Buddhism in India

BUDDHISM IN INDIA

About the Buddha

o Born in Lumbini (Kapilavastu) in 563 BC

o Belonged to a Shakya Kshatriya clan

o Father: Suddhodhana, Mother: Mahamaya (a princess from Kosala). He was brought up by his aunt

Goutami

o Married to Yasodhara, had a son Rahul

o Left home when 29 years old

o Performed Mahabiniskaramana to become a wandering ascetic

o He joined five ascetics Kondana, Vappa, Bhadiya, Mahanama and Assagi and became their leader

o Achieved enlightenment at 35 at Uruvela (bodh Gaya) on the banks of Niranjana (528 BCE)

o His first sermon is called Dharmachakra-pravartana

o Died (Parinirvana) at Kusinagar in 483 BC at age 80

THE COUNCILS OF BUDDHISM

o First Buddhist Council (400 BCE)

o Held soon after the death of the Buddha

o Presided by monk Mahakasyapa

o Held by Magadha king Ajatasatru in Rajagriha

o Objective was to preserve the Buddha’s sayings (suttas) and monastic rules (Vinaya)

o Second Buddhist Council (4th century BCE)

o Held about 100 years after the Buddha’s demise

o Held at Vaisali under the presidentship of Sabakami, convened by King Kalasoka

o Objective was to settle a debate on certain practices of Buddhist monks, esp. in western India

o Third Buddhist Council (250 BCE)

o Held at Pataliputra under the patronage of Asoka

o Chief monk was Mogaliputta Tissa

o Sent Buddhist missionaries to other countries

o Objective was to purify the Buddhist movement from opportunistic factions

o Origin of Theravada school

o Fourth Buddhist Councils (1st century BCE or CE)

o Possibly held under Theravada school in Tambapanni (Sri Lanka) in the 1st century BCE

o Committed the Pali Canon to writing

o Another possibly held under Saravastivada tradition, convened by Kanishka around 100 CE in Kashmir

under the leadership of monk Vasumitra

o Kanishka’s council translated Abhidharna texts from Prakrit to Sanskrit

THE SCHOOLS OF BUDDHISM

1. Theravada Buddhism

1. Oldest surviving school of Buddhism

2. Considered closest to early Buddhism

3. Emerged from the Third Buddhist Council held under Asoka at Pataliputra (c. 250 BCE)

4. Introduced to Sri Lanka by Mahinda, the son of Asoka, during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa

5. Based on the Pali Canon

6. Practiced today in Sri Lanka, Burma, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand

2. Mahayana Buddhism

1. Flourished from the 5th century CE onwards

2. Patronized by the Gupta dynasty

3. Nalanda University was a centre of Mahayana learning

4. Practiced today in Japan, China, Korea, Singapore and Vietnam

3. Vajrayana Buddhism

1. Involves tantric practices

2. Became prominent after the fall of the Gupta dynasty

3. Tibetan Buddhism belongs to this tradition

THE TEXTS OF BUDDHISM

1. Pali Tipitaka (Pali Canon)

1. Refers to three main books

1. Vinaya Pitaka: contains disciplinary rules for Buddhist monks

2. Sutta Pitaka: contains disclosures ascribed to the Buddha

3. Abhidhamma Pitaka: systematic explanations of the Buddha’s teachings

2. The Pali Tipitaka is the only one to survive in its original language

3. Originated from the First Buddhist Council (c 400 BCE) under the leadership of monk Mahakasyapa

4. Used primarily by the Theravada tradition

2. Mahayana Sutras

1. Composed from the 1st century CE onwards

2. Claim to articulate the Buddha’s more advanced doctrines for followers of the bodhisattva path

3. Used by the Mahayana tradition

TIMELINE OF BUDDHISM

IMPORTANT BUDDHIST SITES IN INDIA

Buddhism’s four holiest sites are Lumbini(Buddha’s birth), Bodh Gaya (enlightenment), Sarnath (first

sermon) and Kusinagara (death)

1. Lumbini (Nepal)

1. Site of the Buddha’s birth

2. In the present-day region of Terai (southern Nepal)

3. Houses the Mayadevi Temple and Pusakarini or Holy Pond (where the Buddha had his first bath)

4. Is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (1997)

2. Bodh Gaya (Bihar)

1. Site of the Buddha’s enlightenment

2. Home of the Mahabodhi Temple (constructed 6th century CE by the Guptas)


3. Sarnath (Uttar Pradesh)

1. Site of the Buddha’s first sermon

2. Place where the first Sangha came into existence

3. Home of Asoka’s famous Sarnath Pillar

4. Contains the Dhamek Stupa, Chaukhandi Stupa, Dharmarajika Stupa, Mulagandhakuti Vihara

5. Presently on the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List

4. Kusinagara (Uttar Pradesh)

1. Site of the Buddha’s death

2. Contains the Mahipariniravana Stupa

3. Houses the Makutabandhana, cremation site of the Buddha

4. Current plans: Maitreya Project to build a 500 ft statue of the Buddha

5. Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh)

1. Houses several Buddhist monuments from 3rd century BCE to 12th century CE

2. The Great Stupa at Sanchi was commissioned by Asoka in the 3rd century BCE


IMPORTANT BUDDHIST MONASTERIES IN INDIA

Monastery Location Notes

Dhankar Gompa Himachal Pradesh In the Spiti Valley

Gandhola Monastery Himachal Pradesh Chenab river

Kardang Monastery Himachal Pradesh

Key Monastery Himachal Pradesh Largest monastery in Spiti Valley

Lhalung Monastery Himachal Pradesh One of the earliest in Spiti Valley

Tabo Monastery Himachal Pradesh

Listed by the ASI as a national historic

treasure

Oldest monastery in India

Tangyud Monastery Himachal Pradesh

Dharmasala Himachal Pradesh Seat of the Tibetan Government in Exile

Namdroling MonasteryKarnataka (near

Mysore)

Largest centre of Nyingmapa sect

Established by Penor Rinpoche in 1963

Rumtek Monastery Sikkim Seat of the Tibetan Karmapa in exile

Tawang Monastery Arunachal Pradesh Largest monastery in India

JAINISM IN INDIA

About Jainism

o Claims lineage of 24 Tirthankaras

o Mahavira was the last Trithankara (6th century BCE)

o Parshavantha is claimed to be the 23rd Trithankara (9th century BCE)

o Jainism predates Buddhism

IMPORTANT PEOPLE OF JAINISM

1. Parshvanatha

o He was the 23rd Tirthankara

o Lives in Varanasi around 800 BCE

o Son of king Ashvasena and queen Vama of Varanasi

o Attained nirvana atop mountain Sammet Shikar, now known as Parasnath Hills

2. Vardhamana Mahavira

o He was the 24th and last Tirthankara

o Born 599 BCE in Kshatriyakunda in Bihar

o Father was king Siddharta and mother Queen Tishala

o At age 30 gave up wordly possessions and wandered as an ascetic for 12 years

o Attained nirvana 527 BCE at Pawapuri near Rajgir at age 72

3. Acharya Bhadrabahu

o Influential Jain monk who lived 433 BCE – 357 BCE

o He was the spiritual teacher of Changradgupta Maurya

o Led Chandragupta Maurya and other followers to Karnataka to avoid famine in the north

o The Digambara sect of Jainism follows his teachings

o Composed important Jaina texts like Upsargahara Stotra and Kalpasutra

THE COUNCILS OF JAINISM

1. First Council

o Held at Pataliputra

o supervised by Stulabhadra (disciple of Bhadrabahu)

o Established the Jain canon Siddhanta, from which the teachings of Svetambaras derived

2. Second Council

o Held at Vallabhi (Gujarat)

o Supervised by Devardhi Kshama-sramana

o Objective was to collect all Jain sacred texts and compile them in books

THE SECTS OF JAINISM

1. Digambara

o Implies sky-clad

o Digambara monks do not wear clothes

o Digambara ascetics have only two possessions: a peacock feather broom and a water gourd

o Believe women cannot attain moksha

2. Svetambara

o Implies white-clad

o Svetambara monks wear white clothes

o Do not believe that women cannot attain moksha

IMPORTANT JAIN SITES IN INDIA

1. Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves

o Located near Bhubaneshwar

o Commissioned as quarters for Jain monks by Kharavela in the 2nd century BCE

o Caves are situated on two hills Udayagiri and Khandagiri that face each other

o Udayagiri caves house the famous Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela

2. Parasnath Hills

o One of the most sacred places of Jainism

o Located near Giridih in Jharkhand

o 20 out of 24 Tirthankaras attained nirvana here, including Parshvanatha

3. Shravanabelagola

o Houses the 57 foot statue of Gomateshwara Bahubali

o Built around 980 CE by Chamundaraya a general of Ganga king Gangaraya

o The Mahamastakabhisheka is performed every 12 years for the statue

o The last ceremony was held in 2006, next one will be held in 2018

o It is one of the largest monolith statues in the world (carved out of a single rock)

IMPORTANT JAIN TEMPLES IN INDIA

Temple Location Notes

Dilwara RajasthanBuilt by Chalukyas 11-13th centuries

Famous for use of marble

Ranakpur Rajashtan Built in the 14-15th centuries

BawangajaMadhya

Pradesh

84 foot statue of first Tirthankara Rishabha (Adinatha)

Erected 12th century CE

Sonagiri

Madhya

Pradesh

THE MAURYAN EMPIRE

Overview

o The Mauryan Empire was one of the largest empires to rule India

o It was established in 321 BCE by Chandragupta Maurya and dissolved in 185 BCE with the death of

Bhrihadrata Maurya

o The capital of the Mauryan Empire was Pataliputra

o The Mauryan Empire is known for the Arthasastra by Kautilya (Chanakya), the Rock Edicts of

Asoka, and the Lion Capital of Asoka at Sarnath which today serves as the emblem of India

o Archaeologically, the Mauryan period falls within the era of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)

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Extent of the empire

The Mauryan Empire at its greatest extent under Asoka

o The Mauryan Empire originated from the kingdom of Magadha (modern Bihar, West Bengal)

o At its greatest, the Empire encompassed almost the entire Indian subcontinent and parts of Central

Asia

o It stretched to the north along the Himalayas, to the east into Assam, to the west into Afghanistan, and to

the south up to northern Tamil Nadu/Kerala

o The Empire did not include the Chera, Chola and Pandya kingdoms in the far south. Instead, these

kingdoms enjoyed friendly relations with the Mauryan Empire


IMPORTANT PERSONAGES OF THE MAURYAN EMPIRE

1. Chandragupta Maurya

1. Born circa 340 BCE, died c. 298 BCE

2. He was the founder of the Mauryan Empire

3. He was known in Greek and Latin accounts as Sandrokyptos, Sandrokottos or Androcottus

4. He established the empire by overthrowing the Nanda dynasty of Magadha under Dhana Nanda

5. Chanakya was the Prime Minister of Chandragupta while Rakhshasa was his chief advisor

6. Starting from Magadha, he expanded westward by defeating the Greek satrapies established by

Alexander the Great.Chandragupta Maurya skillfully exploited the power disruptions in northwestern

