Broadening Career Horizons for Students in At-Risk Environments

Broadening CareerHorizons for Students inAt-Risk Environments

Karen M. O'BrienRebecca D. Dukstein

Stacey L. JacksonMerideth J. Tomlinson

Ngondi A. Kamatuka

Researchers and practitioners embarked on a collaborative venture to develop,implement, and evaluate a career intervention program for 7th grade studentswho were at-risk for vocational underachievement. Students participating inthe Career Horizons Program demonstrated enhanced confidence in performingtasks related to investigating, selecting, and implementing a career choice. Theyalso considered a greater number of careers and selected those that were congruent with their interests. No change was found in confidence regarding degree ofself-knowledge. Suggestions are provided for improving on the development andevaluation of career exploration programs to enhance career self-efficacy andbroaden the career horizons of students in at-risk environments.

Children today face many challenges and societal problems that impinge on access to educational and vocational opportunities. Increasing numbers of children fail to complete high school, with factorsincluding socioeconomic status, gender, and ethnicity contributing

Karen M. O'Brien is an assistant professor, and Stacey L. Jackson isa graduate student in the doctoral program, both in the Departmentof Psychology, and Merideth J. Tomlinson is a graduate student inthe Department ofCounseling and Personnel Services, all at the University ofMaryland at College Park. Rebecca D. Dukstein is the associate director ofEducational Talent Search, and Ngondi A. Kamatukais director ofEducational Opportunity Programs, both at the University ofKansas in Lawrence. An earlier version ofthis article was presented at the 1996 meeting of the American Psychological Association. The authors thank Kimberly Epstein, Euwama Shaw-Taylor,Lisa Flores, Clara Hill, and David Petersen for their help. LynetteHeim Bikos and Lisa Flores contributed to the development of theCareer Horizons Program, which was funded by the U.S. Department ofEducation. Correspondence regarding this article should besent to Karen M. O'Brien, Department of Psychology, University ofMaryland, CollegePark, MD20742 (e-mail: [email protected].

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to high school attrition (DeBolt, Pasley, & Kreutzer, 1990). Althoughresearchers have focused on children who are experiencing emotional or behavioral problems, few studies or interventions targetstudents who are clearly at-risk but not currently demonstratingdifficulties (Black & Krishnakumar, 1998). Many of these studentsmay evidence low levels ofconfidence in their ability to pursue careerrelated tasks (Arbona & Novy, 1991; Hackett & Byars, 1996; Lauver& Jones, 1991). In addition, students in at-risk environments (dueto socioeconomic status, gender, ethnicity, or parents' educationalstatus) may circumscribe their career choices (Betz & Fitzgerald,1987; Church, Teresa, Rosebrook, & Szendre, 1992; Smith, 1980) orselect careers that are incongruent with their abilities and interests (Betz, 1994; Bowman, 1995; Leonard, 1985). Unfortunately, fewmiddle schools adequately address the career development ofstudentsin at-risk environments despite evidence to indicate that interventions can enhance academic performance, facilitate high school completion, and encourage postsecondary education (Evans & Burck, 1992;Hoffman & McDaniels, 1991; Rea-Poteat & Martin, 1991). Thus,the purpose of this article is to describe the development and evaluation of the Career Horizons Program for 7th grade students whowere at-risk for vocational underachievement.

The Career Horizons Program is predicated on the assumptionthat career development is an ongoing, life-long process in whichstudents must accomplish a series of tasks appropriate for theirdevelopmental level, to progress successfully in vocational decisionmaking (Starr & Gysbers, 1992). The recommended focus ofvocational development for middle school students focuses on learningmore about the skills and attitudes needed to engage in the processof career development (e.g., accessing career information, understanding gender role stereotyping), and obtaining self-knowledge andskills to engage in vocational planning and success (e.g., decisionmaking skills, positive self-concept; National Occupational Information Coordinating Committee [NOICCJ, 1989). It is also important for middle school students to begin to connect their aptitudesand abilities with broad areas of occupational interests to enablestudents to later consider careers that are congruent with theirabilities and interests (NOICC, 1989). Within these broad areas ofoccupational interests, middle school students also are encouraged toincrease the number ofcareers under consideration (NOICC, 1989). Infact, researchers have pointed to exploration of career choices as critically important for students at this age (Isaacson & Brown, 1997).

