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The effect of expertise on the processing of artwork subcategories.
Student number: 1135817
Supervisor: Christopher Chambers
BSc. Psychology
2015
Word Count: 6498.
I affirm that I have discussed the ethical implications of this research with my project supervisor and it has received ethical approval from the appropriate ethics committee,
further I affirm that this research project contains no unacknowledged copying of words or ideas from any publication or from any work written by another student or
any other person. I affirm that the materials and raw data collected using those materials during this research project are available for inspection and that the data
have not been falsified, fabricated or duplicated.
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Table of Contents
1. Abstract…………………………………………………………………… 3
2. Introduction……………………………………………………………….. 3-7
3. Method……………………………………………………………………. 8-10
3.1. Participants………………………………………………………………. 8
3.2. Materials………………………………………………………………….. 8-9
3.3. Design…………………………………………………………………….. 9
3.4. Procedure………………………………………………………………… 9-10
4. Results……………………………………………………………………… 11-15
5. Discussion………………………………………………………………….. 16-17
6. References………………………………………………………………….. 18-19
7. Appendix……………………………………………………………………. 20-40
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Abstract
The current research aims to investigate the effect of expertise on the processing rate of IAPS, realism artwork and surrealism artwork images. Twenty-four participants from Cardiff University took part in the priming paradigm experiment, with images acting as primes prior to the target word valence categorization task. Background knowledge for half of the images was presented prior to the priming paradigm completion, and monitoring showed all the information was retained throughout the procedure. Analyses of variance on the mean reaction times showed the presence of a priming effect within the IAPs and realist art categories, with no priming effect present within the surrealist art level. The information factor had no significant effect on any of the reaction times. Future research steps for further examination of the lack of a priming effect within the surrealist art category are discussed, including the need for inclusion of art professionals within experimental studies.
Introduction
‘Art, as any other activity of the mind, is subject to psychology, accessible to understanding, and
needed for any comprehensive survey of mental functioning’
-Arnheim (1996, as cited in Leder & Nadal, 2014).
The ability to engage in art appreciation has been proposed as an evolutionary adaptation within the human species. Arguments have been made for the distinct evolutionary advantage of aesthetic abilities, which serve functions such as superior mate selection (Leder & Nadal, 2014). However, opposing arguments suggest that artistic abilities are a byproduct of evolutionary evolved mental properties, that are in themselves an advantage in many other aspects of the human existence (e.g. intelligence, emotionality, inventiveness and curiosity) (Consoli, 2014). The suggestion that art is an expression of selective adaptive traits (and not directly an evolutionary adaptation in itself) is supported by results from ERP ratings measured during aesthetic judgments (Pang, Nadal, Müller-Paul, Rosenberg & Klein, 2013). These indicate that no specific visual art appreciation process exists, but that instead art appreciation relies on cognitive and neural processes involved with other visual stimuli. If this is ultimately the case, then art appreciation is not a reflection of a unique neural process or region within the brain. Nevertheless, the human desire for continuous engagement with art is distinct and of interest in itself. Leder, Belke, Ooberst & Augustin (2004) propose a theory that attempts to encapsulate the process of art appreciation, and in turn explain the reason for our continuous desire to seek out and expose ourselves to art. Aptly named ‘The Model of Aesthetic Appreciation and Aesthetic Judgment’, the prominent theory proposes a series of information-processing stages that the individual incurs during an aesthetic episode. The entire process results in two products: an aesthetic emotion (affective aspect) and an aesthetic judgment (cognitive aspect). According to Leder et al (2004), the entire model is formed from five stages: perception, implicit classification, explicit classification, cognitive mastering and evaluation (see Figure 1). While the perceptual and implicit stages occur automatically and without awareness, the explicit classification stage is the point at which knowledge and expertise play a key role in the processing of the art piece under consideration. The higher order/latter stages of the process are proposed as the explanation for continuous engagement: we evaluate the process that has just occurred in relation to affective properties and in relation to the reduction (or total elimination) of the ambiguity about the art piece. By means of this process we aim to increase our expertise alongside experiencing pleasant affective states. Each time we revisit the artwork, with a finer attunement of knowledge, we experience or encounter something slightly different and more advanced.
The model suggests a gradual movement through each stage, with the latter stages forming processing loops, solidifying and enhancing both the understanding and the affective result of the artwork. Gradual movement through a process of art appreciation is also supported by research by
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Ramachandran & Hirstein (1999). They proposed eight principles that govern art production and experience, one of them being perceptual problem solving (where subject matter is not immediately identified but is determined through cognitive effort, slowing down the perceptual process as a result). This is suggested to result in a greater feeling of pleasure and achievement, and can potentially account for the success of modern art styles, all of which involve varying degrees of abstraction (requiring cognitive effort, which slows down the perceptual process) (Tyler, 1999).
Figure 1. The model of aesthetic appreciation and aesthetic judgment (Leder et al, 2004).
Leder et al (2004) suggest several factors that affect each stage of the processing as we gradually move through the experience. One factor proposed to affect the explicit classification stage is the ‘expertise’ level of the individual. Style and content are two features of each artwork that are under consideration in the explicit classification stage, and expertise level can potentially play a huge role in the processing and comprehension of these features. The need to be highly innovative and unique in the recent art climate has resulted in a rapid proliferation of modern art styles and pieces (Leder et al, 2004). This has occurred often with an abandoning of traditional concepts of ‘beauty’ and realism (depiction of content that visually reflects reality), producing modern and abstract art styles that deviate from depicting content that is reflective of what we are exposed to on a daily basis. An example of this is the development of the surrealist art style. As a consequence, expertise is considered a relevant and applicable factor to the art process now more than ever before. Often without it, comprehension would be limited and even unattainable. One study that has highlighted the potential role of expertise was conducted by Balm (2012). A priming paradigm was established, with image slides employed as the prime, followed by a word valence categorization task. While examining the processing of realist and surrealist artwork styles against typical visual images (by employing the use of the International Affective Picture System (IAPS)) (Lang, Bradley & Cuthbert, 2008), an interesting trend in the rate of processing occurred when images of realism and surrealism were compared. As illustrated in Figure 2, when the rate of processing of a realist art piece (Birkenstock) was compared against a surrealist piece (Dali), the presence of a priming effect differed substantially. The realist prime resulted in a priming effect being present. In comparison, the surrealist condition failed to show any priming effect, with no significant difference between the congruent or incongruent categorization. The relevance of expertise level was highlighted by Balm (2012) as a possible underlying contributing factor to these different processing rates. Given the
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prominent contribution of style and content comprehension (during the explicit classification stage) in aesthetic processing as proposed by the Leder et al (2004) model, expertise
Figure 2. Mean reaction time (msec) on correct trials as a function of prime art type, congruency and length of prime exposure (Balm, 2012).