India caused by Alexander as the latter withdrew into Babylon

7. After his conquests, the Empire stretched from Assam to Afghanistan, from Kashmir to the Deccan

8. Chandragupta defeated the Seleucus I Nicator, the successor of Alexander in Macedonia. As part

of the agreement reached later, Chandragupta married a daughter of Seleucus and in return gifted 500

war elephants

9. Seleucus sent an ambassador to Chandragupta’s court called Megasthenes

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurya_Empire

10. Towards the end of his life, Chandragupta embraced Jainism and migrated south with Acharya

Bhadrabahu to Shravanabelgola in Karnataka

2. Bindusara

1. Born c. 320 BCE, died c. 272 BCE

2. He was the successor to Chandragupta

3. He was the son of Chandragupta and the father of Asoka

4. He was also known as Amitraghata or Ajathasetru

5. He expanded the Mauryan Empire south beyond the Deccan, as far south as Mysore

6. During his reign, the Empire included all of India except Kalinga and the southern kingdoms of Cheras,

Cholas and Pandyas

7. By religion he was an Ajivaka (a sect of Hinduism)

8. The Seleucid ambassador to Bindusara’s court was Deimakos

3. Asoka the Great

Buddhist proselytism under Asoka


2. Successor to Bindusara

3. Also known as Devanampriya and Priyadarshin

4. Conquered Kalinga and added it to the Mauryan Empire.

5. Was initially an Ajivaka but later embraced Buddhism after the conquest of Kalinga

6. Under Asoka’s reign the Mauryan Empire included all of India except the southern kingdoms of Cheras,

Cholas and Pandyas

7. Contributed immensely to the spread of Buddhism, especially in South-East Asia, Ceylon and Central

Asia

8. Asoka organized the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra in c. 250 BCE. It was conducted by the

monk Mogaliputta-Tissa, who was also the spiritual teacher of Asoka

9. He is known for the Asoka Chakra, the Asoka Pillars and the Lion Capital at Sarnath

10. The Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt under king Philadelphus sent the ambassador Dionysius to the

court of Asoka

4. Chanakya


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edicts_of_Ashoka#Ashoka.27s_proselytism

2. Also known as Kautilya, Vishnugupta

3. He was the advisor and trainer of Chandragupta Maurya and was instrumental in the latter’s ascent to

power

4. He later served as the Prime Minister of the Mauryan Empire under Chandragupta and his son Bindusara

5. Author of the Arthasastra and the Nitishastra. The Arthashastra discusses monetary policies, warfare

and international relations while the Nitishastra is a treatise on the ideal way of life and philosophy

6. Considered to be the pioneer of economics and political science in the world


ADMINISTRATION AND ECONOMY UNDER THE MAURYAS

Administration

o The capital of the Mauryan Empire was Pataliputra

o The Empire was divided into four provinces

o Tosali (in the east)

o Ujjain (in the west)

o Taxila (in the north)

o Suvarnagiri (in the south)

o The King’s representative at the provincial level was a royal prince titled Kumara

o The Emperor was assisted in the administration by a Council of Ministers called the Mantriparishad

o The Mauryan Empire also had an extensive and efficient civil service that managed everything from

municipal hygiene to international trade


Economy

o Chandragupta Maurya introduced a single currency across India

o International trade with the Greek kingdoms through the Kybher Pass was extensive

o Exports included silk goods, textiles, spices and exotic foods


THE EDICTS OF ASOKA

About the Edicts

Map of the Edicts of Asoka

o The Edicts of Asoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions

o The inscriptions are found in the form of Rock Edicts, Pillar Edicts and assorted inscriptions on boulders

and cave walls

o The inscriptions are found throughout the Indian subcontinent

o The language of the inscriptions is

o Magadhi, using the Brahmi script (in the east)

o Sanskrit, using the Kharosthi script (in the west)

o One Edict in Greek

o One Edict in Greek and Aramaic

o The seven Pillar Edicts of Asoka are located at

o Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh – Lion Capital

o Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh – Lion Capital

o Rampurva, Bihar – Bull and Lion

o Sankassa, Uttar Pradesh – Elephant

o Vaishali, Bihar – Lion Capital

o Lauriya-Areraj and Lauriya-Nandangarh, Bihar – Lion Capital

o The Edicts were decodified by British archaeologist James Prinsep in 1820-1830

o The Lion Capital at Sarnath is currently used as the national emblem of India, while India’s national

flag uses Asoka’s Chakra


Major Rock Edicts

Edict

numberEdict description

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edicts_of_Ashoka

I Prohibition of animal sacrifice

II Medical treatment of humans and animals

III Declares liberality towards Brahmanas and Sramanas

IV

Announces that policy of Dhamma has checked lack of violence and

morality

Declares Bheri Ghosha replaced by Dhamma Ghosha

V Mentions appointment of Dhammamahamatas

VI Mentions Mantri Parishad

VII Religious tolerance

VIII Mentions he went to Bodh Gaya

IXMorality and conduct

Uselessness of ceremonies

X Mentions that the king does not desire fame or glory

XI Explains policy of dhamma

XII Appeals for tolerance among religious sects

XIIIMentions Kalinga War

Partly written in Greek

XIV Mentions the purpose of the Rock Edicts


Minor Rock Edicts

Edict Description

Kandahar Rock

EdictWritten in Greek and Aramaic

Bhabru InscriptionMentions Asoka’s conversion to

Buddhism

Barabar Inscription Enjoins religious tolerance

Tarai Pillars Mention Asoka’s respect for Buddhism

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Pillar Edicts

Edict

numberEdict description

I Mentions the social code

II Mentions eye donation

III Mentions soul and sin

IV Mentions Rajukas

V Mentions animal killing

VI Mentions welfare of people

VIIMentions

Dhammamahamatas

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DECLINE OF THE MAURYA EMPIRE

o The Mauryan Empire was dissolved in c. 185 BCE with the assassination of the last ruler Bhrihadrata

by his commander-in-chief Pushyamitra Sunga

o The fall of the Mauryan Empire led to foreign invasions and the establishment of Indo-Greek kingdoms in

the northwest

o Causes of the Mauryan decline include

o Weak successors to Asoka

o Asoka’s pacifist policies

o Financial crisis

o Centralized government and bureaucracy

THE SUNGAS

o The Sungas ruled Magadha from c. 185 BCE to c. 73 BCE

o The Sunga Empire was established upon the fall of the Mauryas

o The capital of the Sungas were Pataliputra and Vidisha (Besnagar)

o The founder of the Sunga dynasty was Pushyamitra Sunga

o His son, Agnimitra Sunga, was the hero of Kalidasa’s drama Malavikaagnimitra

o Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras and Mahabhasya were composed during this period

o The Sungas were succeeded by the Kanvas in about 73 BCE

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THE SATAVAHANAS

o The Satavahanas were a dynasty that ruled central India from c. 230 BCE to c. 220 CE

o The Satavahanas are also known as Andhras. They were among the earliest adopters of Telugu

o The capital cities of the Satavahanas were Kotilingala (Karimnagar), Pune, Paithan

o The founder of the Satavahana dynasty was Simuka (c. 230 – 207 BCE)

o Other important rulers of the Satavahana dynasty include Satakarni (c. 180 – 124 BCE) and Gautamiputra

Satakarni (78 – 106 CE)

o The Satavahana king Hala (c 20 – 24 CE) is famous for compiling the collection of Maharashtri

poems called Gaha Sattasai

o The Buddhist stupa at Amaravati was built by the Satavahanas c. 200 CE


THE INDO-GREEKS

About Indo-Greeks

o The Indo-Greeks were descendants of Greek armies that had invaded India during and after the reign

Alexander the Great

o The Indo-Greek kingdom was established by the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius c. 180 BCE

o The kingdom roughly covered the region between eastern Afghanistan in the west to Punjab in the east an

northern Afghanistan in the north to Sind in the south

o The Indo-Greeks combined elements of Greek and Indian languages and religions, producing a fusion of

Greek, Hindu and Buddhist practices

o The Indo-Greeks were known as Yavanas in Indian literature

o The Indo-Greek kingdoms dissolved in about 10 CE following conquests by Indo-Scythians

o Indo-Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India

o Heliodorus was the Ambassador of the Indo-Greek king Antialcidas to the court of Bhaghabadra

Sunga. Heliodorus is famous for erecting the Heliodorus Pillar at Sanchi, in honour of god Vasudeva in

about 110 BCE


Indo-Greek rule

o Alexander the Great invaded Indian in 326 BCE, while retreating left Greek satrapies in the northwest

o Alexander also established Greek colonies in Bactria (central Asia)

o In about c. 180 BCE, following the collapse of the Mauryan Empire, the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius I

invaded northwest India and established Indo-Greek rule

o The Indo-Greek king Menander I (c. 155 – 130 BCE) embraced Buddhism under the sage Nagasena

o Menander I, also known as Milinda, was the most successful Indo-Greek king

o The Milinda Panha is a Buddhist text that records a conversation between Menander and his sage

Nagasena

o Most coins in Greek India were bilingual – Greek and Pali

o In addition to traditional Greek religion, the Indo-Greeks practiced Buddhism, Hinduism and

Zoroastrianism

o Their rule introduced features of Hellenistic art in India, which later developed into Gandhara art


THE INDO-SCYTHIANS

About Indo-Scythians

o The Indo-Scythians were a branch of Scythians that migrated from southern Siberia into Bactria,

Afghanistan and northwest India

o Indo-Scythian rule in India was established around c. 200 BCE and ended around 400 CE

o The first ruler was Maues (Moga) while the last was Rudrasimha III (who belonged to the Western

Satraps)

o Indo-Scythians migrated and invaded India following their nomadic flight from Central Asia due to

conflict with Chinese tribes

o Scythian invasions from Central Asia had profound effect not only on India, but also on Bactria, Parthia

and Rome

o The Sakas were a particular tribe of Indo-Scythians. However, in Indian literature all Indo-Scythians

came to be known as Sakas

o The Junagarh inscription written in 150 CE is the first major inscription to be written in Sanskrit. It

was written by the Saka ruler Rudra Daman I


Indo-Scythian rule

o Indo-Scythians were Buddhists and followed Indo-Greek practices to a large extent

o Indo-Scythian holdings in India were divided mainly into four regions:

o Sind

o Gandhara and Punjab

o Northern Satraps (around Mathura)

o Western Satraps (around Gujarat)

o The Bimaran Casket, one of the earliest representations of the Buddha, is attributed to Indo-