Historically, many students in at-risk environments and girls ingeneral have limited their careers in math and science-related occupations (Betz & Hackett, 1981; Hill, Pettus, & Hedin, 1990). In fact,research has identified the detrimental role of socialization in women'slack of interest in science careers and the negative attitudes towardscience that African American students evidence in elementary school(Yager & Yager, 1985). Many researchers have urged educators toprovide at-risk students with intensive weekend, summer, and ongoing experiences that expose them to career opportunities and rolemodels in math- and science-related fields (Hall & Post-Kammer,1987; Hawks & Muha, 1991; Hill et al., 1990). Moreover, Fouad

216 THE CAREER DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY / MARCH 1999/ VOL. 47

(1995) argued for the importance of hands-on activities that can aidin retaining Hispanic students in math and science courses, especiallythose courses that are required for continued study in these areas.

One important construct in academic and vocational achievementis confidence (or self-efficacy), which is hypothesized to relate to theinitiation of career-related activities, persistence despite obstacles,and eventual success (Bandura, 1977; Multon, Brown, & Lent, 1991).Studies of high school equivalency students (who were predominatelyminorities) revealed that career self-efficacy was predictive of rangeofoccupations considered (Beres-Rangel, Church, Szendre, & Reeves,1990; Church et al., 1992). Low self-efficacy in nontraditional occupations also has been associated with racial and ethnic minoritystudents (Post, Stewart, & Smith, 1991) and women (Betz, 1994).According to self-efficacy theory, confidence is developed throughperformance accomplishments, vicarious learning, verbal persuasion, and modulating physiological states and reactions (Bandura,1977). Researchers have demonstrated some success in enhancingcareer-related self-efficacythrough summer programs with high schoolstudents in at-risk environments, and they have urged practitioners to implement career development programs at earlier ages(O'Brien et al., 1998).

To provide middle school students in at-risk environments withexperiences to develop confidence and broaden their educational andvocational opportunities, a team consisting of an assistant professorin counseling psychology and practitioners from Educational TalentSearch (a program sponsored by the United States Department ofEducation to encourage participants to pursue postsecondary education) collaborated in developing the Career Horizons Program. Thegoals of the Career Horizons Program were consistent with the competencies highlighted for middle school students by the NOICC andincluded the following: (a) enhance confidence in career planningand exploration of abilities, understanding of self, and potential foracademic and vocational success in math and science; (b) increasethe number of careers under consideration by the students; (c) increase congruence between students' interests and their career choices;and (d) assist students in developing a positive support network.

To meet these goals, the hypothesized facilitators of self-efficacywere incorporated into the activities planned in the Career HorizonsProgram. Specifically, we provided students with multiple opportunities for success experiences (performance accomplishments). Students learned vicariously by observing scientists and staff demonstrate competence in performing academic and career-related tasks(we carefully chose staffwho reflected the diverse ethnic backgroundsof the students). We trained the staff to use verbal persuasion toencourage the students to develop confidence in their abilities andto provide positive feedback about their efforts (e.g., staffcompletedpositive feedback forms daily and the program director shared accolades with the students). Finally, the staff encouraged students toexpress anxiety and concern in a constructive manner so that highlevels of anxiety and emotional arousal were reduced to facilitatelearning. The staffalso tried to build on positive emotional experiencesto aid in the development of appropriate levels of career self-efficacy.


In addition, we educated staff to recognize and address the culturaland societal influences on career decision making and vocationalsuccess, because the need for culturally sensitive approaches to career development has been clearly documented (Betz & Fitzgerald,1995;Highland & Sudarsky-Gleiser, 1994; Myers, Haggins, & Speight,1994; Osipow & Littlejohn, 1995). Specifically, staff and instructorsgenerated discussions with students regarding how the students' culture and American society influence career development, and the curriculum was infused with activities that highlighted the importance ofculture in career aspirations (e.g., a cultural explorer game was playedand students discussed the role of culture in work environments).

