Bringing Business Analytics to the College Campus

8/4/2019 Bringing Business Analytics to the College Campus

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Bringing Business Analytics tothe College CampusUsing Fiscal Metrics to Steer Innovation in Postsecondary

Educations

Jane V. Wellman and Louis Soares September 2011


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Contents 1 Introduction and summary

3 Applying business analytics to educational performance

goals

6 The funding problems

12 Focusing priorities for better business analytics

16 Places to go for business analytics

19 Conclusion: Cost and outcomes


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Introduction and summary

Business analyics are he use o quaniaive measures o pas nancial peror-

mance o inorm uure planning and decision making. Tese are he daa ools

many privae-secor rms use every day o ge a reurn on he invesmens hey

make in people, echnology, and processes o keep per uni coss down, improve

eciency, enhance qualiy, and drive compeiiveness. Is sae o say ha mos

spending decisions by higher educaion insiuions are no guided by business

analyics. Colleges and universiies boas neiher common language abou coss

and prices nor well-esablished merics or evaluaing how resources are usedwihin heir insiuions or across he higher educaion landscape.

Tis leads o conusion abou revenues and spending and cos srucures inside he

insiuions, in dialogue wih public policymakers, and wih he general public. I also

conribues o weak use o scal daa o inorm planning, and o poorly inormed

decision making abou how o mach spending wih prioriies, wheher or academic

programs wihin a single insiuion or o advance public goals or higher educaion.

Te resul is ha i is dicul or policymakers and college leaders o even hink

abou how o increase reurn on invesmen or arge resources o problem areas.

Beter business analyics will no, on heir own, solve our higher educaion und-

ing problems, bu hey would cerainly help address some o he mos dysunc-

ional aspecs o higher educaion nance, including:

Te endless search or revenues ha causes colleges and universiies o dri

away rom heir core mission and compeencies Rapid increases in uiion driven by subsidy shis, or losses in general public or

insiuional resources ha pay or core programs

Te chronic underunding o enry-level courses and developmenal educaionha ges sudens up o he wriing and reading skills o ake college courses

No sense o he bes ways o arge public unds recognizing ha colleges and

universiies are increasingly unded by uiion dollars


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Applying business analyics, wih a paricular ocus on maching spending o

public and insiuional prioriies, and wih beter atenion o subsidy levels, ne

revenues, marginal coss, and spending agains oucomes, would by isel consi-

ue disrupive innovaion in mos public and nonpro insiuions.

Tis would be disrupive because i would represen a dieren way o doingbusiness or mos colleges and universiies, a new business model. Te Cener

or American Progress recenly deailed his model in a paper iled Disruping

College: How Disrupive Innovaion Can Bring Qualiy and Aordabiliy o

Higher Educaion, which uses daa o ocus on spending and resuls, raher

han he curren pracices, which ocus almos enirely on revenues and on

inpus such as enrollmens.1

Te purpose o his repor is o provide an overview o how business analyics

could be used o improve he reurn on invesmen in higher educaion insruc-

ion. Firs, we will place business analyics in he broader conex o public highereducaion goals and he emerging debae regarding learning oucomes as mea-

sures o insiuional perormance. Second, we explore a core se o issues in how

we nance higher educaion ha arise because o he lack o business analyics o

help make ransparen where money is well-invesed and ill-spen.

Tird, we discuss how business analyics can be incorporaed ino key policy

measures in higher educaion including insiuional governance, sae budge

reorm, unding allocaions beween wo- and our-year schools, and linking

school nances o academic program design. Fourh, we provide a shor primer on

resources where insiuions and policymakers can nd daa o develop appropri-

ae business analyic ools.

Improving access and perormance in higher educaion is a naional imperaive.

Te days when colleges and universiies could expec o receive generous public

subsidies wihou much quesioning abou value or eeciveness are over. o

mainain public invesmens in higher educaion, and o use increasingly scarce

resources o improve educaional perormance, we need beter ways o undersand

he relaionship beween spending and oucomes, and o use ha daa o guide how

resources are allocaed. Business analyics are a key ool in achieving his goal.


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Applying business analytics to

educational performance goals

Te reason we argue or increased use o business analyics abou higher educa-

ion nance is no simply o improve insiuional posiions or perormance, per

se, bu o improve our collecive capaciy o mee public goals or possecond-

ary educaion. Analyics ha are no relevan o decisions abou perormance

become an exension o insiuional research in higher educaion, poenially

ineresing in and o hemselves bu no paricularly perinen o improved insi-

uional perormance.