level may indeed be of high relevance to modern art processing. This is the key feature that the current study aimed to examine. Prior research examining the influence of expertise on the aesthetic appreciation process has revealed a difference in the nature of the process for experts in comparison to novices. A natural grouping task design employed by Augustin & Leder (2006) revealed a deeper evaluative approach employed by the experts, as they created more groups (containing more levels) in order to categorize series of art slides. While the authors noted a high degree of similarity between the experts and novices, a distinct group formed by the experts related to the ‘style’ of artwork. This ‘style’ group (a key feature proposed by Leder et al (2004) in the explicit classification stage) remained distinct even when lack of sophisticated terminology was controlled for in the novice group i.e. differences in art-related vocabulary was not sufficient enough to explain the ‘style’ group’s existence. Categories formed by the experts that referred to critical and political messages of the artworks were suggested to be a result of background knowledge to the paintings, though these categories were small in this particular piece of research. In addition to the Augustin & Leder (2006) evidence of greater depth of evaluation, research conducted by Pang et al (2013) revealed smaller electro-corticol activation by art and general visual stimuli for experts, with a negative relationship between the level of art expertise (measured by a questionnaire) and the degree of activation. This was attributed to an increase in neural efficiency (‘sharpening of neural responses in task-relevant processing networks’) (Pang et al, 2013) as a result of increased experience and practice. This development indicates that expertise is potentially not only contributing to a greater depth of processing, but also a more efficient one.
Furthermore, theories about aesthetic responses in relation to processing fluency (with quicker speed of processing resulting in a more positive evaluation) have suggested that the conceptual fluency stage (as opposed to the preceding perceptual fluency stage, which together with the conceptual fluency stage forms the entire processing fluency episode) may be a key factor. Conceptual fluency is defined as ‘the ease of mental operations concerned with stimulus meaning and it’s relation to semantic knowledge structures’(Reber, Schwarz & Winkielman, 2004). Reber et al (2004) suggest that overall a certain degree of complexity in artwork may be preferred as it facilitates attainment of meaning, and that although this complexity may lead to a slowing down of initial perceptual fluency, it is overridden by the
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significant increase in conceptual processing speed. The authors (Reber et al, 2004) finally state that experts gravitate towards a liking of highly complex and asymmetric art pieces (as opposed to novices’ preference for symmetric and relatively simple pieces), ultimately indicating that art preferences are impacted by the processing fluency ability, in particular the ease of the conceptual fluency stage (concerned with stimulus meaning).
This trend was also revealed in an experiment by Winston & Cupchik (1992), were simple ‘popular/kitsch’ art pieces were preferred over high art pieces (that form the basis of museum exhibits and art education) by novices. The results were the opposite for the experts. One reason for novice preference of popular art was its high degree of realism (relatively simple subject matter), with the reason for preference of high art by experts due to complexity (indicating experts ability to access and process a greater level of complexity compared to novices).
Furthermore, it is indicated by Reber et al (2004) that training in the arts provides knowledge of how to deconstruct and apply meaning to art pieces, allowing for the opportunity to process more complex stimuli, in turn resulting in a speeding up of the conceptual processing fluency. Since a quicker processing fluency is linked to a greater level of pleasure or positive evaluations, the liking for simple artistic stimuli by novices suggests that complex stimuli processing is hindered by the conceptual processing section, slowing down the process significantly enough that liking and preference for complexity is generally subdued. This can potentially be mapped on to the result from Balm (2012), which revealed the quick processing (and priming effect presence) of the semantically accessible and simple realist images in comparison to the slower processing of the semantically complex and potentially inaccessible surrealist images (with no priming effect present) (see Figure 2).
Finally, an experiment examining the search for meaning in artwork (a key reason for an individual to partake in art appreciation) revealed interesting differences between novice and expert viewers. Cupchik & Gebotys (1988) established a search-for-meaning experimental paradigm, were participants were asked to order artwork slides in an order that was meaningful to them. The results revealed that the order theme chosen depended on art experience; novices centered on a literal extraction of meaning (depending more on a ‘CBA’ ordering of the slides), were object recognition was their main focus. On the other hand, experts centered on non-object ‘stylistic’ factors, extending beyond pure object recognition, with a tendency towards an ordering of ‘ABC’ of the same slides as the novices. The key factor from this study is that the object recognition order chosen by the novices (‘CBA’) indicated a literal focus on the content of the art, but all of the art employed was of the more naturalistic kind. Modern art was not used in this experiment, and while the application of literal processing may have been sufficient to establish a meaningful order in this particular piece of research, this may not be the case if the content were to be of a more modern category. As the authors note, these particular paintings did not require more ‘intellectual aspects’ of subject matter, where ‘interpretive and metaphor-generating skills’ may be required (Cupchik & Gebotys, 1988).
These skills would supposedly need to be acquired through experience and information acquisition. This is supported by a study by Hekkert & van Wieringen (1996), who examined ratings of altered paintings by novices, relative experts and experts. These post-impressionistic (realist in nature) paintings were altered along dimensions of realism and colour. The results showed that the departure from realism and colour (as the paintings were transformed in the direction of abstraction and a black/white colour scheme) had the greatest impact on the novice ratings. The researchers (Hekkert & van Wieringen, 1996) suggested that novice viewers are ‘under a spell’ of denotation, were generalization of everyday perception is applied in the absence of specific art related cognitive schemas. A five-stage cognitive developmental account of aesthetic experience (Parsons, 1987) indicates that the trend of results from novice participants maps onto the first couple of stages of the developmental account, with high reliance on realism and personal experience. These participants can thus be labeled underdeveloped in relation to their aesthetic cognitive development. Experts’ greater aesthetic cognitive development is supported by results from the Leder, Gerger, Dressler & Schabmann (2012) study, where abstract, classic and modern art were examined along a wide range of dimensions in relation to relative level of expertise. Experts displayed a greater level of comprehension across all categories of art,
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indicating the development of an appropriate skills set that allowed the extraction of meaning from artworks that extend beyond a realism classification.
