, newnurtured and improved. Central to improving the partnerships, and open and continuing discus-productivity and profitability of agriculture are im- sions of contentious policy and technical issuesproved technologies, appropriate policies, and sup- will be essential in the process.portive institutions. At the core of technological im- The building of an efficient global agricul-provement is agricultural research. tural research system calls for new partnerships

between all components of the system, but es-Ismail Serageldin pecially between farmers and researchers. This

September 28, 1996 in turn necessitates a fundamental rethinking ofthe institutional arrangements of the entire ag-T n he emergence and nurturing of a global ricultural services subsector. The involvement

agricultural research system requires de- and active participation of multiple stakehold-velopment of a collective ownership of ers outside research, and with different inter-

visions, strategies, and objectives. ESDAR of- ests, makes it very difficult to visualize andfered a vision of such a system, and outlined its clarify the different interfaces in decision mak-own role in facilitating the emergence of the ing and interaction. Giving substance to thesesystem. At the same time, ESDAR recognizes interfaces, however, will help to open a plat-that various groups of participants and stake- form for dialogue and intervention.holders in the system must decide how they It was in this context that ESDAR hosted awill participate, and then develop multiple and two-day seminar in Washington, D.C., onnovel ways of doing so. This will be true both September 27-28, 1996, to promote furtherin making the investments needed for agricul- dialogue aimed at recognizing and bringing

1

Introduction 2

out issues of importance for further discussion * Agricultural Research and Farmers

and action. In attendance were key repre- * Towards a Global Agricultural Research

sentatives of stakeholder groups who have sig- Systemnificant roles to play in the emergence of a The topics were chosen to elicit issues on

global system. which there might be varying and oppositionalThe seminar was structured around three opinions, to promote dialogue on those issues,

topics: and to seek a future direction in resolving such

. A Renewed Call for Agricultural Research issues.

2Summary of Discussions

T he discussions during the three sessions Common Objectivesof the seminar centered around policyissues, technical issues, instruments of In order to give substance to the policy issues,

implementation, and some strategic operations common objectives can be elucidated to provideactivities. a basis by which to address them. For example,

9 to achieve a global research policy, commonPolicy Issues visions, common strategies and the will to

cooperate in partnership are necessary; devel-Four major policy goals were addressed. oping a common vision and strategy thus pro-. An agricultural research policy focusing on vides a framework for developing policy;

the global challenges and needs for balanced * to achieve global oversight, a commonlysocial and economic development, and based agreed agricultural sector knowledge systemon sustainable resource management (in- that is shared among all participants iscluding capacity building as an education needed;policy issue); * to achieve the goal of a global agricultural

. Global oversight of agricultural develop- research system will require formal or informalment which addresses what needs to be bodies for coordination and decision-makingdone, what can be done by agricultural re- and for providing transparency and linkage tosearch and how to organize effective technol- other bodies; andogy production and transfer; * to achieve the necessary support funding

* A global agricultural research structure as policies will require a clear demonstration ofthe platform for interaction and exchange, proven economies of scale and scope in agri-both horizontally and vertically; and cultural research, as well as its efficiency and

* Funding policies which effectively support effectiveness in positive impacts at theglobal agricultural research. farmer level.

3

Summary of Discussions 4

Such common objectives have already been * executive bodies in service functions at all

achieved in some instances through regional levels;fora interactions. These interactions have now * endowments, research foundations, national

led to the formation of an apex body, the Global and regional research funds, incentive fund-

Forum, which seeks to rationalize objectives ing, thematic funding, etc.

from regional organizations into a coherentglobal position. Specific Activities

Instruments of Implementation Activities can take many forms and again mustbe specific for the partners involved and the

The methodologies underlying achievement of comparative advantage of each. They include

the common objectives will be specific for each * strengthening and capacity-building of all

of the policy goals and must be selected accord- partners in the NARS;

ing to the partners involved at each step. They * technology development in priority areas,

include information dissemination, monitoring and

. priority programs (regional plans of action, managing the research continuum, increas-

global plan of action; program development ing the knowledge system;

mechanisms, education and training programs); . promoting partnership; linking data and in-

- multiple research partners operating in a vari- formation; evaluation; inventory of technol-

ety of collaborative modes, specifically NARS ogy developers and programs;in the broadest sense, International Agricul- * developing innovative funding mechanisms;

tural Research Centers (IARCs), Advanced Re- adapting legal frameworks; generating re-

search Institutes (ARIs), networks, etc.; sources; assuring accountability.

3Conclusions of the Seminar

T here is general agreement that strong mine which role each is best placed to fulfill andglobalization forces are at play. These which partnerships will endure.include a true scientific revolution in bi- While attempts to govern globalization

ology which has led to a major involvement of forces have been ruled out, it is equally appar-

private firms, notably powerful multinational ent that a totally "laissez-faire" approach is in-

companies, in the development of biotechnolo- appropriate. It is fraught with the well-knowngies. There is also a growing global awareness limitations associated with market failures.that natural resources need to be better man- Public goods and services will not be ade-

aged if the degradation of soils, water quality quately provided, meaning that poverty alle-

and biodiversity is to be halted or reversed. In viation and natural resource management will

addition, major breakthroughs in information receive inadequate attention. In addition,

technology provide increasing opportunities weaker agricultural research institutions, in-

for much greater research collaboration be- cluding entire national agricultural researchtween institutions, even if they are located on systems in many developing countries, will risk

different continents. Those who are not party to being excluded. Finally, such a hands-off ap-the effects of these forces risk being left behind proach is totally inconsistent with the humani-and missing the tremendous opportunities that tarian goals of many donor agencies, includingthese changes represent. the World Bank. The provision of significant

In the face of these powerful forces, and given financial support to CGIAR centers and to

the general retrenchment of governments and NARS/S by the World Bank and other donorspublic institutions from many areas of tradi- is, in the market analogy, tantamount to ex-tional involvement in agricultural research, any pressing a demand for research, or equivalently

attempt to orchestrate or govern these forces at to funding the supply of research. The decision

a global level may be counter-productive and to fund certain actors and organizations de-possibly fail. Competition among the numer- pends on a vision of their respective roles. It is

ous and varied actors involved should deter- inappropriate to wait for the market to define

5

Conclusions of the Seminar 6

those roles. Thus a vision is required of how consensus has emerged on key aspects of a de-on-going trends and initiatives are shaping the sirable global agricultural research system.

emergence of a global agricultural research sys- Concerted action is now needed to bring abouttem, as well as how it should evolve in order to the necessary changes.effectively and efficiently contribute to poverty The establishment of a Global Forum, whichalleviation, food security and environmental may alternatively be seen as the general assem-protection. Such a system vision provides op- bly of a new Global Partnership, or of a Globalportunities for strategic interventions where, Alliance, has been reinforced at this seminarclearly, neither a hands-off approach nor a top- and seems indispensable. This Forum would bedown global approach to governing such a sys- expected to forge, very explicitly, the necessarytem is appropriate. global consensus. In that process, codes of con-

The institutional model of the CGIAR pro- duct on the desirable behavior of each actor andvides a useful reference with which to work. on their relationships need to be elaborated and

The consultative process leads to a high degree legitimized. Such codes might cover:of consensus, which guides funding decisions * the desirable features of the many partner-and provides global coherence to a system ships needed to establish a workablemade up of 16 independent centers and more system for agricultural research at the na-than 50 donors. Each center has a unique iden- tional level;tity, specific objectives and particular con- * the relationships between NARSs/S andstraints. A broadly shared vision of the role of CGIAR;international agricultural research provides the * the disciplines to be respected by OECDbasis for the consensus. country research institutions in their rela-

Similar features have emerged in recent tionships with NARSs/S; andyears, and even months, for the global agricul- * best practices in the relationships betweentural research system. They include the critical public research institutions and the privaterole of agricultural research for a more equita- sector.ble and sustainable development, as well as the In addition, the Global Forum would be wellneed for agricultural research to pursue a broad placed to receive reports on agricultural re-agenda in order to fulfill that role. The consen- search impact and on necessary reactions ofsus also recognizes that NARSs must be the various research actors to improve impact.cornerstones of the global effort. The need to Finally, a Global Forum would contribute to afind effective ways to engage civil societies, consensus on research priorities and on the fund-particularly through NGOs, and the private ing mechanisms capable of enhancing the desir-sector in that effort have been explicitly empha- able partnerships and of providing financialsized and have been further reinforced through support of higher priority research activities.the current seminar discussions. In addition, The terms of reference of the Global Forum,the broadening of the partnerships with the its organization and its protocols will be mostCGIAR centers and the catalytic role which the-y critical. It is clear that NARSs representativescan play has been stressed. should be selected on the basis of the regional

The need for NARS to organize themselves at organization process which has been takingthe regional and subregional levels has been place in recent years. The CGIAR could be rep-widely recognized and the recent achievements resented in a number of ways. The form ofin doing so have received broad legitimacy. representation of OECD research institutions isSimilarly, the role of farmers and farmer or- less clear and might depend on the breadth ofganizations as critical partners in the global the agricultural research focus of the Forum. Itsresearch effort has received increasing atten- terms of reference should cover the estab-tion and is considered essential to its success, a lishment of recommended codes of conduct, thepoint which was stressed repeatedly in this assessment of research impact, and the identifi-seminar. Thus, it is reasonable to assert that a cation of gaps in the global research efforts.

Conclusions of the Seminar 7

Thus, it will need to commission and launch In summary, the expectations of a Globalindependent assessment and studies. Forum reflect very well the major policy

In addition, it is expected that a Global Forum goals which have been discussed and debated atwould facilitate the launching of new funding this seminar. The Global Forum presents a fur-mechanisms, or at least ensure a greater degree ther opportunity to develop the common objec-of coherence among funding agencies' deci- tives, the mechanisms of implementation, andsions, in support of the partnerships to be even some of the specific activities which arestrengthened or newly created. In some in- needed to realize a truly cohesive global agri-

stances, global programs geared to specific ob- cultural research system focused on the need tojectives may be effective means to mobilize the alleviate poverty, and protect our natural re-necessary resources and promote the appropri- sources, and assure a safe and secure food sup-ate partnerships. ply for the world's growing population.

4The Ongoing Context

S ince the ESDAR Seminar in 1996, signifi- The Steering Committee took up this challeng-cant events have occurred to further the ing mandate at its first meeting in Cairo on theestablishmentoftheGlobalForumonAg- occasion of the Mid-Term Meeting of the

ricultural Research. The inaugural meeting of CGIAR. Besides reaffirming its membership,the Global Forum occurred at the CGIAR's In- which includes representatives of all the re-ternational Center's Week in Washington, D. C. gional fora, advanced research institutes,in October of 1996. The primary objective of the NGOs, farmers' organizations, IARCs, privateForum is to develop and enhance partnerships sector and donors, the Committee also agreedamong stakeholders in the emerging global ag- on an initial set of activities and projects. Thesericultural research system. Toward that goal, activities are directed towards key elements ofthe result of the first meeting was a Global the Plan of Action and includeForum Declaration and Plan of Action. The * enhancement of exchange of information;group of participants also decided to establish * establishing a platform for discussion ofa Global Forum Steering Committee with the globally pertinent agricultural research is-mandate to translate the Plan of Action into a sues, including the establishment of an elec-program of activities. In implementing the Plan tronic forum;of Action, the Steering Committee is tasked * monitoring research partnerships and ana-with lyzing successful partnerships;* promoting a global framework for agricul- * supporting NARS, subregional and regional

tural research; fora to strengthen institutions and build ca-* fostering research partnership and collabo- pacity; and

ration; * continuing to work towards identifying col-* contributing to the strengthening of the laborative projects.