The Career Horizons Program differed from existing programs inthe following ways: This intervention (a) developed out of a theoretical basis and was informed by recent research findings; (b) was anintensive summer program focused on students at-risk for underachievement; (c) combined career classes with exposure to a collegecampus and recreational team building activities; (d) involved acollaborative effort between community agency staff, universityprofessors and graduate students, and parents; (e) attended tothe important role of cultural, societal, and economic influenceson career development; and (f) was evaluated to assess the efficacy of the intervention.

We hypothesized that there would be increases in career self-efficacyand number of careers considered on completion of the program. Inaddition, we believed that after participation in the intervention, students would demonstrate enhanced congruence between their interests and the occupational choices they identified. Although not testedempirically, we also hypothesized that students would develop supportive connections with peers and a community agency.

PARTICIPANTS

The participants were 57 students who had completed the 6th gradeand participated in the summer program during 1 of2 years (meanage = 12.31,SD =1.26). Sixty-five percent of the participants weregirls and 33% were boys (2% did not respond to the question aboutsex). Approximately 46% of the participants were African American, 30% were White, 9% were Hispanic, 7% indicated Other, 5%were Asian American, and 2% were Native American (see Table 1for a breakdown of the participants by gender and ethnicity). Ninetypercent of the students indicated an interest in postsecondary education. Information obtained from about half of the parents indicated that the average family income for students enrolled in theprogram was $20,026 (SD = $13,740).

INSTRUMENTS

Career Self-Efficacy

Career self-efficacy was measured using the Missouri Comprehensive Guidance Evaluation Survey: Grades 6-9 (Gysbers, Lapan,Multon, & Lukin, 1992). Self-efficacy was assessed in the areas of


TABLE 1

Descriptive Information for the Measures

Study

Scale M SD Range Alpha

OCCSPre 2.04 1.77 0-6Post 3.81 1.44 0-7

CARPLAN-SEPre 56.11 7.27 40-70 .82Post 61.59 7.00 45-70 .92

KNOWSELF-SEPre 188.04 14.96 150-211 .91Post 196.56 25.74 137-283 .95

EDVOC-SEPre 120.43 16.31 79-145 .91Post 129.96 14.31 91-147 .96

Note. OCCS = Number of Occupations Considered; CARPLAN-SE = CareerPlanning and Exploration Self-Efficacy; KNOWSELF-SE = Knowledge of Self andOthers Self-Efficacy; EDVOC-SE = Educational and Vocational DevelopmentSelf-Efficacy. The participants in this study included 20 African American girls, 10White girls, 7 White boys, 6 African American boys, 3 Hispanic girls, 3 "Other"girls, 2 Hispanic boys, 2 Asian boys, 1 Native American boy, 1 "Other" boy, and1 Asian girl.

career planning and exploration, knowledge of self and others, andeducational and vocational development. Participants responded to62 items by indicating how confident they were that they could perform the tasks listed using a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from1 (very low) to 7 (very high). High scores indicated robust confidence in performing career-related tasks.

The Career Planning and Exploration Scale consisted of 10 items(e.g., "I am confident that I understand how to prepare for careersin which I may be interested"). The Knowledge of Self and Othersscale consisted of31 items (e.g., "I am confident in my understanding of what is important to me," and "I am confident that I knowhow to evaluate my decisions and change bad ones"). Finally, theEducational and Vocational Development Scale included 21 items(e.g., "I am confident that I know how academic skills such as math,reading, and science relate to my career goals"). Internal consistency estimates ranging from .71 to .88 have been reported andsupport for the three factors hypothesized to compose this instrument has been demonstrated (Lapan, Gysbers, Multon, & Pike, 1997).Reliabilities for the scales used in this study ranged from .82 to .96(see Table 1).