The background research ultimately proposes that experts process artwork in greater depth and at a quicker pace, facilitated by stored knowledge and experience. This seems particularly relevant to more complex art pieces (including modern art), were semantic knowledge appears to speed up the conceptual processing fluency. As a result of this accessibility, art viewers who possess this information and training (relative experts) end up preferring more complex artwork. The combination of the prior research, key results from Balm (2012) and the prominent placement of explicit classification (affected by expertise level) in the Leder et al (2004) model led to the formation of the current hypothesis, graphically depicted in Figure 3. If expertise has an impact on artwork processing, particularly in modern art where the literal subject matter is often meaningless, then by providing information into the history, content symbolism and stylistic features of the surrealist pieces, we hypothesized that this would allow full processing of the art and a priming effect would occur as a result. By using a
Figure 3. Graphic depiction of current hypothesis: Mean reaction time on correct trials (msec) as a function of prime art type, information condition and congruency condition. priming paradigm with the IAPs series as a baseline measure, the impact of knowledge/expertise was examined between different categories of artwork (realism versus surrealism), with the hypothesis proposing that the main impact would occur in the surrealist category. While knowledge may increase the priming effect in the realism category to a small degree, a priming effect was still expected to occur in the ‘no information’ category. This is due to the literal content (subject matter) being of a realist nature and therefore ‘novices’ (when the participant was provided with no information) could have applied everyday processing and experience to these art pieces. It was thought that this would not to be the case with the surrealist category; it was predicted that a priming effect should occur in the ‘information’ category, with no such effect present in the ‘no information’ category.
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Method
Participants
Twenty-four participants were recruited from a psychology undergraduate population (Cardiff University). Participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups (Group A or B). Twenty-one of the participants were female. Age ranged between 18-23 years of age. All participants were right-handed. All participants took part in the study in return for required course credit.
Materials
A priming paradigm was designed using the Direct RT program (Jarvis, 2012). Images were employed from two prior research sources, and were selected upon three criteria: prime type, valence and arousal. IAPs were selected from the Schaaff (2008) study. Art images (both realist and surrealist) were selected from a prior undergraduate research project (Beaumont & Corley, 2011). Valence and arousal features were combined and balanced which resulted in four images in each ‘prime type’ category i.e. positive valence-high arousal, positive valence-low arousal, negative valence-high arousal, negative valence-low arousal.
Valence and arousal for IAPs images were established by calculating the mean of the male and female ratings in the Schaaff (2008) study. Valence and arousal for artwork (realism and surrealism) were determined upon the results from the Beaumont & Corley (2011) study, were a 0-100 scale was used for marking. In the current experiment, a mark of 50 was regarded as the midpoint, with valence greater than 50 being defined as a positive valence and arousal greater than 50 being defined as high arousal. Any results below 50 were defined as negative valence or low arousal. Although for the most part it was possible to meet all criteria with appropriate images (type x valence x arousal), there were two instances were the criteria could not be met within the pool of images rated by the source study (Beaumont & Corley, 2011). Images were matched as close to the criteria as possible. This was specifically in relation to ‘realism-positive valence-high arousal’, were the ‘high arousal’ only reached a rating of ’49.15’, and ‘surrealism-positive valence-high arousal’ were the positive valence only reached a rating of ’42.13’ (see Appendix A). The words employed for valence categorization in the priming paradigm were selected from an MRC lexicon database (Wilson, 1988), with familiarity above 500. Twelve positive and twelve negative words were selected (see Appendix B). All of the words were composed of one syllable. Expert information about the history, content symbolism and stylistic features of the various artworks was retrieved from high art museum sources, such as Museum of Modern Art (New York) and The National Gallery (London). IAPs information was formed from general knowledge about the depicted content (e.g. ingredients in a brownie for IAPs image 7200, effects of different burn degrees for image 3100) (See Appendix A). All retrieved information was used to form the background information sheets, consisting of short descriptions for six of the twelve images (depending on the randomly assigned condition)(see Appendix C). Image titles were included only if information for the image was provided. This was deemed necessary because it has been suggested that even minimal information, such as artwork titles, can aid semantic understanding (Leder et al, 2004). Quiz sheets were developed from the same retrieved information, with two questions per image (see Appendix D). A PowerPoint display was designed consisting of all twelve images (structured in the appropriate order and displayed with/without the image’s corresponding title, depending on if information had been provided for the image on the information sheet). These PowerPoint displays were used to accompany the information sheets, and as a reference point when participants were completing the quiz (see Appendix E). The priming paradigm program, the PowerPoint display and a general instruction sheet provided at the beginning of the experiment (see Appendix F) all displayed the statement ‘ This is an experiment
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examining aesthetics and art reception-in the same manner as if you were to view pieces of artwork in a museum’. This was deemed necessary because it has been proposed that artwork processing might differ depending on context (i.e. choosing to enter a museum with the anticipation of viewing artwork versus artwork processing in a laboratory setting). It has been suggested that experimental research revolving around artwork should try and induce a natural art process in order to help generalize any obtained results beyond the study (Leder et al, 2004) (Jacobsen, 2006). Design
The current study was a repeated-measures design and contained three independent variables. The first independent variable was the prime type, and consisted of three levels: IAPs images, realist images, and surrealist images.
The second independent variable was the expertise/background information provided. Information for two images (out of four) from each prime type category was provided, with participants therefore being presented with a total of 6 information blurbs. These were counterbalanced to form Group A and Group B. Order of presentation within Group A and B were counterbalanced, so that half of Group A were presented with the information in the order of IAPs-Realism-Surrealism, with the other half of the participants presented with the information in the reverse order. The same occurred in Group B. The response keys that were used with the right-hand index and middle finger were counterbalanced to prevent any bias occurring.
The third independent variable was the valence congruency. The trial was considered congruent if it consisted of a positive prime and positive target word, or a negative prime and negative target word. Incongruent trials consisted of positive prime/negative target word or negative prime/positive target word.
The dependent variable was the reaction time, in milliseconds, of the word categorization in the priming paradigm.
Attempts to control for boredom and fatigue effects (as the study took one hour in total to complete) involved compulsory one minute breaks between each block of trials (10 blocks in total) and availability of water and sweets. A prize of a £20 Amazon voucher was used as an incentive to respond as accurately and quickly as possible. Procedure
The entire procedure consisted of three key stages. Participants were presented with an instruction sheet and consent sheet outlining the structure of the experiment (see Appendix F and Appendix G) and specifically indicating that they would have to pass a certain level on a quiz (at the end of the ‘learning’ stage) in order to proceed to the remaining two stages of the experiment and obtain the full credits. If they failed to reach this threshold, the experiment would end and they would be debriefed and given the appropriate credits for their participation time. All participants agreed to proceed. (Note: in addition to the twenty-four participants that completed the experiment, a further seven participants failed to pass the initial quiz). Stage 1. Learning
The first stage of the experiment involved a ten minute learning phase were participants were instructed to learn as much of the information from the information sheets as possible, accompanied by the corresponding PowerPoint display of the images (pre-trials were carried out in order to establish an appropriate time frame for information absorption). The PowerPoint display had been designed so that the participant could only proceed forward through the display, attempting to ensure that images were seen a relatively equal number of times. All participants were instructed to ensure they looked at all the images, even the images that they did not have the corresponding information for. After ten minutes the participant was presented with the quiz sheet, with no time limit for completion. The PowerPoint was re-
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set to the beginning and the participants were told that they could use the display as a reference throughout the quiz. This was deemed appropriate as none of the answers were based upon identification, but instead based on background knowledge and other similar features that could not be guessed by simply naming an object in any of the paintings.