NARS and regional/subregional fora; and The Global Forum Steering Committee empha-* encouraging the identification of collabora- sized the importance of establishing and main-

tive projects through suitable mechanisms taining a secretariat which will serve as theincluding regional/subregional fora. primary mechanism for implementing its work

8

The Ongoing Context 9

program and providing continuity to the a global agricultural research system are en-Committee and its activities. ESDAR was tirely compatible and supportive of the man-chosen to provide that function and is very date of the Global Forum on Agricultural Re-pleased to be able to do so. The goals of ESDAR search. The partnership will be beneficial toin promoting and facilitating the emergence of both.

APPENDIX I

A Renewed Callfor Agricultural Research

A. BACKGROUND PAPER of equipment are fostering a redistribution ofpersonnel that in a great many cases are too

Agricultural Research: fragmented to be truly productive.Toward a New Set of Roles This trend toward redistribution of roles

clearly evident in the scientifically advancedhe commonly accepted image of agricul- countries, is undoubtedly even more justified intural research has changed over the past the scientifically less well-endowed countries.

_ decade. The crisis of agricultural re- Moreover, a more flexible management of thesesearch institutions, all too easily blamed on the scientific skills would not pose major problems.difficulty of sustaining public financing but due Redeploying the available human resources ismainly to a reassessment of traditional institu- perfectly feasible using new financing mecha-tional frontiers, is indeed fostering rapid nisms. This approach to research managementchanges. is both effective and easy to implement. It re-

In response to the increasing "globalization" mains a limited approach, however, in that ul-of scientific research and to the growing diver- timately it does not lead to the reorganizationsification of development support services in of the agricultural research system, a systemevery country, agricultural research needs to that requires lasting structures and relation-redefine its true "identity." The agricultural re- ships.search establishment has traditionally been This contradiction between the need for mo-equated to a series of scientific skills or, in the bility of human skills and the necessary dura-best of cases, to the complex formed by the bility of institutions lies at the heart of thegrouping together of these skills within a given problem of rebuilding and managing agricul-institution. Today, the development of commu- tural research in the next few years. The distinc-nication facilities, the need to attain a critical tion, while it may appear artificial in somemass in each scientific discipline, the scarcity of respects, is an invaluable tool in seeking to re-top-quality human resources, and the high cost define the identity of the agricultural research

10

A Renewed Call for Agricultural Research 11

institutions and the specific roles they are called The economic concern that hitherto domi-on to play within emerging "national agricul- nated agricultural development thinking todaytural research systems" (NARSs). shares the stage with two other major concerns,

Before discussing the basic principles that are one ecological and the other social. Each ofto guide us in reorganizing agricultural re- these three concerns is reflected in objectivessearch, we need to assess the new demands expressed at both the micro level, i.e. the pro-made by society on agriculture and hence on duction unit, and the macro level, i.e. nationalagricultural research. communities.

This paper will focus on three issues crucialto the design of a new policy: 1.1 The economic concern: food supply* the new concerns expressed by local, na-

tional and international communities with For researchers, this concern is reflected con-respect to the development of agriculture, cretely in the search for new techniques andand the demands addressed by them to agri- practices that can boost the yields of the maincultural research; crops and livestock products. This is consistent:

* the tailoring of the research establishment to * At the micro level, with the farmer's desirethe specific characteristics of agriculture in a to raise production volume, notably throughgiven country, and the construction of better increased yields, a necessary condition forinterfaces between research and farmers; rising income at the farmer's level.

- the management of dispersed scientific skills * At the macro level, with the community'sand their mobilization through the promo- desire to raise national production, i.e. to en-tion of new, stronger, more diversified part- sure food security, and/or to reduce the costnerships. of food and/or promote export development.

1. AN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH 1.2 The ecological concern: conservationRESPONSIBLE TO NEW NEEDS of the environment

The characteristics of any agriculture reflect the For researchers, this concern leads to the searcheconomic, ecological and social conditions of a for new techniques and practices that can en-territory and of the society that inhabits it. In sure renewal of the natural resources utilized intime, as these conditions evolve, agriculture agricultural production. These permit:changes with them. This response is in part * At the micro level, the rational managementpassive (reacting to changes in the environ- of natural resources, particularly the produc-ment) and in part voluntary (policy changes). tion factors, soil fertility and water quality.

Support for agricultural research reflects the a At the macro level, the compatibility, as partauthorities desire to foster the evolution of ag- of land-use and development policy, be-riculture in the direction they deem appropri- tween agricultural production and naturalate. The ultimate function of agricultural resources conservation.research is to identify feasible new techniquesand practices-innovative solutions-and pro- 1.3 The social concern: combating socialpose them to the farmers and thereby help pro- exclusion and povertymote the innovation process. This task ofidentifying and elaborating innovative prac- For researchers, this concern leads to the searchtices is guided by an agenda which usually for new techniques and practices that can fosterremains implicit but is sometimes spelled out. greater labor absorption and wider distributionIn the latter case the agenda reflects society's of income:concerns with respect to the future of agricul- * At the micro level, by the creation of newture and seeks to define the researchers' man- economic activities through which labor canH ate in clear and precise terms. be incorporated into the farming operation.

A Renewed Call for Agricultural Research 12

At the macro level, by the alleviation of un- cultural situations. This thinking focuses on theemployment and social exclusion, i.e. by cre- one hand on the farm and its evolutionary pathating economic activities both within and, and on the other on the farmer and his or herabove all, outside farming. technical development path.

Thus, it is necessary to promote the transition In the final analysis, agricultural researchfrom an agricultural research system whose must strive to develop solutions able to fit intoagenda reflected a single, simple and clear ob- a farmer's technical program and dovetail intojective (the pursuit of higher yields) to one a plausible path of development of his or herwhose agenda is tailored to three sets of objec- farm. For research to be able to perform thistives that moreover reflect concerns expressed task of developing solutions efficiently, it needsat both the micro and macro ends of the scale, to take account of the diversity of existing typesi.e. by the farmer and by national communities. both of farms and of farmers.This transition from a single- to a three-pointbasic agenda would be a complex process 2.1 The core components of a given agricul-if these objectives were substantially incom- tural situation: the farmer and the farmpatible; such a transition would even be im-practicable if the objectives were mutually It is ultimately the farmer, on the farm, thatcontradictory. In the agricultural modern- makes decisions regarding agricultural produc-ization process that prevailed over the last few tion and natural resources management. Thesedecades and provided the basis for the agricul- decisions determine the amount of labor incor-tural research agenda, the ecological and social porated and the type of income distributionconcerns were not often taken into account as which ensues. It is also the farmer who decidesobjectives but at best only as constraints. Some whether or not these results will be altered byindeed assert that while the innovative prac- incorporating new practices into the produc-tices recommended by research have for the tion system.most part generated increases in yields and Indeed, smallholder, family farms are wide-more generally in production, they have also, in spread even if other forms of farming undoubt-some situations, triggered large-scale social ex- edly exist: more community-based traditionalclusion of agricultural workers and degrada- undertaking, as well as state-run or corporatetion of natural resources. farms. But these are or remain marginal, even if

The new awareness of the world community in some cases they have to be dealt with forconcerning such issues as environmental con- what they are.servation and alleviation of the problem of so-cial exclusion entails a greater urgency and a The farm and its evolutionary pathnew vision for agricultural development. Re-searchers are beginning to pay attention to these In the great majority of cases farming produc-concerns and this is changing the face of agricul- tion, natural resources management, labor in-tural research. More systematic focus on these corporation and income distribution are doneconcerns could well spark a radical revolution or determined on the farm. A farm can be ana-in the global agricultural research system. lyzed as a system, corresponding to an elemen-

tary unit of a cultivated ecosystem. We desig-2. ADJUSTING TO THE SPECIFICITIES nate such a system by the term agrosystem.

OF AGRICULTURAL SITUATIONSSound manavement of a farm consists in reconciling

In focusing our thinking on the interface between two objectives: goods production. and renewal of thethe production of knowledge and the specifics of factors of production:agricultural situations we are led from the outsetto reflect on the nature of those specifics and the The management of a farm is concerned with both"laws" that govern the transformation of agri- the production of goods and the regeneration of

A Renewed Callfor Agricultural Research 13

production factors. The two functions, production biological practices, which could result, for ex-and renewal, are equally important. The "profes- ample, in accelerated atmospheric nitrogension" of farmer lies as much in the farmer's ability fixation by plants, could be a key factor in theto manage a stock of capital, for example biologi- historical trend toward higher-density farming.cal capital, over the long-term as in his or her In other ecosystems, agricultural history hascapacity to extract an income from this capital year followed other paths. Delta farmers depend onafter year. Two of our initial concerns (food sup- flood and alluvium management; the succes-ply and environmental conservation) are hence sion of delta-farming practices traces the agri-echoed in the strategy of every farmer, who natu- cultural history of the regions concerned. Otherrally seeks to reconcile the twin goals of the farm's sequences have unfolded in other places, forprofitability and its sustainability. instance in dry areas where only pastoralism is

At the farm level, it is important to under- possible, in areas where irrigation is feasible orstand and elucidate the livestock and crop pro- in mountain areas. In every ecosystem whereduction mechanisms and the natural resources agriculture is present, the evolution of pro-conservation and renewal mechanisms in- duction mechanisms has only been made pos-volved. These constitute the very core of a farm- sible by the evolution of the mechanismsing activity. The goods production mechanisms which ensure the conservation and renewal ofare generally well known or are, at least, taken soil fertility.into consideration more fully than the naturalresources replenishment mechanisms. It is by There are however many cases in which goods produc-analyzing these mechanisms that we can come tion and natural resources renewal are conflicting:to understand the dynamics and constraints ofthe process of boosting farm's production po- Under certain conditions a farmer will have notential. It is therefore in light of these produc- interest in, or will be incapable of, pursuing thetion and renewal mechanisms, more than of two objectives: production and renewal simulta-purely descriptive factors, that farm typologies neously. This is true for example when the farm'swill be constructed. sustainability is jeopardized by external condi-

Because of their special importance, research tions (especially precarious land tenure); theneeds to take soil fertility conservation mecha- farmer will then prefer realizing an immediatenisms into account clearly in seeking to develop income over renewing a capital the use of whichinnovative solutions. Every proposed new he or she might well lose.practice must be assessed by reference not only It is also the case that when capacity is inade-to its direct impact on production but also to the quate to achieve the necessary minimum pro-changes it induces in the dynamics of soil fertil- duction, the farmer cannot afford the necessaryity. Regeneration of fertility, whether at a low- inputs or they are unobtainable; the farmer isered, unchanged or increased level, can be then constrained to favor the production ofbrought about by biological practices used in goods over replenishment of his or her capital.situ, by the organization of on-farm or of inter-farm fertility transfers, and finally by external Research at the service of sound farm management takescontributions, essentially in the form of chemi- account of both objectives: goods production and re-cal fertilizers. sources replenishment:

In the example of the temperate regionplains, the individual stages in agricultural his- Improving goods production mechanisms im-tory correspond closely to the implementation plies first of all action targeted to a plant or ani-of new fertility regeneration pracfices: burning mal's genetic potential. The farmer will be able toof new forest growth, tilling of fallow land, realize this potential to a greater or lesser degreefarming/herding combinations, introduction by upgrading the farm environment, more or less,of leguminous fodder, and finally the use of through external inputs and protecting the cropschemical fertilizers. The development of new against pests.

