BuddhismandtheRaceQuestion

By

G.P.Malalasekera

DeanoftheFacultyofOrientalStudiesandProfessorofPaliandBuddhistCivilization.

UniversityofCeylon

and

K.N.Jayatilleke

ProfessorofPhilosophy,UniversityofCeylon

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BuddhistPublicationSocietyKandy•SriLanka

TheWheelPublicationNo.200/201FromBuddhismandtheRaceQuestion(UNESCO1958)withthekindpermissionofDirectorofPublicationsUnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganisation.Thepresenttextcomprisesthepages32–73oftheoriginalbook.

FirstPublishedbyBPS:1974.

BPSOnlineEdition©2006

Forfreedistribution.Thisworkmayberepublished,reformatted,reprinted,andredistributedinanymedium.However,anysuchrepublicationandredistributionistobemadeavailabletothepubliconafreeandunrestrictedbasisandtranslationsandotherderivativeworksaretobeclearlymarkedassuch.

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Abbreviations

AllreferencestoPalitextsaretotheeditionsofthePaliTextSociety(London).Thestandardabbreviationsareused,namely:

D DīghaNikāyaM MajjhimaNikāyaS SaṃyuttaNikāyaA AṅguttaraNikāyaJ JātakaSn Suttanipāta

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T

Man’sPlaceintheUniverse

hetextsofboththeTheravada(i.e.,thesouthern)aswellasoftheMahayana(i.e.,thenorthern)schoolsofBuddhismoftenspeakofmaninthecontextofa

largerconcourseofsentientbeingswhoareconsideredaspopulatingavastuniverse.Althoughspeculationsabouttheoriginandextentoftheuniversearediscouraged,thevastnessofspaceandtheimmensityoftimeareneverlostsightof.Itissaidthat,evenifonemoveswiththeswiftnessofanarrowinanydirectionandtravelsforawholelifetime,onecanneverhopetoreachthelimitsofspace.[1]Inthisvastnessofcosmicspacearelocatedaninnumerablenumberofworlds.Asfarasthesesunsandmoonsrevolve,sheddingtheirlightinspace,sofarextendsthethousandfoldworld-system.Initareathousandsuns,athousandmoons,thousandsofearthsandthousandsofheavenlyworlds.Thisissaidtobethethousandfoldminorworld-system.Athousandtimessuchathousandfoldminorworld-systemisthetwice-a-thousandmiddlingworld-system.Athousandtimessuchatwice-a-thousandmiddlingworld-systemisthetwice-a-thousandmajorworld-system.[2]Thesegalacticsystems(ifwemayuseamoderntermwhichseemstoapproximateverycloselyto

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thisconceptionoftheworldsystems)arehoweverneverstaticorlasting;theyareintheprocessofbeingevolved(saṃvaṭṭamāna),orofbeingdissolved(vivaṭṭamāna).Theseprocessestakeimmenselylongperiodsoftimemeasuredinaeons(kappa),[3]untileventuallycosmiccatastrophesputanendtothem.[4]Buttime,wearetold,isnotthesameeverywhere,forfiftyearthyearsareequivalenttoonedayandnightinoneoftheheavenlyworlds,whileinanotheradayandnightisequivalenttonolessthan1,600earthyears.[5]

Severalattemptsaremadetoclassifythisvastarrayofbeings.Onesuchclassificationspeaksofhumanbeings,aswellassomeofthehigherandlowerbeings,asfallingintotheclassofbeingswhoaredifferentanddistinguishablefromeachotherinmindandbody.Thereareotherclasseswherethebeingsaredifferentinbody,butoneinmind.Yetothersarealikeinbodybutdifferentinmind,whiletherearesomewhoarealikebothinbodyandinmind.Afurthersetoffourclassesofbeingsmentionedwhoareformless.Allthesearedescribedastheseveralstationswhichthehumanconsciousnesscanattain(viññāṇaṭṭhiti),[6]andfindrenewedexistenceafterdeath.Anothersuchclassificationputsbeingsintotheseveralclassesofthe“no-footed,thetwo-footedthefour-footed,themany-footed,thosehavingorlackingmaterialform,theconscious,theunconsciousandthesuper-conscious.”[7]Thehumanworldsarealwaysrepresentedasstandingmidwayinthehierarchyofworlds.Lifeinthesehumanworldsisamixtureofthepleasantand

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theunpleasant,thegoodandtheevil,whilethepleasantandgoodtraitsareintensifiedinthehigherworldsandtheunpleasantandevilinthelower.

Ifwecontemplatethevastnessofcosmicspaceandtheseeminglyendlessnumberofworldsofwhichthehumanworldsformaverysmallpart,theproblemsofracewouldappearinadifferentlightandseemverytriflingindeed.OneisremindedofacomparisontheBuddhamadewhenherebukedasectionofhismonkswhofeltsuperiortotherestinthattheyhadmorefameandgainthantheothers,helikenedthemtowormswho,bornindung,bredindung,andlivingondung,feelsuperiortootherwormswhoarenotsoprivilegedinthisrespect.Whateverthepicturewemaygetfromacosmicperspectiveofhumanity“crawlingoverthesurfaceoftheearthandtryingtoekeoutanexistenceonit,”humilityisoneofthelessonswehavetolearnfromit.Kingshiponearthisabeggarlyexistence,incomparisonwiththejoysoftheheavenlyworlds.[8]Thespanoflifeofmortalmenisinsignificantlysmallincomparisonwithcosmictimeandmaybecomparedinitsdurationtoalinedrawnontheearth.[9]

But,althoughhumanlifeappearsinsignificantfromacosmicstandpoint,yetitisconstantlypointedoutintheBuddhisttextsasbeingoftremendousworth,asmanhaswithinhimthecapacityofgainingthehighestknowledge,orofattainingamoralpre-eminencewhichcanmakehimworthyofbecominga“rulerofaworldsystem.”Thisisnotpossibleforthoseinlower-than-humanstatesofexistence,

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whoseactionsareinstinctiveandtoopreoccupiedwithsecuringelementaryneeds;norisitpossibleforthoseinthehigherworldswhoaretoodistractedbythejoysofthepresentforseriouscontemplationtobepossible.Thisiswhyahumanbirthissovaluable,althoughinthecosmicschemeofthingsitisalltoorare.Inthecourseofoursaṃsāric[10]evolutionwehavebeenborn,asitissaid,hundredsoftimesasanimals,[11]anditisrarethatweemergeintoahumanexistence:“birthasahumanbeingisarareevent(dullabhaṃmanussattaṃ).”Itisthereforethedutyofhumanstomakethemostoftheprecioushumanlifethattheyhaveacquired.Manhaswithinhimthepotentialityofdiscoveringthedeepesttruthsaboutthecosmosforhimself.ApersonwhohasrealisedsuchpotentialitiesistheBuddhawhoisnotonlythebestamonghumansbutthehighestamongallsentientbeings.WhentheBuddhawasaskedwhetherhewasmanorgod,heansweredthathewasneithersincehewastheBuddha.[12]Theintellectual,moralandspiritualheightsthatmancanattainaresogreatthatthosewhohaveattainedthemareasdifferentfromordinarymenasmenarefromanimals.Yetsuchmenarenotmerefreaksnorhavetheybeenspeciallyfavouredbyanydivineagency.Theyhaveattainedsuchheightsbydintofeffortdirectedtowardsdevelopingtheirintellectual,moralandspiritualnatureextendingovermanylives.Andwhathasbeenachievedbyoneorafewiswithinthecapacityofalltoachieve.AstheMahāyānatextsputit,itisnotonlymenbutallsentientbeingsdowntotheverylowestwhoarepotentialBuddhas,

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inthataBuddhanature(Buddha-bhāva)ispresentwithinthem.Ifonlyforthisreason,noonehasarighttodespiseafellowcreature,sinceallaresubjecttothesamelawsofexistenceandhaveultimatelythesamenatureandthesamepotentialitiesthoughtheyareinvaryingstagesofgrowthordevelopmentandtheirratesofgrowthmaydifferfromtimetotime.

Atthehumanlevelthelessonsthatmancanlearnbyrealisinghispositionintheuniversearenotonlythatheneedstobehumble,butalsothatheneednotdespair,sincehehasthepowertounderstandtheworldandovercomeitandceasetobeameremechanismwithinit.Boththeselessons,therealisationofourcommonplightaswellasthepotentialitieswithineachofus,teachusbutonemoral—namelythatitiseveryone’sdutytohelphisfellowbeings,andthatnoonehasanyrightorvalidgroundstodespiseanother.

TheBiologicalUnityofMankindandtheCaseAgainstRacismAspecialemphasisisplacedinBuddhismontheworthanddignityofhumanexistenceinviewoftheopportunitiesandpotentialitiesthatmanpossessesforself-development.Theunityofmankindisemphasised,andadistinctiondrawnbetweenhumanbeingsandtheanimalandplantkingdoms.

Itisarguedonbiologicalgroundsthat—unlikeinthecaseof

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theplantandanimalkingdoms,wheredifferencesofspeciesarenoticeable—mankindisonespecies.Thisviewaccordsremarkablywiththefindingsofmodernbiologicalscience.Notonlyisitindisagreementwiththescientificpretensionsofthebiologistsoftheeighteenthandearlynineteenthcenturies,whotriedtoclassifymenintodifferentraceswhichcouldbegradedlikespeciesofanimalsintothehigherandlower,butitcutsthegroundbeneaththeveryfoundationsofanyracistdoctrinewhichwoulddividehumanbeingsintomoreorlessisolatedgroups,andarguethattheirvaryinghumancharacteristicsareintheirentiretygeneticallydetermined.ThefollowingpassageoccursinapolemicagainstthepretensionsoftheBrahmaniccastetheoryandincidentallyshowsbyimplicationhowtheBrahminswereclaimingsuperiorityforthemselvesongeneticgrounds:

“Wehaveacontroversyregarding(thedistinctionsof)birth,OGotama!Bhāradvājasays,oneisaBrahminbybirth,andIsaybydeeds;knowthis,Oyouclearly-seeing!

“Wearebothunabletoconvinceeachother,(therefore)wehavecometoaskyou(whoare)celebratedasperfectlyenlightened.

“’Iwillexplaintoyou—OVāseṭṭha’,sosaidBhagavat,’indueordertheexactdistinctionoflivingbeingsaccordingtospecies,fortheirspeciesaremanifold:Knowyethegrassandthetrees,although

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theydonotexhibit(it),themarksthatconstitutespeciesareforthem,and(their)speciesaremanifold.

“Thenknowtheworms,andthemoths,andthedifferentsortsofants,themarks,thatconstitutespeciesareforthem,and(their)speciesaremanifold.

“Knowyoualsothefour-footed(animals),smallandgreat,themarksthatconstitutespeciesareforthem,and(their)speciesaremanifold.

“Knowyoualsotheserpents,thelong-backedsnakes,themarksthatconstitutespeciesareforthem,and(their)speciesaremanifold.

“Thenknowyoualsothefishwhichrangeinthewater,themarksthatconstitutespeciesareforthem,and(their)speciesaremanifold.

“Thenknowyoualsothebirdsthatarebornealongonwingsandmovethroughtheair,themarksthatconstitutespeciesareforthem,and(their)speciesaremanifold.

“Asinthesespeciesthemarksthatconstitutespeciesareabundant,soinmenthemarksthatconstitutespeciesarenotabundant.

“Notasregardstheirhair,head,ears,eyes,mouth,nose,lips,orbrows.

“Norasregardstheirneck,shoulders,belly,back,hip,breast,femaleorgan,sexualintercourse,

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“Norasregardstheirhands,feet,palms,nails,calves,thighs,colourorvoicearetheremarksthatconstitutespeciesasinotherspecies.

“Differencethereisinbeingsendowedwithbodies,butamongst,menthisisnotthecase,thedifferenceamongstmenisnominal(only).

“Forwhoeveramongstmenlivesbycow-keeping—knowthis,OVāseṭṭha—heisahusbandman,notaBrahmin.

“Andwhoeveramongstmenlivesbyarchery—knowthis,OVāseṭṭha—heisasoldier,notaBrahmin.