From our perspecive, he wo mos pressing areas where perormance improve-

men is needed are in educaional atainmen and in educaional perormance. We

discuss each o hese briefy beore reurning o he opic o insiuional nances,

and ways o use business analyics o improve perormance.

Educational attainment problem

Our counrys educaional atainmen problem is embedded in he leaky educa-

ional pipeline, beginning wih he poor ransiion o sudens across classrooms

rom kindergaren o 12h grade and hen on o and hrough possecondary

educaion o credenials, degrees, and jobs. Our educaion sysem canno be

xed exclusively or primarily by improving graduaion raes a he B.A. or

graduae levels.

In addiion o ha, policymakers also need o ocus on he roo causes o declin-

ing raes o educaional atainmen among younger aduls, including: equiy gaps,

or he chronically lower perormance a all levels o educaion or he rapidly

growing porions o he populaion who are low income or Laino; he declinein he proporion o sudens who complee high school; low college-going raes

among many recen high school graduaes; and he low success raes in echnical-

vocaional educaion and in communiy colleges.2


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The educational performance problem

Our educaional perormance problem has wo basic pieces o i. One has o do

wih learning oucomemeasures o suden learning in college ha can range

rom improved wriing skills o demonsraed masery o discipline-specic

knowledge. And he oher has o do wih how learning is packaged and creden-ialed. Les look briefy a each in urn.

Learning outcomes

We know less han we should abou learning oucomes, bu he evidence ha does

exis suggess ha ar oo many sudens who obain B.A. degrees have no maeri-

ally improved heir knowledge or skill ses since graduaing rom high school.3 I

isn clear wheher learning oucomes have been geting worse over ime or i his

has always been he case.

I he value o he degree is measured in economic erms, he earnings premium

or B.A. atainmen remains high.4 Noneheless, quesioning abou he conen o

he degree is rising even as he price o he degree has never been higher.5 Tis in

urn gives rise o a growing quesioning abou he value o invesmens in higher

educaion, and o he insiuional values ha seemingly pu price increases and

insiuional aspiraions ahead o service o sudens.

Packaging and credentialing

Anoher par o our educaional perormance problem relaes o he organiza-

ion, delivery, and credenialing o he growing par o possecondary educaion

ha does no lead o an academic degree or a recognized credenial. Tis is a par-

icular problem in he sub-baccalaureae world, where credenials requiring less

han wo years o educaion consiue around 20 percen o oal possecondary

awardsquie a bi more han all pos-baccalaureae, proessional, and graduae

educaion combined.6

Sudies o he educaional value o hese cericaes, as measured by placemens

and lieime earnings, sugges ha he one-year-and-below cericaes may have

litle marke value.7 Te labeling o he credenials is par o he issue. For example,

a general cericae in digial design may have litle labor marke value while a

cericae linked o Adobe web publishing soware can be quie lucraive.


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Te oher problem has o do wih how learning is packaged and delivered. In he

world o developmenal educaion in paricular, he course- and credi-based

sysem or organizing and delivering insrucion probably ges in he way o he

imely provision o high-qualiy eaching and learning in ways ha work well or

diverse groups o sudens, boh reurning aduls and recen high school graduaes.

In shor, he educaional delivery sysem does no mach he needs o he sudensmos likely o need suppor i hey are o succeed in compleing a credenial.

Our ailure raes in developmenal educaion are well-documened.8 Tis has o

change since demand or developmenal educaion will surely grow in he uure

as suden demographics move oward hose adul learners who have rusy skills

and are less prepared or college-level coursework and he Common Core Sae

Sandards are implemened in K-12 educaion naionwide. Te Common Core

Sae Sandards in English language ars and mahemaics will ighen he educa-

ional alignmen o K-12 and possecondary schools while also raising he bar or

geting ino credi-bearing courses or hose no already a college compeency inhese areas. Boh o hese acors will creae a demand or developmenal educa-

ion or hose sudens no ready o ake college courses.

Geting he nancing and he packaging par o his hugely imporan piece o he

educaional pipeline will be criical o uure success in improving atainmen. As

well demonsrae, business analyics can help his process remendouslyonce

he unding problem is also ackled, he subjec o he nex secion o his repor.