A Renewed Call for Agricultural Research 14

Improving natural resources conservation Any measure affecting the rebalance among

and renewal mechanisms calls first of all for factors, such as an increase in the ratio of laboraction addressed to the productive potential of to capital or in the ratio of biological factors tothe environment. Once the environment has be- chemical and mechanical factors, modifies thecome more productive, the farmer will be able technical system.to reduce the amount of external inputs used. Special attention needs to be given to the

Advances in goods production and natural trend of the labor/capital ratio. Where under-resources renewal must go hand in hand. Re- employment is endemic and, as a logical conse-

search must therefore strive to propose solu- quence, when the use of labor becomestions that can at the same time raise the profitable once the caloric income from labor isproductive potential of the plants or animals at least equal to its caloric cost, research mustconcerned and that of the environment. focus on techniques with high labor/capital ra-

An innovative practice must hence be rated tios. In practice, there are limits on the develop-by reference to its impact on both processes: ment of this ratio: beyond a given threshold,agricultural production and resource conserva- specific to each individual situation, a farmertion. Care must be taken to ensure that a solu- will judge that investing labor in farm improve-tion designed to boost production does not ments or goods production does not offer andisrupt the natural resources renewal mecha- adequate return and will abstain from devotingnisms. For example, in altering the utilization additional effort to it. Labor investment is then

of new grass or forest growth or harvest bypro- not considered to be remunerative, while capi-ducts or changing herding methods, a new tech- tal investment may continue to be so. The resultnique can interrupt the soil fertility restoration is to establish a new balance between capitalcycle. Similarly, by triggering salt build-up in and labor, and with it a new technical system.irrigation water, a given technique can make A new technology has to be seen as an oppor-water quality regeneration impossible. tunity seized by the producer to progress fur-

Before seeking to disseminate a new technol- ther along the chosen development path. To beogy, researchers must assess its limits of valid- adopted, it has to become a component of his ority and the conditions of its sustainable use. her strategy.

The producer and the technical 2.2 Building "research/farmers' reality"development path interfaces

Ultimately, it is the farmer who decides whether Recognition of the diversity of both farms andor not to adopt new technologies. The decision is farmers, and a readiness to take this diversity intobased on specific short-, medium- and long-term account in research work, has major implicationsneeds, interests and capabilities, especially finan- for the development of agricultural research sys-

cial capabilities. The farmer assesses the impact of tems. They range from fully taking into accountthe new technology on the system's production the diversity of types of agrosystems and of farm-and conservation mechanisms, and finally weighs ers, to redefining the agricultural research system.the risks inherent in any change and decideswhether it is a reasonable one under the circum- Factoring in the diversity of farmnstances. and farmer types

By changing the amounts of labor or capitalused, a farmer seeks to upgrade the farm's en- In seeking to devise new technologies, researchvironment (regrading of certain fields, water must be conducted in close contact with the spe-control through irrigation or drainage works, cifics of a given agricultural situation or, better, infertility enhancement through soil tilling, and the real envirorunent, i.e. in compliance with theso on) and/or to boost its production (purchase "laws" that govern the functioning of farms, andof chemical or mechanical inputs). within the farmers' decision parameters. Unfortu-

A Renewed Callfor Agricultural Research 15

nately, there are innumerable types of both farm- technologies. For researchers, the producerers and farms, and it is of course out of the ques- groups or networks that can be developed fromtion to ask research to perform "a la carte" tasks these analyses constitute partner groups withtailored to each individual farm or farmer. The which it will be fruitful to conduct experimentsdevelopment of farm and farmer typologies is and, in due course, action to disseminate re-hence a key factor in the organization of agricul- search results.tural research. The classification criteria must begeared to the research tasks to be undertaken. Redefining the agricultural research systemThey also need to be few in number, with theobject of identifying a few broad types and not an The boundaries of national agricultural researchunmanageable multitude of categories. institutions are today being redefined, often both

Establishing farm typologies can involve geo- as part of and as a consequence of, decentraliza-graphic factors, mainly those related to climate tion and privatization processes. These processesand relief, economic factors, mainly market ac- can result from deliberate central government pol-cess, or technological factors, notably water con- icy or from a rebalancing of forces between cen-trol. But the essential feature of the process is tral, regional and local authorities or between thethe construction of farm types characterized by public and the private sectors. Their origin canthe two sets of mechanisms identified in the often be traced to impoverishment of the state andprevious section: agricultural production and to financial crises in public institutions. A sche-resource conservation. Because the purpose is matic representation of the actual agriculturalto define a type, simplified models of these situation, in terms of agrosystem and farmer cate-mechanisms, capturing their characteristics gories, can furnish a valuable frame of referencedeemed as essential, must somehow be elabo- to guide these decentralization and privatizationrated. Because of the numerous interrelation- processes when they affect research institutions.ships involved the word "agrosystem" is A decentralization process will be effective if,suggested to designate such a modelized farm beyond the administrative approach based ontype. By way of example, the typology adopted existing political entities, it produces agro-by CORAF for Western and Central Africa iden- nomically homogenous groupings. Researchtified nine broad farm types, i.e. nine major institutions can thus build stable interfaceagrosystems, seven of them based on climatic arrangements to interact with groups of farm-factors, one on an economic factor (urban fringe ers facing similar problems. These arrange-agrosystem) and one on a technological factor ments can be diverse, depending on local(irrigated agrosystem). This initial simplicity circumstances. They should however mostmust not, however, disguise the great diversity often include facilities for the conduct of experi-of existing agrosystems. Each of the major cate- ments on farmers' fields. Such linkages are in-gories can be infinitely subdivided by increas- deed the "raison d'etre" of agricultural researching the number of classification criteria. The institutions.need to establish such subcategories depends Privatization can be used to identify eco-on the type of research to be undertaken. For nomic participants having similar economicthe purposes of restructuring a necessarily interests. Such groups should be interesteddurable research system, however, we will partners for agricultural research institutions;need to stick to a relatively small number of and building these partnerships could be abroad categories. part of, or be facilitated by, the process of pri-

Establishing farmer typologies can involve vatization.economic, social and cultural factors that help to For agricultural research institutions thecharacterize farmers' strategies. Here again, we partnerships with farmers groups facing simi-are speaking of broad typologies developed for lar circumstances and with economic partici-the purpose of identifying major behavior pat- pants having similar interests are more criticalterns in connection with the question of new than ever. Thus these research institutions must

A Renewed Call for Agricultural Research 16

assign to the corresponding arrangements a discipline-based rationale. The necessity to realigncentral place in their organization. discipline boundaries in step with advances in

research does not, any more than the need to set3. MANAGING SCIENTIFIC SKILLS IN up inter-discipline bridges, cast doubt on the

THE CONTEXT OF A NATIONAL original rationale of the university model. Separa-AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SYSTEM tion of the research and higher education func-

tions, justified by the fact that the first three or fourTo be able to generate scientific knowledge, an years of higher education comprise merely a dis-agricultural research institution needs to be guised prolongation of secondary education,able to recruit research staff. Some of this re- ceases to be significant once the students embarksearch staff must be fully invested in building on research work. In poor countries, the institu-and energizing the interface mechanisms just tional separation of research and higher educationdiscussed above. These researchers will gener- creates overlap and waste; it prevents both re-ally have come from the social sciences and be search and educational institutions from manag-used to analyzing complex systems. They rep- ing their human resources efficiently.resent research institutions in the commodity- The formal establishment of a national sys-or subsector-based partnerships with economic tem can provide an opportunity for universitiesactors or agrosystem-based partnerships with and the national research institute to rediscoverproducers' organizations. The majority of the their respective identities and their comple-research staff will, however, be skilled in a sin- mentarities. Schematically, it must be the re-gle discipline. Whatever projects they are in- sponsibility of the "university" pole to buildvolved in, these researchers will need to update and manage scientific knowledge and the re-their skills. lated human resources and that of the "agricul-

Human resource management is hence not an tural research" pole to build and manage theeasy task, since all national agricultural re- interfaces with agriculture.search institutions must gain an understanding This approach does not necessarily implyof the specifics of given agricultural situations staff transfers and changes in formal conditionsand create a mechanism through which to inter- of service, which always pose difficulties. Eachface with them. The bulk of the human re- institution can little by little find its propersources required to perform the research work place in the national system, as indeed can eachcomprises traditionally discipline- or faculty- research worker, provided that adequate gov-based scientific skills. This poses the risk that ernance and financing mechanisms, supportingagricultural research institutions will find energizing and "structuring" research pro-themselves torn between their linkages with grams, are put in place. Under discipline-agriculture and their linkages with science, driven structurizing programs, for example,each of these requiring a different professional durable partnerships between scientific andmindset. university personnel can be set up using appro-

priate incentive mechanisms. These programs3.1 Sustainable human resources management can encompass broad scientific areas-biology,

chemistry, geography, economics, mathe-The processes of generating research findings and, matics/data processing, and the associatedmore generally, scientific knowledge, and of hu- technological tools, biotechnology/genetic en-man resources training, are organized on the basis gineering, remote sensing/GIS, IST. They willof discipline-specific rationales. The model used generally cover more sharply defined scientificto accomplish this-a model that has dominated areas. Linkages can be established betweensince the Middle Ages and still dominates today postgraduate education and these programs asin most countries-is the university model, which well as information exchange networks andlinks research with higher education and defines evaluation procedures. The scientific linkage ofspecialized research skills in accordance with a the researchers to such programs, and the pro-

A Renewed Callfor Agricultural Research 17

grams' durability, which depends inter alia on thing of the past. Agricultural research needs tothe establishment of an institutionalized be open to new partnerships. Upstream, it mustnational system, should permit a new approach dovetail with the emerging and already inte-to programs of training, information and grating "parent" scientific systems, nationalevaluation of the human resources involved systems, regional cooperation and the globalin discipline-driven research projects. system. Downstream, it must dovetail with the

However, for mechanisms of this kind to im- actors in the areas of both production and natu-pose a new set of rules, the "national system" ral resources management. Here also, new part-rationale must first succeed in winning out over nerships are emerging, based on economic sub-the traditional institutional rationale, and lead sectors or agrosystem families. This dualto a new national division of scientific labor. We openness is leading agricultural research to re-have seen earlier the critical role that a national position itself and even to redefine itself.agricultural research institute must play in this Instead of seeking to delineate a new stand-new system. ard institutional profile, it is preferable to study

cooperative arrangements between agricultural3.2 Increased mobility of researchers research and its upstream and downstream

and of research activities partners. The setting up on the one hand of anational agricultural research system (NARS)

Stability in human resource management (a pre- and on the other of a national agricultural de-condition of continuity in research) and the neces- velopment system (NADS), both provided withsity for discipline-based refresher training of a respect-worthy governance structure, incen-researchers (a prerequisite of scientific production) tive instruments and partner-based programs,in no way signify the setting up of a system that should create a new environment within whichencourages researchers to withdraw comfortably agricultural research can progressively evolveinto academic environments. Thus, together with and find a new stance and a new function.the assurances given with respect to further train- While this evolution can be suggested in termsing, if not to conditions of services, the research of general principles, the new agricultural re-institutions must be provided with incentives and search profiles will emerge case by case in re-energizing mechanisms enabling them to mobilize sponse to the combined impact of specificresearch staff, of whatever origin, toward priority partnerships.activities and to build new partnerships. National systems are emerging in Latin

More important for agricultural research America, Asia, the Mediterranean area andthan the management of scientific staff is that it Sub-Saharan Africa, and cooperation betweenbe able to build and energize the research sys- their component institutions is developing rap-tems and possess mechanisms and resources idly. This development varies in tempo andthat enable it to mobilize scientific skills at the sometimes also in direction. The reflection con-national, or even the regional and international, cerning the emergence of a global agriculturallevels. These mechanisms and resources, too, research system must take due account of thismust be durable, since research activities re- diversity. It will thus provide an opportunity toquire a minimum of continuity. interpret that diversity and, on that basis, to

build a new coherence.3.3 Agricultural research between the national

agricultural research system (NARS) and B. SUMMARY OF MAJOR DISCUSSION POINTSthe national agricultural developmentsystem (NADS) The opening presentation stressed the new

challenges for research in addressing: food se-The typical image of a national agricultural re- curity, poverty reduction, and natural re-search institute (NARI), inward-looking and sources management; the holistic evolution ofaddressing its own exclusive objectives, is a the farm unit as the basis of agricultural sys-

A Renewed Call for Agricultural Research 18

tems; and the need for new mechanisms to ogy for less favored areas important for eq-

bring researchers together to solve problems. uity concerns;

Wide ranging discussions led to general con- * technological innovation as an important in-

sensus on the need for research to balance: put, but public policy and rural investment

. reductions in funding for research, but in- decisions that also have major roles in ad-

creased need for research to provide input to dressing global issues;

meeting global challenges of hunger, pov- * national agricultural research systems

erty, and the environment; (NARS) that must become national agricul-

. opportunities for farmers to share research tural research and development systems

costs and the private sector to play a larger (NARDS) to ensure their relevance and im-

role, but a remaining need to support public pact;

goods research; * farmers and the farm unit with its defining

. technology development for more favored social and community characteristics must

areas for world market needs, but technol- be the basis of systemic research efforts.