Scythian king Azes II (around 15 BCE)

o The Mathura Lion Capital (1st century CE) is also attributed to the Indo-Scythians


THE INDO-PARTHIANS

o The Indo-Parthians were a branch of Parthians that ruled northwestern India in the first century CE

o They ruled present day Afghanistan, Pakistan and Haryana, Punjab and Kashmir from about 12 BCE to

about 100 CE

o The Indo-Parthian kingdom was established by Gondophares I

o The empire began to fragment following his death

o Their main religion was Zoroastrianism


THE KUSHANAS

About the Kushanas

o The Kushan Empire ruled Bactria, western China and much of northern India in the 1st to 3rd centuries CE

o The Kushans were an Indo-European people based in Bactria and western China.

o They belonged to the Yuezhi tribal confederation, which was forced out from western China, and moved

into Scythian realms in Bactria. Consequently, the Scythians were forced out and migrated southwards to

India and westwards towards Parthia and Rome

o The Kushan Empire was founded by Kujula Kadphises in about c 60 CE


The rule of Kanishka

o Kanishka was the most important Kushana ruler (127 CE – 151 CE)

o The Kushana Empire reached its maximum extent under Kanishka – it extended from north of the Oxus

(Uzbekistan, Tajikistan) to Mathura, including northwest India and Kashmir

o His main capital was at Peshawar, with supplementary capitals at Taxila, Bagram (Afghanistan) and

Mathura

o Kanishka convened the Fourth Buddhist Council in about 100 CE in Kashmir

o The advisor of Kanishka was a Buddhist monk called Asvaghosha

o The Rabatak inscription at Rabatak in Afghanistan is attributed to Kanishka. The inscription,

written in Bactrian and Greek, gives remarkable clues regarding the lineage of the Kushan dynasty

o The Kanishka Stupa at Peshawar was established by Kanishka. The base of the stupa contained the

Kanishka Casket, which contained three bone fragments of the Buddha. The relics of the Buddha are

now in display in Mandalay, while the casket itself is housed at the Peshawar Museum

THE GUPTA EMPIRE

Overview

The Gupta Empire. Territories added by the emperors and the Hun invasions that ultimately destroyed the

empire

o The Gupta Empire c.320 CE to c. 550 CE covered much of the Indian subcontinent

o It was founded in c.320 CE by Sri Gupta

o Important rulers of the Gupta empire were Chandra Gupta I, Samudra Gupta and Chandra Gupta II

o The Gupta period is known as the Golden Age of India due to scientific and artistic achievements

made possible by the sustained peace and prosperity

o The Gupta Empire is also known for the poet Kalidasa, the writing of the Puranas and the

astronomers Varahamihira and Aryabhata

o The Empire collapsed in the 6th century CE following sustained invasions of Huns from Central Asia

o The Chinese travellers Fa Hsien and Yijing visited India during the reign of the Guptas

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IMPORTANT GUPTA EMPERORS

1. Chandra Gupta I

1. The Gupta dynasty first rose to eminence under Chandra Gupta I

2. He ruled c. 319 CE – c. 335 CE

3. Chandra Gupta rose to prominence with his marriage to Kumaradevi, a Licchhavi princess (who were

the main power in Magadha)

4. Chandra Gupta established a realm stretching from Pataliputra to Prayaga (Allahabad)

5. The Gupta Era, which commenced on 26 Feb 320 CE is attributed to the accession of Chandra

Gupta I

2. Samudra Gupta

1. Samudra Gupta succeeded his father Chandra Gupta I

2. He ruled c 335 CE – 380 CE

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IndiaGuptaEmpire.jpg

3. His kingdom stretched from the Himalayas in the north to the Narmada in the south and the Brahmaputra

in the east to the Yamuna in the west

4. Samudra Gupta is known as the Napoleon of India. He is considered to be the one of the greatest

military geniuses in Indian history

5. Samudra Gupta granted permission to the Ceylon king Meghavarman to build a Buddhist monastery in

Bodh Gaya

6. Samudra Gupta performed the Ashvamedha Yaga to underline the importance of his conquests

7. The Samudra Gupta Prashasti, inscribed on the Asoka Pillar, was authored by Harisena. It is an

important source of information regarding his reign

8. Important scholars at his court were Harisena, Vasubandu and Asanga

3. Chandra Gupta II

1. Chandra Gupta II succeeded the Gupta throne after his father Samudra Gupta

2. He ruled 380 CE – 413 CE

3. Chandra Gupta expanded the empire westwards by defeating the Western Satraps (Sakas)

4. The Gupta Empire achieved its greatest extent under Chandra Gupta II, stretching up to the Indus in the

west

5. The court of Chandra Gupta II was graced by the Navaratnas – a group of nine literary experts,

including Kalidasa and Varahamira

6. The Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hsien visited India during the reign of Chandra Gupta II

7. Chandra Gupta II is also known as Vikramaditya

8. The Vikram-Samvat calendar marks the coronation of Chandra Gupta II

9. The iron pillar near the Qutub Minar (Delhi) was erected by Kumara Gupta, in memory of

Chandra Gupta II. Made of 98% wrought iron, it has stood more than 1600 years without rusting or

decomposing


SOCIETY IN THE GUPTA EMPIRE

o The division of society into the four classes was formalized

o However, marriage rules were elastic

o There were multiple types of marriages

o Brahma marriage: a duly dowreyed girl given in marriage to a man of the same class

o Prajapatya marriage: marriage without dowry

o Arsa marriage: token price of a cow and bull is given instead of dowry

o Daiva marriage: girl given to priest in lieu of his fees

o Asura marriage: marriage by purchase

o Rakshasa marriage: marriage by capture

o Paisacha marriage: marriage by abduction

o Gandharva marriage: love marriage


CULTURAL LEGACY OF THE GUPTA EMPIRE

The iron pillar at Delhi erected by Chandra Gupta II has defied corrosion for over 1600 years

o Aryabhata came up with the concept of zero, and postulated that the Earth revolves around the Sun,

and determined the cause of eclipses

o The works of Kalidasa marked the highest point of Sanskrit literature

o Chess originated in the Gupta period

o Indian numerals, the world’s first base 10 numeral system, originated in the Gupta Empire

o The Kama Sutra was written by Vatsayana in the Gupta period

o Varahamihira postulated that moon revolves around the sun


About Aryabhata

o Arybhata (476-550 CE) was the first in a line of great mathematicians-astronomers in India

o His famous works are the Arbhatiyam and the Arya-Siddhanta

o His discoveries in mathematics include

o Value and irrationality of Pi

o Area of a triangle, concept of sine

o Sum of series

o Intermediate equations

o His discoveries relating to astronomy include

o Postulated Heliocentrism i.e. planets revolve around the Sun

o Calculated sidereal rotation (24 hrs) and sidereal year (365 days)

o Computed earth’s circumference

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:QtubIronPillar.JPG

o Discovered cause of eclipses


THE NAVARATNAS IN VIKRAMADITYA’S COURT

Person Author of Famous for

Dhanvantari

One of the world’s first surgeons

Discovered antiseptic properties

of turmeric and preservative

properties of salt

Pioneer of plastic surgery

Kshapanak

Amarasimha Amara-Kosha Thesaurus of Sanskrit

Shanka

Vetal Bhatt

Ghat Karpar

VarahamihiraPancha-Siddhantika

Brihat-Samhita

Postulated that the moon revolves

around the Sun

Kalidasa

Three plays, four poems including

Abhijanashakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram,

Kumarasambhava, Raghuvamsa

One of the most famous literary

figures in Sanskrit

VAKATAKA DYNASTY

o The Vakataka Dynasty ruled parts of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradhesh from the third to fifth century

o The Vakatakas are mentioned in the Puranas

o The Vakataka Dynasty was founded by Vindhyashakti in 250 CE

o The Dynasty had two branches: Pravapura-Nandivardhana branch and Vatsagulma branch

o The Vakatakas patronised the building of Buddhist viharas and chaityas at the Ajanta Caves

Important Vakataka rulers

o Vindhayashakti (250-270 CE) was the founder

o Pravarasena I (270-330 CE) expanded the realm from Bundlekhand in the north to present Andhra Pradesh

in the south

o Harishena (475-500 CE) expanded the kingdom to include Avanti (Malwa) in the north, Kosala

(Chattisgarh) in the east, Nasik in the west and Kuntala (southern Maharashtra) in the south

o The rock cut vihara of Ajanta cave XI was built by Varahadeva, a minister of Harishena

HARSHAVARDHANA

Overview

o Harshavardhana (540-647 CE) was a ruler who ruled northern India for 41 years

o The Vardhana dynasty (although formally not known as such) was founded by Harshavardhana’s father,

Prabhakar Vardhana

o Harshavardhana was crowned king in 606 CE, at the age of 16

o Harshavardhna rule is important for the stability it brought to northern India following the collapse of the

Gupta Empire in the 6thcentury

o The Harshacharita, written by Banabhatta, is a biography of emperor Harsha. The Harshacharita

was the first composition by Bana and the first historical work in Sanskrit

o After Harsha’s death in 647 CE, without any heirs, his empire died with him

Harsha’s rule

o Harsha established his capital at Kanauj

o The extent of Harsha’s territory included Gujarat in the west, Punjab in the northwest, Magadha in the east

and the river Narmada in the south

o Harsha was prevented from conquering south of Narmada by Chalukya king Pulakesi II, who defeated

Harsha’s army in 620 CE

o Harsha converted to Buddhism

o Harsha was the author of the Sankrit plays Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarsika

o Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang visited Harsha’s kingdom in 636 CE and is a valuable source of information

o Harsha established the fist diplomatic relations between China and India, by sending a mission in

641 CE

ANCIENT INDIA: SOURCES, LITERATURE AND SCIENCE

INFORMATION SOURCES FOR ANCIENT INDIA

Indian literary sources

Source Author Language Date Notes

Veda Samhitas Various Sanskrit1st m.