One of the two questions for all the images provided with information had to be answered correctly in order to allow the participant to proceed to the next stage. Participants’ answers to ‘non-information’ images were monitored overall to look at general art knowledge prior to the study Stage 2. Priming Paradigm
The second stage of the experiment involved the priming paradigm, designed using DIRECT RT (Jarvis, 2012). Instructions for the priming paradigm were presented on screen, including correct response keys, performance prize offer (Amazon voucher), priming paradigm design and key task (valence categorization of word). A practice trial block preceded the experimental trial period to allow participants to become familiar with the demands of the experiment. The participants were presented with a fixation point for 500ms, followed by a prime image for 300ms. The image was immediately replaced by the target word, with valence categorization reaction time measured. All features (fixation point, prime image and target word) were displayed centrally on the screen (see Figure 4). There were 10 blocks and 240 trials in total per participant. Randomization of prime type and target word was used to form all trials.
Figure 4. The presentation order of slides in the priming paradigm. The diagram displays a fixation point (500ms), an image prime (300ms) followed by the presentation of the target word (reaction time in milliseconds). Stage 3. Retaining
The third and final stage of the experiment involved the participant repeating the same quiz that they completed in the initial ‘learning’ stage. This was to check that the information presented at the first stage of the experiment had been retained throughout the entire procedure. All of the participants retained all of the information initially learnt. Finally, a short comedy clip was shown for mood regulation purposes and the participants were debriefed accordingly (see Appendix H).
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Results
A 3-way repeated-measures (3 x 2 x 2) ANOVA was used to examine the effect of prime type, information condition and valence congruency condition. Prime type had three levels: IAPs, realism, and surrealism. Information condition had two levels: information and no information. Valence congruency had two levels: congruent and incongruent. Response times were employed as the dependent variable. Only the response times from trials were the target word valence was categorized correctly were considered for the analysis. Mauchly’s test indicated that the assumption of sphericity had been violated for the interaction of prime type and congruency condition (x2(2) = 8.58, p = 0.014). Therefore degrees of freedom were corrected for the interaction using Greenhouse-Geisser estimates of sphericity (ε = 0.75). The analysis revealed that there was no significant main effect present for prime type (F(2, 44) = 0.35, p = 0.706, MSE = 921.44) or information condition (F(1, 22) = 0.16, p = 0.697, MSE = 1009.25). As shown in Figure 5, reaction times are relatively similar across prime types, with IAPS reaction times being slightly quicker on average. Figure 6 shows that reaction times remain fairly consistent regardless of the any information learnt prior to the priming paradigm.
Figure 5. Mean reaction time (msec) on correct trials for all levels of information and congruency condition, as a function of prime type. Error bars are one times the corresponding standard error.
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Figure 6. Mean reaction time (msec) on correct trials for all levels of prime type and congruency condition, as a function of information condition. Error bars are one times the corresponding standard error.
However, the main effect of congruency condition was significant (F(1, 22) = 13.86, p = 0.001, MSE = 1292.92). Mean reaction times are substantially quicker in congruent trials compared to incongruent trials (529.58 msec compared to 545.69 msec), as shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7. Mean reaction time (msec) on correct trials for all levels of prime type and information, as a function of congruency condition. Error bars are one times the corresponding standard error.
In relation to the interactions, there was no significant interaction for prime type and information condition (F(2, 44) = 0.20, p= 0.822, MSE= 582.22) (see Figure 8) and also no significant interaction for information and congruency condition (F(1, 22) = 0.00, p=0.99, MSE = 1241.33) (see Figure 9).
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Figure 8. Mean reaction time (msec) on correct trials, as a function of prime type and information condition. Error bars are one times the corresponding standard error.
Figure 9. Mean reaction times (msec) on correct trials, as a function of information condition and congruency condition. Error bars are one times the corresponding standard error.
However, a significant interaction was found between prime type and congruency (F(1.5, 32.95) = 6.78, p= 0.007, MSE = 1483.88) (see Figure 10). Further analysis using 2x2 repeated measures ANOVAs on each prime type individually revealed the significant main effect of the congruency factor in both the ‘IAPS’ and ‘realism’ prime type condition, with no significant main effect of congruency within the ‘surrealism’ prime type category (see below for full details of analyses).
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Figure 10. Mean reaction times (msec) on correct trials, as a function of prime type and congruency condition. Error bars are one times the corresponding standard error.
Finally, there was no significant interaction present between prime type, information condition and congruency condition (F (2, 44) = 2.45, p = 0.098, MSE = 828.13) (see Figure 11).
Figure 11. Mean reaction time (RT) on correct trials, in milliseconds, as a function of prime type, information condition and congruency condition. Error bars are one times the corresponding standard error.
To conclude the 3-way repeated measures ANOVA analysis, the percentage error (incorrect categorization of word valence in priming paradigm) was also calculated for each factor condition. The highest amount of errors (mean of congruent and incongruent errors) was made in the ‘Surrealism-No information’ condition (9.36%), with the lowest amount of errors made in the ‘IAPs-No information’ condition (7.6%).
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Figure 12. Percentage error rate as a function of prime type, information condition and congruency condition.
All three levels of the prime type condition were examined individually. A 2-way repeated measures ANOVA was employed to examine the effect of information and congruency condition within the ‘IAPs’ prime type level. No significant main effect of information condition was found (F(1, 22) = 0.66, p = 0.424, MSE = 370.63), but the main effect of congruency condition was found to be significant (F(1, 22) = 11.85, p= 0.002, MSE = 2174.02). No significant interaction between information and congruency condition was found (F(1, 22) = 0.01, p = 0.91, MSE = 820.30).
A 2-way repeated measures ANOVA was employed to examine the effect of the information and congruency condition within the ‘Realism’ prime type level. No significant main effect was found for information condition (F(1, 22) = 0.02, p = 0.885, MSE = 1.090.23), but a significant main effect was revealed for the congruency condition (F(1, 22) = 9.66, p = 0.005, MSE = 729.49). However, a significant interaction was not found between information and congruency conditions (F(1, 22) = 2.09, p = 0.162, MSE = 1018.56).