APPENDIX II

Agricultural Research and Farmers

A. BACKGROUND PAPER technology-based solutions, intended originallyto support the supply of those solutions and later

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH to support the corresponding demand, are now

AND THE FARMERS tending more and more to promote interactionbetween the sources of supply and those of de-

Research is not an isolated phenomenon. Oper- mand.ating in partnership with the farming sector,research plays a part in the development of 1.1 Limitations of a policy supporting the

agrosystems by offering solutions designed to supply of technological innovations

make them more productive, more sustainable,and more profitable. Agrosystems evolve For many years, technological innovation was re-

through the incorporation of new techniques garded as the outcome of a policy focusing on

and technologies, of which some are the result supply. Within this context, it was the task of the

of a dialogue carried on, either directly or researchers to design and develop technical solu-

through mediators, between the farmers and tions, that of the extension workers to transfer

those engaged in agricultural research. them to the farmers, and that of the farmers toincorporate them into their production systems.

1 - Policies in support of However, this approach to agricultural develop-technological innovation ment based on the adoption of a "technological

or package," while proving effective in certain con-How to organize a meeting between texts, is in fact subject to many limitations.

the supply of technical solutions The most serious of these limitations is natu-and the demand for them? rally the contradiction between the "ready to

wear" nature of this kind of supply, and the

Over the past few years, the approach to techno- extreme diversity of productive activities, re-

logical innovation has undergone a radical flecting the infinite variety of natural environ-

change. Policies relative to the introduction of ments and of those who farm them. There is

19

Agricultural Research and Farmers 20

little chance of a meeting between a stand- possible to tailor the proposed technologies moreardized and centralized supply and a diversi- closely to the farmers' ownership capacities, and,fied and decentralized demand. An analysis of above all, to ensure explicit involvement by thethe evolution of agrosystems, particularly of farmers in the processes of modernizing theirthose existing in tropical countries, reveals that agrosystems.in general the introduction of new technologies But this approach is subject to other limita-and techniques responds to processes that are tions. The most serious is undoubtedly the un-much more complex and much more interactive even capacity of the different categories ofthan might be assumed from this linear, top- farmer to express their demands or, at least, todown approach. assert their own special interests. In situations

Another limitation of this supply-driven ap- where the rural environment is highly diversi-proach is the failure to acknowledge the crea- fied, if not seriously polarized, where certaintivity of the farmers themselves and of the categories of farmer own the bulk of the pro-representative nature of their organizations. duction facilities and are highly organized,Over the past 20 years in Latin America and in while others remain widely scattered, andAsia, and more recently in Africa, the most where those privileged classes can afford tostriking development that has taken place in the finance technical advisory services and some-agricultural sector is very probably the affirma- times even agricultural research, there is con-tion of farmers as partners, and often even as siderable danger that the needed research andleaders in the processes of agricultural develop- technical advice will simply focus on the prob-ment and technical innovation. This trend is lems of that privileged minority and leavemanifested by the emergence of repre- the majority of farmers without any targetedsentative farmer organizations capable of en- support.gaging in a genuine dialogue with the technical As the approach to technological innovationinstitutions. shifts toward a demand-driven policy, it is

Thus, at a timc when governments are pull- therefore important to ensure that the demanding out of the productive sector, certain func- of the different farmer categories can be ex-tions traditionally performed by the public pressed and that appropriate and diversifiedauthorities can be transferred to the farmer or- responses are effectively sought and offered byganizations. A case in point is the agricultural the public authorities.extension service, which is going to have to Another danger of the demand-driven ap-work out an arrangement with the farmer or- proach is that expressed needs are often stereo-ganizations, or even become a privately oper- typed, referring to various modes or to symbolsated activity. Such a development is not of modernity without any real reference to thewithout risk: if the farmers or the private sector often very profound crisis affecting a givendo not take over, the technical advisory func- agrosystem. In such cases, it is likely that thetion is likely to fall apart, leaving the farmers analysis phase will be completely short-cir-without support and the researchers without cuited and catch-all solutions proposed rightpartners. from the start. Research then becomes nothing

more than a distributor of solutions rather than1.2 Affirmation of a policy supporting a provider of critical analyses of diverse situ-

the demand for technological innovation ations. This shift in the approach to policy in thearea of technological innovations thus runs the

Thus many experts in technological innovation risk of focusing on the instrumental side ofprocesses have come around to putting farmer agricultural research and isolating those whosedemand first. For instance, projects geared to task it is to deepen the understanding of thefarmer demand (a demand that sometimes has true realities of the agricultural sector.first to be kindled by the promoters) have multi- In addition to the farmers, its principal cus-plied. Through such projects it has generally been tomers, agricultural research is also the partner

Agricultural Research and Farmers 21

of private industrial enterprises working up- searchers, technical advisers, and the farmer

stream or downstream of agricultural produc- organizations can be established. For thistion. Such enterprises sometimes maintain their type of dialogue to be fruitful, account mustown research unit. Most frequently, however, be taken of the constraints affecting the differ-they bring their specific problems to the public ent types of agrosystem and the concerns ofresearch institutions, sign contracts with them, the different categories of farmer. Where theand provide the financing, generally at mar- introduction of new techniques is concerned,ginal cost, of the work they wish to have the quality of the interaction between supplyperformed. and demand depends to a large extent on the

specific nature of the questions asked and re-1.3 Search for interaction between supply sponses given.

and demand in the area of technologicalinnovation (b) Research and development in the area

of technology-based solutionsWhere the introduction of new technical solutionsis concerned, experience has shown that, rather Once the main farm categories have been identi-than simply promoting demand, or, worse, sim- fied and the development path of each categoryply promoting supply, it is more productive to has been observed or visualized, it becomes pos-promote interactionbetween demand and supply, sible to work on innovative techniques that arebetween farmers and researchers. This interaction capable of promoting the sustainability, produc-takes place at two levels with overlapping impli- tivity, and profitability of the farms. A true policycations, namely that at which the realities of farm- of innovation requires a systematic effort by theing, of the crises faced by the farmers, and of their research institutions to internalize the realities ofpotential for development are properly under- farming and the demands of the farmers. Re-stood, and that at which new techniques, designed searchers need to make an effort to translate theirto fit into plausible development paths, are pro- findings into proposals for new techniques incor-posed. A new technology cannot be isolated from porating the most recent advances of which thethe context into which it is to be incorporated, and farmers will be capable of claiming immediatethat context, for the specific purpose of this study, ownership.is essentially that of the farm itself. To accomplish this, the researchers need to

work toward the establishment in the real envi-(a) Frameworkfor the design and discussion ronment, i.e. within the framework of farms or

of technology-based solutions pastoral units, of experiments that they canmonitor along with the farmers. Such experi-

Every farm is an individual entity. The fact of this mental networks should, if possible, bediversity has to be explicitly acknowledged by constructed in liaison with the farmer organiza-agricultural research, but since a single research tions, with are gradually acquiring the technicalsystem cannot handle the huge number of individ- capabilities they need to enable them to dia-ual cases, it needs to determine the principal types logue with the researchers and help dissemi-of farming operation and allocate the farms to the nate the latter's findings.corresponding categories. It must establish thetypology of the principal agrosystems so that it 2 - Developments in the sharingcan work in relation to situations that are more or of responsibilities among the principalless similar, seek responses suited to problems stakeholders in the process ofspecific to each category, and ensure that no major technological innovationcategory of farm or farmer is overlooked.

Once the different types, which correspond The transition from a linear to an interactive ap-partially to different regional situations, have proach to technological innovation is dependentbeen identified, a true dialogue between re- on convergent evolutionary processes at the levels

Agricultural Research and Farmers 22

of research, the agricultural advisory services, and subsequently updating, regional diagnostic

the farmer organizations. And, beyond the indi- surveys.

vidual development of each of the partners, theneed to construct functions and tools common to (b) Function: "Development of new technology-

them all has become an element in the formulation based solutions"

of new policies for introducing technology-basedsolutions. Linked to the above function, this one is known by

several different names (development research,

2.1 Evolution of research action research, participatory research), and con-sists of the organization of real-enviromnent ex-

Being aware of the need for research to take ac- perimental networks by type of technical

count of the variety of farm categories and to innovation. The places where technical references

design innovative techniques in partnership with are prepared may also become support points for

the farTners, the research institutions are finding a policy to promote exchanges and communica-

themselves obliged not only to rethink some of tion among farmers.their traditional functions, but also to take on cer- It is important to mobilize the researchers in

tain new ones. the various disciplines to monitor the reference

In this new perspective, four functions may networks, and, through this monitoring proc-

be viewed as having strategic importance: ess, to encourage them to enter into a sustain-able dialogue with the farmers.

(a) Function: "Regional diagnostic surveys andestablishment offarm typologies" (c) Function: "Mobilization of national, regional

and international scientific skills"

As we have seen, the establishment of farm ty-pologies by eco-region and the analysis of devel- The purpose of the first two functions is to

opment paths for each type are basic to the strengthen the interface between scientific re-

construction of the framework within which a search and the real world of production. The con-

dialogue with the farmers can be established and struction of a field facility is undoubtedly the

new technological solutions tested out. The ap- primary mission of a national agricultural re-

proach by agrosystem and the approach by indi- search system. It will need to assign the necessary

vidual subsector overlap the most often because human resources to that facility, even though this

agrosystems are often organized around a domi- could mean abandoning certain fundamental dis-

nant subsector of production (cotton agrosystems, ciplines that can be developed elsewhere and

rice or irrigated vegetable systems, pastoral sys- without any particular links to the world of agri-

tems, for example). The same subsector on which culture. The universities, other national research

the farmer hinges the organization of his own institutions, the international centers, and the spe-

agrosystem also forms the basis for a chain linking cialized research institutions in the countries of

the actors in the different stages of production, the North are all equipped with scientific expertise

processing, and marketing of the product con- of this kind.cerned. Within the framework of sustainable alli-

Thus it is important for research to acquire ances with the national, regional or interna-

the tools necessary to the accomplishment of tional scientific partners, national agri-

this task, and, first of all, to set up multidiscipli- cultural research will be able to mobilize new

nary teams in the different eco-regions, whose scientific forces capable of helping it to pur-

members are trained in agrosystem analysis sue its research program. Those partners, be-

and farm typology creation. Those teams will ing far removed from agriculture at the local

be responsible for identifying the principal level, will often be interested in participating

farm categories, analyzing development dy- within the context of the field facilities oper-

namics and constraints, and carrying out, and ated by the national agricultural research sys-

Agricultural Research and Farmers 23

tem. This is in particular the attitude of many in Asia, Latin America, and now Africa, extension

teachers and students at national universities has faced, or is now facing, the need to take into

who want to obtain hands-on experience of the account the emergence of farmer organizations,

real world of agriculture. the formulation of decentralized demands for

It is therefore incumbent on a country's na- technology, and the diversification of the supply

tional agricultural research institute to define of technical advisory services, a phenomenon that

and implement an external relations policy that is mainly rooted in the rapidly growing numbers

will come fully into its own with the construc- of private initiatives. All over the world, technical

tion of a "national agricultural research sys- advisory assistance is adapting to the interaction

tem," in which the national institute is between supply and demand in the area of tech-

responsible for building and maintaining the nological innovation.