“AndIdonotcalloneaBrahminonaccountofhisbirthorofhisoriginfroma(particular)mother…”[13]

Whatisapparentfromtheaboveisthat,accordingtotheBuddha,therearenodistinguishingcharacteristicsofgenusandspeciesamongmen,unlikeinthecaseofgrasses,trees,worms,moths,fishes,beasts,birds,etc.AsChalmerssays:“Herein,Gotamawasinaccordwiththeconclusionofmodernbiologiststhat“theAnthropidaearerepresentedbythesinglegenusandspecies,Man”—aconclusionwhichwasthemoreremarkableinasmuchastheaccidentofcolourdidnotmisleadGotama.[14]TheBuddhagoesontoshowthattheapparentdivisionsbetweenmenarenotduetobasicbiologicalfactorsbutare“conventionalclassifications(samaññā).”Thedistinctionsmadeinrespectofthe

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differencesinskincolour(vaṇṇa),hairform(kesa),theshapeofthehead(sīsa)ortheshapeofthenose(nāsa),etc.,arenotabsolutecategories.Oneisalmostremindedofthestatementofthescientiststhat”theconceptofraceisunanimouslyregardedbyanthropologistsasaclassificatorydevice…”[15]

ItwouldthusappearthatBuddhismisinaccordwiththefindingsofthemodernbiologistswhoexploredthedoctrinesofracismandwouldurgethebiologicalunityofmankindinsupportoftheconceptofacommonhumanity.SowhenBuddhismasksustotreatallman,irrespectiveofraceorcaste,asourfathers,mothers,brothersandsistersorasonefamily,thereseemstobeadeepertruthinthisstatementthanthatofamereethicalrecommendation.

WhiletheabovepassagebringsouttheBuddhistattitudetotheproblemofrace,itisnotpossibletosaythatearlyBuddhismwasconfrontedwitharacialproblemassuch.TheproblemwasnodoubtthereinRigvedicsociety,wheretherace-consciousAryanwhospokederisivelyofthedark-skinnedandnoiselessaboriginestreatedthemasaninferiorrace.ButbythetimeoftheriseofBuddhismthisrace-consciousnesshadgivenplacetoacaste-consciousnessanditwastheBrahmininparticularandthe“higher”castesingeneral,whowereprobablyderivedlargelyfromAryanstock,whoclaimedsuperioritybyvirtueoftheirlightskincolour.ItwasclaimedbytheBrahminstobeoneofthehereditarycharacteristicsofaBrahminthathewashandsome(abhirūpo),fair(dassanīyo),endowedwithan

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excellentcomplexion(paramāyavaṇṇapokkharatāyasamannāgato),andofthefairestcolour(brahmavaṇṇī)[16]byvirtueofwhichheclaimedsuperiorityoverthoseofadarkcomplexion.

Theterms“Aryan(ariya)”and”non-Aryan(anariya),”arefrequentlyfoundintheBuddhisttexts,butneverinaracialsense.Theracialsenseofsuperiorityassociatedwiththeword“Aryan”iscompletelyeclipsedbythemoralandspiritualsenseofsuperiority,whichthewordinaBuddhistcontextconnotes,devoidofanyassociationsofraceorbirth.ThusAṅgulimāla,abrutalbrigandandapersonofa”low”castewhostruckterrorintheterritoryoftheKingofKosalabyhiswantonactsofcruelty,isdescribedafterbeingconvertedbytheBuddhaas“ariyāyajātiyājāto,”whichmeans“rebornwithaspiritualbirth,”thoughifthewordsaretakenliterallythephrasewouldmean“bornintheAryanrace.”Theuseoftheword“Aryan”inthesenseof“noble”and“spiritual”and“non-Aryan”inthesenseof“ignoble”and“immoral”isaneloquenttestimonyofhowBuddhismignoredracialclaimsanddistinctions.Thus“Aryanquest(ariyapariyesana)”means“spiritualquest”,whichisdefinedas“thequestofonewhobeingsubjecttobirth,decayanddeathrealisestheevilconsequencesthereofandseekstheimmortalandsecurehavenofNirvana.”[17]The“Aryanhaven(ariya-uccāsayana-mahāsayanaṃ)”meansthe”spiritualhaven”,whichis“thestateofbeingfreefromlust,hatredanddelusion.”[18]

Thereis,however,aphilosophicaltheoryofracismheldby

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someofthereligiousteachersintheBuddha’stimewhichismentionedandcriticisedintheBuddhisttexts.Itisassociatedwithtwoteachersbothofwhomdeniedfreewilltoman.OnewasPurāṇaKassapa,whodeniedman’scapacityformoralactioninvirtueofthefactthathehadnofreewill.TheotherwasMakkhaliGosāla,whodeniedbothfreewillandcausationandarguedthatbeingsweremiraculouslysaved(ahetuappaccayasattavisujjhanti)ordoomed.Theyarguedthathumanbeingsbelongedtooneoranotherofsixspecies(abhijāti)[19]orspecifictypes;invirtueofwhichtheyhadcertaingeneticconstitutions,physicaltraitsandhabitsandpsychologicalnatureswhichtheywereincapableofalteringbytheirownwilloreffort.Thesixtypesweredesignatedbysixcolours.Theyweretheblackspecies(kaṇhābhijāti),thebluespecies,theredspecies,theyellowspecies,thewhitespeciesandthepurewhitespecies.Whetherthesecoloursdenoteddifferencesintheirphysicalcomplexionsisnotclear,[20]butthattheyweregeneticallydifferentphysicalandpsychologicaltypesiswhatisimpliedbytheclassification.Totheblackspeciesbelongedthebutchers,fowlers,hunters,fishermen,dacoits,andexecutionersandallthosewhoadoptacruelmodeofliving.Theywere,incidentally,amongthelowestcastesandtheircomplexionwasonthewholethedarkest.Theotherfivespecifictypesdifferedinvirtueoftheirdegreeofwickednessorsaintliness,whichwasnotintheirpowertoalter.Thepurewhitespecieswerereckonedtobetheperfectsaints,thoughtheirsaintlinesswasconsideredtobe

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naturaltothemasmuchastheirphysicalconstitutions,andwasinnowayachievedbyanyeffortofwillontheirpart.Intheopinionofthesetypologists,humanbeingswhosufferedpaininthislifeweresoborntosufferasaresultoftheirinheritingcertainphysicalconstitutionsandpsychologicalnatures.[21]

Arguingfromtherealityoffreewillandthecapacitythatmanhaswithinhimselfofbecomingeithermoralorimmoralorevenhappyorunhappybytransforminghimselfordegeneratingmorallyasthecasemaybe,theBuddhadeniesthattherearesuchfixedhumantypesgeneticlydetermined.Therearenomenwhoareintrinsicallygoodorevilbynatureandmustnecessarilyremainso,fortheevilcanturnintogoodandthegooddegenerateintoevil.ThesixtypesofhumanbeingsthattheBuddhawouldrecognisedonothavefixednaturesgeneticlydeterminedbutarethesixclassesofbeings,namelytheevilwhoremainevil,theevilwhobecomegood,theevilwhotranscendgoodandevil(andenterNirvana),thegoodwhobecomeevil,thegoodwhoremaingoodandthegoodwhotranscendbothgoodandevil(andenterNirvana)—allofthemnodoubtbytheexerciseoftheirfreewill.Theemphasisisnotonwhatamanisbornwithbutwhathedoeswithhimselfsinceman,irrespectiveofhisphysicalconstitutionandpsychologicalnatureatbirth,can—giventheopportunityandeffort—changeforbetterorworse.TheracisttenoroftheformertheoryisthusdenouncedintheBuddha’sclassification,wherethemerits

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ofpeoplearetobejudgednotintermsofwhattheyarebornwithbutwhattheydowiththemselves.

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TheDignityandEqualityofMankind

andtheCaseagainstCaste

AlthoughitshouldbeclearfromtheabovethatBuddhismupholdsthebiologicalunityofmankindanddeniesanygeneticbasisfordiscriminationbetweendifferent“racial”groups,itmaybenotedthatthestatementsaboutracequotedabovewerenotmadeinanencounterwithanyracialproblemassuch,fortheracialconflictbetweentheAryanandnon-AryanhadbeenreducedinthetimeoftheBuddha,mainlytoacasteconflictbetweentheBrahminsorthe“higher”castesversusthe“lower.”Itisinsuchacontextthattheproblemisgeneralisedanddiscussedinthebackgroundofthebiologicaldoctrineswhichcastetheoryappearedtoespouseortakeforgranted.

Inthelastchapterwereferredtothepossibleracialoriginofmuchofcasteprejudice,andshowedthestrongsimilaritybetweentheprejudiceanddiscriminationinmattersofcasteasinrace.ThecaseagainstcastediscriminationandprejudiceaspresentedinBuddhismappliesasmuchagainstcasteasagainstracialprejudiceanddiscrimination.

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ThecoursethatBuddhismadoptedincombatingcasteprejudiceanddiscriminationwastoignoreitinpractiseanddenounceitstheorybymeansofrationalpersuasion.Weshalltakeuptheformeraspectofthequestioninthenextchapterandconfineourselvesheretothescientific,ethicalandreligiousargumentsadducedagainstthetheoryofcasteasadvancedbytheBrahmins.Thescientificargumentsmayconvenientlybeclassifiedasthebiologicalandthesociological.

TheBiologicalArgumentsThethesisthatwedonotfinddifferencesofspeciesamonghumanbeingsaswedoamongplantsandanimalsandthatmankindisonespeciesformsthecruxofthebiologicalargument.Foundintheearliesttexts(asquotedabove),thisargumentisexpandedinsubsequentpolemicsagainstcastewrittenbyBuddhists.ThusAśvaghoṣainhisVajrasuci(circafirstcenturyAD)says:

“AllthatIhavesaidaboutBrahminsyoumustknowisequallyapplicabletoKshatriyas;andthatthedoctrineofthefourcastesisaltogetherfalse.Allmenareofonecaste.

“Wonderful!Ifyouaffirmthatallmenproceededfromone,i.e.Brahmā,howthencantherebeafourfoldinsuperablediversityamongthem?IfIhavefoursonsbyonewife,thefoursonshavingonefatherandmothermustbeallessentiallyalike.Know

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toothatdistinctionsofraceamongbeingsarebroadlymarkedbydifferencesofconformationsandorganisation.Thus,thefootoftheelephantisverydifferentfromthatofthehorse;thatofthetigerunlikethatofthedeerandsooftherest,andbythatsinglediagnosiswelearnthatthoseanimalsbelongtoverydifferentraces.ButIneverheardthatthefootofaKshatriyawasdifferentfromthatofaBrahminorthatofaSudra.Allmenareformedalike,andareclearlyofonerace.Further,thegenerativeorgans,thecolour,thefigure,theordure,theurine,theodourandtheutteranceoftheox,thebuffalo,thehorse,theelephant,theass,themonkey,thegoat,thesheep,etc.,furnishfurtherdiagnosticswherebytoseparatethesevariousracesofanimals:butinallthoserespectstheBrahminresemblestheKshatriya,andisthereforeofthesameraceorspecieswithhim.Ihaveinstancedamongquadrupedsthediversitieswhichseparatediversegenera.Inowproceedtogivesomemoreinstancesfromamongbirds.Thus,thegoose,thedove,theparrot,thepeacock,etc.,areknowntobedifferentbytheirdiversitiesoffigure,andcolour,andplumageandbeak;buttheBrahmin,Kshatriya,VaishyaandSudraarealikewithoutandwithin.Howthencanwesaytheyareessentiallydistinct?Again,amongtrees,theVataandBakula,andPalashaandAshoka,theTamalaandNāgakeshara,andShirishaandChampakaandothers,areclearly

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contradistinguishedbytheirstems,andleaves,andflowers,andfruitsandbarks,andtimber,andseeds,andjuicesandodours;butasBrahmins,andKshatriyasandtherest,arealikeinflesh,andskin,andblood,andbones,andfigure,andexcrements,andmodeofbirthitissurelythenclearthattheyareofonespeciesorrace.Again,tellme,isaBrahmin’ssenseofpleasureandpaindifferentfromthatofaKshatriya?Doesnottheonesustainlifeinthesameway,andfinddeathfromthesamecausesastheother?Dotheydifferinintellectualfaculties,intheiractionsortheobjectsofthoseactions,inthemanneroftheirbirthorintheirsubjectiontofearandhope?Notawhit.Itisthereforeclearthattheyareessentiallythesame.IntheUdumbaraandPanasatreesthefruitisproducedfromthebranches,thestem,thejointsandtheroots.Isonefruitthereforedifferentfromanother,sothatwemaycall“thatproducedfromthetopofthestemtheBrahminfruit,andthatfromtherootstheSudrafruit?Surelynot.Norcanmenbeoffourdistinctracesbecausetheysprangfromfourdifferentpartsofonebody.”[22]

Thedifferencesinskincolour(vaṇṇa),hair(kesa),shapeofnose(nāsa),orhead(sīsa)wereindeedsmallincomparisonwiththedifferencesamongthevariousspeciesofplantsandanimals.Castenamesweremerelyconventionaldesignationssignifyingoccupationaldifferencesand,since

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menwerefreetochangetheiroccupations,thesedifferenceshadnohereditaryorgeneticbasis.AsAśvaghoṣasays,’ThedistinctionsbetweenBrahmins,Kshatriyas,VaishyasandSudrasarefoundedmerelyontheobservanceofdiverseritesandthepractiseofdifferentprofessions.[23]Onewhoengagesintradecomestobeknownasamerchant,onewhoindulgesinmilitarypursuitsisknownasasoldier,andonewhoadministersthecountryasaking.Itwasnotbybirththatonebecomesmerchant,soldierorkingbutbytheactionsthatoneperformsorthejobonedoes.