Finally, a 2-way repeated measures ANOVA was also used to analyze the effect of information and congruency within the ‘Surrealism’ prime type level. No significant main effect was found for information condition (F(1, 23) = 0.97, p = 0.336, MSE = 1229.80) or for congruency condition (F(1, 23) = 0.02, p = 0.903, MSE = 678.84). The analysis also revealed no significant interaction between the information and congruency factors (F(1, 23) = 1.35, p = 0.257, MSE = 1059.32).
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Discussion In the present study, reaction times to a word valence categorization task, following image primes of different art styles and normal visual images (IAPs), were assessed to determine if expert information affected the processing rate. We were particularly interested to see if knowledge related to the understanding of surrealist art would produce a priming effect in the surrealist prime type category, as surrealist art was shown to be somewhat immune to the priming effect in prior research (Balm, 2012). Background knowledge was instilled in the participants prior to the completion of a priming paradigm, with the target word’s valence either congruent or incongruent to the prime image’s valence. Initially we hypothesized the presence of a priming effect in both information conditions within the IAPs and realism categories (with a potentially more pronounced response in the ‘information present’ realism condition). We also hypothesized the presence of a priming effect within the ‘information present’ surrealism condition, with no such effect present in the ‘no information’ condition.
A significant interaction was found between prime type and congruency condition from the 3-way repeated measures ANOVA (see Figure 10). Further analyses (2-way repeated measures ANOVAs) revealed a significant effect of congruency at IAPs and realism prime type levels. These results run parallel with our predicted hypothesis in relation to the IAPs and realism prime type conditions, as there was also no main effect of information, or significant interaction between information and congruency, in relation to either of these two prime types. Within the IAPS category, a priming effect was predicted to be present across all conditions (with no effect of information level on processing rates), as the IAPs images were initially designed to elicit emotional/valence responses on their own. The results support our prediction.
A priming effect was present (as predicted) in the realism category as well. We also initially hypothesized that information condition would have no extensive impact on the processing of realist images, and that at most there would be a slightly more pronounced effect in the ‘information present’ condition. This is due to the accessible content of the paintings to which novices can apply everyday processing techniques, with comprehension of the piece accessible from a literal interpretation. Alongside the non-significant main effect of information within this prime type, both information levels display a quicker congruent mean reaction time compared to the incongruent level (27.13 msec difference at information level and 7.88msec difference at no information level) (see Figure 11). This ultimately supports our hypothesis. The analyses also produced results that did not run parallel to our hypothesis, specifically in relation to the surrealist prime type category. No priming effect is present in the ‘information present’ condition as predicted (or in the ‘no information’ condition either), with a data trend displaying a ‘reversal’ in the priming effect within this particular condition (incongruent mean reaction time was 11.47 milliseconds quicker than congruent trials) (see Figure 11). No main effects or interactions within the surrealist prime type category were significant, and although there is a similar mean reaction time on correct trials overall between the realist and surrealist art (538.82msec and 538.61msec, respectively) (see Figure 5) there is an apparent immunity of surrealist art to the priming effect (unlike it’s realist counterpart). This is a repetition of the initial results from Balm (2012) (see Figure 2), with the addition of the information factor in the current experiment having no impact on the surrealist art category.
The non-significant results for the surrealism category indicates that even though these art pieces have been rated for valence and arousal, they do not trigger immediate emotional activation within experimental designs such as a priming paradigm. This could ultimately suggest that they were never initially designed to perform such a task, but that the artists from the surrealist movement purposely created pieces that would take cognitive effort, skills and a greater amount of time in order for the viewer to obtain an emotional impact. If this were the case, it could be considered an elitist move, where viewers would need some level of formal art education in order to experience an emotional reaction of any strength.
This points towards steps for future research, where graded levels of expertise (art history undergraduates, qualified art historians) and controls (psychology undergraduates) could be compared within a similar paradigm to the current experiment in order to see if there is a certain level of expertise
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at which surrealist art starts to display a priming effect. If very high levels of art expertise was the only point at which surrealist art were to display a priming effect, it would not only highlight the necessity of art education, but also reveal the exclusivity and elitism of the more modern art styles. It also calls into question the necessity of short descriptions accompanying art pieces in high art museums, particularly of the more modern styles, and whether they are having any substantial impact on the novice’s viewing experience, which on average only consists of 27 seconds (Leder et al, 2004). Realist images appear to be processed sufficiently regardless of the presence of information, and surrealist images lack of processing doesn’t seem to benefit from access to information.
There were no significant results (either main effect or interaction) from the ‘information’ factor, and therefore this technique can be ruled out as a sufficient means of introducing ‘expertise’ into an aesthetic experiment for future research (e.g. see Figure 6, Figure 8 and Figure 9). It will only be through the inclusion of art experts (with years of experience and training) within psychological experiments, that the data trends can start to be pieced together to form a true and core understanding of modern art processing. If after having completed this step, results still show no priming effect within the surrealist art category, the inclusion of the ‘expertise’ factor within the Leder et al (2004) aesthetic processing model may need to be reconsidered. This should only be called in to question after extensive analysis has been carried out across a wider range of modern art images, extending beyond the select few employed in this study.
Another caveat of the current study that should be considered for future research is the fact that the study focused purely on the cognitive aspect of the aesthetic experience (by providing background information), but did not consider the involvement of the emotional aspect (as proposed in the Leder et al (2004) model). This may be particularly relevant to the current participants, who prior to the experiment were relative art novices (indicated by the lack of general art knowledge in response to the ‘no information’ quiz questions). It is suggested that art novices’ cognitive and emotional aspects are closely related, meaning that any emotional development throughout the experience may impact evaluation i.e. any personal feelings could strongly impact the processing. In comparison, experts provide a more detached mode of processing, were personal emotional reactions and personal experiences are less likely to influence evaluation (Parsons, 1987) (Leder et al, 2004). Emotional responses in experts are generally of a lower degree as well (Leder, Gerger, Brieber & Schwarz, 2014), all of which has become possible through substantial experience and training. The ultimately limited information provided in the study would not be enough to categorize the current participants as true art experts, and so skills such as muting of personal emotional reaction to the information or the images provided cannot be developed. This could be tackled in future research through the inclusion of participants from art related populations. By using both novice art viewers and genuine art experts, the extent of contribution from the emotional side of the processing can be teased apart from the cognitive aspect. This may help establish a more complete understanding of the aesthetic process, the contribution from its components, and how the impact of the components changes as the individual’s expertise increases.