Occupations Considered

Students in the Career Horizons Program were asked to list theoccupations that they were considering. These occupations were

THE CAREER DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY I MARCH 1999 I VOL. 47 219

counted to obtain the total number of occupations under consideration by the students.

Congruence of Career Choices

Congruence of careers under consideration and student interestswas evaluated by examining the match between the Holland codesof the students and the Holland codes oftheir occupational choices.The participants' Holland codes were obtained from the Self-DirectedSearch Career Explorer (SDS-CE; Holland & Powell, 1994), a reliable and valid version ofthe Self-Directed Search (SDS, Holland,1985) that is used with middle school or junior high school students. The SDS-CE consists of204 items that assess occupationalcompetence and interests, and the Holland codes were generated byidentifying the students' three highest scores on the six Hollandinterest scales. The Holland codes for the pre- and posttest occupations under consideration were found in the second edition of theDictionary ofHolland Occupational Codes (Gottfredson & Holland,1989). A congruence index for each occupation was calculated usingthe formula advanced by Brown and Gore (1994). Three trained raters (two graduate students in counseling psychology and one honorsundergraduate student in psychology) independently coded eachparticipant's data (which often consisted ofseveral occupational choicesat pre- and posttesting) into one of the following four categories: "+"(increase in congruence from pre- to posttest), "-" (decrease in congruence from pre- to posttest), "0" (no increase or decrease in congruence),and"+/-" (both an increase and a decrease in congruence). The ratersdiscussed any disagreements until they reached consensus. Categoriesrepresenting a decrease, no change, or both an increase and a decreasewere included in one category representing no increase in congruence.Thus, students were categorized in one of two categories: positivechange in congruence or no increase in congruence.

PROCEDURE

School counselors were asked to identify students who had completed the 6th grade and were at-risk for academic or vocationalunderachievement. Students were asked to complete an applicationform, obtain permission for participation from a parent or guardian, secure a written recommendation from a teacher or counselor,and write a one-page essay describing two possible career choicesand the people or events that had influenced these career choices.

Students who were selected to participate in the program spent 6hours a day for 1 week on a midwestern university campus duringthe summer before entering the 7th grade. The classes containedapproximately nine students, and they were taught by an assistantprofessor and a doctoral student in counseling psychology. In addition, each group of students was assigned to a staffmentor who wasresponsible for supervising participants and encouraging active participation. The staffwere selected with attention to both skills anddiversity, and they completed 2 full days of training (the training


schedule is available from the first author). The program was provided at no cost to the students. The measures used in this studywere administered to the participants during the first morning andthe final session of the Career Horizons Program with the exceptionof the SDS-CE, which was completed as a homework assignment onthe first day of the program.

STATISTICAL ANALYSES

Descriptive information about the participants and measures wasgenerated using percentages, means, standard deviations, and internal consistency reliability estimates. Four paired t tests werecomputed to assess differences between pre- and postmeasures ofcareer planning and exploration efficacy, educational and vocationaldevelopment efficacy, knowledge of self and others, and number ofcareers considered. Finally, a chi-square analysis was conducted toinvestigate differences between pre- and postmeasurements of congruence of career choice.

THE CAREER HORIZONS PROGRAMINTERVENTION

The Career Horizons Program comprised three career classes (Career Exploration, Career Self-Awareness, and Math and ScienceCareers), a health and physical education session, and recreationalactivities. A manual describing the complete intervention is available from the first author. The Career Exploration and Career SelfAwareness classes were based in part on the Missouri Comprehensive Guidance System (Starr & Gysbers, 1992), a systematic careerexploration program for children in middle school. Given that theCareer Horizons Program consisted of more than 20 classes, it isimpossible to describe all of the activities in this article. Instead wewill describe the purposes of each of the courses and sample classes.