BCE

Gives account of life of people in addition to

philosophy, religion etc

ArthashastraChanaky

aSanskrit 4th c. BCE

Covers Mauryan period under Chandragupta

Maurya

Treatise on statecraft, economy and military

strategy

Sangam

literatureVarious Tamil

c. 600 BCE –

300 CEPrimarily Dealt with everyday themes

Foreign literary sources

Source Author Language Date Notes

Indika Megasthenes Greek 4th c. BCE

Ambassador of Seleucus I to court of

Chandragupta Maurya

Used by later writers Strabo and Arrian

Describes geography, politics, various

kingdoms, caste system

Indica Arrian Greek 1st c. CE

Considered one of most important sources about

India

Covers travel of Alexander’s officer Nearchus

from India to Babylon

Covers geography, esp. Indus and Ganges

Describes social structure

Describes seven castes, physical appearance,

absence of slavery

Used Indika (Megasthenes) as source

Geographica Strabo Greek 1st c. CE

Descriptive history of people and places all over

the world

Consists of 17 volumes of material

Fa-Hien ChineseAround 400

CE

Travelled to India/Ceylon to obtain Buddhist

scriptures

Epigraphical sources

Note that more than 55% of epigraphical inscriptions in India are in Tamil

Inscription LocationAttributed to

(date)Notes

Indus valley

inscriptionsIVC

c. 2600 – 1900

BCEIndus script remains undeciphered

Edicts of Asoka All over IndiaAsoka

3rd c. BCE

In Praktrit, Sanskrit, Greek

See here for details

Heliodorus pillar Besnagar c. 110 BCE In Sanskrit (Brahmi)

(Madhya

Pradesh)

Dedicated by Heliodorus to god Vasudeva

Heliodorus was the Ambassador of Indo-Greek

king Antialcidas to court of Sunga king

Bhagabhadra

Describes relationship b/w Sungas and Indo-

Greeks

Hathigumpha

incription

Udayagiri

(Orissa)

Kharavela

(Kalinga)

(150 BCE)

In Prakrit (Brahmi script)

Main source of info about Kharavela

Mentions conflict with Demetrius

Mentions conflict with Uttarapatha

Rabatak

inscription

Rabatak

(Afghanistan)

Kanishka

127-151 CE

In Bactrian (Greek script)

Describes Kushan dynasty

Halmidi

inscription

Halmidi

(Karnataka)c. 450 CE Oldest inscription in Kannada (Brahmi script)

LITERATURE IN ANCIENT INDIA

Important ancient Sanskrit literature

Work CategoryAuthor

(date)Notes

Mahabharata Epic Vyasa

Ramayana Epic Valmiki

AshtadhyayiTreatise on

grammar

Panini

(5th -4th c.

BCE)

One of the earliest known grammars of

Sanskrit

NiruktaTreatise on

grammarYaksa

Mrichakatika PlayShudraka

(2nd c. BCE)

Set in Pataliputra

Hindi film Utsav was based on this

Karnabhara,

CharudattaPlay

Bhasa

(1st BCE –

4thCE)

Bhasa wrote about 13 plays

He is considered to be one of most important

Sanskrit authors (after Kalidasa)

Urubhanga Play Bhasa Based on Mahabharata

Depicts story of Duryodhana after fight with

Bhima

Madhyamavyayoga Play Bhasa Based on the Mahabharata

Malavikagnimitram Play

Kalidasa

(4th -5th CE)

Gupta period

Tells the story of King Agnimitra falling in

love with servant girl Malavika

Agnimitra was the son and successor to

Pushyamitra Sunga

Abhijanasakuntalam Play Kalidasa

Tells story of king Dushyanta and his marriage

to Shankuntala

Considered to be Kalidasa’s most popular

play

Vikramaorvasiyam Play KalidasaStory of king Pururavas in love with celestial

Urvashi

Raghuvamsa Poetry Kalidasa Kings of Raghu dynasty

Kumarasambhava Poetry Kalidasa Story of birth of Karthikeya

Rtusamhara Poetry Kalidasa Describes six seasons using context of love

Meghaduta Poetry Kalidasa

Story of a Yaksha sending a message to his

lover through a cloud

One of Kalidasa’s most popular poems

Ratnavali PlayHarshavardhana

(590-647 CE)

Story of king Udayana and princess Ratnavali

Contains one of the earliest references to

festival Holi

Nagananda Play HarshavardhanaDescribes prince Jimutavahana’s self-sacrifice

to save serpents

Priyadarsika Play Harshavardhana

Kiratarjuniya Poetry Bharavi Describes contest b/w Arjuna and lord Shiva

Shishupala Vadha Poetry Magha

Important ancient literature in Tamil

Note that Sangam literature itself contains about 2400 poems by more than 470 poets. For obvious

reasons, not all of them can be listed here

Work Categor Author Notes

y

Ettuthokai Poetry

Various

(600 BCE-

300 BCE)

Part of Sangam literature

Ettuthokai contains 8 anthologies:

Ainkurunuru, Akananuru, Purananuru, Kalittokai,

Kuruntokai, Narrinai, Paripatal, Patirrupattu

Each of these anthologies in turn contain hundreds of

poems by multiple authors

Deals with two themes: Akam (personal life) and

Puram (war, politics)

See here for more information on the Ettuthokai

Pathupattu Poetry Various

Part of Sangam literature

Pathupattu contains 10 idylls (mid length books):

Tirumurugattruppatai, Kurinjipattu, Malaipatukatam,

Maturaikkanji, Mullaipattu, Netunalvatai, Pattinappalai,

Perumpanatrupatai, Porunaratruppatai, Sirupanatrupatai

Deals mainly with themes of nature

See here for more information on Pathupattu

Tolkappiyam Grammar Tolkappiyar Earliest available work of Tamil literature

Aimperumkappiyam Epics Various

Collection of five large narrative epics

The five epics were: Silappadhigaram, Manimegalai,

Sivaka Chintamani, Valayapathi and Kundalakesi

Specific epics described below

Silappadhigaram EpicIlango Adigal

(1st c. CE)

Describes story of Kannagi in her quest to save husband

Kovalan

Describes in detail life, politics, trade, settlements of

Greeks etc

Story evolves in themes of three: three kingdoms,

three heroes, three heroines etc

Considered one of most important ancient Tamil

literature

Manimegalai Epic Seethalai

Sathanar

Story of Manimegalai, daughter of Kovalan

Sequel to Silappadhigaram

(1st-2nd c. CE)

Sivaka Chintamani Epic TirutakkatevarStory of man who becomes king and then renounces

throne

Valayapathi Epic Unknown Work lost

Kundalakesi Epic Nagakuthanar

Original work lost, only fragments survive

Supposedly describes story of Buddhist monk

Kundalakesi

Tirukkural Ethics Thiruvalluvar

Couplets of ethics

Contains 1330 couplets

Thirukkural remains the book translated into most

number of languages in the world

SCIENCE IN ANCIENT INDIA

Work Subject Author Notes

Vedanga Jyotisha AstrologyLagadha

(1st c. BCE)

Describes rules for tracking motion of

sun and moon

Yavanajataka AstrologySphujidvaja

1st-2nd c. CE)

Translated it mean “Nativity as per the

Greeks”

It is a collection of astrology-related

ideas borrowed from Greek world

Gives rules for building horoscopes

Surya Siddhanta AstronomyEstablishes rules to determine motions

of stellar objects

Paulisa Siddhanta

(Doctrine of Paul)Astronomy

Based on works of Paul of Alexandria

(c. 378 CE)

Romaka Siddhanta

(Doctrine of the

Romans)

Astronomy

Based on works of Rome

It is the only Indian work based on

the tropical system

Vasishta Siddhanta Astronomy Attributed to sage Vasishta

Panchasiddhantika Astronomy Varahamihira

(c. 550 CE)

Work that compares five treatises on

astronomy viz. Surya Siddhanta,

Paulisa Siddhanta, Romaka Siddhanta,

Vasishta Siddhanta and Paitamaha

Siddhanta

Sulba sutras Mathematics

Baudhayana (c. 800

BCE), Apasthamba (c.

600 BCE), Katyayana

(c. 200 BCE)

Baudhayana enumerated the

Pythagoras theorem. He also

described square root of 2 and

geometric shapes such as squares and

rectangles

Apasthamba and Katyayana

developed these principles further

Chandahsastra MathematicsPingala

(4th-2nd c. BCE)

First known description of binary

numeral system in the world

Also describes Pascal’s triangle,

binomial theorem and Fibonacci

numbers

AryabhatiyaAstronomy,

mathematics

Aryabhata

(c 522 CE)

Introduced decimal value notation

Describes heliocentric model of

solar system

Explained lunar and solar eclipses

Gave duration of one year as 365

days 6 hrs 12 min 30 sec

Gave value of pi (3.1416)

Correctly calculated earth’s

circumference as 24,835 miles

Aryabhata’s principles are still in

use for fixing the Hindu calendar

Panchanga

MahabhaskariyaMathematics,

astronomy

Bhaskara I

(c. 600 – 680 CE)

Representation of numbers in

positional system

Solved Wilson’s theorem and Pell

equation

Brahmasputasiddhanta Mathematics,

astronomy

Brahmagupta

(c. 630 CE)

Describes solution of linear equation

Solve system of simultaneous

indeterminate equations

Sum of series

Introduced the concept of zero

Formula for cyclic quadrilaterals

Rebutted the idea that moon is

farther from earth than the sun

THE CHALUKYAS OF BADAMI

This post focuses on the early Chalukyas (6th-8th centuries CE) of Badami. The later Chalukyas (Western

and Eastern) will be dealt with in later posts

Overview

Chalukya territories under Pulakesi II (c. 630 CE)

o The Chalukyas ruled large parts of central and southern India between the 6th and 12th centuries

o The Chalukyas consisted of three related dynasties

o Badami Chalukyas – earliest dynasty, 6th-8th centuries CE

o Eastern Chalukyas – 6th – 11th centuries

o Western Chalukyas – 10th-12th centuries

o Chalukya rule was concentrated around present day Karnataka

o The Chalukyas were the earliest known proponents of Kannada and were an important contributor

to the growth of Kannada language

o Inscriptions from Chalukya period are mainly in Kannada and Sanskrit

About the Chalukyas of Badami

o The Chalukya kingdom was established by Pulakesi I in 543 CE

o The capital of the Chalukya kingdom was Vatapi (modern Badami)

o This family of early Chalukyas is known as Chalukyas of Badami

o The Chalukyas of Badami ruled over all of Karnataka and parts of Andhra Pradesh

About Pulakesi II

o Pulakesi II, the son of Pulakesi I, was the most famous Chalukya emperor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty

o Pulakesi II defeated Harshavardhana on the banks of the Narmada and halted the southern

expansion of Harsha’s kingdom

o Pulakesi II also extended the Chalukya kingdom up to the northern portions of the Pallava kingdom in the

south

o Pulakesi II is famous for the Aihole inscription, which gives details regarding his defeat of Harsha

Chalukyas and Pallavas

The Virupaksha Temple at Pattadakal, Karnataka

o The Chalukyas of Badami and the Pallavas (of Kanchipuram) were in constant and continuous

conflict for more than 200 years

o Pulakesi II defeated the Pallava king Mahendravarman I and occupied large parts of northern Pallava

kingdom

o However, Mahendravarman’s son Narasimhavarman I defeated Pulakesi II, annexed large parts of the

Chalukya kingdom and occupied Badami temporarily

o This was again reversed by Chalukya Vikramaditya II who defeated Pallava Nandivarman II and carved a

Kannada inscription on the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram

Architecture under the Chalukyas of Badami

o The architecture of Badami Chalukyas marked an important phase in development of South Indian

architecture

o Their style of architecture is also called Karnata Dravida architecture

o Most of their architectural work is concentrated in small area of the Chalukyan heartland in northern

Karnataka

o The earliest phase of architecture consists of cave temples at Aihole and Badami (6th century). These

temples had plan exteriors but exceptionally well finished interiors including pillared verandah, columned

hall etc

o The second phase was in Aihole and Badami (7th century).