Castetheorytriedearlytolaydownthattherewerespecifichereditaryoccupations(karma)suitableforpeoplebornintothedifferentcastes,andsincetheyhadaspecialaptitude(guṇa)forthesetypesofoccupationsitwasthespecificduty(svadharma)orobligationofthosebornintheirrespectivecastestoperformtheirrespectivetasksandnoothers.AsonofSudra(outcast)parentsmustalwaysdoamenialjobforwhichhehasbeencreatedwithaspecialaptitude,andthesonofKshatriyaparentsanadministrativejob.EventheBhagavadgītāsays:“ThefourfoldorderwascreatedbyMe(i.e.God)accordingtothedivisionsofqualityandwork,[24]meaningtherebythatGodcreatedthefourcasteswithcertainaptitudes(guṇa)andfunctions(karma)anditwastheirdutytoperformtheirrespectivefunctionsandnotswervefromthispathofduty.

Theanalogywithracisttheoryisthatthe“superior”racesareborntorule,withaspecialaptitudeforthistask,whilethe“inferior”racesareborntoservetheirmasters,whorule

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them.ItwassuchatheorythatBuddhismdenounced,onthegroundsthatithadnobasisinfact;sincepeoplearenotbornintheirrespectivecasteswithsuchaptitudesgeneticlydeterminedandareundernoobligationtodotheworkassignedtotheircastesandnoother.Thejobonedoesandthatoneisfreetochooseshouldgiveone’s“caste”name(kammanākhattiyo,vasalahoti),butitismerelyaconventionaldesignationdenotingone’soccupationandisofnogeneticsignificance;sinceonedoesnotfollowavocationorhaveanaptitudeforitmerelybecauseonewasbornofparentswhofollowedthesame.[25]

Manisbiologicallyonespecies.Therearenoseparatecastes(orraces)radicallydifferentfromeachotherandcreatedfromthebeginning.Theconceptofpurecastes(analogoustothatofpureraces)isdismissedonthegroundsthatmostofuscannotintheleastbesurewhethercastepurity,orintermarriagestrictlywithinthecastealone,wasobservedbyourparentsandgrandparentsevenuptosevengenerations.[26]DevalatheDark,whoisquotedasoneoftheBrahminseersopposedtothecastetheoryformulatedbysomeoftheRigvedicBrahmins,questionsthelatterinthecourseofadiscussionaboutcasteastowhethertheyrememberwhethertheirparentsandgrandparentswereofthesamecasteevenuptosevengenerations,towhichitisrepliedthattheydonot.Itisthenconcludedthatinsuchcircumstances”wedonotknowwhoweare(namāyaṃjānāmakecimāyaṃhoma)”[27]andthereforewehavenorighttomaintaintherealityorpurityofcastes.Wealsofindthe

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BuddhaarguingwithBrahminswhoclaimedcastepurity,showingthemthatsomeoftheirancestorsdidnotmarrywithinthecaste[28]andthattheclaimtopuritywasthereforeamythandnotafact.

Italsofollowsfromthebiologicalunityofmankindthatintermarriagebetweencastesorracesisbothpossibleandnotnecessarilyundesirable.Thiswasagainapointonwhichthecastetheorists,liketheracists,heldstrongviews—severelycondemningintermarriagebetweencastesonthegroundthatthiswouldhavedisastrousconsequences.TheBuddhaontheotherhandnotonlyarguedagainstclaimstocastepurityinviewofthefactthatintermarriagebetweencasteswasbothapossibilityandahistoricalfact,butevenseemstohaveheldthatitwasnotnecessarilyundesirable.Theproductsofsuchcastemixturewouldresemblebothparentsandinsuchsituationswecannotsayfromobservingthephysicalorgeneticconstitutionstowhichcastethechildbelongs.

TheAmbaṭṭhaSutta[29](i.e.,theDiscourseonAmbaṭṭha)exposesthemythofthepurityofcasteofwhichtheBrahminsweresoconscious.AmbaṭṭhawasaBrahminyouthwhowassoconsciousofhishighBrahminlineagethathedidnotobservetheusualcourtesiesintalkingtotheBuddha,whomhedespisedonthescorethathewasnotaBrahmin.Inthecourseoftheconversationwithhim,whichturnsroundcaste,theBuddhapointsoutthattheso-calledpurityofhisancestrywasamyth.“Ifoneweretofollowupyourancientnameandlineage,”saystheBuddha,“onthe

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father’sandmother’ssideitwouldappearthatoneofyourancestorswastheoffspringofoneoftheslavegirlsoftheSakyas”[30]LaterBuddhistpolemicsagainstcastecontinuesucharguments.Aśvaghoṣasays:“DoyousaythathewhoissprungfromBrahminparentsisaBrahmin?StillIobjectthat,sinceyoumustmeanpureandtrueBrahmins,insuchcasethebreedofBrahminsmustbeatanend,sincethefathersoftheparentraceofBrahminsarenot,anyofthem,freefromthesuspicionofhavingwiveswhonotoriouslycommitadulterywithSudras.Now,iftherealfatherbeaSudra,thesoncannotbeaBrahmin,notwithstandingtheBrahminhoodofhismother.”[31]

Althoughthephysicalconstitutionofthechildisheldtobeduetoacombinationofgeneticfactorsderivedfrombothparents,itisimportanttonotethattheprenatalgrowthofthechildtakesplace,accordingtoBuddhism,inconjunctionwiththepsychicfactorconstitutingtheimpressionsofformerbirths,sothatinadditiontotheeffectsofbiologicalheredityandenvironmentthereistheinfluenceofthepsychicfactoronthedevelopmentofthepersonality.Thisfactisalsomadeuseofbymeansofareductionabsurdumtoargueagainsttherealityofcaste.Itissaidthatthepsychicfactororthespiritseekingrebirth(gandhabbo)cannotbeconsideredasbelongingtoanyparticularcaste,[32]sothattheessenceofone’spersonalityisbeyondcastedistinctions.

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TheSociologicalArgumentsAnotherwayofcombatingcastetheoryrevolvesroundtheinvestigationofthenatureandoriginsofhumansocietyandofcastedivisions.

TheHinduconceptionofsocietywasstaticandwasdominatedbytheideaofcaste.Thetraditionalfourfoldorderofpriests,soldiersandadministrators,merchantsandagriculturistsandmenialworkerswasconsiderednotonlytobeabsolute,fundamentalandnecessarytosocietybutwasalsogivenadivinesanctionbybeingconsideredacreationofGod(Brahma).’Godcreatedthefourfoldcasteorderwiththeirspecificaptitudesandfunctions’,withtheresultthatpeoplebornintothedifferentcasteshavecertainspecialbiologicallyinheritedaptitudeswhicheminentlyfitthemtoperformthecastefunctionswhichitistheirdutytoperform.

AgainstthiswasthedynamicevolutionaryconceptionofsocietyaspicturedinearlyBuddhism.Thefourfoldorderisherenotconsideredabsolutesince,astheBuddhasays,incertainsocietiesthereareonlytwoclasses(dve’vavaṇṇā)—thelordsandtheserfsorthemastersandtheslaves,andthatnottoorigidadivisionsince’themasterssometimesbecomeslavesandtheslavesmasters.’[33]Noriscastedivineinorigin.ThebeliefthatcastewasacreationofGodandthattheBrahminswerethechosenlegitimatechildrenofGod,“bornofthemouthofBrahma,”aconceptionwhichisasoldastheRigveda,isdeniedintheBuddhisttexts

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whereitissaidthatthebirthofBrahmins,asiswellknown,isinnowaydifferentfromthatofotherhumanbeings,[34]andtheBrahminsarereferredtoironicallyas“thekinsmenofGod”(brahma-bandhu).Inplaceofthisconceptionofadivinelyordainedfourfoldorder,BuddhismconceivedofcastedivisionsasbeingoccupationaldivisionswhicharoseowingtohistoricalcircumstancesandconsideredtheperpetuationofcasteprejudiceanddiscriminationasbeingduelargelytothesanctionsgivenitbytheearlyBrahminpriesthood.

ThisiswellbroughtoutinthestoryofDevalatheDark,awell-knownpriesthimself,whowasscornedbecauseofhiscolourbytheotherpriestlyseerswhoaresaid,inthewordsoftheBuddha,tohavegottogetherandformulatedthefollowingfalseandevilview(pāpakadiṭṭhigataṃ),namelythattheBrahminswerethehighestcastewhiletheotherswerelowcaste,theBrahminswere“whites”whiletheotherswere“blacks”,theBrahminsaloneweresavedwhiletheotherswerenot,andtheBrahminsaloneweretheonlychosenlegitimatechildrenofGod.[35]Ifthislegendcontainsagermofhistoricaltruth,theninthewordsofGhurye[36]“casteinIndiamustberegardedasaBrahmanicchildoftheIndo-Aryanculture,cradledinthelandoftheGangesandthentransferredtotheotherpartsofIndiabytheBrahmin-prospectors.”

InplaceofastaticconceptionofafourfoldordercreatedbyGod,aBuddhistmythofgenesis(foundinthetextsofbothschoolsofBuddhism)givesanevolutionaryaccountof

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societyandshowshowwhatlaterbecamecastedivisionsarosefromanecessarydivisionoffunctionsinsocietyatacertainstageofsocialevolution.ToquotefromProfessorRhysDavids’briefsummaryofthemyth:“Thensuccessivelyfinemoss,andsweetcreepers,anddelicatericeappeared,andeachtimethebeingsatethereofwithasimilarresult.Thendifferencesofsexappeared;andhouseholdswereformed;andthelazystoreduptherice,insteadofgatheringiteacheveningandmorning;andtherightsofpropertyarose,andwereinfringed.Andwhenlustswerefeltandtheftscommittedthebeings,nowbecomemen,mettogether,andchosemendifferingfromtheothersinnowiseexceptinvirtue(dhamma),torestraintheevildoersbyblameorfinesorbanishment.ThesewerethefirstKshatriyas.Andotherschosetorestraintheevildispositionswhichledtotheevil-doing.AndthesethefirstBrahmins,differingfromtheothersinnowise,exceptonlyinvirtue(dhamma).Thencertainothers,tokeeptheirhouseholdsgoing,andmaintaintheirwives,startedoccupationsofvariouskinds.AndthesewerethefirstVessas.Andsomeabandonedtheirhomesandbecamethefirstrecluses(samaṇas).Butallwerealikeinorigin,andtheonlydistinctionbetweenthemwasinvirtue.”[37]AsProfessorRhysDavidscomments,“Wemaynotacceptthehistoricalaccuracyofthislegend.Indeedacontinualnoteofgood-humouredironyrunsthroughthewholestory…ButitrevealsasoundandhealthyinsightandismuchnearertotheactualfactsthantheBrahminlegenditwasintendedto

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replace.”[38]

TheBuddhisttextsconstantlyrefertothetheoryofcastewhichtheBrahminpriesthoodtriedtoimposeonsociety—justifyingonreligiousgroundsandattemptingtoperpetuatecasteprejudiceanddiscrimination—asamerepropagandistcry(ghoso)[39]ontheirpart.SuchpropagandawasmetbytheBuddhistsbyappealingtothehistoricalfactsabouttheoriginsofcastewhichgavenobasisfortherigidityofcastestructureorforprejudiceanddiscriminationbetweencastes,sincecastenameswereinoriginandeveninthetimeoftheBuddhadesignationsdenotingdifferencesofoccupation.