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The funding problems

Our higher educaional unding problems have many dimensions and aec dier-

en groups o sudens and dieren universiy uncions quie dierenly. Looking

a he ineracion beween unding problems agains educaional perormance

goals, a airly shor lis emerges, wih roos boh in public policy and insiuional

pracice. Among hem are:

Lack o goals or possecondary educaion a boh he sae and ederal levels Insabiliy in sae appropriaions o public educaional insiuions Over-regulaion and under-accounabiliy Upside-down spending in which educaion botlenecks like gaeway, general

educaion courses subsidize more expensive upper division and graduae

courses ha serve ewer sudens Compeiion ha increases spending unrelaed o suden educaional oucomes Poor use o daa abou spending and perormance

Les examine each o hese problems in urn.

Lack of goals for postsecondary education at both the state and

federal levels

Increasing higher educaional access and degree atainmen o he levels called

or by he Obama adminisraion will require an esimaed doubling o he

naions degree producion rae.9 Tis atainmen agenda has a good deal o

rheorical suppor bu we have ye o see explici goals eiher in ederal policy or

in mos saes.

In he absence o goals, unding prioriies become dominaed by shor-erm

demands or insiuional mainenance and by poliical pressure or secor

equiy (such as reaing he research universiies more or less he same as com-

muniy colleges, wheher or no research universiies are an equal prioriy o

communiy colleges).


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Over-regulation and under-accountability

In many saes, he revenue volailiy problems are exacerbaed by oumoded sae

budge and und managemen pracices, which urher undermine insiuional

abiliy o manage resources and o improve eciencies.12 Te problem isn jus

he unding ormulas ha disburse a cerain subsidy o schools based on he over-all sae budge and compeing programs or ha year or he excessive ocus on

inpus such as suden sea ime raher han oupus such as measured changes in

learning. Raher, is ha many saes sill ry o regulae colleges and universiies

using und managemen conrols ha are wholly inappropriae o heir mission or

he realiies o heir curren revenue srucures.

In a number o major sae sysems, or example, unds are sill allocaed o and

managed in silos, separaing unds or insrucion, suden services, and academic

suppor.13 Tese divisions ge in he way o seamless managemen o resources in a

way ha bes suppors sudens and eaching. As an example, i an insiuion wereo generae savings in insrucional budges, such as by eliminaing low-demand

programs, hose savings could no be reallocaed o suden suppor services, since

ha is a dieren budge caegory.

Te or-pro secor in higher educaion basically ignores hese caegories. Tese

insiuions look a spending or educaional programs more holisically, in a

bundled se o services inegraing eaching, learning assessmens, suden suppor

services, and I suppor. Tis resuls in a lower cos or delivering educaion ser-

vices (alhough policy and pracice have no ye yielded a ranser o hese savings

o sudens hrough lower prices).14

Ten here are he resricions ha saes pu on wha can be spen rom und

reserves, essenially deeaing he purpose o creaing reserves in he rs place,

which is o creae invesmen pools or new allocaions o resources, and o cush-

ion agains budge coningencies. Tis is a paricularly bad pracice when he big-

ges source o new revenue in higher educaion is going o come rom inernally

generaed reallocaions such as argeing he revenue generaed rom large general

educaion courses o under-resourced remedial educaion programs raher han

using i o subsidize under-enrolled courses in unpopular majors.

Tis regulaory problem exends o he ederal governmen, beginning wih he su-

den aid programs auhorized under ile IV o he Higher Educaion Opporuniy

Ac, which provides resources or insiuional aid, subsidizes suden loans, and


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unds he Pell Gran program. Te regulaions surrounding ile IV, however, go ar

beyond he purposes o he aid programs o academic qualiy and accrediaion.

Te recen eor by he ederal governmen o require audiable ime-based

measures o he suden credi hour is bu one example o a soluion ha will

hur raher han help insiuional eors o improve learning produciviy.15

Tis is he case because qualiy online educaion programs such as hose being

developed by he Open Learning Iniiaive a Carnegie Mellon Universiy are

moving oward compeency and no ime-based measures o learning, increasing

eciency and reducing coss.16

Upside-down spending

Higher educaion is unded hrough a complicaed number o cross-subsidies wihin

insiuions, where lower spending requiremens in one area (say, oering Geology101, a sandard course augh a mos schools o 400 sudens using eaching assis-

ans) are used o generae resources ha are spen on higher-cos programs such

as low-enrollmen courses such as Advanced Egypian Hieroglyphics. Hisorically,

he patern in mos our-year colleges and universiies has been o suppress coss in

lower-division educaionhe rs wo years o learninghrough large classes, use

o adjunc aculy, and eaching assisans o creae revenues o pay or higher-cos

upper-division classes and graduae programs.