Important temples include: Lad Khan Temple (Aihole), and Meguti Jain Temple, Durga Temple,

Huccimalli Gudi Temple at Badami

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Virupaksha_temple_at_Pattadakal.jpg

o The final and mature phase was in Pattadakal and Badami (8th century). Famous temples

include: Bhutanatha Temples at Badami, Sangameswara, Virupaksha and Mallikarjuna Temples at

Pattadakal

o Chalukya architecture is known for its fusion of nagara and dravida architectural styles

o Pattadakal is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site

THE PALLAVAS

Pallava territories under Narasimhavarman I (c. 650 CE)

Overview

o The Pallavas ruled northern Tamil Nadu and all of Andhra Pradesh between the 3rd and 9th centuries CE

o The capital of the Pallavas was Kanchipuram

o The most famous kings of the Pallavas were Mahendravarman I (600-630 CE) and Narasimhavarman I

(630-668 CE)

o Throughout their reign, the Pallavas were in constant and continuous conflict with the Chalukyas of

Badami as well the Cholas and Pandiyas to the south

o The Pallavas are most famous for their patronage of architecture (eg at Mahabalipuram)

o Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsand visited Kanchipuram during Pallava rule and extolled their benign

rule

o Pallava Simhavishnu, along with Pandya Kadungon, are credited with ending the much disliked Kalabhra

rule in Tamil Nadu c. 600 CE

o The official language of the Pallavas was Tamil, but they patronised Sanskrit and Telugu as well

About Mahendravarman I (600-630 CE)

o Mahendravarman I was a great patron of literature, art and architecture

o He is the author of the Sanskrit play Mattivilasa Prahasana

o He was initially a Jain, but reconverted to Hinduism under the Saiva saint Appar

o Mahendravarman I is considered to be the pioneer of rock cut architecture among the Pallavas

o He also contributed greatly to the Sanskrit dramatised dance worship Kuttiyattam

o He is also credited with inventing the seven string veena called Parivadhini

About Narasimhavarman I (630-668 CE)

o Narasimhavarman I was the most famous of Pallava rulers

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallava

o He avenged his father’s defeat at the hands of the Chalukyas by defeating Pulakesi II in 642 CE and

occupying Badami (Vatapi) temporarily. He then assumed the title Vatapikondan

o Narasimhavarman I was also known by the name Mammallan

(great wrestler)

o The Chinese Buddhist traveller Hiuen Tsang visited Kanchipuram during his reign

o The majority of the monuments at Mahabalipuram were constructed during the reign of

Narasimhavarman I

About the monuments at Mahabalipuram

The Descent of the Ganges at Mahabalipuram, the largest open air rock-relief in the world

o The known structures at Mahabalipuram were built by Narasimhavarman I

o The structures are mostly rock-cut and monolithic

o The monuments are Mahabalipuram have been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site (1984)

o There are four main categories of monuments at Mahabalipuram

o Ratha Temples: temples in the form of chariots. There are five such structures making the Pancha

Rathas

o Mandapas: cave sanctuaries covered with bas-reliefs. There are 11 such structures

o Rock relief: sculpted bas-relief on rocks

o Temples: temples cut out of rock

List of important structures at Mahabalipuram

Structure Category Notes

Decent of the

Ganges

(Arjuna’s

Penance)

Bas-relief

Giant open-air relief carved out of monolithic rock

Largest open-air rock relief in the world

Interpreted to describe the descent of the river Ganges to earth

(or)

to describe the penance of Arjuna to receive a boon from Siva

Also known as Bhagiratha’s Penance

Varaha Cave

Temple

Rock-cut cave

temple

Small monolithic temple

Other cave temples include Krishna Cave Temple, Pancha

Pandava Cave Temple

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descent_of_the_Ganges_%28Mahabalipuram%29

Five Rathas Rock-cut temple

The Pancha Rathasconsist of five temples, each in the shape of a

chariot

The temples were all carved out of a single large piece of stone

Shore Temple Structural temple

Built with blocks of granite

Sits on the shoreline of the Bay of Bengal

Unlike other temples at Mahabalipuram, this is structural not

rock-cut

It is the earliest important structural temple in southern India

Recent archaeological findings at Mahabalipuram

o There has been a long standing legend about the Seven Pagodas at Mahabalipuram, i.e. seven rock temples

supposedly built on the shore. Until recently, no evidence to support the legend was found

o However, the Indian Ocean Tsunami 2004 disrupted the shoreline and has exposed previously

sunken monuments at Mahabalipuram

o The most significant development was the uncovering of a large lion statue on the shore, dated to the

7th century

o Also uncovered was a small brick structure dated to the Sangam period, before the time of the Pallavas

o Following this, the ASI and the Indian Navy explored the waters off Mahabalipuram in 2005 and found

remains of two temples, one cave temple and a stone wall

o Further research is awaited

THE RASHTRAKUTAS

Overview

o The Rashtrakutas ruled large parts of southern and central India from the 6th to the 10th centuries CE

o The Rashtrakutas emerged as a power after overthrowing the Chalukya Kiritivarman II in c. 753 CE

o The Rashtrakutas were based around the Gulbarga region of modern Karnataka

o The capital city of the Rashtrakutas was Manykheta (Karnataka)

o The Rashtrakutas were in continuous conflict with the Palas and the Pratiharas for more than two

centuries

Extent and lineage

The Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora, built by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I

o The Rashtrakuta dynasty was established by Dantidurga who overthrew the Chalukyas in 753 CE

o At the height of their power, the Rashtrakutas kingdom included all of Karnataka and Maharashtra and

parts of Andhra Pradesh

o The most important kings of the Rashtrakutas were Dhruva Dharavarsha (780-793 CE), Govinda III (793-

814 CE) and Amogavarsha (800-878 CE)

Administration, economy and society

o The Rashtrakutas issued coins in silver and gold

o The various currency denominations were Suvarnas (silver) and Drammas (gold) weighing 65 grains,

Kalanju (48 grains), Gadyanaka (96 grains), Kasu (15 grains), Manjati (2.5 grains) and Akkam (1.25

grains)

Literature

o Kannada literature attained prominence and importance during the reign of the Rashtrakutas

o Kavirajamarga by king Amogavarsha is the earliest available literary work in

Kannada. Amoghavarsha also wrote thePrashnottara Ratnamalika, a religious work in Sanskrit

o Adipurana, a life history of the first Jain Tirthankara Rishabadeva in Kannada, was written by

Pampa (c. 950 CE). Pampa also wrote the Vikaramarjuna Vijaya, based on the Mahabharata story. Pampa

is recognised as one of the most famous Kannada writers

o Another Jain writer, Sri Ponna, wrote the history of the 16th Jain Tirthankara Shantinatha,

entitled Shantipurana. His other writings in Kannada included Bhuvanaika-Karamabhyudaya,

Jinaksaramale and Gataprataigata

o Trikrama (c. 915 CE) wrote the Nalachampu, Damayanthi Katha and Madalaschampu in Kannada

Art and Architecture

o The Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora (Maharashtra) was constructed by the Rashtrakuta king

Krishna I (c. 8th century CE). The Kailasanatha Temple was carved out of a single rock, and is known

for its vertical excavation i.e. it was carved starting from the top and proceeding downwards. The

Kailasantha Temple is considered to be the pinnacle of Rashtrakuta architecture

o The Rashtrakutas also built some of the sculptures at the Elephanta Caves near Mumbai

http://iashelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/KailasanathaTemple.jpg

o Other famous Rashtrakuta architecture include the Kasiviswanatha Temple and Jain Narayana temple at

Pattadakal, Karnataka and the Navalinga Temple at Kuknur, Karnataka

o The architectural style used by the Rashtrakutas was primarily Dravidian

THE PALAS

Overview

o The Palas ruled Bengal and much of northern India from the 8th to the 12th centuries CE

o The capital cities of the Palas were Pataliputra (Bihar) and Gaur (West Bengal)

o The Palas were in continuous conflict with the Rashtrakutas and the Pratiharas for more than two centuries

o The Palas patronized the Buddhist universities at Vikramashila and Nalanda. The Nalanda University

reached its height during the reign of the Palas

o Dharmapala constructed the Somapura Mahavira, the biggest Buddhist Vihara in Indian

subcontinent. The Somapura Mahavira, located at Paharpur (Bangladesh) is a UNESCO World Heritage

Site (1985)

Extent and lineage

The Somapura Mahavihara, built by the Pala emperor Dharmapala, is the largest Buddhist vihara in the

Indian subcontinent. It is located in Paharpur, Bangladesh

o The Pala dynasty was established by Gopala (750-770 CE) who came to power in a democratic

election. This event is said to be the first democratic elections in India since the time of the

Mahajanapadas

o The Pala kingdom reached its peak under Dharmapala (770-810) and Devapala (810-850)

o At its height, the Pala kingdom extended from Assam in the east to Kandahar in the west, and Punjab in

the north to the Deccan in the south

Literature

o The earliest development of proto-Bangla language was during the Pala reign

o The Buddhist texts Charyapada were the earliest form of Bangla language. The Charyapada are a

collection of mystical poems from the Tantric school of Buddhism

http://iashelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/SomapuraMahavihara.JPG

o The Buddhist teacher Atisha Dipankara Shrijana wrote over 200 books, primarily translations of Sanskrit

Buddhist manuscripts into Tibetan

o Sandhyakar Nandi wrote the famous epic poem Ramacharitam in Sanskrit (c. late 11th century). The

Ramacharitam simultaneously narrates the story of the Ramayana as well as events in Bengal during the

Pala reign in a poem containing 215 verses

PRATIHARAS

Overview

o The Pratiharas ruled much of northern India from the 6th to the 11th centuries CE

o Also known as Gurjara Pratiharas, they are associated with the Gujjar tribe and are considered to be

Rajputs clans

o The capital city of the Pratiharas were Kannauj and Avanti.

o The Pratiharas used Sanskrit, Marwari and Malwi as official languages

o The Pratiharas were in continuous conflict with the Rashtrakutas and the Palas for more than two centuries

o The Pratiharas are credited with repulsing Arab invasions in western India in the 7th and

8th centuries CE

o The Pratiharas weakened over a period of time, due to having to fight the Palas and Rashtrakutas as well

as Arab armies from the west

Extent and lineage

o The Pratihara dynasty is said to have been founded by Harichandra in the 6th century

o Nagabhata I (730-756 CE) was the first important ruler. He defeated the advancing Arab armies at the