IthasbeenarguedwithsomejustificationthatthesocialorganisationofeasternIndiawaspossiblydifferentfromthewestwhereBrahminismheldsway.[40]ButfromtheBrahmanicalworksitisevidentthattheorywasdifferentfrompractiseeveninregionswhereBrahmanismheldsway,forwefindthatalthoughcertainrestricteddutiesandoccupationswereconsideredtobesuitableforBrahmins,inactualfacttheprofessionsofBrahminsweremultifariousandtherewereamongthemnotonlytradesmenandmilitaryadvisersbutevenbutchersandcarriersofcorpses,professionswhichwerebeingconfinedtotheSudrasinthelawsdrawnupbytheBrahminpriests.[41]

UnderthesecircumstancestheBuddhiststriedtoupholdthecauseofthesocialequalityofman,illustratingtheircaseagainsttheBrahmanicalattackbypointingtoactual

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conditionsprevailinginthesocietyofthetime.Theypointedoutthattheabilitytocommandtheservicesandlabourofothersdependednotonone’scasteorhighbirth,whichipsofactomadetheBrahminsortheKshatriyasthemasters,butonthewealththatonehad.ASudrawhocouldcommandenoughwealthcouldeasilyhaveaBrahminorKshatriyaservanttoattendtohimandbeamenialinhishousehold.[42]TherewasnointrinsicreasonwhyaSudrashouldbeborntoserveothers,sinceinsocietyitwaseconomicpowerthatcountedandnotcastesuperiorityinrequisitioningtheservicesofothers.Itwasshownthatallwereinfact,andshouldbe,equalbeforethelaw.EventheLawsofManu[43]speakof”Brahminswhoarethievesandoutcasts”andwhoonthisaccountlosetheirrighttobeBrahmins.Thisshowsthat,evenwhereBrahminismheldsway,tosomeextentatleastitwastheirdeedsandnotbirththatmattered.IntheBuddhisttexts,however,itissaidthatsuchrobbers,irrespectiveofwhethertheywerebornofBrahminorSudraparents,wereexecuted,burntorexiledbythekingquiteregardlessoftheirpedigree.[44]

AlthoughBrahminsweredenyingtheSudrasadmissionintotheirreligiousorders,andeventhepossibilityofsalvationormoraldevelopment,onthegroundsthatSudraswereborntoserveandtheirnaturewasuntruthitself,non-BrahmanicreligiousordersrepresentedbytheSamaṇas(theGarmanesofMegasthenes)admittedpeopleofallcastes,[45]eventheSudras,anditissaidthatsuchpeoplewerehonouredas“religieux”evenbythekings.[46]Incontrastto

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theBrahmins,whoweretryingtomakeamonopolyofreligion,theBuddhistsidealiseasocietyinwhichallmenirrespectiveoftheirsocialstandingorbirthwerefreetojoinreligiousordersandreceiveequalrecognitionasmenofreligion.

WhiletheBrahminsarguedthatonlypeopleofthedifferentcasteswerecapableoforsuitableforperformingcertainfunctionswhichwereconsideredtobeobligatoryontheirpartbyvirtueoftheirbirth,theBuddhiststriedtoshowthatthiswasbynomeansso.Itissaid,forinstance,notwithoutsomesarcasmthatpeopleofallcasteswhether“high”or”low”arecapableofkindlingafireandthatafirethatmenoftheso-called”low”casteswouldkindlewouldbenolessbrightthanthefireskindledbytheso-called”higher”castes.[47]Thechoiceof“kindlingafire”astheexampleisprobablyanironicalreferencetotheBrahmins,whospecialisedinthekindlingandtendingofsacrificialfires.

ThehollownessofthemagicalnotionsassociatedwiththeconceptofcastepollutionisexposedbytheempiriciststandofBuddhism.Theonlysenseofcleanlinessorpollution,barringthespiritualsense(seebelow),wasthephysicalsenseanditissaidwithbitingironythatpeopleofall“castes”,eventheSudrascansoapthemselvesandbatheintheriverandbeequallyclean,[48]sothatSudrasarenotatadisadvantageintheirabilitytobeclean.

Thus,accordingtoBuddhism,allmen,irrespectiveoftheircasteorrace,hadequalrightsanddeservedequal

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opportunitiesfordevelopmentasmembersofasinglesocialorderwhichembracedacommonhumanity.Itwasaman’ssocialstatusasdeterminedbythewealththathepossessed,andnothisbirthinaparticularcasteorracialgroup,whichmadeitpossibleforhimtocommandtheservicesofotherswhatevertheirpedigreemightbe.Allmenlikewise,irrespectiveofraceorcaste,shouldbeequalbeforethelaw.Theaptitudesofpeopledonotdependontheirbirthinaparticularcasteorrace.Themoralworthofapersonshouldreceivesocialrecognitionregardlessofthecastetowhichhebelongedandallmenshouldreceiveequalopportunityformoralandspiritualdevelopmentsinceallmenwerecapableofit.

ItwasinthesetermsthatBuddhismproclaimedtheequalityofmanasamemberofhumansociety.Theconstantrefrainthatwefindinthesediscussions,whichareintendedtocountertheBrahminclaimstosuperioritybyvirtueoftheirbirth,isthatconsideringthecapabilitiesofmenofallcastes”peopleofallcastesareonanequalfooting(evaṃsanteimecattārovaṇṇāsamāsamahonti),”andthat”thereisnodistinctionwhatsoeveramongthemintheserespects(nesaṃetthakiñcinānākaraṇaṃsamanupassāmi).”[49]

EthicalandReligiousArgumentsAsmentionedabove,BuddhismdeniedinthelightofhistoricalfactsthespecialprerogativesthattheBrahminsclaimedinmattersofreligion.Theirclaimtobethechosen

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childrenofGodbyvirtueoftheirbirthandtheirexclusiveclaimtosalvationwereshowntobefalse,sincepeopleofcastes,giventheopportunity,werecapableofattainingthespiritualheightsrequiredforsalvation.InplaceoftheBrahminclaimthat“Brahminsaloneweresavedandnotothers”,wefinditstatedinthewordsoftheBrahminopponentstoBuddhismthatthe“recluseGotamaproclaimsthepossibilityofsalvationtoallmenofallfourcastes(SamaṇoGotamocātuvaṇṇiṃsuddhiṃpaññāpeti).”[50]Allmenirrespectiveofcastewerecapableofspiritualdevelopment,andamanwhetherbornina”highcasteor”low”“candevelopwithinhimlovingthoughtstowardsallbeings.”[51]Suchreligiousexerciseswerewithinthecapacityofallandmakefortheirspiritualprogress.SimilarlytheclaimtoadivineoriginforcastewascondemnedasmerepropagandaonthepartoftheBrahminpriestsandashavingnobasisinviewofthegradualevolutionaryoriginsofsociety.

Allmenarelikewiseequalbeforethemorallaw:Menarejudgedinthehereafterbythegoodandeviltheydo,andnotbythestationsoflifeinwhichtheywereplacedbyvirtueoftheirbirth.Therewardandpunishmentarestrictlyinproportiontothegoodandevildone,andcastewhether“high”or”low”doesnotmatterintheleast.ASudra(outcast)whodoesgoodinthishumblestationenjoyslaterthepleasantfruitsofhisactions,whileaBrahminwhodoesevilsuffers.Themagicalconceptofcleanlinessandpollutionassociatedwithcasteisgivenanethicaltwist;

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whatmattersisnotevenexternalcleanlinessbutpurityofheartortheabsenceofpollutionwithin.[52]Moralandspiritualdevelopmentisnotaprerogativeofpeoplewhoarespeciallyfavouredbytheirbirth,butisopentoallandiswithinthereachofall.

TheSpiritualUnityofMankindBiologicallymanisonespecies.Asmembersofacommonhumansocietyallmendeservetohaveequalrightsandopportunities,whichincludetheopportunitiesformoralandspiritualdevelopment.Butmanismorethanabiologicalspecimenorasocialbeing.Deepwithinhisdesirestosatisfyhisbiologicalneedsandsocialinstinctsishisquestforsecurity,immortalityandalastingpeaceandhappiness.

Whatbringsmentogetherwastherealisationoftheircommonlotandtheircommonhumanity.Allmenofwhateverracearesubjecttodisease,decayanddeath.Allmenarelikewiseimpelledbythedesireswithinthem—thedesireforsense-gratification,thedesireforlifeorpersonalimmortality,andthedesirefordominationoverdeath.Man’squestforsecurityandlastinghappinessneverceases,butitisneversatisfiedbypanderingtohisdesiresasaresultofwhichheiscontinuallyinastateofunrest.Butdeepwithinthisfathom-longbody,saystheBuddha,isthefinalgoalweallseekanditisonlybydiscoveringthiseternalpeaceandhappinesswithinusthatwerealisethe

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highestthatwearecapableof.

Allpeople,whatevertheircasteorracialoriginsmaybe,areinneedofandcapableofthisself-samesalvation.TheKingofKosalaoncequestionedtheBuddhaonthissubject:“Therearethesefourcastes,Sir—Kshatriyas,Brahmins,VaisyasandSudras.Letussupposethemtobeimbuedwiththefiveformsofstrenuousexertiontoattainsalvation.Inthiscasewouldtherebeanydistinction,Sir,anydifferencebetweenthem(inregardtothequalityoftheirsalvation)?”

“Here,too,Sir,”repliestheBuddha,“Idonotadmitanydifferencewhatsoeverinregardtothenatureoftheirsalvation.Justasif,Sire,amanweretokindleafirewithdryherbs,andanothermanweretokindleafirewithdrysal-wood,andathirdweretokindleafirewithdrymango-wood,andafourthwithdryfig-wood—whatthinkyou,Sirewouldthesediversefireskindledwithdiversewoodsshowanydifferencewhatsoeverinrespectoftheirflame,hueorbrightness?”

“Nodifferenceatall,Sir.”

“Evenso,Sir,istheinwardilluminationwhichiskindledbyeffortandnursedbystrenuousexertion.Isaythatthereisnodifferencewhatsoeverhereininregardtotheirsalvation.”[53]

Allmenhavethecapacitytoattainsalvation,irrespectiveoftheraceorcastetowhichtheybelong,anditisthisquestforeternalhappinesswhichconstitutesthereligiousquestofman.

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Itistherealisationofthisquestwhichshouldbetheultimateaimofman,foritisonlyonattainingitthathismentalconflictsareatanendandhehasfoundsalvation,astatetobeattainedinthislifeitselfandnotnecessarilyinthehereafter.“Man”,saystheBuddha,“issubjecttobothbodilyandmentaldisease.Bodilydiseaseafflictshimonlyfromtimetotime,butexceptforthosewhohaveattainedsalvationtheotherscannotclaimtohaveperfectmentalhealthevenforasecond.”[54]Butsuchperfectcontrolandpoiseofmind,whichawakensinusapeacethatpassesunderstandingcanonlybefoundbythosewhopractiseloveandcharitytoallbeingsandengageinthedevelopmentoftheirmindsbyfollowingtheprocessofself-analysisasrecommendedinBuddhism.Andbeingobsessedbyone’s“superior”birthinrespectoftheraceorcastetowhichonebelongsisoneofthefirstobstaclesthathastobeputawayintheinterestsofourownmentalhealthaswellasoftheworld.TheoutcastasdescribedinBuddhismisnotonewhoisborninaparticularcastebut“onewhohardenshisheartbyvirtueofhisbirthinaparticularrace(jāti-tthaddho),orbyvirtueofhiswealth(dhana-tthaddho)orcaste(gotta-tthaddho),anddespiseshisneighbour(saṃñātiṃatimaññati).”[55]

Sowhenweconsiderdifferencesamonghumanbeingsitisnottheshapeoftheirlimbs,thecolouroftheirskins,theirparentageorsocialstatusthatmatters,butthequestionhowfareachhumanbeingisfromhisgoal,whichisalsothegoalofallmankind,andwhichgiveshimrealhappinessandperfectmentalhealth.Areweprogressingtowardsthisgoal

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orawayfromit?Itissolelyinvirtueofthedegreeofmoralandspiritualattainmentofpeople,irrespectiveofraceorcaste,thatBuddhismclassifiedhumanbeingsassuperiororinferior—althoughthisclassificationtooisnotrigidinasmuchaseachpersonisconstantlychangingandhaswithinhimselfthepowertochangeforbetterorforworse.Thesuperioronesarethosewhohaveattainedthegoalorarenearitorareprogressingtowardsit,whiletheinferioronesarethosewhoarefarfromthegoaloraregoingawayfromit.And,significantlyenough,itissaidthatthosewhoare“boundbyracialprejudices(jāti-vada-vinibaddha)”or“boundbycasteprejudices(gotta-vada-vinibaddha)”havestrayed“farfromthewayofsalvation(arakāanuttarāyavijja-caraṇa-sampadāya).”[56]

Itisalsoacharacteristicofthesuperioronesthattheydonotassertormakepersonalclaimsoftheirmoralandspiritualsuperiorityoverothers.[57]Thisdoesnot,however,meanthattheyareconsciousoftheirsuperioritybutmerelydonotshowit,foritissaidthatthosewhohaveattainedsalvationceasetothinkofthemselvesintermsof“beingsuperior(seyyo),”“beinginferior(niceyyo)”or“beingequal(sarikkho).”[58]Themorallyandspirituallyinferiorones,ontheotherhand,shuttheirmindstothepossibilityofaspiritualawakeningandceasetomakeanymoralorspiritualprogressasaresultoftheirassertingorclaimingsuperiorityovertheirfellowbeingsonbaselessgrounds,andthusbringingunhappinessbothonthemselvesandonothersbycausingbaselessdivisionsamongmen.The

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degreeofmoralandspiritualprogressisthereforetheonlycriterionbywhichmenshouldbeclassifiedasbeingsuperiororinferior—thoughsuchclassificationsarenotabsolutesincemenarechangingandcanchange.

Thuswehavenorighttodespiseanother.EvenahardenedcriminallikeAṅgulimāla,theoutcastrobber,whowasconvertedbytheBuddha,mayhavedeepwithinhisnaturestrongpotentialitiesforundergoingarelativelyquickspiritualtransformation.Thetrulysuperiorbeingisneverconsciousofhissuperiority,nordoesheclaimit.SuchpeoplearethetrueBrahmins,regardlessoftheirorigins,andnotthosewhoareobsessedbytheirclaimstoa“pure”birth.