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References
Augustin, M.D. & Leder, H. (2006). Art expertise: a study of concepts and conceptual spaces. Psychology Science, 48, 135-156. Balm, J. (2012). The Speed of Art: Is artwork processed as rapidly as a typical visual scene? (Unpublished undergraduate dissertation), Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK. Beaumont, A. & Corley, A. (2011). Is the affect of art revealed in the eye of the beholder? An investigation into attentional focus and subjective emotional experience. (Unpublished undergraduate dissertation). Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK. Consoli, G. (2014). The Emergence of the Modern Mind: An Evolutionary Perspective on Aesthetic Experience. The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 72(1), 37-55. Cupchik, G. C. & Gebotys, R. J. (1988). The Search for Meaning in Art: Interpretive Styles and Judgments of Quality. Visual Arts Research, 14 (2), 38-50. Hekkert, P. & van Wieringen, P. C. W. (1996). The impact of level of expertise on the evaluation of original and altered versions of post-impressionistic paintings. Acta Psychologica, 94, 117-131. Jacobsen, T. (2006). Bridging the Arts and Sciences: A Framework for the Psychology of Aesthetics. Leonardo, 39 (2), 155-162. Jarvis, B. G. (2012). DirectRT (Version 2012) [Computer Software]. New York, NY: Empirisoft Corporation. Lang, P.J., Bradley, M.M. & Cuthbert, B.N. (2008). International affective picture system (IAPS): Affective ratings of pictures and instruction manual. Technical Report A-8. University of Florida, Gainesville, FL. Leder, H., Belke, B., Ooberst, A. & Augustin, D. (2004). A model of aesthetic appreciation and aesthetic judgments. British Journal of Psychology, 95, 489-508. Leder, H., Gerger, G., Brieber, D. & Schwarz, N. (2014). What makes an art expert? Emotion and evaluation in art appreciation. Cognition and Emotion, 28(6), 1137 – 1147. Leder, H., Gerger, G., Dressler, S. G. & Schabmann, A. (2012). How Art is Appreciated. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity and the Arts, 6(1), 2-10. Leder, H. & Nadal, M. (2014). Ten years of a model of aesthetic appreciation and aesthetic judgments: The aesthetic episode – Developments and challenges in empirical aesthetics. British Journal of Psychology, 105, 443-464. Pang, C.Y., Nadal, M., Müller-Paul, J. S., Rosenberg, R. & Klein, C. (2013). Electrophysiological correlates of looking at paintings and its association with art expertise. Biological Psychology, 93, 246-254. Parsons, M. J. (1987). How we understand art. A cognitive developmental account of aesthetic experience. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
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Ramachandran, V.S. & Hirstein, W. (1999). The Science of Art – A Neurological Theory of Aesthetic Experience. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 6, 15-51. Reber, R., Schwarz, N. & Winkielman, P. (2004). Processing Fluency and Aesthetic Pleasure: Is Beauty in the Perceiver’s Processing Experience? Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8(4), 364-382. Schaaff, K. (2008). Challenges on Emotion Induction with the International Affective Picture System. (Unpublished undergraduate dissertation). Universität Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, Germany. Tyler, C. W. (1999). Is Art Lawful? Science, 285, 673-674. Wilson, M.D. (1988). The MRC Psycholinguistic Database: Machine Readable Dictionary, Version 2. Behavioural Research Methods, Instruments and Computers, 20(2), 6-11. Winston, A. S. & Cupchik, G. C. (1992). The Evaluation of High Art and Popular Art By Naïve and Experienced Viewers. Visual Arts Research, 18(1), 1-14.
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Appendix
List of appendices:
i. Appendix A: Full list of prime images with corresponding valence/arousal ratings.
ii. Appendix B: Full list of target words
iii. Appendix C: Background information sheets
iv. Appendix D: Quiz sheets
v. Appendix E: Powerpoint display layouts
vi. Appendix F: Instruction sheet used at beginning of study
vii. Appendix G: Consent sheet
viii. Appendix H: Debrief sheet
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Appendix A. Full list of images with corresponding valence/arousal ratings. (*indicates images that did not reach full criteria for valence/arousal). IAPs images:
IAPs image 8190: ‘Skier’. Positive valence (81.05) High arousal (62.85)
IAPs image 7200: ‘Brownie’. Positive valence (76.35) Low arousal (48.75)
IAPs image 3100: ‘Burn Victim’. Negative valence (16.15) High arousal (64.50)
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Realism images:
IAPs image 9220: ‘Cemetery’. Negative valence (20.65) Low arousal (39.95)
‘The Last Supper’ –DaVinci Positive valence (51.62) High arousal (49.15) *
‘Girl with a watering can’ – Renoir Positive valence (68.28) Low arousal (40.08)
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Surrealism images:
‘Judith beheading Holofernes’- Caravaggio Negative valence (15.68) High arousal (72.03)
‘The Ambassadors’ -Holbein Negative valence (44.44) Low arousal (32.02)
‘The Rape’ – Magritte Positive valence (42.13) High arousal (51.45)*
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‘Attempting the Impossible’ – Magritte Positive valence (52.71) Low arousal (31.50)
‘Sleep’ – Dali Negative valence (28.37) High arousal (59.57)
‘The Song of Love’ – deChirico Negative valence (46.11) Low arousal (28.03)
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Appendix B. Full list of target words. Positive Joy Love Nice Smile Bliss Kiss Lush Lust Peace Proud Pure Calm
Negative Bad Death Die Fear Hate Hurt Kill Sad Cruel Harm Pain Gross
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Appendix C. Background information sheets Group A (note: order of same information was reversed for half of participants, so that the information was presented in a Surrealism-Realism-IAPs order).