Battle of Rajasthan (738 CE)

o Vatsaraja (775-805 CE) sought to capture Kannauj, which brought them into conflict with the Palas and

the Rashtrakutas. His attempts were unsuccessful

o Nagabhata II (805-833 CE) rebuilt the great Shiva temple at Somnath which had been earlier

destroyed by Junaid of Sind

Conflict with Arab invaders

The Rashtrakutas, Pratiharas and Palas were in continuous conflict for over two centuries. The focal point

of the conflict was the Kannauj Triangle.

o The Sind region had been captured by Muhammad bin Qasim in 710 CE

o His successor and Governor of Sind, Junaid, led an invasion into western and northern India in 738 CE

o Junaid was defeated by the Rashtrakutas at Navsari (Gujarat) and by the Pratihara king Nagabhata

I at Avanti

o Nagabhata pursued the Arab armies as far as the Indus river ensuring that the Arabs remained on the other

side of the Indus

o The Pratiharas acted as a buffer against Arab armies from the west for the next two centuries and are

credited with checking Arab advances into India

THE KANNAUJ TRIANGLE

o The Rashtrakutas, Palas and Pratiharas were locked in continuous conflict between the 8th and

10th centuries CE

o This tripartite struggle was primarily over control of Kannauj and the fertile Gangetic plains

around it

o The earliest known reference to the struggle is from the late 8th century: Dharmapala defeated the Pratihara

king Indraraja and captured Kannauj, only to be defeated by the Pratihara Vatsaraja, who was himself

defeated by the Rashtrakuta Dhruva. Dharmapala retrieved Kannauj from the Rashtrakutas, but Kannauj

was once again conquered by the Pratihara Nagabhata

o The area around Kannauj, called the Kannauj triangle kept changing hand throughout the tripartite struggle

THE (LATER) CHOLAS

Overview

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o The Cholas, along with the Cheras and Pandyas, are considered to be among the oldest and longest

dynasties in Indian history. They ruled southern India in the later parts of the first millennium BC

(Sangam period), and supposedly in even earlier pre-historical epochs as mentioned in ancient Tamil

literature

o However, this article deals only with the later Cholas, about whom concrete literary, epigraphical and

archaeological evidence has been established. In this article Cholas refers to later Cholas

o The Cholas ruled large parts of Southern India including Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and parts of

Karnataka from the 9th to 13th centuries CE

o The lasting legacies of the Cholas include some of the most important works of Tamil literature and

magnificent temples and monuments

o The Cholas are also known for their powerful navy with blue-water capabilities, that allowed them to

project power as far away as Indonesia

o The capital of the Cholas were Tanjore and Gangaikonda Cholapuram

The Chola Empire at its peak under Rajendra Chola (c. 1030 CE)

o The heartland of the Chola territory was the fertile Kaveri valley

centred around Tanjore

o The Cholas came into prominence in the 9th century under Vijayalaya

Chola (c. 850 CE)

o Important Chola kings include Parantaka Chola (c. 925 CE), Sundara Chola (c. 950 CE), Rajaraja Chola

(c. 985-1014 CE), Rajendra Chola (c. 1012-1044 CE) and Kulothunga Chola (1070-1120 CE)

o The Chola empire stretched from Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari-Krishna basin in the north.

o Additionally, large parts of north eastern India and South East Asia were conquered by Rajendra

Chola, and were under Chola suzerainty. These included the Ganga-Hoogly-Damodar basin, Indo-

China (Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam), Burma, Malaysia and Indonesia.

o Rajendra Chola, the most successful Chola emperor, took on titles such as Gangaikonda

Cholan and Mudikonda Cholan

o To commemorate his successful campaigns to the Ganges, Rajendra Chola founded the city of

Gangaikonda Cholapuram, which served as the capital for over 200 years until the dissolution of the

Chola empire in the 13th century

o Following generations of inter-marriage between the Cholas and the Eastern

Chalukyas (of Vengi), the Chalukya prince Rajendra Chalukya ascended the

Chola throne under the name Kulothunga Chola (1070 CE). The line of

Chola rulers following Kulothunga Chola are also known as Chalukya-

Cholas

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rajendra_map_new.png

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brihadisvara_Temple

The Brihadeeswarar Temple in Tanjore, built by Rajaraja Chola, is the largest and tallest temple in India.

The main Vimana towers over 16 storeys high, and is topped by a single granite stone weighing over 81

tonnes

o The Chola Empire was the first to bring all of south India under a common government

o The capital of the Cholas was Tanjore, and later Gangaikonda Cholapuram

o The Cholas pioneered a system of highly organised governance where a careful balance was achieved

between central control and local independence in administrative matters

o Every village in the empire was a self-governing unit

o Several villages made up a Korram, several Korrams made up a Valanadu, and severalValanadus made up

a Mandalam (i.e. province)

o The Cholas also pioneered the concept of immediately recording oral orders given by king in written

form. A special official, Tirumandira Olai Nayagan, was tasked specifically with recording these oral

orders in palm leaf manuscripts

o The Chola empire had extensive trade relations with Sri Vijaya (Indonesia), China (Tang Dynasty) and the

Abassid Caliphate (Baghdad)

o The Cholas maintained a powerful and well-organised Navy, that it used for power projection, piracy

control and trade convoy escorting

Art and Architecture under the Cholas

o The period of the Cholas was an age of continuous improvement and refinement of Dravidian art and

architecture

o The most famous aspects of Chola art and architecture includes their exquisite bronze sculptures and

massive stone temples

o The Brihadeeswarar Temple at Tanjore, built by Rajaraja Chola (c. 1002 CE), is considered to be the

pinnacle of Chola architecture. The temple, the largest and tallest in India, is also the first complete granite

structure in the world

o The UNESCO World Heritage Site Great Living Chola Temples consists of three temples constructed

by the Cholas:

o Brihadeeswarar Temple (Tanjore)

o Airavateswarar Temple (Darasuram)

o Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple (Gangaikonda Cholapuram)

o The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes, many of which are housed in museums

around the world. Among the most famous Chola bronzes is that of Nataraja, depicting Siva in the cosmic

dance of creation and destruction

The Great Living Chola Temples

The Great Living Chola Temples are a UNESCO World Heritage Site

Temple Location Date/Built by Notes

Brihadeeswarar

TempleTanjore (Tamil Nadu)

c. 1006

CE/Rajaraja Chola

Largest and tallest temple in India

Served as the royal temple of the

Cholas being the site of important

royal ceremonies

Also known as Peruvudaiyar

Temple

Gangaikonda

Cholapuram Temple

Gangaikonda

Cholapuram (Tamil

Nadu)

c. 1025

CE/Rajendra Chola

Airavateswarar

Temple

Darasuram (Tamil

Nadu)

12th century

CE/Rajaraja Chola

II

Literature under the Cholas

o The Chola period is noted for the flourishing Tamil literature during this period

The Airavateswar Temple at Darasuram was built by Rajaraja Chola II. The temple, whose sanctum is

in the form of a chariot, is known for the exquisite details of sculptures

o Important epigraphical inscriptions have been found in the various temples constructed during this period

o The most famous works of literature include

o Ramavataram by the poet Kamban, which describes the story of the Ramayana

o Kalingattubarani by Ottakuttan, which describes the conquest of Kalinga (Orissa) by Kulothunga

Chola

THE (LATER) CHALUKYAS

Overview

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o This article deals with the later Chalukyas, who ruled south central India including Karnataka, Andhra

Pradesh and Maharashtra in the 10th-12th centuries CE

o For the earlier Chalukyas who ruled in the 6th century from Badami, see this earlier article

o The later Chalukyas were divided into two contemporaneous kingdoms:

o Western Chalukyas who ruled from Kalyani (Karnataka)

o Eastern Chalukyas who ruled from Vengi (Andhra Pradesh)

o Both the Western Chalukyas and Eastern Chalukyas were descendants of the Chalukyas of

Badami. In a sense they were cousins, but they were in conflict with each other

o The Eastern Chalukyas were allied with the Cholas, and the Eastern Chalukya kingdom was absorbed into

the Chola Empire in the 12th century. On the other hand, the Western Chalukyas were bitterly opposed to

the Cholas, and the two were in constant conflict for over two centuries

WESTERN CHALUKYAS

o The Western Chalukyas ruled most of the western Deccan between the 10th and

12th centuries

o The Western Chalukyas came into prominence under Tailapa II after overthrowing

the Rashtrakutas in 973 CE.

o The capital of the Western Chalukyas was Kalyani (Karnataka). Their territories

included most of Karnataka, almost all of Maharashtra and parts of Andhra Pradesh

o The most important ruler of the Western Chalukyas was Vikramaditya VI (1076-1126 CE)

o The Western Chalukyas were in constant conflict with the Cholas over control of the fertile region

of Vengi in Andhra Pradesh

o A series of defeats by the more powerful Cholas gradually weakened the kingdom, with its territory

shrinking significantly in the mid 11th century (c. 1050 CE)

o The continuous wars with the Cholas eventually exhausted the Western Chalukyas, and the dynasty was

overthrown by feudatories including the Hoysalas in 1190 CE

Society under the Western Chalukyas

o The Western Chalukyas followed the administrative and social set up of the preceding Rashtrakuta

kingdom to a large extent

o They minted punch marked gold coins, called Pagodas, with Kannada and Nagari legends

o Merchants organised themselves into large guilds that transcended political divisions, allowing their

operations to be largely unaffected by wars. Powerful guilds included the

o Manigramam (Cochin)

o Nagarattar (Nagapattinam, Tamil Nadu)

o Anjuvannam (Poompuhar, Tamil Nadu)

o Ainnurruvar (Aihole, Karnataka) – this was the most powerful guild

o These trade guilds fiercely protected their trade interests and recorded their achievements in inscriptions

known as Prasasti

o Trade ties flourished with Magadha, Nepal, Cambodia, Persia, China and the Abbasid Caliphate in

Baghdad.

o Important trade items included precious stones like diamond, emeralds, topaz etc and spices such as

cardamom, saffron and cloves

o With the rise of the Western Chalukyas and the Cholas, patronage for Jainism declined. Buddhism had

already been in decline in South India since the 8th century following the preachings of the Adi Shankara

o Jainism gradually declined and only flourished in two regions: Shravanabelagola and

Kadambahalli, both in Karnataka

o The only places of Buddhist worship that remained were Dambal and Balligavi, both in Karnataka

Literature under the Western Chalukyas

o The Western Chalukyas patronised Kannada and Sanskrit literature

o Ranna (c. 980 CE) wrote in Kannada the Saahasabheema Vijayam which narrates the duel between

Bhima and Duryodhana, and the Ajitha Purana which describes the life of the second Jain tirthankara