ThereareseveralsuchclassificationsofmankindonthebasisoftheirvaryingmoralandspiritualattainmentsintheBuddhisttexts.Wemayrefertoonewhichclassifiesindividualsintosevengrades:

“Therearethesesevenpersonstobecomparedwiththoseimmersedinwater,viz.,onewhoisoncedrownedisdrowned,onewhoisdrownedafteremergence,etc….

”(1)Howisapersonwhoisoncedrownedjustdrowned?Hereacertainpersonispossessedofabsolutelyblackimmoralqualities.Suchapersonbeingoncedrownedisdrowned.

“(2)Howisapersondrownedafteremergence?Hereacertainpersonemergeswithfaith,withmodesty,withconscientiousness,withenergy,withinsight,asregards

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good(moral)qualities,buthisfaith,hismodesty,conscientiousness,energyorinsightneitherpersistsnorgrows,butdecreases.Suchapersonisdrownedafteremergence.

”(3)Howdoesapersonpersistafteremergence?Hereacertainpersonemergeswithfaith,withmodesty,withconscientiousness,withenergy,withinsight;asregardsgoodqualitiesandhisfaith,hismodesty,conscientiousness,energy,orinsightneitherdecreasesnorgrows,butpersists.Suchapersonpersistsafteremergence.

“(4)Howdoesapersonlookaboutandaroundafteremergence?Hereacertainpersonemergeswithfaith,withmodesty,withconscientiousness,withenergy,orwithinsight,asregardsgoodqualities.Bycompletedestructionofthreefettershebecomesastream-attainer,nomoreliabletofallintoawoefulstate,butsuretowinenlightenmentashisfinalendandaim.Suchapersonlooksaboutandaroundafteremergence.

“(5)Howdoesapersonswimonafteremergence?Hereacertainpersonemergeswithfaith,withmodesty,withconscientiousness,withenergy,orwithinsight,asregardsgoodqualities.Bycompletedestructionofthreefettersandbythedestructionofpassion,hatred,anddelusionhebecomesaonce-returner,whocomingbackbutoncetothisworldmakesanendtosuffering.Suchapersonswimsonafteremergence.

“(6)Howdoesapersonreachafixedfootingafter

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emergence?Hereacertainpersonemergeswithfaith,withmodesty,withconscientiousness,withenergyorwithinsight,asregardsgoodqualities.Bycompletedestructionoffivefetterscausingrebirthinthelowerworlds,hebecomesabeingofapparitionalrebirthattainingthefinalreleaseinthatstate,andisnotliabletoreturnfromthatworld.Suchapersonreachesafixedfootingafteremergence.

“(7)WhatsortofpersonishewhoasatrueBrahminafteremergencecrossestotheothershoreandestablisheshimselfinfruition?Hereacertainpersonemergeswithfaith,withmodesty,withconscientiousness,withenergyorwithinsight,asregardsgoodqualities.Bydestructionofsinfultendencies,helivesinpossessionofemancipationofwill,ofemancipationofinsight,freefromthosesinfultendenciesandhavingcometoknowandrealisethembyhisowneffortsinthisveryexistence.SuchapersonisatrueBrahmincrossingafteremergenceandgoingtotheothershoreandestablishinghimselfinfruition.”[59]

ThePracticalPolicyofBuddhismtowardsRacismandCasteAswetriedtoshowinthepreviouschapter,Buddhismfromthefirstproclaimedtheonenessofmankindanddeniedthatbirthinaparticularraceorcastewasorshouldbeanobstacletowardsanyonedevelopinghispotentialitiesasamanorasaspiritualbeing.“Race”namesand”caste”

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nameswereconvenientmisleadingdesignations,buttheywerenotabsolutedivisions.Castenameshadonlyanoccupationalsignificanceandfromwhatappearsinthetextsthepeopleatthattimewerestillrelativelyfreetochooseorchangetheiroccupations.Casteprejudiceanddiscriminationwerestillintheformativestage;theirfoundationswerebeinglaidbytheBrahminpriesthoodwhowereformulatingtherequiredreligiousandlegalsanctionsforperpetuatingthesystem.Inthecircumstances,wefindtheBuddhaandhisdisciplescompletelyignoringtheclaimsattachedtobirthwithregardtodispensationoftheOrderofMonks—whilefightingcasteprejudiceanddiscrimination,fannedbytheBrahminpriesthoodintheprevalentsocialorder,bythemethodsofrationalpersuasionandexample.

AsProfessorRhysDavidssays,theBuddha“ignorescompletelyandabsolutelyalladvantagesordisadvantagesarisingfrombirth,occupationorsocialstatusandsweepsawayallbarriersanddisabilitiesarisingfromthearbitraryrulesofmereceremonialorsocialimpurity.”[60]Peopleofallcasteswerefreelyadmittedtotheorderandindoingsopeoplehadtochangeeventheirnamesanddesignationsbecauseoftheirassociationswiththeirrankorbirth.TherewerepossiblyafewwhowhilebeingmembersoftheOrderofMonkswerestillconsciousoftheir“high”birthorlineageandtriedtoclaimspecialprivilegesonthesegroundsbutsuchattemptswerealwayscheckedandsternlydenounced.Itissaidthatasectionofmonkswhowere

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consciousoftheir”high”rankascivilianstriedtomonopoliselodgings,therebyleavingoutthesenioreldersoftheOrder.TheBuddhainquiringintothematteraskedthem,“Tellme,whodeservesthebestlodging,thebestwater,andthebestrice,brethren?”Whereuponsomeanswered”Hewhowasanoble-manbeforehebecameabrother”,andotherssaid,”HewhowasoriginallyaBrahmin,oramanofmeans.”TheBuddha’sreplywas:“InthereligionwhichIteach,thestandardbywhichprecedenceinthematteroflodgingandthelikeistobesettled,isnotnoblebirth,orhavingbeenaBrahmin,orhavingbeenwealthybeforeentryintotheOrder:…”[61]

SomeofthemostdistinguishedmembersoftheOrderwerefromtheso-called“low”castes.UpāliwhowasthechiefauthorityontherulesoftheOrderafterBuddhahimself,hadformerlybeenabarber,oneofthedespisedoccupationsofthe“lower”castes:PuṇṇāandPuṇṇikā,whojoinedtheOrderofNunshadbeenslavegirls.ThemembersoftheOrder,whethermaleorfemale,donotseemhowevertohavebeendrawnexclusivelyfromthe”lower”castes.AnanalysisofthesocialpositionofthenunsmentionedinthePsalmsoftheSistersshowthat81percentofthewholenumberwere”base-born.”ProfessorRhysDavidssays:“Itismostlikelythatthisisjustabouttheproportionwhichpersonsinsimilarsocialrankboretotherestofthepopulation.”[62]Perhapsitwouldbenearerthetruthtosaythatif81percentofthecontributedpoemswerecomposedbyandexpressthereligiousjoythatthemembersofthe

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despisedcastesfeltonjoiningtheOrderandrealisingthefruitsofthetrainingthatitgave,thentheactualpercentageofthewomenof“low”birthintheOrderwouldhavebeenverymuchlarger,sincethesocialclassfromwhichtheyweredrawnwasmostlyilliterate.AsMrs.RhysDavidssaysintheintroductiontothesisterwork,thePsalmsoftheBrethren:’Thatalargeproportionofthesemenof“letters”shouldbelongtotheclasswhowerethecustodiansofreligiousloreandsacredhymnswasinevitable.Thereallyinterestingfeatureisthattheresiduum,consistingofnoblementrainedinwar,governance,andsports,ofmerchants,craftsmen,andthelike,occupiedwithbusiness,commerceandconstructivework,andoftheilliteratepoor,shouldbeasnumerousasitis.Or,indeed,thatthereshouldhavebeenanyofthelast-namedgroupatallascomposersofversesdeservinginclusionintheCanon.Infact,itwouldnotbeentirelyunreasonabletoconcludethatif4percentofthecanonicalpoetsweredrawnfromthepooranddespisedoftheearth,fromwhomnosuchproductsasversescouldbeexpected,thentheproportionofmonks,ingeneral,comingfromthatclassmayhavebeenconsiderable.’[63]

HowtheBuddhacalledmenandwomenfromthelowliestwalksoflifeandmadethemrealisetherichnessoftheirspiritualheritageashumanbeingseventhoughtheyweredespisedandreckonedasonlyfitformenialworkbysomeoftheirfellowmen—whooughttohaveknownbetter—isbestdescribedinthewordsofthosewhoreceivedsuchgiftsnotasamatterofgracebutasafruitoftheirownefforts.

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Sunīta,forexample,wasascavengerandthefollowingisabriefaccountofhislifeandsuccessfulquesttoldinverseinhisownwords:

HumbletheclanwhereinItookmybirthAndpoorwasIandscantywasmylot;Meantaskwasmine,ascavengerofflowers,Oneforwhomnomancared,despised,abused,MymindIhumbledandIbenttheheadIndeferencetoagoodlytaleoffolk.

AndthenIsawtheAll-Enlightenedcome,BegirtandfollowedbyhisBhikkhu-train,GreatChampionenteringMagadha’schieftown.

Ilaidasidemybasketsandmyyoke,AndcamewhereImightdueobeisancemake,Andofhislovingkindnessjustforme,TheChiefofmenhalteduponhisway.

LowathisfeetIbent,thenstandingby,IbeggedtheMaster’sleavetojointheRuleAndfollowhim,ofeverycreatureChief.

ThenhewhosetendermercywatchtheallTheworld,theMasterpitifulandkind,Gavememyanswer:’Come,Bhikkhu!’hesaidTherebytomewasordinationgiven.

Lo!Ialoneinforestdepthsabode,WithzealunfalteringwroughttheMaster’sword,EventhecounselsoftheConqueror.

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WhilepassedthefirstwatchofthenightthereroseLongmemoriesofthebygonelineoflives.Whilepassedthemiddlewatch,theheavenlyeye,Purviewcelestial,wasclarified.

Whilepassedthelastwatchofthenight,IburstAsunderallthegloomofignorance.

ThenasnightworedownatdawnAndrosethesun,cameIndraandBrahma,Yieldingmehomagewiththeirclaspedhands:Hailuntothee,thounoblybornofmen!Hailuntothee,thouhighestamongmen!

Perishedfortheearealltheintoxicants;Andthouartworthy,nobleair,ofgifts.TheMaster,seeingmebytroopofgodsBegirtandfollowed,thereuponasmileRevealingbyhisutterancemaderesponse;’Bydisciplineofholylife,restraintAndmasteryofself:herebyamanIsholy;thisisholinesssupreme!’[64]

Itwasthesamewiththewomen.ToquoteafewextractsfromtheutterancesofPuṇṇā,whowasonceaslavegirl:

Drawerofwater,Idowntothestream,Eveninwinterwentinfearofblows,Harassedbyfearofblamefrommistress.

Lo!TotheBuddhaIforrefugego,

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AndtotheNormandOrder.IwilllearnOfthemtotakeuponmyselfandkeepThePrecepts;soshallIindeedfindgood.

OnceasonofBrahminsbornwasITodayIstandBrahminineverydeed.ThenoblerThreefoldWisdom[65]haveIwon,WonthetrueVeda-lore,andgraduateAmIfrombetterSacramentreturned,Cleansedbytheinwardspiritualbath.[66]

ThetrainingforrealisingtheirspiritualpotentialitieswhichtheyreceivedasmembersoftheOrderwassuchthatnotonlydidraceorcasteconsciousnesshavenoplaceinitbutsuchprejudicesactuallyhinderedtheawakeningofspiritualinsightandthecultivationofthemorallife.Aswesaidbefore,“Thosewhoareobsessedwiththeprejudicesofraceorcastearefarfromthemorallifeandtheattainmentofsupremespiritualinsight.”Suchobsessions,whicharetheaccumulatedproductsofacquirederroneousbeliefs,areamongtheintoxicants(avijjāsavā)ofthemindandhavetobegotridofbyaprocessofself-analysisandconsciouselimination.Intoxicantsaretobeeliminatedbyseeingandrecognisingthemastheyaffectourmindandnotbybeingblindtothem.[67]Thisrequireswatchfulness(sati)onourpart,theacquiringofrightviews(dassana)toreplacetheerroneousones,constantvigilanceoverourthoughts(saṃvara)andthecultivationofourmind(bhāvanā).Thepractiseofmettāorcompassiontowardsallbeings,andof

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upekkhāorequanimityorimpartialitytowardsall,wouldbeconsideredimpossibleonthepartofthosewhohavenotfreedtheirmindsoftheinitialprejudicesassociatedwithraceorcaste.