field facilities and the university is in charge of At the local level, farmers are no longer inter-

bringing in and managing the expertise in the ested in having to deal with a know-it-all tech-

various basic disciplines. nician whose qualifications are often lowerthan their own and who can be quickly out-

(d) Function: "Exchange and communication stripped by technological advances. They gen-

of scientific and technical information" erally prefer to work with a technician or"mediator" who can mobilize information net-

Research essentially generates information, and in works and have first-hand access to specialized

the present case that information is of a scientific know-how.

and technical nature. Part of the research functionis to disseminate such information to the final (a) Evolution and diversification of the supply

users. With the strengthening of the first three of of technical advisory services

the above functions, all of which involve the build-ing up of research and development partnerships, Within this approach, rather than seeking to dis-

this information function will take on strategic seminate standardized technical solutions, the

importance. But within this prospect of strength- public agricultural advisory institute attempts to

ened partnerships there is more. The bilateral na- identify the necessary sources of technical infor-

ture of information must be understood. The idea mation and expertise and to make these accessible

of "dissemination" needs to be replaced by that of to the users. Agricultural advisers are then able to

"exchange and communication." Within this ap- play to the full the role of mediator between the

proach, each partner is both generator and con- sources of information and the farmers, between

sumer of information. The farmers are the the supply of innovative technologies and the de-

repositories of knowledge about traditional prac- mand for them. But the most important develop-

tices and decentralized technical innovations, and ment is that agricultural advisory assistance is no

this knowledge can be useful not only to the re- longer a monopolistic public function, and may

searchers but also, and above all, to other farmers now assume a variety of legal forms, that of a

working in related situations. - public agency, a professional organization, a non-

Hence the appearance of a new "exchange and governmental organization, or a private com-

communication" function. It is a bilateral func- pany. What happens most frequently is that these

tion, based on the new tools of observation, inves- different forms develop simultaneously and exist

tigation, accumulation, processing and side by side.dissemination of information and on the new From one standpoint, technical assistance is

products available in the area of communication. still viewed as a "public commodity" and assuch is still financed out of the public-sector

2.2 Evolution of technical advisory services budget, or even provided by public-sector insti-tutions. From another standpoint, it is becom-

The traditional modes of agricultural extension ing a commercial service that seeks to sell itself

have had their day. In the countries of the North, to the farmers.

Agricultural Research and Farmers 24

A matrix constructed by region, which crosses political, economic and social scenes, the farm-

technical assistants with specialized messages, ers, as a professional group, are also seeking to

is a useful tool to provide consumers with infor- defend their professional interests against other

mation concerning the variety of services avail- groups and to obtain favorable trade-offs from

able from public and private sources. the public authorities.Thus the building of a farmer organization

(b) Expression of an effective demandfor technical progresses from the local level to the national

advisory services level, and then to the level of the large regionaleconomic units where part of the authority is

The farmers are anxious to play a driving role in now located, and finally, although so far only on

the definition of technical advisory services, either a tentative scale, the farmers will have to acquire

by paying for the service, or, if the service is pro- the means to intervene on an international scale.

vided free of charge, by participating at the level Technological innovation is one of the key

of the guiding authorities [instances de pilotage] of factors in the competitiveness, profitability,

the public or parapublic institutions providing and sustainability of agricultural and pastoral

advisory assistance to the agricultural sector. In activities. All over the world, farmers and their

countries where the farmers have little or no pur- organizations are now realizing how much

chasing power, an "effective demand" for advi- hangs on this fact. Alongside their trade union

sory services has to be created through various and economic functions, the farmer organiza-

mechanisms. It is important that the "customer" tions are developing a technical function that

be able to choose his provider and to change to involves applied research and technical advice

another one if his first choice proves unsatisfac- and may take various forms.

tory. Thus systems have been devised in which Farmer organizations have thus become

"vouchers" or "hourly credits" are distributed to more and more "professional" in recent times

individual farmers or farmer organizations, to be both as a means of strengthening their technical

used for this purpose. capacities, for example through the incorpora-tion of specialized technical advisory functions

2.3 Evolution of farmer organizations for their members, and of improving their ca-

pacity to approach external technical bodies,

Any discussion about agriculture must start out by both public and private, for research or for ad-

focusing on the farm as the primary framework for vice. This trend has thus led to the appearance

the processes of production and natural resource of a technical function, and sometimes even a

management, and on the farmer as the party who scientific function, within the farmer organiza-

decides what forms those processes should take. In tions themselves, something that is altering the

order to properly develop these two tasks of pro- overall operation of the support system for

duction and natural resource management, farm- technological innovation.

ers and stockraisers everywhere have always In the end, it is the overall operation of the

banded together in organizations. support system that must be allowed to evolve

In former times, the various types of organi- at the same time as the various forms of part-

zation would be found within the area where nership. It is up to the farmer organizations to

those tasks of production and natural resource become the driving forces in this process of

management were being performed, i.e. essen- evolution.

tially at the local level. As markets have ex-panded, farmer organizations have expanded 3 - Towards a new partnership among

also. Moreover, as agriculture has developed, stakeholders in the technological

the farmer organizations have taken on new innovation process

tasks upstream and downstream of actual pro-duction. And now, in a world where new devel- Collaboration among the stakeholders in the tech-

opments are constantly taking place on the nological innovation process may take different

Agricultural Research and Farmers 25

forms, depending on the different degrees of co- nological innovation and the commitment of con-operation: cross participation at the guiding tracting partners. Such contracts may be con-authority level, negotiation of operational con- cluded between the research organization, thetracts, creation of common functions or tools, and, technical advisory service, and one or more farmerin the long run, establishment of a true "national organizations.support system for technological innovation." Contracts of this kind already exist between

research and the private sector. In general these3.1 Farmer participation in the authorities are very specifically targeted.

guiding the public research and advisoryinstitutions 3.3 Pooling of functions and/or tools

To ensure that user demand is taken into account Some of the functions we have indicated as need-at the time of formulation of public policies on ing to be strengthened by the research or technicalresearch and technical advisory assistance, the advisory bodies or by the farrner organizations infirst step is undoubtedly to ensure that repre- fact belong to several partners and would gainsentatives of the farmers and of the private indus- from being pooled. Such functions include thetries participate in the authorities by which the organization of development research and ofpublic institutions are guided. Besides the regu- means of exchanging and communicating techni-latory agencies, certain more specialized entities cal information. Jointly managed units could beshould be looked at as potential fora where set up with staff and financing provided by thethe farmers can put over their viewpoints more different institutions. These common units couldeasily. either operate independently or else be managed

Thus committees could be set up on the basis by one of the partners on behalf of all partiesof individual subsectors and/or regions, if pos- concerned.sible corresponding to eco-regions, or, even bet- For certain commercial crops, particularlyter, to families of agrosystems. In either case, those produced by a small number of powerfuli.e. whether the groups so formed are agrosys- farmers, specialized units can be established,tem-based or subsector-based, the partners in for example affiliates set up jointly by the re-the innovation process will be able to engage in search and advisory institutions and the profes-a professional dialogue with the public institu- sional organizations or economic interesttions. This will amount to a gradual learning groups. Such bodies already exist, for example,process, since in many regions the sectors of re- for certain tropical perennial crops.search, production and advisory assistance knownothing about each other, and it will take time for 3.4 Setting up of a "national support systemthe three sides to come to understand each other for technological innovation"and to adjust their outlooks accordingly.

Convergent developments at the level of all of the3.2 Contractual arrangements for the stakeholders in the innovation process, participa-

performance of common tasks tion by the farmers in the guiding bodies of thepublic institutions, and the creation of common

A working partnership needs to be confirmed tools are all factors that are gradually altering thethrough a contract stating the responsibilities and appearance of each of those stakeholders and ofduties incumbent upon each of the parties. Thus it the environment in which the innovation processis no longer sufficient for the public agencies to is taking place. This evolution is naturally leadingsimply supply catch-all solutions to unknown to the establishment of a "national support systemfarmers - they must instead engage in a dialogue for technological innovation," or, to use termsaimed at bringing about the sector's modem- currently in vogue in certain countries, a "nationalization. The contract will henceforth be the rule for agricultural development system" or "knowledgeectablishing the interactive nature of a given tech- system."

Agricultural Research and Farmers 26

Like all systems, a system of this kind has its pooling of functions and tools belonging to sev-

own particular anatomy and physiology. Its eral different partners, and by the allocation of

anatomy comprises specialized organs, the specifically targeted resources. But it is above

public research and advisory institutions, the all the creation of new entities that will influ-

professional farmer organizations, companies ence a common policy that bears witness to the

providing services, private enterprises, non- desire of each party to change its own logic and

governmental organizations. Those partners all reflects the reality of a new order of account-

participate in the innovation processes, either ability in agricultural development.separately or acting in concert, if they are en-couraged to do so through incentives or specifi- B. SUMMARY OF MAJOR DISCUSSION POINTS

cally targeted offers of funding. The system'sphysiology is characterized by particular mo- The second session focused on interactions of

dalities of governance, reflecting the level of the technology services and institutions with farmers.

partnership between public and private actors, Past programs have often been ineffective because

and the operation of exchange and communica- of attempting a top-down approach to technology

tion mechanisms among the partners, action innovation and to "managing farmers". The

programming, cooperation incentives, financ- complexities of agricultural systems makes this

ing, and evaluation. ineffective, but enlisting farmers as full decision-

Where financing is concerned, in addition to making partners draws on their knowledge andthe funding granted to each of the institutions in facilitates utilization of new technical and man-

accordance with their individual logic, the system agement innovations. Conclusions included:

can only truly exist if a "national support system * research programs must find ways of involv-

for technological innovation," or a "national ag- ing farmers in research priority setting, plan-

ricultural development fund" or more specifi- ning, conduct, and evaluation;cally targeted or regional funds are established. . extension systems will evolve to become

Institutionalization of this "national support commercial partners with farmers and are

system for technological innovation" reflects likely to become multi-institutional advisory

the sustainable nature of the contracts by which services;a sustainable bond is forged between the stake- * NGOs, foundations, the private sector and

holders in innovation and agricultural develop- other intermediaries will be important voices

ment as they affirm a reciprocal commitment to for farmer concerns and for dialog with re-

participate in modernization of the agricultural search systems;sector. To be fully significant and effective, such * farmer organizations, in particular, will be

institutionalization must be accompanied by important partners in the governance of ag-

the development of each of the actors, by the ricultural research systems.