Ajithanatha

o A unique and native form of Kannada literature called Vachanas developed at this time. They were

written by mystics who expressed their devotion to God in simple language to be understood by the

masses. Basavanna, Akka Mahadevi and Allama Prabhu are famous among them

o The Kashmiri poet Bilhana wrote the Vikramankadeva Charita in Sanskrit, which recounts the life

of Vikaramaditya VI

o The Sanskrit scholar Vijnaneshwara wrote the Mitakshara, a treatise on law. The composition, which

was based on earlier writings, was later translated into English by the British and given currency in the

Indian court system

The Mahadeva Temple at Itagi (Karnataka)

was built in 1112 CE by Mahadeva, a general

in the army of the Western Chalukya ruler

Vikramaditya VI

o The architecture of the Western Chalukyas

was mainly in the Karnata Dravida style, drawing from the Dravida style

o The Western Chalukya architecture formed a link between the Badami Chalukya architecture of the

7thcentury and the Hoysala architecture of the 12thcentury

o The vimana of their temples is a compromise between the plain style of the early Chalukyas and the

decorative details of the Hoysalas

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o The architecture of the Western Chalukyas was concentrated around the Tungabhadra region of central

Karnataka

o Notable temples include Mahadevi Temple at Itagi, Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi,

Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti and Kallesvara Temple at Bagali

EASTERN CHALUKYAS

o The Eastern Chalukyas ruled parts of Andhra Pradesh from the 7th to the 12th centuries CE

o The capital city was Vengi (Andhra Pradesh)

o The Eastern Chalukyas were descendants of the Chalukyas of Badami (Vatapi), but outlived them

by many generations

o The Eastern Chalukyas developed as an independent kingdom following the death of Pulakesin II in 642

CE

o Much weaker than their distant cousins and rivals the Western Chalukyas, the Eastern Chalukyas

formed a close marital alliance with the Cholas

o The fertile Vengi region of the Eastern Chalukyas was the principal cause of continuous conflict between

the Western Chalukyas and the Cholas

o Following generations of intermarriage, the Eastern Chalukya kingdom was merged into the Chola

Empire in 1130 CE

o The Eastern Chalukyas were instrumental in the development of Telugu literature

o Nannaya Bhatta’s Mahabharata is the oldest available literary work in Telugu (mid 11th century)

THE HOYSALAS

Overview

o The Hoysalas ruled Karnataka and parts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu between

the 11th and 14thcenturies

o The capital city of the Hoysalas was Belur, but later moved to Haleibidu

o The Hoysalas are noted especially for their magnificent temple architecture

o Hoysalas were also instrumental in encouraging Kannada literature

o The Hoysalas rose to prominence under Vishnuvardhana (c. 1120 CE), however were still subordinate to

the Western Chalukyas at the time

o Overthrowing the Western Chalukyas, the Hoysalas became an independent kingdom under Veera

Ballala II (c. 1187-1193 CE)

o Among contemporary South Indian kingdoms, the Hoysalas were

the last to fall to Muslim invasions from the north. They resisted

invasions by Alla-ud-din-Khilji’s general Malik Kafur until

1343, and the kingdom was then absorbed into the newly forming

Vijayanagara Empire

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The Somathapura Temple at Somanathapura (Karnataka) was built in 1268 CE by the Hoysala ruler

Narasimha III

Economy, society and administration

o The Hoysala economy, society and administration pretty much followed that of its predecessors

o Senior ministers were called Pancha Pradhanas, ministers for foreign affairs were

called Sandhivigrahi, chief treasurer Mahabhandari. Chief of army wasDandanayaka and Chief Justice

was Dharmidhakari

o Administrative divisions included Nadu, Vishaya, Kampana and Desha in descending order of their size.

o An elite and well trained force of personal bodyguards called Garudasprotected the royal family at all

times. Their loyalty was so complete that they committed suicide upon the master’s death. Hero stones

erected in memory of these bodyguards are called Garuda pillars

o The Hoysala rulers were mainly Vaishnavites. Hoysala period is known for the preachings of

Ramanujacharya, Basavanna and Madhavacharya, well known Vaishnava saints

Literature

o Although Sanskrit remained popular, Kannada literature was particularly favoured by the Hoysalas

o In 1209, Jaina scholar Janna wrote Yashodhacharite, a story of a king who intends to sacrifice two young

boys to a local deity

o Rudrabhatta, a Smartha Brahmin, wrote Jagannatha Viajaya, relating the life of Lord Krishna up to his

battle with demon Banasura

o Harihara, a Vaishnava, wrote Girijakalyana which describes the marriage of Lord Shiva to Parvati

o In Sanskrit, Madhavacharya wrote the Rigbhasya on Brahmasutras, a logical explanation of the Vedas

Architecture

o The Hoysalas are best known for their architecture, especially in building temples

o The Hoysala architectural style, called Karnata Dravida, was an offshoot of the Chalukya style, which

borrowed from the Dravida style

o A prominent feature of Hoysala architecture is attention to detail and skilled craftsmanship. This high

level of detail was achieved using soapstone for construction

o Important temples include the Chennakesava Temple at Belur, Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu and

the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura

Temple Location Built by Notes

Chennakesava

TempleBelur (Karnataka)

Vishnuvardhana (c.

1117 CE)

Deity is Vishnu

Unusually large compared to other

Hoysala temples

Hoysaleswara

Temple

Halebidu

(Karnataka)

Vishnuvardhana Deity is Shiva

Famous for extremely articulate and

detailed sculptures

Contains a Garuda pillar in honour of

Kuruva Lakshma, bodyguard of Veera

Ballala II

Kesava TempleSomanathapura

(Karnataka)

Narasimha III (c.

1268 CE)Deity is Vishnu

THE (LATER) PANDYAS

o The Pandyas, along with the Cheras and the Cholas, are considered to be among the oldest Indian

dynasties

o The Pandyas are mentioned as the hosts of the third Tamil Sangam (3rd century BC-3rd century CE),

and as hosts of the supposedly even earlier first two Sangams

o However, this article only deals with the later Pandyas, who rose to prominence in the 13th century, and

about whom concrete literary, archaeological and epigraphical evidence is available

o Throughout their existence, the capital city of the Pandyas was Madurai

o After several centuries of submission under the Cholas, the Pandyas rose to prominence under the

Maravarman Sundara Pandyan in the 13th century (1216-1238 CE). In 1217 CE, Maravarman

Pandyan defeated the Chola monarch Rajaraja III, thereby ending centuries of Chola suzerainty in

southern India

o At its peak, the Pandyan kingdom extended from the Godavari in the north to northern Sri Lanka in the

south

o The Pandyan kingdom reached its zenith under Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan (1250-1268 CE) who

dissolved the Chola Empire, which had already been in decline

o Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan was given the title of Pon Veindha Perumal

for gold plating the roofs of the Chidambaram Temple and the Ranganathaswamy Temple at

Srirangam. He also built a gate at the Srirangam Temple engraving the names of all four dynasties of

Tamil Nadu i.e. Cheras, Cholas, Pallavas and Pandyas, recognising the contribution of each

o The Pandyan kingdom was disestablished in 1311 following defeat by Malik Kafur, the general of

Alla-ud-din-Khilji, who was on an expedition to subjugate South India.

o The city of Madurai passed to the Madurai Sultanate, established in 1335 CE by Sayyid Jalal-ud-din

Ahsan. However, the Sultanate itself was dissolved by the rising Vijayanagara Empire in 1375 CE

o Following this, Madurai was ruled by Nayaks, governors of the Vijayanagara Empire. Following the

collapse of Vijayanagar in 1646 CE, the Nayaks ruled Madurai independently until the arrival of the

British in 1736 CE

EARLY MUSLIM CONQUESTS IN INDIA

Overview

o Muslim conquests in India started in the 12th century. However, periodical raids into India started as early

as the 7th century

o The earliest Muslim foray into India occurred in 664 CE by Al Muhallab ibn Abi Suffrah, the

governor of Khorasan (Iran) under the Ummayad Caliphate

o Invasions into India were carried out from the northwest over a period of centuries by Arabs, Turkic,

Mongol and Turco-Mongol peoples

Impact of Muslim conquests

o The presence of Islamic governments from Spain/Morocco to Indonesia facilitated trade and enabled the

establishment of a common legal system

o Ceramic tiles were introduced into India based on architectural designs in Persia and Central Asia

o Blue pottery (famous in Rajasthan) was cultivated by Muslim rulers who imported it in large quantities

from China

o Numerous Indian scientific and mathematical advancements, including the numeral system, spread

to the rest of the world

o Islamic languages were modified on contact with local languages to produce Urdu, which uses Persian

words in the Arabic script

Conquest during the Rashudin Caliphate

o The Rashudin Caliphate was founded immediately after Prophet Muhammad’s death in 632 CE. At its

height, the Rashudin Caliphate extended from North Africa to Persia, and parts of Afghanistan/Baluchistan

o During Rashudin Caliphate, significant conquests were made northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent,

especially areas like Makran and Sindh (in Pakistan)

o These early conquests were primarily an extension of campaigns to conquer and annex the Sassanid

Persian empire in the mid seventh century

o Islamic forces first entered Sindh in 644 CE during the reign of Caliph Umar, and established the eastern

frontier of the Caliphate as the Makran region in Baluchistan

Conquest during the Ummayad Caliphate

o The Umayyad Caliphate was the second and largest of the four major Caliphates established following

Muhammad’s death. It was established in 660 CE. At its height, it extended from the Iberian Peninsula

(Spain/Portugal) to northwestern India

o In 712 CE, the Umayyad Caliphate sent an expedition under Muhammad bin Qasim, who defeated

Raja Dahir of Sindh. He then annexed territory from Karachi to Multan.

o This was the first significant Islamic expansion into traditionally Indian territories

o The main objective of the expedition was the Sun Mandir at Multan, known as the ‘City of Gold’ due

to its wealth

o Qasim was immediately recalled to Baghdad by the Caliph, and the newly acquired territories were then

administered by weak governors who only nominally acknowledged Arab authority

o Qasim’s successor, Junaid, was then defeated by a conglomeration of Hindu Rajput clans, including

the Pratiharas, in the Battle of Rajasthan (738 CE). Following this defeat, Islamic expansion into India

was stopped at the Indus for the next three centuries

o Multan became a centre of the Islmaili sect of Islam

o The northern regions comprising the Punjab remained under the control of Hindu kings, while the southern

regions comprising Baluchistan, Sindh and Multan passed into Muslim control

Mahmud of Ghazni

o Mahmud of Ghazni was the most prominent ruler of the Turkic Ghaznavid dynasty

o He ruled from 997 CE to 1030 CE

o The capital of the Ghaznavid dynasty was Ghazni in Afghanistan

o At its height, the Ghaznavid territories included most of Iran and Pakistan and parts of northwestern India

o Mahmud Ghazni was the first ruler to carry the title Sultan

o Ghazni’s first expansion into India was his conquest of the Hindu Shahi dynasty which ruled Lahore and

parts of Kashmir. Ghazni defeated and conquered Raja Anandapala of the Shahi dynasty in 1008 CE

o Over the next decade, Ghazni conquered the kingdoms of Nagarkot, Thanesar, Gwalior and Ujjain