The purposes of the first class, Career Exploration, were to assiststudents in broadening occupational perspectives, learning how toexplore and plan for careers, increasing awareness of career opportunities in math and science, and understanding how gender,ethnicity, and socioeconomic status relate to career choices. In thisclass, students were encouraged to broaden their current careerchoices and to view career development as a life-long process in whichmany choices are made, change is inevitable, and the cultural context (e.g., cultural values and society's response to the student'sculture and values) and individual life experiences (e.g., role in family, self-perceptions) act as important agents of influence. For example, on the third day of the program, students in the Career Exploration class generated ideas about the many factors that influenced their careers, played "The Party Game" (Bolles, 1998) in whichthey identified groups of people with shared interests and generatedoccupations that matched these interests, learned about Holland'svocational theory, and discussed their results on the SDS-CE. Theyalso used the career booklets that accompany the SDS-CE to identify


careers that were congruent with any combination ofletters in theirHolland codes. The next day, the students brought their SDS-CEresults to a university career center and participated in a "scavenger hunt" in which they learned about accessing career resourcesand investigating occupations that were consistent with their Holland codes.

Furthermore, the program was developed to enhance students'understanding not only of the world of work but also of themselves.We educated students about the importance oflearning more abouttheir interests, values, skills, and personalities to make informedcareer choices over their lifetime. The Career Self-Awareness class wasdesigned to help students gain greater understanding and acceptanceofself,learn effectivedecision-making strategies, understand how alcohol,drugs, and pregnancy affect future career options, and identify ways toimprove personal study skills. For example, on the fifth day of theCareer Self-Awareness class, students learned about the importanceoflong-term and short-term goals, and they received feedback abouttheir strengths from their peers, parents, and program staff. During this class, students were asked to define success by participating in a guided imagery exercise in which they imagined their lives10 years from now. Then they collectively generated an equation forsuccess that contained the following variables: Success =Dreams +Goals + Hard Work + Education + Fun! Students also were instructedabout the importance of goals in achieving success in their lives.With the help of the staff, they generated, documented, and thendiscussed three short-term and three long-term goals. Next, students were invited to place their goals in a shoe box and were encouraged to decorate the shoe box so that it became their "SuccessBox" (a reminder and holder of their goals and positive accomplishments). After each student and staff member anonymously wrotetheir perceptions of the strengths of each student on a golden starand placed a star in the box of each participant, students read theirstars to the group. The activity ended when participants were givenletters written by their parents telling them what they see as theirstrengths and what they appreciate about them. The importanceand value of parental feedback were noted as many students triednot to smile and others wiped tears from their eyes.

The final class, Math and Science Careers, was developed becauseof the documented underrepresentation of White women and members of racial and ethnic minority groups in math- and science-relatedoccupations (Hill et al., 1990; Yager & Yager, 1985). Students participating in this class learned about careers related to math andscience through involvement in hands-on experiments. For example,a chemist talked to the students about possible careers in chemistryand shared with them her career path. She then supervised an activity designed to increase efficacy and interest in careers related tochemistry. Specifically, students learned about chromatography bytie-dying T-shirts. They also were exposed to careers in biology whenthey met with a biologist who described her career path and themyriad careers in biology. She then taught students about cardiovascular systems by having them dissect pig hearts. Although initially squeamish, all students participated and displayed much pride


in having executed this task. Participants were also educated aboutthe relation between math and science courses in high school andfuture educational and vocational opportunities through interactiveactivities and class discussions.

A health and physical education session was included in the program for several reasons. This session provided an opportunity forstudents to interact with staff and peers who were supportive ofeducational and vocational achievement. Also, the activities weredesigned to build a sense of connectedness among the students andto encourage students to experience success in physical activities.Students and staffparticipated in bowling, competed in sand volleyball, and experimented with rock climbing. Furthermore, the physical activities provided a time to release stress and to obtain exercise, two practices that could contribute to academic and vocational achievement.All of these activities took place on a college campus. Students ate

lunch in the collegecafeteria and visited residence halls. While walkingto and from activities, staff and students talked about college life,financial aid, extracurricular activities, and the importance ofworkinghard in junior high and high school. Interest and excitement amongthe participants about the college environment was evident whenone student asked if there was any way that he could skip highschool and come right to college.