HowBuddhismsetabouttoexplodethetheoryofcastebyadducinghistorical,scientific,ethicalandreligiousargumentsagainstitwehavementionedalready.IfweconsidertheseargumentsweseethattheydonotmerelyrepresentatrendofKshatriyaoppositiontoBrahminclaimstosuperiorityforitisconstantlypointedoutthatmenofallcastesareonanequalfooting(samasama)withregardtotheircapabilities;andtheKshatriyaandVaisyaclaimstosuperiorityareasmuchdenouncedinthisrespectasthoseoftheBrahmins.ThereishoweveronestatementwhichintheopinionoftheauthorshassometimesbeenmisinterpretedtomeanthatBuddhismchampionedthecauseofthesuperiorityoftheKshatriyasovertheBrahminsandallelse.Itoccursinadiscourseagainstcastewhichendsonthethemethatwhatreallymattersismoralsuperiorityandnotthepretensionsof“high”birth.”TheKshatriyaisthebestofthoseamonghisfolkwhoputtheirtrustinlineage.Buthewhoisperfectinwisdomandrighteousness,heisthebestamonggodsandmen.”[68]ItwouldofcoursebepossibletoexplainthistextawaybyattributingittotheworkofsomeoftheeditorsoftheCanonwhowereunconsciouslyinfluencedbynotionsofsuperioritybasedonbirth,butthiswouldbeunnecessaryifthestatementiscarefullystudiedinitscontext.Itwouldthenbeseenthat

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whattheBuddhadoesinthisdiscourseistoemployadialecticalmethodofargumentwherebyhetakesupsomeofthecriteriawhichtheBrahmins(heisarguingwithaBrahmin)acceptasproofofcastesuperiorityandshowingthatwhentheyareactuallyappliedtothecontextofsocietyitwouldshowthesuperiorityoftheKshatriyaandnottheBrahmin—thusprovingthattheBrahminclaimtosuperiorityinrespectofthesecriteriawasbaseless.Lineageisoflittleornoaccountbutiflineage(asdefinedhere)istakenasthecriterion,thenitistheKshatriyawhoshouldclaimsuperiorityandnottheBrahmin.Thefactthat,asHuttonsays,”theBrahminintheRigvedaseemstohavebeensecondinsocialimportancetotheRajanya”[69]lendshistoricalsupporttothisdeduction.Inanycasethepointofthisquotationisthathewhoissupremeaboveallistheone’whoisperfectinwisdomandrighteousness,asupremacynotbasedontheclaimsofbirth.’

TheattemptatinfluencingpublicopinionbyrationalpersuasionandexamplewasnotbackedupmerelybytheexemplaryorganisationoftheBuddhistOrderofmonksandnuns,whodidawaywithalldistinctionsorclaimsbasedonbirth.Themonksandnunsvisitedthehomesofpeopleofallcastes,“high”or“low,”forpurposesofpreachingandhavingtheirmeals,sometimesatthecostofpersonaldiscomfort:theBuddhawassometimesrailedatbyBrahminsforvisitingtheirhomestobegformeals,andhisinvariableanswerastowhatwashisraceorcastewas“Askmenotformybirth(majātiṃpuccha).”[70]Sometimeshe

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visitedBrahminvillageswithoutgettingamorseloffood.Thedisciplesdidthesame,andignoredcastedistinctionsandpractisesintheirrelationswiththeirfellowhumanbeings.ThefollowingincidentisrecordedofĀnanda,oneoftheimmediatedisciplesoftheBuddha,whorehearsedthedharmaatthefirstCouncil:’NowtheelderĀnandadressedearlyandtakinghisbowlandrobeenteredthegreatcitySāvatthīforalms.Afterhisroundandhavingfinishedhismealheapproachedacertainwell.AtthattimeaMātaṅga(outcast)girlnamedPrakṛtīwasatthewelldrawingwater.SotheelderĀnandasaidtotheMātaṅgagirl,“Givemewater,sister,Iwishtodrink.”Atthisshereplied“IamaMātaṅgagirl,reverendĀnanda.””Idonotaskyou,sister,aboutyourfamilyorcastebutifyouhaveanywaterleftover,giveitme,Iwishtodrink.”ThenshegaveĀnandathewater…[71]

Itisnotonlythemonksandnunswhohavetopractisecompassionbutthelaydisciplesaswell.ThefollowingareamongthesentimentsexpressedinstanzasrecitedfrequentlybylayBuddhistseventoday:

“Whateverlivingbeingsthereare,eitherfeebleorstrong,longorgreat,middle-sized,short,smallorlarge.Eitherseenorwhicharenotseen,andwhichlivefar(or)near,eitherbornorseekingbirth,mayallcreaturesbehappy-minded.

“Letnoonedeceiveanotherlethimnotdespise(another)inanyplace,lethimnotoutofangerorresentmentwishharmtoanother.

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“Asamotherattheriskofherlifewatchesoverherownchild,heronlychild,soalsoleteveryonecultivateaboundless(friendly)mindtowardsallbeings.[72]

Thecultivationofsuchsentimentsisincompatiblewiththeharbouringofanyracialprejudiceorhatred.Laydiscipleswereadmonishedtogiveupconceitbasedonnotionsof“high”birth,orinotherwordsracialorcastepride.Inasermonwhichdistinguishesbetweenthecharacteristicsofthemanwhoprogressesandthemanwhodegenerates,thisisreckonedamongoneofthemanycausesforthedownfallofman:”Themanwho,proudofhisbirth,wealthorfamily,despiseshisneighbourisdegenerate,”[73]andthisconceitwouldbethecauseofhisdownfall.ItisalsonotsurprisingthatamongthetradesforbiddentoBuddhistsistheslavetradeor”traffickinginhumanbeings(satta-vanijjā)”[74]asthiswouldnotbeinkeepingwiththerightmodeoflivelihood(samma-ājīva)whicheveryBuddhistmustfollow.Thetreatmentoftheservantsinone’shouseholdtooshouldbesuchthattheirhumandignityisrecognised.“Theyshouldnotbeoverburdenedwithwork,theyshouldbewellprovidedwiththeirmealsandwages,theyshouldbelookedafterwhentheyareill,thefoodanddelicaciesshouldbesharedwiththemandtheyshouldbegivenenoughleaveandleisure.”[75]ThusdidBuddhismlightenthelotofaclassofpeoplewhowereconsideredtohavebeenbornorcreatedtoservetheirmastersandtobe

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expelledatwill(kāmotthāpyaḥ)ortobeslainatwill(yathākāmavaddhyaḥ),accordingtothetextsoftheBrahmins.

ItwasinkeepingwiththeseBuddhistidealsandprinciplesthatinthethirdcenturyB.C.thegreatBuddhistemperorAsokamodelledhispolicytowardsthelowerstrataofsocietyinhiskingdom,thesubjectraces,theforesttribesandtheborderpeoples.QuotingtheBuddhistsayingthatthe“giftoftheDhammaexcelsallothergifts”wefindhisRockEdict12callingattentionbeforeallelsetothejusttreatmentofservantsandslaves.“ThereisnogiftthatcanequalinmeritthegiftofDhamma,…fromitfollowtherighttreatmentofslavesandservants,servicetomotherandfather…”[76]And,whathepreachedheseemedtohavepractisedhimselftojudgebytherecordofhisinscriptions.

BelievingintheequalityofmanasanadherentoftheDhammaheseemstohavetreatedhissubjects,irrespectiveofraceorsocialstatus,equallybeforethelaw,notwithstandingwhatwasprescribedinHindulegalcodes:“Itismostdesirable,”hesaysinpillaredictIV“thatthereshouldbeabsoluteequalityforallinalllegalproceedingsandinthepunishmentsawarded…”[77]Heextendsthisequalityoftreatmenteventothebordertribes,inEdictIImakingthefollowingdeclaration:“Allpeoplearemychildren.JustasIdesireonbehalfofmyownchildren,thattheyshouldbefullyprovidedwithallkindsofcomfortandenjoymentinthisworldaswellasintheotherworld,similarlyIdesirethesameonbehalfofallpeople.Thosewholiveonthebordersofmydominions,andhavenot

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beenconqueredbyme,maywonderwhatexactlyismydispositiontowardsthem.Mydispositiontowardsthemisthis:theyshouldbetoldthattheKingdesiresthus:’Letthemnotbeafraidofme.Letthembemadetofeelconfidentthattheyneedexpectonlyhappinessfrommeandnotmisery.’Theyshouldagainbetoldthus:’TheKingwillforgivetheirfaultsthatcanbeforgiven.MaytheybeinducedtopractiseDhammaformysakeandtherebyattainhappinessinthisworldandinthenext’…Youractionshouldbeshapedaccordinglyandtheborderersshouldbecomfortedandconsoledandinspiredwithconfidenceandwiththisidea:’TheKingislikeourfather.Hecaresforourwelfareasmuchashecaresforhimself.Wearetohim,likehisownchildren.’[78]”Intheninthrockedict(Girnar)Asokarecommendsthepractiseofthelawofpietyanddiscouragesvainritualandceremonies,whichpossiblyincludedthepractiseofcasterites:“Menarepractisingvariousceremoniesduringillnessoratthemarriageofasonordaughter,oratthebirthofason,orwhensettingoutonajourney;onthoseandotheroccasionsmenarepractisingvariousceremonies.Andwomenarepractisingmanyandvariousvulgaranduselessceremonies.Now,ceremoniesshouldcertainlybepractised.Butceremonieslikethesebearlittlefruitindeed:Butthefollowingpractisebearsmuchfruit,namely,thepractiseofmorality.Hereinthefollowing(arecomprised):propercourtesytoslavesand,servants,reverencetoelders,gentlenesstoanimals.…”[79]Heproclaims“thatthoseofthehumblestorigins,evenamong

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thebordertribes,arecapableofexperiencingthehighestspiritualjoy”andintheBrahmagiriandRupnathEdictsheenjoinshispeopletoexertthemselvesinthisdirection:“MeninJambudīpa,whoweretillnowunmingled,havenowbeenmingledwiththegods.Thisiscertainlythefruitofmyexertion.Norisitcorrecttoholdthatitcanbeachievedonlybythegreatones,foreventhesmallestpersoncanachievetheidealofheavenlyblissbyforceofexertion.Itisforthispurposethatthisproclamationhasbeenproclaimedthus:’Letthehumbleandthegreatexertthemselvestoachievethisideal.Maymyborderpeopleunderstandthis.Maythisspiritofexertionendureeverlastingly.’”[80]

Thecareandconcernwithwhichhereferredtotheweakeraboriginaltribesdwellinginthehillsandborderlandsofhisterritory,wasindeedenlightenedbeyondmuchmodernpractise.Heregardedthemnotassavagebeastswhodeservedtobeexterminatedorasfiercepeoples,whoshouldbekeptincheckbythefearandforceofarmsbutashumanchildrenwhoweretobemadetounderstandthattheywereunderhiscareandprotection.InRockEdictXIIIhesays:“Devanampriyaconsidersthatevenhewhowrongshimisfittobeforgivenofwrongsthatcanbeforgiven.AndeventheforestinhabitantsincludedinthedominionsofDevanampriya,whosubmit,hepacifiesandconverts(bykindmethods),dulyinformingthemofhispowertopunishthem,inspiteofhiscompassion.Andwhatfor?Inorderthattheymayfeelashamedoftheirpastconduct,andnotbe

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killed.BecauseDevanampriyadesiresthatallbeingsshouldbeleftunhurt,shouldhaveself-control,haveequal(impartial)treatmentandshouldleadhappylives.”[81]

Buddhismwasfromthefirstamissionaryreligionwhichsoughttobringthemessageoftruthandlovetoallmankind:”Goforth,”saidtheBuddhatohisdisciples,“Iamdeliveredfromallfetters,humananddivine.Youarealsodeliveredfromallfettershumananddivine.Gonowandwanderforthegainofthemany,forthewelfareofthemany,outofcompassionfortheworld,forthegood,forthegainandforthewelfareofgodsandmen.Letnottwoofyougothesameway.”[82]Andtheyweretogo,astheydidgo,toallmannersofpeoplesandtribes,regardlessofthehazardsofsuchjourneysandthedangersoftryingtounderstandandconvertstrangepeoples.—Yettheonlyweaponstheywereallowedtotakeandhavewiththemweretheweaponsoftruthandlove.Theirtraininginthepractiseofcompassionshouldbesuchthat,inthewordsoftheBuddha,”theywouldnot.havedonehisbiddingiftheyweretomanifesttheslightestirritationorangerevenifwilyrobbersweretogetholdofthemonthewayandcutthemlimbbylimbwithadouble-edgedsaw.”[83]TheBuddha’sinterrogationofPunajustbeforeshesetoutonsuchadangerousmissionwhichhoweverachievedamazingsuccesswasasfollows:

“Withthisconciseteachingfromme,Puṇṇa,inwhatcountrywillyoutakeupyourabode?

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“InSunāparanta,sir:

”Theyareafierceandviolentrace,PuṇṇainSunāparanta.Iftheyweretoabuseyouandrevileyouthere,whatwouldyouthink?