Information Sheet
1. Skier Skiing is a recreational activity and competitive sport in which the participant attaches skis to boots on the feet and uses them to
travel on top of snow. Aside from recreation and competition, skiing has been used for military purposes. Competitive skiing falls into two categories: Nordic (cross-country racing and jumping) and Alpine (downhill or straight racing). 4. Cemetery Mourning occurs in response to (1) an individual’s own terminal illness or (2) to the death of a valued being (human or animal). There are five stages of normal grief that have been proposed. The five stages do not necessarily occur in order. The 5 stages are as follows: Denial and Isolation; Anger; Bargaining; Depression; Acceptance. 5. DaVinci: ‘The Last Supper’ ‘The Last Supper’ is Leonardo DaVinci’s visual interpretation of the Gospel event. It shows the few seconds after Christ tells his
12 disciples that he knows one of them (Judas) will betray him. Christ said ‘He that dippeth his hand with me in the dish, the same shall betray me’. Judas can be identified in the painting as he is: -reaching toward a plate beside Christ (see quote above) -clutching a purse containing his reward for identifying Christ to the authorities the next day. Why was this piece of art painted in the first place? For financial reasons: Leonardo’s employer requested for this particular Biblical scene to be painted and Leonardo decided it
would make perfect financial sense to agree. 8. Holbein: ‘The Ambassadors’ This painting is showing learned men with books and instruments. The objects on the upper shelf are various instruments used for
understanding the heavens and measuring time. Among the objects on the lower shelf is a lute. The choice for the inclusion of the two people can be seen as symbolic. The figure on the left (a landowner) is in secular (non-
religious) attire while the figure on the right (the Bishop of Lavaur) is dressed in religious clothing. The presence of these particular men has led some scholars to believe that the painting contains overtones of religious tension.
The commonly accepted symbol of discord, a lute with a broken string, also suggests tension between scholars and the clergy. The most famous of Holbein's symbols in this painting is the distorted skull (which is placed in the bottom centre of the
composition). The skull, produced in anamorphic perspective (distorted perspective requiring the viewer to be standing at a specific viewing angle to see the image clearly) is meant to be a visual puzzle as the viewer must approach the painting nearly from the side to see the see the human skull.
Symbolism of the anamorphic skull:
It may be intended to be a memento mori (artistic reminder of the inevitability of death).
It may be that the painting overall represents 3 levels: the heavens (objects on upper shelf), the living world (books and a musical instrument on the lower shelf), and death (anamorphic skull).
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A further possibility is that Holbein simply wished to show off his ability with the technique in order to secure future commissions. 9. Magritte: ‘The Rape’ One image, which appeared in many of Magritte’s paintings, is that of his mother. He saw her fished from a river at the age of fourteen, after she had committed suicide. Her body was found naked apart from a nightgown, which covered only her face as it was tangled around her. This haunting image can be seen in many of Magritte's paintings, including The Rape. 'The Rape', has three main suggested symbolisms: 1. The woman's facial features are replaced by the torso and pelvis of a naked woman is suggestive firstly of the way males see the woman. The idea is to create a sexual image out of the woman's face, the first thing one would usually see. This is also indicated by the name of the piece 'The Rape'. 2. Secondly, it is an obvious reference to his mother’s death and the way in which she died, with her face covered and her body naked. 3. Thirdly, a different idea is that one might notice that the neck and head are quite flat, almost phallic. The hair also has an unnatural appearance, perhaps that of pubic hair. This is the most striking vision and is perhaps in line with the way Magritte suggested he wanted to frighten with his paintings, to provoke. It is the rape in progress, the phallus of the face or torso, penetrating the pubic mound. 12. De Chirico: Song of Love This painting brings together a series of unrelated objects: the head of a Classical Greek statue (Apollo), a rubber glove, and a green ball. They are symbolic items. The 3 main objects in this painting are red (the rubber glove), green (the ball) and white (Apollo’s head)- which are also the colours of the Italian flag. Nationalism seems to be a big part of de Chirico’s life and work, and he spent many years in Italy (de Chirico was also the son of Italian parents). The glove is thought to be a medical glove, symbolic of a new era (development of medicine, science etc) and is painted in contrast to the plaster head of Apollo. The (medical) glove ultimately represents the new and the strange. Apollo’s head represents the old masters of art and de Chirico’s idealism of old times. Favouring of old times: -On the two opposite sides of the skyline, you can see the new industrialized area of a modern city on the left, and on the right you can see the old architecture skyline of the past. The more prominent placement of the old architecture on the right represents a deep-rooted respect for the old. -Although the glove and Apollo’s head are about the same size, Apollo is placed higher than the glove, which also shows that even though the new and the old are balanced, de Chirico favours the old. -The diagonal line of the top of the wood (which the items are nailed to), which is slanting downward on the side of the glove, suggests the foreshadowing of ill fate in future events (negative outlook on new era). -The painting seems to find its visual balance at the centre where the bent nail is (located under the head of Apollo). On either side of the nail, there is a mixture of the new and the old. The nail is symbolic of labour and hard work and is once again on the side with Apollo, stating that hard work is a thing of the past (i.e. highlighting his favouring older times).
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Group B (note: the order of the same information was reversed for half of the participants, so that the information was presented in a Surrealism-Realism-IAPs order).
Information Sheet:
2. Brownie A chocolate brownie is a flat, baked bar developed in the United States at the end of the 19th century. The brownie is a cross between a cake and a cookie in texture. Brownies come in a variety of forms: they may include nuts, frosting, whipped cream, chocolate chips, or other ingredients. A variation that is made with brown sugar and no chocolate is called a blondie. 3. Burn Victim Burns are classified based upon their depth: A first degree burn is superficial and causes local inflammation of the skin. Sunburns often are categorized as first degree burns. The skin may be very tender to touch.
Second degree burns are deeper and in addition to the pain, redness and inflammation of first degree burns, there is also blistering of the skin.
Third degree burns are even deeper, involving all layers of the skin, in effect killing that area of skin. Because the
nerves and blood vessels are damaged, third degree burns (1) appear white and leathery and (2) tend to be relatively painless. Burns are not static and may mature. Over a few hours a first degree burn may involve deeper structures and evolve into a second degree burn. 6. Renoir: A Girl With A Watering Can This is an Impressionist painting by Renoir (i.e. a painting created during the Impressionist era). What characterizes Impressionism for most people nowadays varies, though some of the key features of the movement that would be mentioned immediately would include (a) the subject matter and (b) the painting technique. For the subject matter, the painters looked around at everyday life. They painted peasants, working class people, people engaged in everyday activities, landscapes as they appeared before their eyes. This subject matter was moving away from the key subject matter at the time, which was based on religious scenes, historical scenes and mythology. The Impressionist painting technique involved short brushstrokes laid rapidly side by side without blending the colours. The work was done loosely, giving a sense of spontaneity rather than painstaking control.
This particular painting is of Mademoiselle Leclere, in her blue dress holding a watering can. Renoir, the son of a tailor, was in a constant struggle for money early in his career. He began painting charming scenes with women and children, like this one, in the hopes of increasing sales. He probably thought that the pretty child in her fancy dress might also attract portrait commissions. Renoir’s painting technique for this art piece is typical of the Impressionist movement as previously described: quick, short brushstrokes with no blending of the colours. 7. Caravaggio: Judith Beheading Holofernes A whole book in the Bible is devoted to Judith, because as a woman she embodies the power of the people of Isreal to defeat the enemy, though superior in numbers, by means of cunning and courage. She seeks out Holofernes (The Assyrian general) in his tent, gets him drunk, and then beheads him. The sight of the commander's bloodstained head on the battlements of puts the enemy to flight.