Finally, given that research suggests that parental involvementin career development is critical for young students (Hoffman &McDaniels, 1991; Pollard, 1989), parents were encouraged to become partners in effectively promoting healthy and proactive careerdevelopment. They assisted their children with daily homework assignments, one of which included interviewing a parent regardingher or his career development. Also, parents were invited to participate in the final day of the Career Horizons Program, which culminated in a luncheon in which all students were recognized for theirhard work and active participation. During the banquet, an inspirational speaker encouraged the students to visualize dreams of academic and vocational success and then work hard to actualize thosedreams. At the conclusion of the banquet, awards were presentedfor exceptional achievement and significant contributions duringthe program.

Students were also invited to attend follow-up activities 4 and 9months after completion of the summer program. The 4-month follow-up program included presentations by a panel of college students and a collegeadmissions expert, and career (a game that stressedselecting careers that match interests), science (a demonstration onusing live animals in research), and recreation activities (swimming and basketball). The 9-month follow-up program offered a visitto a science museum, presentations on careers in art and usingmicroscopes, and recreation activities.

RESULTS

Descriptive information about the instruments is presented in Table 1.Paired t tests revealed differences in the expected direction for both


career planning and exploration efficacy and educational and vocational development efficacy as well as in the number of careers considered (see Table 2). A chi-square analysis indicated a significantdifference between the number of students who exhibited enhancedcongruence rather than no or decreased congruence after the intervention (X2 =5.33, p < .05). No difference was found in the students'confidence regarding knowledge of selfand others.

Sixty-eight percent of the participants attended follow-up activitiesadministered by the community agency 4 months after the summerprogram, and 50% of the students returned for the 9-month follow-upevent.

DISCUSSION

Results of Participation

Students who completed the Career Horizons Program demonstratedincreases in career planning and exploration efficacy, educationaland vocational development efficacy, number of careers they wereconsidering, and congruence between interests and career choice.Heightened efficacy suggested that the career exploration programenhanced the students' confidence in exploring careers and managingthe educational and vocational tasks associated with career development. Robust levelsofefficacycould increase students' abilities to managethe myriad tasks associated with healthy career development andto initiate action, persist despite obstacles, and eventually succeed(Bandura, 1977). Students who feel efficacious may be able to identify alternative career possibilities, obtain information about careers,investigate experiences related to these vocational options, and eventually select a career that is congruent with their interests, values,

TABLE 2

tTests of Differences on Measures of Career Self-Efficacy andNumber of Occupations Considered

Scale M SD df

CARPLAN-SE -6.42 54Pre 56.35 7.51Post 61.82 6.74

KNOWSELF-SE -3.33 52Pre 186.40 18.97Post 196.30 21.24

EDVOC-SE -5.10 54Pre 118.93 18.28Post 129.55 13.83

OCCS -4.30 54Pre 2.25 1.82Post 3.55 2.01

Note. See Table 1 Note. All values for two-tailed probability are zero.

224 THE CAREER DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY/ MARCH 1999/ VOL. 47

and abilities. It is important to note, however, that overall increasesin confidence should never be a focus of an efficacy interventionbecause attempts at tasks that are too difficult might result in failure and subsequent loss of desired levels of efficacy (O'Brien, Brown,& Lent, 1995). Increases in efficacy should occur only when studentspossess the skills needed to accomplish the given tasks (Bandura, 1977).

Students who participated in the Career Horizons Program did notexperience changes in levels of efficacy regarding self-knowledge orunderstanding. Given the brief'( 1 week) nature of the program, andthe overall focus on career-related topics, it does not seem unusualthat students did not experience a significant increase in confidencein this area. Also, the small number of participants could accountfor the lack of significant results. Future programs might considera greater focus on knowledge of self because it can have a tremendous impact on career development, choice, and success.