APPENDIX III

Towards a Global AgriculturalResearch System

A. BACKGROUND PAPER volved, it also depends on the financial arrange-ments that enable the partners to collaborate. In

THE CRITICAL ROLE OF PARTNERSHIPS addition, ensuring the overall coherence of innu-IN THE EMERGENCE OF A GLOBAL merable decentralized initiatives requires the

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SYSTEM creation of facilitation entities open to the partnersinvolved. These entities will contribute to consen-

Relationships between scientific partners are sus building, a key component of the governancemultiplying. As in other sectors, agricultural re- of the global system.search is gradually taking on the characteristicsof a "global system," a movement that is partly 1. CONTENTS AND PROCESSES FOR THEthe result of factors beyond the control of research BUILDING OF SCIENTIFIC PARTNER-officials and partly the fruit of deliberate policies. SHIPS; PRODUCTS OF SUCHThe building of national, regional, and interna- PARTNERSHIPStional scientific partnerships is leading to theemergence of this global agricultural research 1.1 Contents of scientific partnershipssystem which will provide a common frameworkfor action by a whole range of players in the The construction of new or stronger research part-science field. nerships, must build on existing collaborations

and respond to the evolving concerns of societies.Building scientific partnerships is the key

feature in the establishment of the global agri- (a) Inventory and classification of agriculturalcultural research system. research entities and activities

While the form taken by such partnerships de- Information on the research being performed bypends on the "contents" and "processes" in- potential partners is the first requirement in build-

27

Towards a Global Agricultural Research System 28

ing a structure to facilitate collaboration. The in- tion of organisms and micro-organisms,itial basis for partner relationships is what each tissue culture, biotechnologies, etc.); geogra-partner is or does. Participants in the agricultural phy (cartography, remote sensing, etc.); eco-research field need to inventory and classify their nomics (monitoring of agricultural policies,research entities and activities, on an ongoing ba- subsector analysis, etc.); mathematics (com-sis. Selection of the data they should monitor in putation center, etc.); and scientific and tech-the form of descriptors and indicators is crucial, as nical information.are the nomenclatures to be used in organizingthese data. Definition of generally accepted norms Agro-systems typology: In the majority of ag-is an essential prerequisite if aggregation and ricultural situations, it is ultimately the farm-

comparison of data are to be possible. ers, in the setting of their own farms, whoThe question of nomenclatures, designed to decide how their output will be produced and

reflect the structuring of the research field, is how the natural resources will be managed.essential to the sustainability and scope of the They are the decision-makers, even if in reach-observation exercise. Several approaches to the ing their decision they have to take into ac-structuring of the agricultural research field count innumerable facts concerning theirand to laying the foundations for instances of ecological, economic, social, institutional, etc.scientific cooperation can be considered: a environment. Admittedly, this environment"commodity" approach, an "agro-systems" ap- is frequently shaped by national policies orproach, and a "disciplinary" approach. In each the effects of international trade, which thusof these cases, the construction of typologies is have an indirect, but increasingly strong, in-the key to structuring the corresponding field fluence on the way production and resourceand classifying the observations collected. management practices evolve. But it remains

It is worthwhile commenting at this point on that on the basis of all available data, thethe establishment of typologies. While the ty- decision to innovate will be taken, or not, atpologies of commodities and of disciplines pose the level of the individual farm or pastoralfew conceptual problems, the typology of agro- unit.systems on the other hand is more difficult toset up. Accordingly agricultural research needs to

propose innovations developed within the con-Commodity (or subsector) typology: A list of text of specific agro-systems. Since the numberproducts, organized by family, can be estab- of agro-systems is potentially as great as thelished with no difficulty at the international number of individual agricultural holdings it-level. It might be established within the con- self, it is necessary to identify families of agro-text of the NARS/CG support group process systems and to classify them using a typologicaland proposed to the Global Forum. Countries approach. An agro-system is characterized notand regions could call for such a list to in- so much by descriptive data, as by the nature ofclude products important for their national its mechanisms for the production of goods andresearch programs or their regional coopera- the conservation and renewal of natural re-tion programs, and could organize data col- sources. Physical, economic, social and techno-lection in terms of that choice. logical parameters influence the nature of these

mechanisms greatly.Disciplinary typology: The same is true in the The situation is exemplified well in the studycase of disciplinary support services. A typo- Afrique de l'ouest et du centre in which CORAFlogy could be established and validated by distinguishes nine major types of agro-systems.the same method. For instance, in its study Seven are identified using physical criteriaAfrique de l'ouest et du centre CORAF opted (rainfall pattern), one using an economic criteriafor support services in: chemistry (soil analy- (proximity to a consumer market), and one us-sis, plant analysis, etc.); biology (identifica- ing a technological criteria (irrigation control).

Towards a Global Agricultural Research System 29

(b) Setting of priorities to govern cooperation existing research efforts into account can in-crease synergies and coherence.

If current research activities are the chief material We propose that the basic tool used in build-used to build collaborative arrangements, only the ing scientific partnerships be a matrix that al-definition of common objectives can finalize part- lows research and/or collaboration topics onnerships and give them form. Even if founded on the one hand and national, regional, and inter-a rigorous study of real situations, formulation of national players in the scientific arena on thethe priorities that are to govern collaboration is a other to intersect and interact.fundamentally political exercise. While the deci-sion process involved is simple when the partner- (a) Building a national partnershipforship is to consist of two parties, it becomes agricultural researchcomplex when there are various prospective part-ners, and especially so when the aim is to build a National agricultural research is often taken asmulti-member partnership with a broad geo- being synonymous with the work of a nationalgraphic base associated with a national, regional, agricultural research institute, whereas actuallyor -obviously-international system. many partners contribute to the national agricul-

In institutional terms, this type of multi- tural research effort. If this reality is to reveal itselfmember partnership probably requires the for- clearly, the present situation needs to be progres-mation of a "Programming Committee" sively institutionalized, through the gradual crea-consisting of representatives of the partners. It tion of an "national agricultural research system."will be responsible for determining what priori- Such a system would comprise not only the na-ties are to govern the collaborative arrange- tional agricultural research institute but also otherment. To do so, it will need not only to assemble research institutions (working, for example, onproposals for collaboration from the partici- forestry, environmental problems, agro-process-pants, but also to reach a consensus on a strate- ing, or any other agriculture-related topics), thegic vision of the evolution of agriculture in the universities, and private-sector research teams (af-geographic area concerned. filiated with corporations, professional organiza-

tions, and NGOs).1.2 Procedures for building complex Construction of a national matrix which lists

partnerships research topics and national players in the sci-ence arena, while highlighting the activities of

Collaboration among research scientists can take each partner, is the first step toward formaldifferent forms. It may consist of an exchange of establishment of a national agricultural re-information between partners engaged on related search system. This task of assembling informa-work, a case that as a rule is unlikely to lead to tion obtained from an inventory of activitiesnew, joint research projects. Or, on the other hand, and then feeding it into the matrix is beingthe collaboration may consist in launching new, carried out on an experimental basis by re-joint research activities, the danger here being that search institutions in Senegal, and in relatedthe parties will often omit to take existing research ways by institutions in several other countries.into account. In the case of Senegal, information has been fed

This frequent separation between the old and into the matrix by some twenty institutions,the new, and also a lack of coordination in the either wholly or partially scientific, public ordefinition of new activities, produces great con- private, specialized in agricultural subjects orfusion. New initiatives, often exterior in origin, not, Senegalese or not.particularly in the case of countries where ex- On the basis of a sound knowledge of activi-ternal aid represents a major part of the re- ties already in progress and priorities alreadysearch effort, can disrupt activities already determined, the competent authorities and in-under way and create contradictions. In the terested potential partners can then decideprocess of building partnerships, merely taking what new activities should be initiated and

Towards a Global Agricultural Research System 30

what partnerships should be formed and/or management could be one of the major objec-strengthened. tives of a Global Forum on Agricultural Re-

search. However, for the moment this is too

(b) Building a regional partnershipfor ambitious a goal. The magnitude of the taskscientific collaboration leaves no doubt that, at least initially, interna-

tional scientific partnerships need to be built up

The establishment of regional collaborative ar- from the regional level.rangements, rather than of specific regional re- To circumvent this difficulty, it is also possi-search activities, which proceeds from a different ble to proceed row by row and feed data intologic, also needs to be preceded by an inventory the matrix only for those rows that correspond

of research projects undertaken by the countries to the priorities selected by institutions con-of the region and the selection of collaboration cerned with international cooperation. It is herepriorities. that the priority programs focused on "agro-

Construction of a regional matrix is the best systems," "commodities," and "disciplinarymethod of conducting a topic-by-topic identi- support services" come to the fore. This is thefication of the activities conducted in the re- approach adopted by some CG centers that are

gion by the scientific institutions. This matrix engaged in "commodity" - and, more recently,should be constructed by aggregating na- "eco-regional" - partnerships or programs.tional matrices.

The selection of the priorities that are to gov- 1.3 Establishment of Priority Programsem collaboration in a particular region allowspositioning of the rows of the matrix in hierar- In its most elaborate form, a partnership becomeschical order and identification of the topics a "Priority Program" of cooperation founded on awhich warrant the formation or strengthening contract between the parties involved. Such a pro-of partnerships linking players in the scientific gram translates a cooperation priority into opera-arena who are already involved in the region or tional terms by defining a framework and a set ofwish to be. Where these priority topics are con- researchable issues. A Priority Program will incor-cerned, priority regional cooperation programs porate not only activities already in progress butcan be designed, supported, and put into effect. new activities as well. And rather than being dis-

tinguished by the activities it consists of, which(c) Building an international partnership generally have their own origins and momentum,

for scientific collaboration we suggest that at the onset Priority Programs befocused on the establishment of mechanisms for

What goes for the national and regional levels communication between partners engaged in re-goes also for the international level. Collaboration lated activities and of incentive mechanisms likelyneeds to be based on the activities undertaken by to contribute to the launching of new actions un-the partners involved and on a strategic vision der the Program.focused on the selection and implementation of What this means is that a Priority Programactivities to be conducted through international serves as a vehicle:collaboration.

Conceptually, it would be possible to con- For enriching activities already in progress, bystruct an international matrix from regional introducing mechanisms of communication con-matrices, with the addition of the matrices of ducive to interchange of information andinstitutions working directly in the interna- interchange of research scientists. Estab-tional sphere (International Centers and Spe- lishment of a communications network (e.g.cialized Research Centers). Such a matrix could electronic mail) and development of commu-even serve as a monitoring tool for the research nications products (e.g. liaison bulletins) willprojects being conducted by all partners work- enable Program partners to exchange infor-ing in the global system; its elaboration and mation, while mechanisms for the support of

Towards a Global Agricultural Research System 31

long- or short-term secondments will allow activities, and collaborative actions. It serves asinterchanges of research scientists. a framework for the monitoring and evaluation

of the performance of scientific institutions, and

For launching new activities, by introducing makes it possible to avoid the duplications andincentive mechanisms designed to orient na- contradictions that often exist between projects.tional, regional, and/or international coop- Mere definition of a policy framework anderation efforts in the direction of the transparent procedures can preclude such con-designated priorities. Once research and co- tradictions between initiatives which by natureoperation priorities have been identified and need to remain decentralized.the content of a Priority Program has beendetermined, the launching of new activities 2. INSTITUTIONAL FORMS ANDand partnerships can be organized on the FINANCING OF SCIENTIFICbasis of competitive grants. Such formulas PARTNERSHIPSare powerful mechanisms for inducing fur-ther development and evolution of research Two possible approaches to the organization andsystems. promotion of scientific partnerships can be envi-

sioned: geographic (national, regional, interna-A competitive environment, by its very na- tional); and topic-based or thematic (types of

ture, prompts the best partners to join forces, agro-systems, commodities, and disciplinary sup-thereby enabling them to reinforce one another. port services). Geographic frameworks are moreConversely, weak sectors find it hard to obtain political in nature, and thematic frameworks moresupport. Before long, given the effects of the scientific.interplay of these mechanisms, the scientificcommunity as a whole shapes itself in terms of 2.1 Geographic approachesthe comparative advantages different teamshave. The fact that different research systems Ensuring coherence among partnerships createddevelop different specializations is less a result at different geographical levels is the responsibil-of authoritarian "governance" effected through ity of the relevant authorities at the correspondingdeliberate planning than of peer recognition of levels. The governance of the national, regional,the scientific quality of research teams and their and international systems should also be linkedcomparative advantages. among themselves, if possible in a vertical hierar-

