Bu 604 Session 4Bu 604 Session 4

Interpersonal Dynamics & Interpersonal Dynamics & TeamsTeams

AgendaAgenda

• Introduction and Lessons from Last Day

• Discussion of Interpersonal Communications in Organizations and Teams

• Carter Racing

• Revisiting the Question of Team Effectiveness

• Case: Dividing the Pie

Examples of National Cultural ValuesExamples of National Cultural Values

Competing Values FrameworkCompeting Values Framework

Flexibility

Control

Inte

rnal

Fo

cus

Extern

al Fo

cus

Exhibit 1-2 Exhibit 1-2 Skills in the New WorkplaceSkills in the New Workplace

Flexibility

Control

Mentor Innovator

BrokerFacilitator

Monitor Producer

Coordinator DirectorInte

rnal

Fo

cus

Extern

al Fo

cus

Three-Component Model of Organizational Three-Component Model of Organizational CommitmentCommitment

AffectiveCommitment

NormativeCommitment

Involves: Emotional attachment to, identification with, involvement in the organization

Belief that it is one’s moral obligation to remain with the organization

ContinuanceCommitment

Reflects perceived cost associated with discontinuing employment

Responses to Responses to Job Satisfaction - EVLN ModelJob Satisfaction - EVLN Model

Exit

SabotageVoice

LoyaltyNeglect

Passive

Active

Destructive Constructive

Communication Problems?Communication Problems?

• People spend nearly 70 percent of waking hours communicating—writing, reading, speaking, listening

• WorkCanada survey of 2039 Canadians in six industrial and service categories found – 61% of senior executives believed they communicated effectively

with employees – 33% of managers & department heads believed that senior

executives were effective communicators.

– 22% of hourly workers, 27% of clerical employees, and 22% of professional staff reported senior execs did a good job communicating with them

• Canadians reported less favourable perceptions about their company’s communications than did Americans

Communications ProcessCommunications Process

Communication TermsCommunication Terms

• Communication– The transfer of meaning among people

• Sender – Establishes a message, encodes the message,

and chooses the channel to send it

• Receiver – Decodes the message and provides feedback

to the sender

Communication TermsCommunication Terms

• Message– What is communicated.

• Encoding– Converting a message to symbolic form.

• Channel– The medium through which a message travels

• Decoding– Retranslating a sender’s message.

Choosing ChannelsChoosing Channels

• Channels differ in their capacity to convey information.

• Rich channels have the ability to – Handle multiple cues simultaneously– Facilitate rapid feedback– Be very personal

Channelrichness

Type ofmessage

Informationmedium

Leanest

Richest Nonroutine,ambiguous

Routine,clear

Face to facetalk

Telephone

Computer

Memos,letters

Flyers, bulletinsgeneral reports

Exhibit 7-2Exhibit 7-2Hierarchy of Channel RichnessHierarchy of Channel Richness

Communication Flows in Communication Flows in OrganizationsOrganizations

• Downward– Communication that flows from one level of a group to a

lower level• Managers to employees

• Upward– Communication that flows to a higher level of a group

• Employees to manager

• Lateral– Communication among members of the same work

group, or individuals at the same level

Barriers to Effective CommunicationBarriers to Effective Communication

• Filtering– Refers to a sender manipulating information

so that it will be seen more favourably by the receiver.

• Selective Perception– Receivers in the communication process

selectively see and hear based on their needs, motivations, experience, background, and other personal characteristics.

Barriers to Effective CommunicationBarriers to Effective Communication

• Defensiveness– When individuals interpret another’s message

as threatening, they often respond in ways that retard effective communication.

• Language– Words mean different things to different

people.

Communication Flows in OrganizationsCommunication Flows in Organizations

• Downward: communication that flows from one level of a group to a lower level– managers to employees

• Upward: communication that flows to a higher level of a group– employees to manager

• Lateral: communication among members of the same work group, or individuals at the same level

Communication Communication Questions for Consideration

• How does communication flow in organizations?

• What helps and inhibits communication in an organization?

• How can we improve communication?

• Are there gender and ethnic differences in communications?