The increase in number of careers considered signified that students were able to identify additional careers of interest to themafter completion of the career exploration program. At the 7th gradelevel, and with students in at-risk environments, this broadening isdevelopmentally appropriate and heartening. This seems particularly positive in that many students entered the program with whatmight be considered unrealistic career choices (e.g., to be the nextMichael Jordan or president of the United States). We worked hardnot to discount the dreams of the students but to suggest that theydevelop alternative plans or "Plan Bs," and explained that even MichaelJordan pursued a secondary career in business to supplement hisprimary occupation. Encouraging students to consider an increasein number of careers is consistent with the NOICC guidelines andmight contribute to increased vocational preparedness iftheir dreamcareers prove unobtainable.

Finally, students who completed the program demonstrated increases in considering careers that matched their interests. Thisfinding was also consistent with NOICC guidelines for middle schoolstudents. Congruence between career choice and personality typehas been linked to persistence and performance in careers (Holland,1985). Students who are considering careers that are congruent withtheir abilities and interests may increase their chances for eventualsuccess in their chosen occupations.

Recommendations for Future Programs and Research

It is important to note that references to external stressors wereplentiful during the intervention. Students shared concerns aboutgang violence, teen pregnancy, alcohol and drug use, and unsafeneighborhoods. Given their concern about these issues, students mayregard self-knowledge and career exploration as secondary concernsat best. Nevertheless, providing young people with the tools to investigate and eventually select careers that are congruent with their skills,personalities, and life plans seems of utmost importance in at-risk environments. Future programs might develop additional means of addressing the salient environmental risks and developmental issuesassociated with adolescence while promoting healthy career devel-

THE CAREER DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY I MARCH 1999 I VOL. 47 225

opment. In addition, a longitudinal analysis of these students' career development could provide helpful information about factorsaffecting success in academic and vocational endeavors.

Future researchers should attempt to improve on the limitationsof this study. Specifically, a larger sample of participants is needed,and a control group should be used. The current design of the studydoes not allow us to infer that changes in self-efficacy, number ofcareers considered, and congruence were due to the Career Horizons Program. Further research using an experimental design isnecessary to assume causality in these relationships.

Our goal of enhancing positive peer relationships and facilitatingconnections with a community agency was not measured comprehensively. Although the majority of students returned for follow-upactivities, research is needed to assess the effectiveness of buildingongoing positive peer and community networks. In addition, futureresearchers might assess additional career constructs of importanceto adolescents when investigating the outcome of this program (e.g.,knowledge of the world of work, career maturity). Finally, we focused on at-risk students, thus this study needs to be replicatedwith other samples before generalizing the results to students whoare not in at-risk environments.

Given our experiences with the Career Horizon Program, suggestions for improving career exploration programs for students whoare at-risk for academic and vocational underachievement includethe following: (a) lengthen the intervention to provide interactivecareer experiences, periodic contact, and support and encouragementthroughout the year to maintain the changes in efficacy and numberof careers considered; (b) provide individual career counseling to participants in the career exploration program; (c) assist the studentsin obtaining volunteer or work experience related to potential careerchoices and lead group sessions in which students can process theiroccupational experiences; (d) begin intervening with this populationduring elementary school; (e) increase involvement of the parents (orguardians) in career development activities with the students andeducate the parents about how they might assist their children inthe process of career development and choice; (f) continue to workindividually and in small groups with this population as the students go to college and graduate school; and (g) expand the segmenton understanding how gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic statusrelate to career development, vocational opportunities, and occupational success. Many researchers have argued for the importance ofintegrating cultural awareness in career counseling (Fouad, 1995;Gysbers, Heppner, & Johnston, 1998), thus career exploration programs must also attend to the cultural and societal influences oncareer development to ensure effective interventions.

To conclude, participation in the Career Horizons Program wascommensurate with increases in self-efficacy and number of careersconsidered as well as enhanced congruence of career choice and interests-three critical constructs hypothesized to relate to vocationalsuccess. Continued attention to the development and evaluation ofcareer exploration programs for middle and elementary school studentswho are at-risk for vocational underachievement is centrally impor-


tant as these young people navigate their course of career development, actualize their career potential, and achieve vocational success.

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Broadening Career Horizons for Students in At-Risk Environments