It is advisable to seek a balance between this chy, so as to create continuity between the localevolutionary approach stemming from scien- level and the international level, across a series oftific quality and the need for each research sys- intermediate levels. This continuity is the essentialtem to find a place in the global agricultural feature to ensure that each actor has a voice or isresearch system. The introduction of condition- represented in the governance of the global sys-alities or criteria into the competitive bidding tem. Accordingly, ensuring this continuity, whichprocess may provide a means of achieving this is in no way natural, is a requirement of a politicalnecessary balance and, for example, of prevent- nature.ing the exclusion of scientific teams from coun-tries with more modest scientific endowments. (a) National institutionsIn any event, this type of "controlled naturalevolution" can be instituted topic by topic The process of shaping a national agricultural re-within the setting of Priority Programs, which search system which, in addition to the nationalshould emphasize scientific competence by agricultural research institutes, must incorporateevery means possible. universities, private, professional, and non-gov-

A Priority Program thus integrates this set of ernmental research teams. We suggest that thismechanisms in such a way as to link activities process must involve the creation of entities andin progress and new actions, communication procedures for the handling of partnership com-

Towards a Global Agricultural Research System 32

munications, financing, incentives, promotion, for the formation of partnerships. As alreadyand evaluation. Moving from a national institute indicated, unchecked multiplication of net-(NARI) model to a national system (NARS) may works and programs, often originating outsideinvolve the establishment of a national commis- the region, is not only wasteful but also ex-sion or council consisting of representatives of the tremely prejudicial to the quality of nationalvarious partners in the NARS. This commission's research efforts.first task should be to arrange for an inventory of As has been heavily emphasized here withresearch projects and players (formation of a na- regard to national collaboration, it is importanttional agricultural data base and matrix), and then that regional collaboration focus on both activi-to formulate a strategic vision and determine na- ties in progress and the creation of new ones.tional cooperation priorities. A national fund fi- Finally, so that sight is not lost of the comple-nanced, at least in part, by the partners involved mentary nature of the functions in play, theshould enable the commission and its executive regional association should not be expected tosecretariat to assemble the resources to provide institute regional research projects but ratherincentives for the construction of the necessary regional scientific collaboration. It is at the na-partnerships at the national level, in particular tional level that research activities should bethrough the launching of some multi-member launched, even where they fit into regional andpartner priority programs. international programs identified by the ad hoc

bodies in place at those levels.(b) Regional institutions

(c) Institutions of the Global SystemIn order to build regional collaboration, a regionalassociation consisting of officials of the countries As observed earlier in this paper, the bulk of agri-concerned seems to be an effective mechanism. cultural research and building of scientific part-Participants should include the coordinators of all nerships takes place at the national and regionalNARSs, who often are responsible also for the levels. Nevertheless, in a system that is taking onmanagement of their country's NARIs. The com- global dimensions, it is important to set up bodiesmittee of Directors, through its executive secretar- able to intervene on a global level. The variousiat, should assemble data on research in progress scientific players who are the stakeholders in thisin the region (formation of a data base and re- global system should be able to participate in itsgional matrix). Using a strategic vision as its formation and, at the appropriate time, in its de-guide, the association's next task is to prioritize velopment. The potential players are so numerousregional needs and launch priority regional col- and so scattered that the only feasible operatinglaborative programs. mode is that of indirect participation based on

The national research system representatives representational arrangements.who make up the regional committee of Direc- The global agricultural research system astors contribute by their commitment to its un- currently envisaged (perhaps our concernquestionable legitimacy. The committee is should be restricted to inter-tropical agricul-therefore in a position to effectively coordinate ture) comprises three key components: thethe various scientific players active, or wishing national research systems of Southern coun-to be active, in the region. A regional associa- tries (NARSs/S), the national research sys-tion should ensure the effective integration of tems of Northern countries (NARSs/N), andthe international players (International Cen- the international agricultural research centersters, and specialized research institutions in the (IARCs):countries of the North) in the region's collabo-ration programs. Furthermore, if its legitimacy The IARCs have for the past 25 years beenis broadly recognized, the association and its part of a network known as the Consultativeexecutive secretariat will hold the necessary Group on International Agricultural Re-autthority to impose a discipline on initiatives search (CGIAR), which also comprises many

Towards a Global Agricultural Research System 33

other entities, among them a Committee of be institutionalized, they will need to organ-

Center Directors. The International Centers ize themselves accordingly.component, already highly organized, In the case of Europe, a process is undercan easily be incorporated into the Global way which should lead to a greater coordina-

System. tion among European participants in agricul-tural (tropical) research and ensure a

The NARSs/S are poised to create an organi- European participation in the birth of the

zation that will enable them to interact collec- global system. In this respect, a "Europeantively with the other collective players in the initiative" on agricultural research for devel-global system, and thus to put forward their opment has been launched by the relevant

views and defend their own interests. Be- ministries of certain European countries and

cause it is to be a bottom/up organization, the European Commission. To be fully effec-

the membership of its subregional (and sub- tive, this "initiative" needs to be accompa-sequently continental) committees, associa- nied, if not supplanted, by creation of antions and councils will consist of NARS/S entity with a mandate to represent research

officials. In their own turn, representatives of institutions themselves. The question as to

these bodies will constitute an International precisely how the NARSs/N would partici-Forum, as.well as a more formal International pate in a Global Agricultural Research Fo-Committee of NARSs/S. Four major conti- rum, and beyond that in an Internationalnental complexes have emerged (sub-Saharan Committee, remains unresolved. A prereq-

Africa, Latin America, Asia/ Pacific, and West uisite for the creation of the Global Forum isAsia/North Africa), as have 17 subregional that the three groups, or "colleges," listed

groupings (three in sub-Saharan Africa, five and examined briefly here be formally organ-in Latin America, four in Asia/Pacific, and ized. In this regard, it remains for thefive in West Asia/North Africa). Each subre- NARS/S college to finalize its organizationgion forms a collaboration area. process and for the NARS/N college to think

how it too might organize itself.These regional associations have a twofold

task: to initiate and promote regional collabo- 2.2 Thematic approachesration, and to serve as the international rep-resentatives of the players in their region's Priority Programs focused on a particular researchagricultural research. Two of the continental theme or topic or on a given geographic areacomplexes, Africa and Latin America, are al- provide the framework for the building of scien-

ready very focused on subregional collabora- tific partnerships and take advantage of the poten-tion, while the other two are still chiefly tial synergy between activities in progress andpreoccupied with continental concerns. possible new actions and partnerships. Depend-

The present situation is a fluid one, in the ing on the geographic scale of a Program, over-

sense that while the developments in pro- sight arrangements will be national, regional, orgress are largely associated with the CGIAR, intemational, but if it is thematic in nature, over-an internal dynamic - a manifestation of the sight will be exercised from the international level.coming together of regional forces and inter- Once oversight arrangements are in place, Pro-

ests - is in the process of emerging. grams can focus on operational activities, devel-opment of which should be the responsibility of

The NARSs/N should also participate fully in the scientists involved.the birth of the global agricultural research Generally speaking, a Priority Program'ssystem. However, if this system is to take governance can be undertaken by a Programpermanent shape, and if the process of con- Committee consisting of representatives of thesultation (and possibly also promotion) is to main partners. If the legitimacy and credibility

Towards a Global Agricultural Research System 34

of the Committee are to be assured, partner The need for vigilance is made all the greaterrepresentatives' qualifications in the thematic by the fact that successful building of scientificarena in question must be beyond dispute. The partnerships depends on the availability of adCommittee may set up an executive secretariat hoc resources to cover the additional cost bur-to make preparations for and implementation den which national, regional, and internationalof its decisions. cooperation imposes on the budgets of players

The partnership will be formalized by a con- in the scientific arena. This applies particularlytract between the parties concerned. In the case in the case of transaction costs associated withof a multi-member partner program, each part- bringing partners together, communication,ner subscribes to the approach that has been and secondments.agreed upon and gives its undertaking to the Given the importance of collaboration in thegroup to play its due part in program commu- evolution of research systems, it is advisable tonications and activities. Even if the contract in set up financing arrangements and make provi-question is unwritten, it signifies a commitment sion for ad hoc resources. The creation of na-by the various partners to a common cause. tional, regional, and even international

incentive and competitive funds, whose inter-2.3 Financing scientific partnerships vention would depend on the outcome of calls

for tenders, would be one way to promote part-Though sometimes difficult to do so accurately, it nerships built on a basis of scientific quality.is worthwhile distinguishing between funding for Such funds could serve as one of the essentialpartners' projects and funding for their collabora- levers for improving the scientific level of insti-tive activities. A partnership has its full value only tutions comprising the national systems.if none of the partners needs partnership financing Various experiments are currently underto fund its own operations. way. At the national level - in Senegal and

Funding sources are well-known: the Brazil, for instance - funds set up for the de-NARSs/N are supported by public budget allo- velopment of scientific partnerships will helpcations, and to a marginal degree, by private shape the particular country's national agricul-funds made available by countries of the North tural research system. At the regional level also,for scientific research; the IARCs are financed numerous initiatives are in evidence: severalby the international community (i.e. the Latin American NARSs, for instance, have es-CGIAR), mainly out of official development as- tablished a regional fund for the strengtheningsistance funds; and the NARSs/S are financed of scientific cooperation; and the regional asso-by public budget allocations plus international ciations in Africa are planning to set up Priorityofficial funds made available as grants and, in- Programs and discussing the necessary financ-creasingly, as loans. ing with, inter alia, the EU Commission.

The fact that each of the three groups of insti- Building partnerships is crucial to buildingtutions making up the global system relies on the global system. The more relationships thatdifferent sources, forms and channels of financ- exist for the purpose of collaboration, and -

ing means that the competition for funding more importantly - the higher their quality,among them remains moderate. Nevertheless, then the more likely it is that the global system,vigilance is needed to ensure that the crisis situ- and the geographic and thematic subsystemsations affecting government finances in South- composing it, will materialize successfully. Theern countries, research budgets in OECD institutional forms in which the entities en-countries, and support for international coop- trusted with oversight of this building effort areeration do not lead to active competition among cast, and the financing arrangements put inthe three groups; if it were ever to become in- place to support the various processes in-tense, the building of scientific partnerships volved, will also be of great importance. Carewould prove impossible. must be exercised as well to ensure that these

Towards a Global Agricultural Research System 35

mechanisms place the proper value on part- * technology is becoming globalized, in a simi-

ners' scientific quality and assist each one to lar way to the globalization of markets;

make the most of its specific potential. * partnerships will form through multiple ap-proaches depending on the market for tech-

B. SUMMARY OF MAJOR DISCUSSION POINTS nology innovation, but consideration mustbe given to "weaker" members of the re-

Partnerships were the focus of the third workshop search community;

session, which explored the rationale for varied * innovations in information technology and

types and levels of partnerships. The linkages be- science (i.e., biotechnology) are driving

tween NARSs, IARCs, and advanced research in- forces towards building partnerships;

stitutions are in some areas well established, but . regional associations will be an important

strengthening and facilitating these linkages to mechanism for NARS participation and in-

become global partnerships will provide sub- fluence in a global system.

stance to the emerging global agricultural re-search system. The participants concluded that:

List of Participants

Miguel Altieri Alois BaslerSANE General Coordinator Institute of Agricultural Market ResearchUniversity of California-Berkeley Federal Agricultural Research CenterCollege of Natural Resources, Bundesalle 50Center for Biological Control Braunschweig D-381161050 San Pablo Avenue GermanyAlbany, CA 94706-3106, USATel: (510) 642-9802 Andrew J. BennettFax: (510) 642-0875 Chief Natural Resources Adviser

Natural Resources & Environment DepartmentJohn Axtell Overseas Development AdmninistrationLynn Distinguished Professor of Agronomy 94 Victoria StreetLilly Hall, Department of Agronomy London SWIE 5JL, EnglandPurdue University Tel: (44-171) 917-0513West Lafeyette, Indiana 47907, USA Fax: (44-171) 917-0679Tel: (317) 494-8056Fax: (317) 496-2926 Robert Bertram