Questions for Consideration

NetworksNetworks

• Connections by which information flow– Formal

• Task-related communications that follow the authority chain

– Informal• Communications that flow along social

and relational lines

Networks and Their Effectiveness

All-ChannelWheelChain

Moderate

High

Moderate

Moderate

Speed

Accuracy

Emergence of a leader

Member satisfaction

Fast

High

High

Low

Fast

Moderate

None

High

The GrapevineThe Grapevine

• 75 percent of employees hear about matters first through rumours on the grapevine

• Grapevine: the organization’s informal network

• Grapevine has three main characteristics – Not controlled by management– Most employees perceive it as being more believable

and reliable than formal communiqués issued by top management

– Largely used to serve the self-interests of those people within it

Purpose of RumoursPurpose of Rumours

• To structure and reduce anxiety

• To make sense of limited or fragmented information

• To serve as a vehicle to organize group members, and possibly outsiders, into coalitions

• To signal a sender’s status or power

Reducing the Negative Consequences of Reducing the Negative Consequences of RumoursRumours

1. Announce timetables for making important decisions.

2. Explain decisions and behaviours that may appear inconsistent or secretive.

3. Emphasize the downside, as well as the upside, of current decisions and future plans.

4. Openly discuss worst case possibilities; it is almost never as anxiety provoking as the unspoken fantasy.

Nonverbal CommunicationNonverbal Communication

• Messages conveyed through body movements, facial expressions, and the physical distance between the sender and the receiver

– Kinesics• The study of body motions, such as gestures, facial

configurations, and other movements of the body

– Proxemics• The study of physical space in interpersonal

relationships

Communication Barriers Between Men Communication Barriers Between Men and Womenand Women

• Men use talk to emphasize status, women use it to create connection

• Women and men tend to approach points of conflict differently

Communication Barriers Between Men Communication Barriers Between Men and Womenand Women

• Men and women view directness and indirectness differently– Women interpret male directness as an

assertion of status and one-upmanship– Men interpret female indirectness as covert,

sneaky, and weak

• Men criticize women for apologizing, but women say “I’m sorry” to express empathy

Cross-Cultural Communication Cross-Cultural Communication DifficultiesDifficulties

• Sources of barriers– Semantics – Word connotations– Tonal differences

Culture ContextsCulture Contexts

• Cultures differ in how much the context makes a difference in communication

– High-context cultures • Cultures that rely heavily on nonverbal and

subtle situational cues in communication.

–  Low-context cultures• Cultures that rely heavily on words to

convey meaning in communication

High- vs. Low-Context CulturesHigh- vs. Low-Context Cultures

Highcontext

Lowcontext

Chinese

Korean

Japanese

Vietnamese

Arab

Greek

Spanish

Italian

English

North American

Scandinavian

Swiss

German

Cross-Cultural Communications: Cross-Cultural Communications: Helpful RulesHelpful Rules

• Seek out guidance and mentoring from competent individuals who will tell you what you need to hear

• Assume differences until similarity is proven, but test out these assumptions.

• Emphasize description rather than interpretation or evaluation.

• Practice empathy.

• Treat your interpretations as a working hypothesis.

Making Feedback More EffectiveMaking Feedback More Effective

• Feedback to those being evaluated should be anonymous and aggregated

• Raters should only evaluate employee behaviour that they know about and have experienced first-hand

• Raters should receive orientation and training to do the evaluations

• Recipients should receive guidance on how to interpret the feedback

Effective ListeningEffective Listening

• If you want to improve your listening skills, look to these behaviours as guides– Make eye contact.– Exhibit affirmative head nods and appropriate facial

expressions.– Avoid distracting actions or gestures.– Ask questions.– Paraphrase.– Avoid interrupting the speaker.– Don’t over talk.– Make smooth transitions between the roles of speaker

and listener.

Communication QuestionsCommunication Questions

• What types of difficulties have you experienced when communicating with someone from a different culture than yours?

• How do you let the other person know you have heard what they are saying? How often do you do this?

• Describe an example of communication breakdown. What led to the breakdown?