”Ishouldthink,Lord,thatthegoodfolkofSunāparantawerereallynicepeople,verynicepeopleindeed,inthattheyforboretostrikeme.

”Butiftheystrikeyou?

“Ishouldthink,Lord,thatthegoodfolkofSunāparantawerereallynicepeople…iftheyforboretopeltmewithclods.

”Butiftheypeltyouwithclods?

“Ishouldthink,Lord,…forboretocudgelme,

”Butiftheycudgelyou?

”Ishouldthink,Lord,…forboretoknifeme.

”Butiftheyknifeyou?

”Ishouldthink,Lord,…forboretotakemylife.

”Butiftheytakeyourlife?

”Iftheydid,Lord,IshouldthinkthattherearedisciplesoftheLord,whointheirtribulationanddespair,areonthelook-outforsomeone,withaknife,andthatIhavefoundhimwithouthavingtohuntabout.ThisiswhatIshouldthink,Lord;thatwouldbemythought,BlessedOne.

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”Goodindeed,Puṇṇa.Withsuchacommandofyourself,youwillbeabletolivewiththefolkofSunāparanta.”[84]

HowfastBuddhismsucceededbythesemethodsofgentlepersuasionandexampleinstemmingthetideofcasteinIndiaisaproblemaboutwhichwedonotwishtobedogmatic,for,especiallyaftertheAsokanera,Brahmanismgraduallycamebackintoitsown,andwithitthesanctionsforthehardeningofthecastestructure.ButiftheaccountofagreatChinesesaintandtravellerofthefifthcenturyistobetrusted,onthewholeaBuddhistatmosphereprevailedinIndiaeventhen.Hesays:“Thepeoplearenumerousandhappy,theyhavenottoregistertheirhouseholdsorattendtoanymagistratesortheirrules;onlythosewhohavetocultivatetheroyallandhavetopay(aportionof)thegainfromit.Iftheywanttogo,theygo;iftheywanttostay,theystay.Thekinggovernswithoutdecapitationor[other]corporalpunishments.Criminalsaresimplyfined,lightlyorheavily,accordingtothecircumstances(ofeachcase).…Theking’sbodyguardsandattendantsallhavesalaries…”[85]MentionishowevermadeoftheCaṇḍālas,whoarefishermenandhunters,andliveapartfromtherestofthepopulation,butthisdoesnotnecessarilyimplytheextensivedivisionofthewholepopulationintonumerouscastes.Suchaccountsaremeagre,however,anditisnotpossibletosayhowmuchcasteprejudiceanddiscriminationwaspresenteventhoughthecastestructurewasstillfairlyflexible.

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ButitisverylikelythatwhentheGītāthrowsopentheroadtosalvationtoallcastesthisisduetotheinfluenceofBuddhism.EarlyBrahmanismdeniedreligiousinstructiontotheSudrasandthoughtthemincapableofsalvation,andintheBuddhistbookstheBrahminsarequotedassayingoftheBuddhathat“therecluseGotamaproclaimssalvationtoallcastes.”Ghurye,followingFick[86](whoonlyexaminedpartofthematerialoftheJātakasandleftoutthemajorportionoftheCanon),holdsthat”itiswrongtolookupontheBuddhaasasocialreformerandBuddhismasarevoltagainstcaste,”[87]buthegrantsthat”theactionsofBuddhahadageneral,liberalisingeffect”[88]andasregardsthepossibilityofsalvationforallsaysthat“thenecessityofclosinguptheranksagainsttheonslaughtofBuddhismandofassuringindividualsalvationforallledtotheformationoftwoslightlydifferingphilosophiesofcaste.”[89]Itisthereforeverylikelythat,toagreatextentatleast,theBuddhistmovementwasresponsibleinrelaxingtherigoursoftasteinthisdirection.

Buddhismhasspreadinmanylandsandamongmanyracesduringthe2,500yearsofitshistory,thoughitslighthasmainlybeenconfinedtotheEast.TheworkitdidduringtheseyearsisperhapspartlyresponsibleforknittingtheseracescloselytogetherinoneAsianspirit,andinsofarasnon-aggressivenessandtolerancearetosomeextentcharacteristicofthisspirit(howeverdangeroussuchgeneralisationsmaybe)theytranscendtheboundariesofBuddhistlandsandembracethewholeearth.Thisunityis

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certainlynottheunityoforthodoxbeliefs,forBuddhismneversoughttoinculcatesuchorthodoxiesandcurbthefreespiritofinquiryinman.TheverdictofonepilgrimtravellerinBuddhistlands,Hiuen-Tsiangwas:“Inagreementwiththemysteriouscharacterofthisdoctrinetheworldhasprogressedinitshigherdestiny;butdistantpeoplescomingtointerpretthedoctrine,arenotinagreement.ThetimeoftheHolyOneisremotefromus,andsothesenseofhisdoctrineisdifferentlyexpounded.Butasthetasteofthefruitofdifferenttreesofthesamekindisthesame,sotheprinciplesoftheschoolsastheynowexistarenotdifferent.”[90]Thisviewisreiteratedbyanothersuchpilgrimofthetwentiethcentury,Pratt,whoinhis“ThePilgrimageofBuddhism”says:”Notsoobvious,perhaps,arethosepersistentcharacteristicswhichhelptomakeitinallitsramificationsandallitshistorystillonereligion.Ishallnot,ofcourse,maintainthatallthosewhoburnincenseinBuddhisttemplesoremployBuddhistmonksatfuneralsareBuddhists,anymorethanIshouldholdthateveryicon-worshipperisnecessarilyaChristian.WhatImean,isthattherearecertainqualitiesofcharacterandfeeling,ofpointofview,conduct,andbelief,whichmayproperlybecalledBuddhist,andthatthesearenotconfinedtoanyoneschoolofBuddhism,whetherHinayanaorMahayana,butaretobefoundinallthosewhobycommonconsentwouldbeconsideredtypicallyBuddhistinallthelandswehavestudiedfromsouthernCeylontonorthernJapan.Thesequalities,Ihold,transcendnotonlynationsbut

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centuries,andunitetheearnestfollowerofthemostup-to-dateJapanesesectwiththeearliestdisciplesoftheFounder.”

Prattaddsthat”Takentogether,theyconstitutewhat,inaroughandgeneralway,maybecalledtheSpiritofBuddhism”andgoesontodescribethatwhatisparticularlycharacteristicofthisspiritisthelackofaggressivenessandtheloveoflife:”ThislackofaggressivenessisoneofthemostmarkedofBuddhisttraits…ThereisakindofgentlenessintheBuddhistnaturewhichIthinkeveryonemustfeel.Butthisisnotthegentlenessandnon-aggressivenessofweakness.Itisnotfearthatpromptsit…Thenon-aggressivenessofthetypicalBuddhistisakindofstrengthinreserve;itisthegentlenessofthestrongmanwhorefusestopushhisownwayinacrowd,orofthereflectivemanwhoisconvincedthegameisnotworththecandle.Partlyasanoutgrowthofthisgentlenessofspirit,partlyinobediencetotheneverforgottenexhortationsoftheFounder,partlyoutofcontagionfromtheexampleandinfluenceofhismesmericpersonality,Buddhisminallthelandstowhichithasgonehasneverceasedtopreachandtopractiseuniversalpityandsympathyforallsentientlife.”

WiththeexceptionofCeylon,whereacastestructureprevailssidebysideveryuneasilyalongwithBuddhism,suchdivisionsarewhollyabsentinBuddhistlands.InfactthosewhohavelivedandmovedamongthepeoplesintheselandshaveoftenbeenstruckbytheequalityofmanincountriessteepedinBuddhismandunaffectedbythe

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Hinducastestructure.FieldingHall,writingoftheBurmese,says”Therewas,andis,absolutelynoaristocracyofanykindatall.TheBurmeseareacommunityofequals,inasensethathasprobablyneverbeenknownelsewhere.”[91]

InCeylontheproximityofSouthIndiawasperhapslargelyinfluentialintheemergenceofacastestructureinsocietywhich[92]laterbecamemorerigidwiththeruleofSouthIndiankingswhoreliedonHindulegalcodes.YetitisinterestingtoobservethattheclassicalSinhalesetreatiseoncaste,theJanavaṃsa,aSinhalesepoemofthefifteenthcentury,endeavours,asAnandaCoomaraswamysays,”toshowthatallmenarereallyofoneracethoughoccupiedindifferentways,”stressisbeinglaidonthewellknownsayingoftheBuddha“notbybirthdoesonebecomeaVasala[outcast],notbybirthdoesonebecomeaBrahmin.…”[93]

TheresultanteffectofthesehistoricalcircumstancesisasituationwhichissummedupbyBryceRyan[94]inthefollowingwords.’InformedBuddhists,ofthelaityandclergyalike,repudiatesacredfoundationsforthecastehierarchy.Norwillanignorantvillager,evenunderthemoststringentquestioning,admitreligiousorperceptualbasisfortheorganisationofsocietyintocastes.Theintelligentsiatodaywillrelatecastepurelytosecularfoundations,usuallynotingthatsuchasystemiscontrarytotheBuddha’steaching,andinthiscontextdeplorethisdeparturefromboththespiritandteachingsofthereligion.

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Thelesssophisticatedmaynotdeplorecasteorganisation,butfinditfromthereligiouspointofviewirrelevant.Thusanintelligentvillagerresponds,“CasteisnotoftheBuddha,itisofthekings.”Unlikehiseducatedfellowheisnotconfrontedwiththenecessityofconventionalizingreligiousviewsandsecularpractises.AtnointellectualleveldoSinhalesebelievethatBuddhismsupportscaste,andingeneralWesternobservershaveconsideredthecastesystemasexistinginoppositiontoreligiousprinciples.InanycasethemildnessofcasteinCeylonincontrasttowhatobtainsinIndiaisonlytooapparent.Untouchabilityisabsent,andthereisfullfreedomofworshipforpeopleofallcasteswhosittogetherinthepreachinghallstolistentosermons.

ConclusionIntheforegoingpageswehavetriedtoshowthatBuddhismstandsfortheonenessofthehumanspecies,theequalityofman,andthespiritualunityofmankind.Thedifferencesamongtheso-calledracesasfarastheirphysicalcharacteristicsgoarenegligible.Thedifferencesinculturalattainmentareduetohistoricalcircumstancesandnottoanyinnateaptitudeswithwhichsomeofthe”cultured”races,whetheroftheEastorWest,arefavouredbynatureorGod.Allmenlikewise,irrespectiveoftheirrace,casteorclass,havethecapacitytoreachtheheightsofmoralandspiritualattainment.

Man’sdestinyistodevelopasaspiritualbeingand

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thereforewhatreallymattersisthedegreeofhismoralandspiritualdevelopment.Thishasnoconnectionwithbirthinanyparticularraceorcastesincethe”meanest”,“humblest”ofmankindmayhavethepotentialitiesforattainingtheveryhighestinthisrespectinthislife,sothatwehavenorighttodespiseanypersonwhateverhisstationinlifemaybe.Theharbouringofracialandcasteprejudiceismoreoverdetrimentaltoone’smentalhealthandspiritualstateanditisacharacteristicofthespirituallyenlightenedthattheyshedthemandactwithloveandimpartialitytowardsall.Raceandcastediscriminationarealsoinimicaltosocialprogresssincetheybringaboutartificialandunrealdivisionsamonghumanbeingswherenoneexistandhinderharmoniousrelations.

Thecloseanalogybetweenracialandcasteprejudiceanddiscriminationandthepossibleracialoriginofmuchofthelatterhasbeenreferredto;althoughinessence’casteprejudiceisanaspectofcultureprejudice,whileraceprejudice—asdistinguishedfromcultureprejudice—iscolour-and-physiqueprejudice.’[95]Infact,evenclassprejudicewithinthesame”racial”groupcanhavestrongaffinitieswithracialprejudicesothattheproblemsofrace,casteandclasscannotbedivorcedfromeachother.Thehistoryofmercantilismshowshowfaraneconomicmotivecanformthebasisfortheexploitationofoneclassofpeoplebyanother,evenofahomogeneousracialgroup.AsCoxpointsout,’Themercantilistfearedtheprospectsofthelabourer’sgettingoutofhisplace.Itwasfeltthatsomeclass

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ofpeopleshouldbedependedupontodothecommonwork,andthatthestatusofthisclassascommonworkersshouldremainpermanent.Itwassometendencyintheworkingclasstobeindependentwhichcalledforthreactionsakintoracialantagonism.Writingin1770,WilliamTemplesays:”OurmanufacturingpopulacehaveadoptedanotionthatasEnglishmentheyenjoyabirth-rightprivilegeofbeingmorefreeandindependentthananycountryinEurope…Thelessthemanufacturingpoorhaveofit,thebetterforthemselvesandfortheestate.Thelabouringpeopleshouldneverthinkofthemselvesasindependentoftheirsuperiorsfor,ifapropersubordinationisnotkeptup,riotandconfusionwilltaketheplaceofsobrietyandgoodorder.”Thatis,letusinterpose,preciselytheideaof”theNegroe’splace”intheUnitedStates.[96]Tokeepthemintheirplacetheyhadtobedeniedtherighttobeeducated.For,asMandevillesaidin1723:”Tomakethesocietyhappyandpeopleeasyunderthemeanestcircumstances,itisrequisitethatgreatnumbersofthemshouldbeignorantaswellaspoor.”Onlyarationalisationintheformofaracemythoracastemythwasneededinordertonumbtheconsciencesoftherulingclassesandoffertheman”explanation”oftheirlottothelabouringclassesAndsucharationalisationwouldhavebeenaneasyaffairwhenthedowntroddenclasswas”racially”differentfromtherulingclass.