Biodiversity SpecialistSartaj Aziz U.S. Agency for InternationalChairman, Senator, First Minister of Finance Development (USAID)Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs Bureau for Research and Development25, Park Road, F-8/1 402, SA-2Islamabad, Pakistan Washington, DC 20523-0057, USATel: (92-51) 270-824 Tel: (202) 712-5064Fax: (92-51) 270-820 Fax: (202) 216-3010

36

List of Participants 37

Stein Bie Kamla ChowdryDirector ChairpersonInternational Service for National Society for Promotion of WastelandsAgricultural Research Development

Laan van Nieuw, Oost Indie 133 Shriram Bharatiya Kala Kodra Building2593 BM, The Hague, The Netherlands 1 Copernicus Marg.Tel: (31-70) 349-6206 New Delhi 110001, IndiaFax: (31-70) 381-9677 Tel: (91-11) 461-8847

Fax: (91-11) 338-2633Christian Bonte-FriedheimDirector General Mamadou CissokhoInternational Service for National PresidenstAgricultural Research (ISNAR) CNCR

Laan van Nieuw Oost Zone IndustrielleIndie, P.O. Box 93375 Rocade Farm Bel AirThe Hague 2509, The Netherlands BP 249Tel: (31-70) 349-2606 Dakar, SenegalFax: (31-70) 381-9677 Fax: (221) 22-34-74

Lukas BraderDirector General Neville ClarkInternational Institute of Tropical CENTEQ Res. PlazaAgriculture (IITA) 241 Center Plaza

c/o LWT & Co., Carolyn House Texas A & M26 Dingwall Road College StationCroydon CR9 3EE, United Kingdom Texas 77843-2129, USATel: (44-181) 686-9031 Tel: (409) 845-2845Fax: (44-181) 681-8583 Fax: (409) 345-6574

Ken Campbell Michel Colin de VerdiereDirector General Sous Directeur du DeveloppementResearch Coordination Economique de l'EnvironnementAgriculture & Agri-Food Canada Ministere de la Cooperation930 Carling Avenue 1 bis avenue de VillarsOttawa, Ontario KlA OC5, Canada Paris 75007, FranceTel: (613) 759-7808 Tel: (33-1) 53-69-30-91Fax: (613) 759-7769 Fax: (33-1) 53-69-3043

Fernando ChaparroDirector General Francois DagenaisColombia Government Institute for Science Director

and Technology (COLCIENCIAS) IICATransversal 9A no. 133-28 1775 K Street, N.W.Apartado Aereo 051580 Suite 320Santa Fe de Bogota, Colombia Washington, DC 20006, USATel: (57-1) 258-2170 Tel: (202) 458-6335Fax: (57-1) 625-0553/1788 Fax: (202) 458-6957

List of Participants 38

William Dar Jacques FayeExecutive Director Directeur General, ISRAPhilippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry Routes des Hydrocarbures Bel-Air

and Natural Resources Development (PCAARD) BP 3120Pasco de VaLmayor, Los Banos Dakar, SenegalLaguna 4030, Philippines Tel: (221) 322-420/430Tel: (63-94) 536-0015/0017 Fax: (221) 322-427Fax: (63-94) 536-0016/3251

Modagugu GuptaAlain Derevier International Relations DirectorS&T Senior Advisor International Center for Living AquaticEuropean Commission, DG VIII Resources Management (ICLARM)Rue de la Loi, 200 MCPO Box 2631Brussels 10409, Belgium 0718 Makati, Metro Manila, PhilippinesTel: (32-2) 299-2512 Tel: (63-2) 812-8641/47Fax: (32-2-) 296-6472 Fax: (63-2) 816-3183

Henry Rouille d'Orfeuil Floyd HornDirecteur Relations Exterieures, CIRAD Administrator, Agricultural Research Service42, rue Scheffer 75116, Paris, France US Department of AgricultureTel: (33-1) 53-70-20-35 1400 Independence AvenueFax: (33-1) 53-70-21-33 Washington, DC 20250, USA

Tel: (202) 720-3656R.N. Sam Dryden Fax: (202) 690-2842Managing PartnerBig Stone Partners Harvey Hortick1634 Walnut Street, Suite 301 Office of Agriculture & Food Security, EconomicBoulder, Colorado 80302-5400, USA Growth Center, Global Bureau, USAIDTel: (303) 449-9696 545 22nd Street, N.W., 4th FloorFax: (303) 449-9699 Washington, DC 20523-0214, USA

Tel: (202) 663-2558Ruben Echeverria Fax: (202) 663-2948Environment DivisionSocial Program & Sustainable Development Ganesh KishoreDepartment Chief Biotechnologist

Inter-American Development Bank Monsanto1300 New York Ave, N.W. 700 Chesterfield Parkway NorthWashington, DC 20577, USA St. Louis, MO 63198, USATel: (202) 623-1888 Tel: (314) 537-6384Fax: (202) 623-1786 Fax: (314) 537-7554

Adel El-Beltagy John LewisDirector General DirectorInternational Center for Agricultural Office of Agriculture & Food Security, EconomicResearch in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) Growth Center, Global Bureau, USAID

P.O. Box 5466 Room 401-H, SA-2Aleppo, Syrian Arab Republic Washington, DC 20523-0214, USATel: (963-21) 213-433 Tel: (202) 712-5118Fax: (963-21) 213-490 Fax: (202) 216-3010

List of Participants 39

Ian MacGillivray Rashid PertevSenior Programme Manager Assistant Secretary General forMultilateral Programmes Branch Developing CountriesCIDA IFAP200 Promenage du Portage 21 rue ChaptalHull, Quebec KlAOG4, Canada Paris 75009, FranceFax: (819) 953-5348 Tel: (33-1) 45-26-05-53

Fax: (33-1) 48-74-72-12Hubert ManichonCharge de Mission - Eco-regionalite Kurt PetersCIRAD ProfessorBP 5035 Kramstaweg 21Montpellier 34032, France Berlin D-14163, GermanyTel: (33-4) 67-61-57-79Fax: (33-4) 67-61-55-12 Alberto Portugal

President, EMBRAPANdiaga Mbaye SAIN Parque RuralSecretaire Executif W/3 Norte-FinalCORAF Brasilia DF 70770-901, BrazilBP 8237 Tel: (55-61) 274-5000/348-4491Dakar-Yoff, Senegal Fax: (55-61) 272-4658Tel: (221) 25-96-18Fax: (221) 25-55-69 Jean-Marc Pradelle

Club du SahelGeoffrey C. Mrema Organisation de Cooperation et deExecutive Secretary Developpement EconomiquesASARECA 3941 Bd. SuchetP.O. Box 765 75016 Paris, FranceEntebbe, Uganda Tel: (33-1) 45-24-89-86Tel: (256) 42-20212 Fax: (33-1) 45-24-90-31Fax: (256) 42-21126

John RadcliffeBruno Ndunguru Deputy Chief ExecutiveDirector CSIROSACCAR Private bag 2Private Bag 00108 Glen Osmond SA5064, AustraliaGaborone, Botswana Tel: (61-8) 303-8581Tel: (267) 328-848 Fax: (61-8) 303-8582Fax: (267) 328-806

Nimal RanaweeraJaphet Christian Norman Additional SecretaryDeputy Director General Ministry of Agriculture, Lands ForestryNARP CSIR "Sampathpaya"P.O. Box M 32 72 Rajamalwatte RoadAccra, Ghana Battara Mulla, Sri LankaTel: (233) 21-760-166 Tel: (94-1) 872-096Fax: (233) 21-779-889 Fax: (97-1) 872-096/868-919

List of Participants 40

Francisco Reifschneider Brabhakar TamboliHead of International Cooperation Retired Senior AgriculturistEMBRAPA 1609 Greentree RoadSAIN Parque Rural Bethesda, MD 20817, USAW/3 Norte-Final Tel: (301) 469-7957Brasilia DF 70770-901, Brazil Fax: (301) 469-7210Tel: (55-61) 274-5000/348-4491Fax: (55-61) 272-4658 Bino Teme

Scientific DirectorCurt Reinsma IERChief, Productive Sector Growth and BP 258Environment Division Bamako, Mali

USAID, Bureau for Africa, Room 2744 Tel: (223) 231-905320 21st St., N.W. Fax: (223) 223-775Washington, DC 20520, USATel: (202) 647-7197 Ms. Mary Kay ThatcherFax: (202) 736-7130 Senior Director

Government RelationsGrant M. Scobie American Farm BureauDirector General 600 Maryland Avenue, S.W. #800Centro Intemacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) Washington, DC 20021, USAApartado Aereo 6713 Tel: (202) 484-3650Cali, Colombia Fax: (202) 484-3604Tel: (57-2) 445-0027Fax: (57-2) 445-0099 Modibo Traore

MinistreAbdelmajid Slama Ministere du Developpement RuralDirector Bamako, MaliInternational Fund for Agricultural Tel: (223) 222-979Development (IFAD) Fax: (223) 220-295

Technical Advisory Development Division107 via del Serafico Jack WilkinsonRome 00142, Italy Vice PresidentTel: (39-6) 545-92450/51 IFAPFax: (39-6) 519-1702 75 Albert Street

Suite 1101Gunter Steinacker Ottawa, Ontario KIP 5E7, CanadaGTZ-4233, P.O. Box 5180 Tel: (613) 236-3633D-65726 Eschborn, Germany Fax: (613) 236-5749Tel: (49) 6197-79-1427Fax: (49) 6196-79-7137 WORLD BANK GROUP STAFF

M.S. Swaminathan Ismail SerageldinChairman Vice PresidentM.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Devel-Third Cross Street, Taramani Institutional Area opmentMadras 600 113, India Room MC 4-123Tel: (91-44) 235-1229 Tel: (202) 4734502Fax: (91-44) 235-1319 Fax: (202) 473-3112

List of Participants 41

Gary Alex Ms. Dely GapasinAgricultural Research Group, RDV Agriculture Operations DivisionEnvironmentally and Socially Sustainable Room MC 9-425Development Tel: (202) 458-2363

Room MC 4-104 Fax: (202) 522-1674Tel: (202) 458-5776Fax: (202) 522-3246 Uma Lele

Agricultural Research Group, RDVDerekulyerale and Forestry SystemEnvironmentally and Socially SustainableAgricultural and Forestry SystemDelomnEnvironmentally and Socially Sustainable DevelopmentDevelopment Tel: (202) 473-0619

Room 5 8-143 Fax: (202) 522-3246Tel: (202) 458-7287Fax: (202) 522-3308

Alexander F. McCalla

Wanda Collins DirectorAgricultural Research Group, RDV Rural Development DepartmentEnvironmentally and Socially Sustainable Environmentally and Socially Sustainable

Development DevelopmentRoom MC 4-109 Room S 8-055Tel: (202) 473-1091 Tel: (202) 458-5028Fax: (202) 522-3246 Fax: (202) 522-3307

Ms. Marie-Helene Collion Daniel MoreauAFT: Agriculture 3 Natural Resources Management &Room J 6-129 Rural Poverty DivisionTel: (202) 473-4994 Room I 5-113Fax: (202) 473-8229 Tel: (202) 473-9562

Fax: (202) 522-3540

Christian FauliauAFT: Agriculture 3 Randall PurcellRoom J 6-143 Sector Policy and Water ResourcesTel: (202) 473-4601 Room S 8-027Fax: (202) 473-8229 Tel: (202) 473-5571

Fax: (202) 522-3309Douglas FornoAgricultural and Forestry System Moctar ToureEnvironmentally and Socially Sustainable SPAAR (Special Program for AfricanDevelopment Agricultural Research)

Room S 8-lel Room J 3-155Tel: (202) 473-9406 Tel: (202) 473-9008Fax: (202) 522-3308 Fax: (202) 473-8231