HR ImplicationsHR Implications

Providing Performance Feedback

When to Use 360-degree FeedbackWhen to Use 360-degree Feedback

• For employee development rather than for personnel decisions

• As part of a formal goal-setting system

• On a regular basis and not just once

The Conflicts in Performance The Conflicts in Performance AppraisalAppraisal

• Organizational Goals:Organizational Goals:– To allocate rewards and make personnel

decisions.– To develop and grow individuals

• Individual Goals:Individual Goals:– To obtain performance feedback in order to

improve.– To maintain self image and increase rewards.

Factors Contributing to the Factors Contributing to the Effectiveness of P.A. InterviewsEffectiveness of P.A. Interviews

• Skills in communications

• Preparation– By Superior: organization and job goals, standards of

performance– By Subordinate: organization and job goals, own assessment

of strengths and weaknesses, personal development plan

• Process: +ve attitude by both parties

• Substance: action plan; future targets; relationship development

The Politics of AppraisalThe Politics of Appraisal

• Downgrade appraisals to “keep up the motivation”

• Softening the assessment since it is part of a permanent record

• Inflating/deflating assessments to maximize or minimize raises

• Inflating / deflating appraisals to keep / get rid of subordinates

• Deflating ratings to teach a lesson or to make a case for dismissal

The Case Against Performance The Case Against Performance Appraisal - Peter ScholtesAppraisal - Peter Scholtes

• Any employee’s work is tied to many systems but performance evaluations focus on individuals.

• Most work is the product of a group. Performance evaluation encourages “lone ranger” behaviour.

• Superior only performance evaluation ignores valuable data but 360 feedback is cumbersome and time consuming.

• Performance evaluations assume predictable systems -- something that is increasingly untrue.

• Performance evaluation requires objective, consistent, fair processes. Such objectivity and consistency do not exist.

Goal Systems vs the Reality of WorkGoal Systems vs the Reality of Work

• Reality of work– Many activities, short

duration– Ad hoc informal

interactions– Non-routing and lots of

variety– Legitimate authority– Low priority to many

human resource tasks

• Goal Systems Need– Advance planning

– Formal meetings and sessions

– Prescribed systems, schedules, forms

– Coach, counsellor– Sponsored by HR staff

If you need to do peer evaluation….If you need to do peer evaluation….

• Remember that the purpose is both to improve performance AND strengthen the group. You will need time!

• One process: decide on 5-7 criteria of performance (eg. preparation, attendance, helpfulness, effort, etc)

• Rate everyone, including yourself, collect the ratings on each person and share them (make them public)

• Person by person discuss the ratings.

• Start with each person’s self assessment, then each person discuss their evaluation. That will probably be easier.

• Be descriptive and as behavioural as possible. Avoid blaming. Use “I” messages and lots of listening

• Move to agreement on behaviours.

Summary and Implications: CommunicationSummary and Implications: Communication

• A common theme regarding the relationship between communication and employee satisfaction– The less uncertainty, the greater the satisfaction– Distortions, ambiguities, and incongruities all increase uncertainty

• Less distortion in communication equals– More goal attainment, and better feedback– Reduction in ambiguity and distortion

• Ambiguity between verbal and nonverbal communiqués increase uncertainty and reduce satisfaction

• The goal of perfect communication is unattainable

• The issue of communication is critical to motivation

Assignment for Next WeekAssignment for Next Week

• Ch 4 and 13

• Case: The Well Paid Receptionist

• Bring along a copy of the job description for the least motivating job in your organization

Teams & Team Decision Teams & Team Decision MakingMaking

Teams Are Not Always the AnswerTeams Are Not Always the Answer

A critical look at four of the assumptions:A critical look at four of the assumptions:

• Mature teams are task oriented & successfully minimize the negative impact of other group forces.

• Individual, group, and organizational goals can all be integrated into common team goals.

• Participative or shared leadership is always effective.

• The team environment drives out the subversive forces of politics, power, and conflict that divert groups from efficiently doing their work.

Are these true all the time?Are these true all the time?