Muhammad of Ghor

o Muhammad of Ghor (also known as Muhammad Ghori) was the sultan of the Ghorid dynasty centred in

Afghanistan. Ghori ruled from 1202 to 1206 CE

o His capital was the city of Ghor in Afghanistan

o Muhammad Ghori defeated and dissolved the Ghaznavid dynasty in 1186 CE, thereby establishing

the Ghorid dynasty

o He initially ruled as governor under his brother Ghiyas ud-Din Muhammad, and later became king

following the latter’s death in 1202

o Ghori extended Islamic rule in India much further east than the earlier Ghaznavid kingdom

o Muhammad Ghori was defeated by Prithviraj Chauhan of Ajmer at the First Battle of Tarain

(Haryana) in 1191 CE

o The next year, Ghori once again attacked and this time defeated Chauhan at the Second Battle of

Tarain in 1192 CE

o Following this, Ghori captured the Rajput kingdoms of Saraswati, Samana, Kohram and Hansi. Ghori also

captured Ajmer and Delhi, thereby ending Hindu rule in Delhi, with Prithviraj Chauhan becoming the

last Hindu ruler of Delhi

o Since he had no heirs, Ghori’s kingdom passed into the hands of his Turkic slaves upon his death in 1206

CE. One of his slaves, Qutbuddin Aybak, took control of Ghori’s Indian territories and founded the

Slave Dynasty in 1206, the first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate

DELHI SULTANATE

Overview

o The Delhi Sultanate was a period from the 13th to the 16th centuries when several Turkic and Afghan

dynasties ruled northern India from Delhi

o The dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate were

o Mamluk dynasty (1206-1290)

o Khilji dynasty (1290-1320)

o Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1413)

o Sayyid dynasty (1414-1451)

o Lodi dynasty (1451-1526)

o The Delhi Sultanate was established upon the death of Muhammad Ghori in 1206 CE and

was absorbed by the newly emerging Mughal Empire in 1526 CE

Mamluk Dynasty

o Also known as the Slave Dynasty, the Mamluk dynasty was the first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate and

ruled from 1206-1290 CE

o The Mamluks were essentially a Turkic people

o It was established by Qutub-ud-din-Aybak, a slave and general of Muhammad Ghori, who took over

Ghori’s Indian territories following the latter’s death in 1206 CE

o Important rulers of the Mamluk dynasty include

o Qutub-ud-din-Aybak (1206-1210 CE)

o Shams-ud-din-Iltutmish (1211-1236)

o Razia Sultana (1236-1240)

o Ghiyas-ud-din-Balban (1266-1287)

o The Qutub Minar (New Delhi) was commissioned by Qutub-ud-din-Aybak in 1193 CE. At 72.5 m, it

is the world’s tallest brick minaret and is one of the earliest and most prominent examples of Indo-Islamic

architecture. It is part of the Qutub Complex – a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

o Balban’s tomb is located in Mehrauli, New Delhi

o The Sultan Ghari, also in New Delhi, is the oldest Islamic mausoleum in India. It was built by

Iltutmish for his son Nasir-ud-din Mahmud in 1231 CE

o Razia Sultana was the first female ruler of a Muslim kingdom anywhere in the world

Khilji Dynasty

o The Khiljis were the second dynasty to rule the Delhi Sultanate. They ruled north and northwestern India

1290-1320 CE

o They were Turko-Afghan people

o The greatest ruler of the Khilji dynasty was Ala-ud-din-Khilji (1296-1316 CE)

o Khilji attacked Chittor in 1303 after hearing of the beauty of queen Padmini, wife of king Rawal

Ratan Singh. This event is the setting of the epic poem Padmavat written by Malik Muhammad Jayasi (in

1540 CE), in the Awadhi language

o Khilji’s plunder of Gujarat in 1297 CE is noted for the loot of the Somnath temple and the

destruction of the Sivalingam into pieces.

o Ala-ud-din-Khilji is noted for the first Muslim invasions of southern India. Khilji’s general, Malik

Kafur, conquered Devagiri and Warangal, caused the collapse of the Hoysalas, and went as far south as

Madurai, which was occupied for a brief period of time

o Ala-ud-din-Khilji’s most important achievement was repelling repeated Mongol invasions of India

between 1294 CE and 1308 CE,which would inevitably have brought destruction and devastation on a

colossal scale

Tughlaq Dynasty

o The Tughlaq dynasty ruled from 1321 to 1394 CE

o They were of Turkic origin

o The Tughlaq dynasty was founded by Ghiyas al-din Tughlaq in 1321 CE

o The most important ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty was Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351 CE)

o Muhammad bin Tughlaq was a renown scholar, was tolerant towards other religions and an innovative

administrator. However, his experiments in reforming public administration often failed, earning him

much satire

o He was responsible for the expansion of the Delhi Sultanate southwards into the Deccan region

o In order to strengthen his hold on newly conquered territories in peninsular India, Muhammad bin

Tughlaq moved the capital of the Sultanate from Delhi to Devagiri in Maharashtra (which was

renamed Daulatabad). Due to poor planning and facilities, the capital had to be moved back to Delhi two

years later.

o Muhammad bin Tughlaq also introduced copper-based token currency, the first such experiment in

India. Although the copper currency was backed by gold and silver in government reserves, the switch

was not embraced by the public and the experiment had to be abandoned

o Muhammad bin Tughlaq was succeeded by his cousin Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388 CE). Firoz Shah

Tughlaq re-built the top two storeys of the Qutub Minar with white marble, when the earlier structure

was partially destroyed by lightning

Sayyid Dynasty

o The Sayyid dynasty ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1414 CE to 1451 CE

o The Sayyid’s came to power following a power vacuum induced by Timur’s invasion and devastation of

Delhi in 1398 CE

Lodi Dynasty

o The Lodi dynasty ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1451 CE to 1526

o They were of Afghan origin

o The Lodi dynasty was founded by Bahlul Khan Lodi in 1451 CE

o Sikandar Lodi (1489 CE-1517) founded the city of Agra in 1504. He attacked Gwalior five times but

was repulsed each time by Maharaja Mansingh of Gwalior

o The last ruler of the Lodi dynasty was Ibrahim Lodi (1489 CE-1526).

o Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by the Afghan Mughal Babur in the Battle of Panipat in 1526. With this,

the Delhi Sultanate was dissolved and the Mughal Empire was established

Legacy of the Delhi Sultanate

o Perhaps the greatest contribution of the Delhi Sultanate was insulating the Indian subcontinent

from the devastation of Mongol invasions in the 13th century

o However, the Delhi Sultanate failed to prevent the sacking of Delhi by Timur (aka Tamerlane). Timur

sacked and pillaged Delhi in 1398 CE, leading to widespread devastation and destruction

o The Delhi Sultanate established a network of market centres through which traditional village economies

were both exploited and stimulated

o Agricultural practices of shifting to cash crops (like sugarcane) instead of food crops were

encouraged

DECCAN SULTANATES

Overview

o The Deccan Sultanates were five Muslim ruled kingdoms located in the Deccan plateau

o They ruled south central India from 1527 to 1686

o The Deccan Sultanates were established following the breakup of the Bahmani Sultanate in 1527

o The five kingdoms of the Deccan Sultanates were

o Ahmadnagar (1490-1636)

o Bijapur (1490-1686)

o Berar (1490-1572)

o Golkonda (1518-1687)

o Bidar (1528-1619)

o The Deccan Sultanates were generally rivals but united against the Vijayanagara Empire in the Battle

of Tallikota in 1565

o An important cultural contribution of the Deccan Sultanates was the development of Dakhani Urdu –

drawn from Arabic, Persian, Marathi, Kannada and Telugu

o The period is also famous for the development of Deccani miniature paintings, which flourished in

Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golkonda

Ahmadnagar Sultanate

o The Ahmadnagar Sultanate was located in northwestern Deccan, between the Gujarat and Bijapur

sultanate

o The Sultanate was established by Malik Ahmad in 1490, who founded the Nizam Shahi dynasty

o The capital city of the Sultanate was initially Junnar, which was later shifted to Ahmadnagar

o The earliest examples of miniature paintings are found in the manuscript Tarif-i-Hussain Shahi (c.

1565)

o This period is also known for the encyclopaedia Nrisimha Prasada written by Dalapati

o The Ahmadnagar Sultanate was annexed into the Mughal Empire by Aurangzeb (during the reign of Shah

Jahan) in 1636

Berar Sultanate

o The Berar Sultanate was established by Imad-ul Mulk in 1490

o It was annexed by the Ahmadnagar Sultanate in 1572

Bidar Sultanate

o The Bidar Sultanate was established by Qasim Barid in 1490

o Bidar was sandwiched between the Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golconda sultanates

o Bidar was annexed by Ibrahim Adil Shah II of the Bijapur Sultanate in 1619

o An important type of metalwork called Bidri originated in Bidar. These metalworks were carried out

on black metal (mainly zinc) with inlaid designs of silver, brass and copper

Bijapur Sultanate

o The Bijapur Sultanate was established by Yusuf Adil Shah in 1490, who founded the Adil Shahi

dynasty

o The Bijapur Sultanate was located in northern Karnataka, with its capital at Bijapur

o Under the Adil Shahi dynasty, Bijapur became an important centre of commerce and culture in India

o The Begum Talab was a 234 acre tank constructed by Mohammad Adil Shah in 1651 in memory of Jahan

Begum. Underground pipes, encased in masonry supplied water from the tank to the city residents

o Ibrahim Adil Shah II wrote a book of songs in Dakhani urdu called Kitab-i-Navras. This work

contains a number of songs set to different ragas

o The Bijapur Sultanate was annexed into the Mughal Empire by Aurangzeb in 1686

Golconda Sultanate

o The Golconda Sultanate was established in 1518 by Qutb-ul-Mulk, who founded the Qutb Shahi

dynasty

o The Golconda Sultanate was located in northern Andhra Pradesh

o The capital city was Hyderabad

o The Qutb Shahi dynasty was responsible for the construction of the Jami Masjid (1518), Charminar

(1591) and Mecca Masjid (1617)

o Another famous structure from the period is the fort of Golconda

o The Shahi dynasty was instrumental in the development of Dakhani urdu

o Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah wrote the Kulliyat-i-Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah in Dakhani urdu

o Golconda was annexed into the Mughal Empire by Aurangzeb in 1687

Documents

Buddhism in India