In this painting, Judith comes in with her maid from the right. The general is lying naked on a white sheet. Paradoxically a magnificent red curtain distinguishes his bed; it acts as a paradox because (1) the colour crowns the act of murder and (2) the colour crowns the heroine's triumph.
Caravaggio's approach was to choose the moment of greatest dramatic impact, the moment of the decapitation itself. Caravaggio has managed to produce the most dreaded moment in a man's life: the passage from life to death. The upturned eyes of Holofernes indicate that he is not alive any more, yet signs of life still persist in the screaming mouth, the contracting body and the hand that still grips the at the bed. The figures are theatrically lit from the side - the faces of the three characters demonstrate
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the artist's mastery of emotion, Judith in particular showing in her face a mix of determination and revulsion (Judith's psychological tension). The realistic precision with which the horrific decapitation is painted (correct down to the tiniest details of anatomy and physiology) has led to the suggestion that the painting was inspired by two highly publicized executions at the time. 10. Magritte: Attempting the Impossible This work by Magritte is an introduction for the ideas he would explore throughout his painting career. Attempting the Impossible’s subject matter is an artist who produces, through his brush, a real nude woman of his ideal. In this painting, Magritte explores ideas such as: (a) how a work of art (an artificial thing) can define reality and can sometimes even be mistaken for reality. (b) how the artist forms intimate relationships with his/her subjects and therefore paints the subject as an ideal (rather than painting the true reality). 11. Dali: Sleep Sleep, by Dalí, deals with a subject that fascinated the Surrealists: the world of dreams. They believed that the freedom of the subconscious within sleep could be tapped into and then used creatively. But sleep can also be fragile. The painting is a visual interpretation of the body's collapse into sleep. Some scholars have noted that, with this picture having been painted during the Spanish Civil War, sleep was about the only respite one had from the carnage the country was experiencing at the time.
The ‘soft’ head (appearing both vulnerable and distorted) is delicately balanced on different-sized crutches, suggesting that sleep itself must be in precious balance in order for it to yield the dreams Dali might then might tap into for creativity and to produce these surrealist art pieces. The crutches also suggest that the head might disintegrate if they were removed (again indicating the delicacy/fragility of sleep).
A dog appears, it's head in a crutch, as if half asleep itself. With the exception of the hillside town in the distance, a small boat, lone figure and the dog, the background in Sleep is an eerie space, where the end of sky, sea and land is not defined clearly - just as a dream might offer up this kind of murky emptiness.
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Appendix D. Quiz sheets Group A (note: the order of the same questions was reversed for half of the participants, so that the questions matched the order presented in the information sheet).
QUIZ
Please answer as many of the following questions as you can – even if you were not given the information corresponding to that particular image.
You are free to look at the Powerpoint display.
1. Skier List one use of skiing aside from recreation and competition: List one of the two categories that competitive skiing falls into: 2. What is a brownie a cross between in relation to texture? List one optional ingredient that brownies may contain: 3. What common problem is often classified as a ‘first-degree’ burn? What is one of the results/consequences (appearance/pain levels) of a third degree burn damaging the nerves and blood vessels? 4.Cemetery Mourning occurs in response to what? Name one of the stages of grief: 5. DaVinci: ‘The Last Supper’ What exact moment does ''The Last Supper'' specifically depict? How is Judas identified among the Apostles? 6. Provide one characteristic of the Impressionist movement: What was the reason behind Renoir painting this portrait?
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7. The bed being distinguished by a red curtain acts a paradox in this painting - why? What is thought to be the inspiration behind this painting? 8. Holbein: ‘The Ambassadors’ What is the lute with a broken string suggested to symbolize? Mention one hypothesized symbolic meaning of the anamorphic skull: 9. Magritte: ‘The Rape’ What was the traumatic event in Magritte's life that this painting is hypothesized to refer to? List one other hypothesized meaning of The Rape painting: 10. Describe two potential meanings behind this art piece of a man painting a woman: (1) (2) 11. Describe the reason for sleep that Dali is thought to have believed in: What do the crutches suggest? 12. De Chirico: ‘Song of Love’ What does the glove represent? Name one aspect of the painting that highlights de Chirico's preference and respect for the older times:
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Group B (note: the order of the same questions was reversed for half of the participants, so that the questions matched the order presented in the information sheet).
QUIZ
Please answer any of the questions you know the answer to – even if you were not given the information corresponding to that particular image.
You are free to look at the Powerpoint display.
1. List one use of skiing aside from recreation and competition: List one of the two categories that competitive skiing falls into: 2. Brownie What is a brownie a cross between in relation to texture? List one optional ingredient that brownies may contain: 3. Burn Victim What common problem is often classified as a ‘first-degree’ burn? What is one of the results/consequences (appearance/pain levels) of a third degree burn damaging the nerves and blood vessels? 4. Mourning occurs in response to what? Name one of the stages of grief: 5. What exact moment does this painting specifically depict? How is Judas identified among the Apostles? 6. Renoir: ‘A Girl With A Watering Can’ Provide one characteristic of the Impressionist movement: What was the reason behind Renoir painting this portrait?
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7. Caravaggio: ‘Judith Beheading Holofernes’ The bed being distinguished by a red curtain acts a paradox in this painting - why? What is thought to be the inspiration behind this painting? 8. What is the lute with a broken string suggested to symbolize? Mention one hypothesized symbolic meaning of the anamorphic skull: 9. What was the traumatic event in Magritte's life that this painting is hypothesized to refer to? List one other hypothesized meaning of this painting: 10. Magritte: ‘Attempting The Impossible’ Describe two potential meanings behind this art piece of a man painting a woman: (1) (2) 11. Dali: ‘Sleep’ Describe the reason for sleep that Dali is thought to have believed in: What do the crutches suggest? 12. What does the glove represent? Name one aspect of the painting that highlights de Chirico's preference and respect for the older times:
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Appendix E. Powerpoint display layout Group A (note: the order of the same slides was reversed for half of the participants, so that the slides matched the order presented in the information sheet).
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Group B (note: the order of the same slides was reversed for half of the participants, so that the slides matched the order presented in the information sheet).
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Appendix F. Instruction sheet used at beginning of study.
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Appendix G. Consent form.
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Appendix H. Debrief form.
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