Stages of Group DevelopmentStages of Group Development

Prestage 1Stage I

Forming

Stage IIStorming

Stage IIINorming

Stage IVPerforming

Stage VAdjourning

Team Model - Forrester & DrexlerTeam Model - Forrester & Drexler

Formation

Dependability

Focus

Buy-In

Coordination

Impact

Vitality

Note: F & D argue that this is not a developmental

Model

Team Based Model Team Based Model

• Formation

• Dependability

• Focus

• Composition, Fit and support

• Trust: Information Sharing, Follow Through and Reciprocity

• Direction, Measurement, Accountability

From: Forrester & Drexler, A Model for Team Based Organization Performance

Team Based Model (cont.)Team Based Model (cont.)

• Buy-In

• Coordination

• Impact

• Vitality

• Balanced Power, Resources, Values

• Plans, Communications, Integrating Mechanisms

• Innovation, Flexibility, Results

• Enthusiasm, Openness, Learning

The Punctuated-Equilibrium ModelThe Punctuated-Equilibrium Model

Time(Low)

(High)

First Meeting

Phase 1

Phase 2

TransitionCompletion

A B

Per

form

ance

Group Performance FactorsGroup Performance Factors

CohesivenessCohesivenessCohesivenessCohesivenessNormsNormsNormsNorms

SizeSizeSizeSizeCompositionCompositionCompositionComposition

Environment, Supervision, Resources & Nature of Task

Team RolesTeam Roles

•TASK ORIENTED ROLES– Agenda Setter, Analyzer, Co-ordinator, Evaluator,

Information Giver...Seeker, Initiator

•MAINTENANCE ROLES– Encourager, Follower, Gatekeeper, Group Observer,

Harmonizer, Standard Setter

•INDIVIDUAL ROLES– Avoider, Blocker, Clown, Dominator, Recognition

Seeker

GroupthinkGroupthink

2) Construct rationalizations

3) Morality of position is unquestioned

4) Stereotypes--distort image of other parties

5) Pressure applied to those who express doubts about the group’s position

6) Self-censorship--deviations from consensus are avoided

8) Mindguards--leaders and fellow members protected from adverse information

7) Illusion of unanimity

1) Illusion of invulnerability

Warning Signs of GroupthinkWarning Signs of Groupthink

• Teams isolating themselves from external sources of information through mindguards

• Feeling under pressure

• Exhibiting defensiveness - e.g., stereotyping others • Feeling they are doing what is moral or “right”

• Minimizing the public expression of doubt

• Having strong leaders that intentionally or unintentionally discourage input and real debate

• Creating the illusion of unanimity by self-censorship

• Creating the illusion of invulnerability

The Groupthink ProcessThe Groupthink Process

Conformity- Seeking Tendency

of Group

Initial ConditionsInitial Conditions

•High Cohesiveness

•Insulation of team from outsiders

•Lack of methodical procedures for search & appraisal

•Directive leadership

•High stress with low hope for finding a better solution than one favoured by the leader or other influential person

•Complex/changing environment

Characteristics of Characteristics of GroupthinkGroupthink

•Illusion of invulnerability

•Collective rationalization

•Belief in the inherent morality of the team

•Stereotypes of other groups

•Self-censorship

•Illusion of unanimity

•Self-appointed “mind guards”

Groupthink Leads Groupthink Leads to Defective to Defective

Decision Making in Decision Making in Terms ofTerms of

•Incomplete survey of alternatives

•Incomplete survey of goals

•Failure to examine risks of preferred choice

•Selective bias in processing information at hand

•Failure to reappraise alternatives

•Failure to work out contingency plans

Remedies to GroupthinkRemedies to Groupthink

1 Assign & encourage the role of critical evaluator in each group member

2 Leaders should avoid stating preferences & adopt an impartial stance

3 Use multiple groups to work on the same questions

4 Protect security, but seek outside council & insight

5 Invite outside experts & have experts challenge the views of core members

Remedies to Groupthink (cont.)Remedies to Groupthink (cont.)