TheBuddhistwayofsolvingtheseproblemsistoseekforthecausesandconditionswhichbringthemaboutor

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accentuatethemandthenproceedtoeradicatethesecausalfactors.TheBuddhistdiagnosiswouldbethatthecausesarefoundinmanasanindividualaswellasinsocietyasanorganisation.AccordingtoBuddhismthespringsofactionofhumanindividualsaregreed,hatred,anddelusion(orerroneousbeliefs)aswellastheiropposites.TheBuddhistviewisthatunlesstheformerareentirelyreplacedbytheiropposites—charity,loveandwisdom—manisinneedofsalvationandthatinanycaseunlesstheformeraretoneddownnojustsocietycanbefounded.Thegreedforeconomicandpoliticalpowercanbesogreatastoblindpeopletothenature,feelingsandneedsofindividualsotherthanthemselvesorofhumangroupsotherthanthosethey(erroneously)identifythemselveswith.Hatredcanalsofindaneasyoutlettowardshumanbeingsorgroupsconsideredasalienorhostiletooneselforone’sgroup.And,astheBuddhisttextssay,greedandhatrednurtureerroneousbeliefsordelusions(“rationalisations”)suchastheracialandcastemythswhichweevolveoutofourimaginationwithnobasisinfact.Thesemythsorerroneousbeliefsinturnencourageourracialhatredandlustforpowerattheexpenseofourfellowmen.Addtothistheignoranceofthefactthatweareprejudiced,aswellasthecostsofprejudice,andtheprocessgoesonwithinourminds,warpingourpersonalities,shuttingthedoortospiritualexperienceandcausingdivisionanddisharmonyinhumansociety.Achangeofheartandachangeofoutlookandattitudeattheleveloftheindividualisthesolutiontothisproblem.But

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suchatransformationcannotbeachievedbywaitingfortheoperationofevolutionaryprocessesorthegraceofadivinebeingbutonlybyputtingfortheffortonourownpart.Theerroneousbeliefsthatweentertainaboutraceorcastehavetobereplacedbyawarenessofthefactsbeforegreedcangiveplacetotruecharityandhatredtolove.

Butifachangeofheartandoutlookisessentialonthepartofindividualswhoharboursuchprejudicesitisequallyimportantthatachangeintheorganisationofhumansocietyshouldbemade.Buddhismconceivesofsocietyasachangingprocesssubjecttocausallawsanditcanchangeforbetterorworse.ItisapopularmisconceptionofBuddhismintheWesternmindthatitisonlyconcernedaboutsalvationandinthehigherspirituallifeandnotinsocialreformationatall.Thenumeroussermonstolaymenonthesubjectoftheirsocialwell-beingandthediscoursesonthenatureofarighteousgovernmentandofajustsociety,coupledwiththeexampleofAsoka,leavenodoubtthatthisaspecthasreceivedseriousattentioninBuddhism.

Whiletheimportanceoftheideologicalfactorasasocialdeterminantisrecognised,theworldisledbyideasorideologies(cittenalokoniyati),itissignificantthatsocialevilsaswellasthegrowthofhatredinsocietyareultimatelytracedtothepresenceofpovertyinhumansocietyorthemisdistributionofeconomicgoods.ItissaidinaSutta(sermon)whichdealswiththesubjectinanallegoricalformandaprophetictone:”Thus,brethren,asaresultofthemisdistributionofgoods,povertygrowsrife;frompoverty

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growingrifestealingincreases,fromthespreadofstealingviolencegrowsapace,fromthegrowthofviolencethedestructionoflifebecomescommon…lying…evilspeaking…adultery…abusiveandidletalk…covetousnessandillwill…falseopinions…incest,wantongreedandpervertedlust…tillfinallylackoffilialandreligiouspiety…Amongsuchhumanskeenanimositywillbecometherule…”[97]Theeliminationofeconomicinequalitiesinhumansocietywillthereforebeanessentialpreconditionfortheemergenceofharmoniousrelationsamonghumanbeings,sothatwhatisrequiredisbothachangeofheartaswellasachangeofsystem.

Suchsweepingchangescanhoweveronlybebroughtaboutby—astheyaretheresponsibilityof—thosewhoatpresentwieldeconomicandpoliticalpowerintheworld.Theindividualcanonlymakedecisionsforhimselfandemployinhisownwaytheweaponsofrationalpersuasionandexample.

ExceptwhentrulyBuddhistkingslikeAsokawereinpower,whenpoliticalandlegalmethodswerepossible,theseweretheweaponsthattheSanghaortheOrderofMonksandNunsaswellaslayBuddhistindividualsemployed.TheSanghaistheoldesthistoricalinstitutionwhichhashadasitsmemberspeopleofdiverseraces,castes,classesandtribeswhohaveshedtheirracialprejudicesfortheuniversalismoftheOrder.InreflectingtheBuddhistconceptionoftheequalityofmanitsstructureisdemocratic.AsMookerjisays,’thePalitextsfurnish

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interestinginformationoftheworkingoftheBuddhistSanghainstrictandminuteconformitywithgenuinedemocraticprinciples.’[98]Itisnotcontrolledbyapopeorhierarchyofecclesiasticsofanyparticularnation.Whennewcountrieswereconvertedthesonsofthesoiltookoververysoonafter,sothatwedonotfindforinstanceaChineseChurchofJapanoraCeyloneseChurchofBurma.

ItisalsonoteworthythattherewerenocrusadesinBuddhism,whichneverlentitselftoimperialexpansionandthesubjugationofpeoples.TherehasbeennomilitaryorpoliticalcampaignorconquestwiththeideaofspreadingBuddhistcultureandcivilization.

ThepacifismofBuddhism,aswellastheabsenceofan”out-group”feelingdirectedtowardsnon-BuddhistsonembracingBuddhism,isperhapslargelyresponsibleforthis,asisalsothefactthattheDhammaisnotconsideredauniquerevelationwhichalonecontainsthesoletruth.TheBuddhistdefinitionof”therightphilosophyoflife”wascomprehensiveenoughtocontain,recogniseandrespectwhatevertruthotherreligionsmayhave.AccordingtotheBuddhistconceptionofconversion,eachpersonhastorealisethetruthforhimselfandratherthanbehostiletowardstheignorantonehastobecompassionateandhelpfultowardsthem.Theuseofthreatsorforceortheutilisationofeconomicandsocialincentivesforconversionwasevidentlyconsideredfutileforsuchapurpose.

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Notes

1. AIV,428.

2. AI227,228;AIV59,60.

3. SII181.

4. AIV100–103.

5. AIV429.

6. AIV39,40.

7. AIII35.

8. AIV254.

9. AIV138.

10. Saṃsāraisatechnicaltermdenotingtheroundofcontinuedexistence.

11. SII188.

12. AII38.

13. SuttaNipāta(trans.Fausböll),SacredBooksoftheEast,Vol.X,pp111–113.

14. JournaloftheRoyalAsiaticSociety,1894,p.346.

15. TheRaceConcept(UNESCO),p.38.

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16. DI119.

17. MI162–163.

18. AI182.

19. AIII383–384.

20. Mahābharata,Santiparvan,whereitissaidthat’thecolouroftheBrahminwaswhite,thatoftheKsatriyasred,thatoftheVaisyasyellowandthatoftheSudrasblack’.Thecommentator,however,explainsthesecoloursaspsychologicalcharacteristicsintermsofSamkhyaphilosophy.

21. MII222.

22. QuotedfromH.H.Wilson,IndianCaste(London,1877),pp.302–303.

23. Ibid.pp.303–304.

24. TheBhagavadgita(London,1948),ed.Radhakrishnan,p.160.

25. Sn650.

26. DI92–99.

27. MII156.

28. AmbaṭṭhaSutta,DN3.

29. DN3.

30. DI92.

31. H.H.Wilson,op.cit.,p.298.

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32. MII137.

33. ibid.

34. MII149.

35. MII156.

36. op.cit.,p.143.

37. DialoguesoftheBuddha,PartI,p.106.

38. Ibid.

39. MI89.

40. R.Flick,TheSocialOrganizationinNorth-EastIndiainBuddha’sTime(trans.byS.Maitre,Calcutta,1920),p.13ff.

41. LawsofManu,SacredBooksoftheEast,Vol.25,III150–68.

42. MII85.

43. LawsofManuIII150.

44. MII88.

45. J-aIII381;IV392.

46. MII89.

47. MII151,152.

48. MII151.

49. MI85–9.

50. MII147.

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51. MII151.

52. Sn43.

53. MII129,130.

54. AII143.

55. Sn104.

56. DI99.

57. Sn782,918.

58. Sn918.

59. HumanTypes(trans.byB.C.Law,PaliTextSociety,1924),pp.99–100.

60. DialoguesoftheBuddha,PartI,SacredBooksoftheBuddhists,Vol.Ip.100.

61. TheJātaka(trans.),Vol.Ipp.92,93.

62. op.cit.p.102.

63. PsalmsoftheBrethren(PaliTextSociety),p.xxix.

64. ibid.,p.273.

65. i.e.(i)thefacultyofseeingone’spastbirths,(ii)clairvoyanceand(iii)theknowledgeofone’sinnermentalprocesses.

66. PsalmsoftheSisters(PaliTextSociety),pp.117–19.

67. MI7.

68. DI99.

71

69. Hutton,op.cit.,p.156.

70. Sn462.

71. Divyāvadāna,p.611.,ff.,quotedinE.J.Thomas,TheLifeofBuddha,p.242.

72. SacredBooksoftheEast,Vol.X,p.25.

73. Sn104.

74. AIII,308.

75. DIII191.

76. EdictsofAsoka(AdyarLibrarySeries),p.33.

77. Ibid.,pp.95.

78. ibid.,pp.62,63,65.

79. Hultzach,CorpusInscriptionumIndicarum,Vol.I,pp.112,113.

80. op,pp.70,71.

81. ibid.pp.44,45.

82. VinayaTexts,(Oxford1881),PartI,pp.112–13.

83. MI129.

84. FurtherDialoguesoftheBuddha,PartII,p.308.

85. Legge:ARecordofBuddhistKingdoms,pp.42–43.

86. op.cit.

87. op.cit.,p.67.

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88. ibid.

89. ibid.,p.60.

90. Beal’stranslationofTheLifeofHiuen-Tsiang,p.31.

91. TheSoulofaPeople(London,1903),p.54.

92. SeeAnandaCoomaraswamy,MedievalSinhaleseArt,pp.21ff.

93. ibid,p.22.

94. CasteinCeylon(RutgersUnivPress,1953),p.34.

95. O.C.Cox,Caste,ClassandRace(NewYork,1948),p.350.

96. ibid.,p.340.

97. CakkavattisīhanādaSutta,DīghaNikāya.

98. R.K.Mookerjiop.cit.,p.209

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THEBUDDHISTPUBLICATIONSOCIETY

TheBPSisanapprovedcharitydedicatedtomakingknowntheTeachingoftheBuddha,whichhasavitalmessageforallpeople.

Foundedin1958,theBPShaspublishedawidevarietyofbooksandbookletscoveringagreatrangeoftopics.ItspublicationsincludeaccurateannotatedtranslationsoftheBuddha’sdiscourses,standardreferenceworks,aswellasoriginalcontemporaryexpositionsofBuddhistthoughtandpractice.TheseworkspresentBuddhismasittrulyis—adynamicforcewhichhasinfluencedreceptivemindsforthepast2500yearsandisstillasrelevanttodayasitwaswhenitfirstarose.

FormoreinformationabouttheBPSandourpublications,pleasevisitourwebsite,orwriteane-mailoralettertothe:

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74

TableofContents

BuddhismandtheRaceQuestion 2Abbreviations 4Man’sPlaceintheUniverse 5

TheBiologicalUnityofMankindandtheCaseAgainstRacism 9

TheDignityandEqualityofMankindandtheCaseagainstCaste 18

TheBiologicalArguments 19TheSociologicalArguments 26EthicalandReligiousArguments 32TheSpiritualUnityofMankind 34ThePracticalPolicyofBuddhismtowardsRacismandCaste 40

Conclusion 61Notes 68

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