6 When discussing alternatives, at least 1 person should be assigned the “devil’s advocate” role, to fully evaluate options

7 Take time to address how enemies may respond - develop scenarios

8 When evaluating policy alternatives, break up into small groups & then reform to sort through differences

9 After reaching a preliminary consensus, group should hold a second-guess meeting

10 The behaviour of the leader is key

CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE EXECUTIVE TEAMSEXECUTIVE TEAMS

• A CLEAR ELEVATING GOAL

• MINIMUM POLITICS AND PERSONAL AGENDAS

• ROLES AND ACCOUNTABILITIES UNDERSTOOD & ACCEPTED

• EMPHASIS ON FACT BASED JUDGMENT

– LOTS OF DISCUSSION & PARTICIPATION

– LEADER DOES NOT DOMINATE OR DEFER

CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE EXECUTIVE TEAMS (cont.)EXECUTIVE TEAMS (cont.)

• A CLIMATE OF TRUST AND SUPPORT

– RISK TAKING IS ENCOURAGED

– CRITICISM IS CONSTRUCTIVE & NO PERSONAL ATTACKS

• STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE

• PRINCIPLED LEADERSHIP

• PRESENCE OR ACCESS TO REQUISITE SKILLS AND DIVERSITY

GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVEGUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVECONSENSUSCONSENSUS

1) COMMIT TO THE PROCESS AND SEARCH FOR “BEST SOLUTIONS”

2) AVOID VIEWING THE PROCESS IN WIN / LOSE TERMS

3) STATE YOUR POSITION CLEARLY, BUT LISTEN CAREFULLY TO ALL

4) ATTEMPT TO INVOLVE ALL IN DECISION MAKING PROCESS CONFLICT (PROPERLYMANAGED) ENHANCES DECISION MAKING

5) AVOID SIMPLISTIC TECHNIQUES TO RESOLVE DISPUTES

6) BUDGET TIME SO ALL IMPORTANT ASPECTS ARE INVESTIGATED, PROBLEM DEFINITION AND STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT ARE N.B.

7) MANAGE MAINTENANCE AND TASK FUNCTIONS IN THE GROUP

YOU CAN ACCOMPLISH ANYTHING IF YOU DON’T CAREYOU CAN ACCOMPLISH ANYTHING IF YOU DON’T CARE WHO GETS THE CREDIT.WHO GETS THE CREDIT.

Use Individual Decision Making When:Use Individual Decision Making When:

1. You have the information to make a good decision

2. The situation is urgent

3. Subordinates are already committed or their commitment doesn’t matter

Use Groups For Decision Making When:Use Groups For Decision Making When:

1. No one knows the answer or the expertise is in the group

2. You want to increase the commitment of subordinates

3. The situation is not urgent in the sense that it requires an immediate response

4. You, as manager, can live with choice

The Psychological ContractThe Psychological Contract

• Psychological ContractPsychological Contract

– it is a person’s set of expectations regarding what he or she will contribute to the organization and what the organization, in turn, will provide to the individual.

Team ContractTeam Contract

• What would it look like if the psychological contact existing between team members was made more explicit in the team charter and used by the group to help it actively manage its development and the outcomes achieved?

Dividing the PieDividing the Pie

• What is your assessment of the underlying problem in the case and your analysis of the situation?

• What are the consequences if it is not resolved?

• What would you recommend they do and how would you proceed?

Strategic Leadership Program

Nadler, 1987

Organizational Congruence ModelOrganizational Congruence Model

INPUT INPUT

ENVIRONMENTENVIRONMENT(P.E.S.T.)(P.E.S.T.)

RESOURCESRESOURCES

HISTORY/HISTORY/CULTURECULTURE

OUTPUTOUTPUT

SYSTEMSSYSTEMSLEVELLEVEL

UNIT/GROUPUNIT/GROUPLEVELLEVEL

INDIVIDUALINDIVIDUALLEVELLEVEL

INFORMALSTRUCTURE& PROCESS

INDIVIDUAL

FORMAL STRUCTURE

SSTTRRAATTEEGGYY

WORK

TRANFORMATION PROCESSTRANFORMATION PROCESS