Naionwide, on average, wihin public our-year insiuions, lower division

courses generae 36 percen o all credis aken and receive 23 percen o spending

or insrucion, and are responsible or 60 percen o suden atriionmean-

ing sudens ail he course or drop ou beore receiving a degree or cericae.17

Tis is wha we call upside-down spendinghe leas resources are spen on he

sudens mos a risk o ailure, reserving unds or sudens who already have

demonsraed capaciy o succeed and advance.

In he rs wo years o college, greaer invesmens in suden coaching, inensive

advising, and improving he eeciveness o developmenal educaion could yield

beter suden reenion and learning oucomes.18

Bu i would require he edu-caional insiuions o make some choices o reduce spending on upper-division

and graduae educaiona choice mos would raher no make.


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Competition that increases spending unrelated to outcomes

Te growing role o paren- and suden-paid uiion in public higher educaion is

ipping he scales more oward marke-oriened decision making by sudens and

heir parens and away rom public policy decision making, which means ha incen-

ives and rewards in he markeplace will have growing imporance o higher educa-ional public policy. One o he diry litle secres o higher educaion nance is ha

compeiion leads o increased spending and mission creep raher han o greaer

diereniaion o producs, in par because o he absence o measures o qualiy

leading insiuions o rea money and presige as surrogaes or excellence.

Williams College economis Gordon Winsons research on insiuional hier-

archies and compeiion shows ha compeiion or he bes-prepared sudens

increases spending, in wha he describes as a posiional arms race in higher

educaion.19 Zemsky and Massy similarly documen he devaluaion o each-

ing alongside he incremenal shi o insiuional atenion oward research as adriver o coss or boh higher aculy salaries and lower eaching loads. 20

Te problem o mission dri away rom eaching and oward research is being

exacerbaed in he curren environmen, as governing boards abiliy o discipline

he academic arms race is being weakened as fagship universiies seek o exemp

hemselves rom sae sysem saus and o weaken coordinaing boards auhor-

iy over insiuional programs. wo cases in poin are he recen eor by he

Universiy o Wisconsin Madison (ulimaely unsuccessul) o separae isel rom

he UW Sysem, and a similar eor (successul) by he Universiy o Washingon

o persuade he governor o end regulaion o heir insiuion by killing o he

sae coordinaing board.

Flagship public-secor insiuions such as hese eel hey need his special saus

o keep up wih he privae insiuions, which enjoy a huge and growing unding

advanage. Tey argue ha since sae unds now consiue a minoriy share o

unding or heir insiuions, hey shouldn have o obey he myriad regulaory

requiremens imposed on public agencies.21


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Poor use of data about spending and performance

Te culure o higher educaion has long equaed qualiy wih resources, mea-

sured by revenues raher han resuls. As an indusry, higher educaion does a

remarkably bad job o looking or evidence abou areas where spending pays o

in posiive oucomes. Almos all higher educaion unding merics are measureso revenues, or oal asses, which ell nohing abou how resources are used

wihin he insiuions. Bu he ocus on revenues perpeuaes he endless search

or resources, wheher hose unds go o pay or eaching or research or auxiliary

enerprises. So he dri in missionand he hun or revenuesconinues.


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Focusing priorities for better

business analytics

Business analyicsmeasures o uni coss relaed o perormanceneed o be

developed wih an eye o how hey will be used o:

Deliver improved governance and public policy capaciy Improve sae budge reorm eors Change in-sae unding allocaions o improve lower-division educaion Focus college and universiy nance adminisraors on revenues and coss

Improve governance and policy capacity

We need beter merics bu merics are no sel-execuing; hey need o sup-

por decision making as par o a coheren and eecive governance srucure.

Rebuilding our public governance models o work beter in he era o echnology-

delivered insrucion and uiion-driven revenues is key o mainaining public

capaciy in higher educaion.

In public insiuions o higher learning, his requires changes in mos saes in

policy capaciy, boh a he sae and he insiuional levels, o provide leadership

o his agenda. Specically, a he sae level, saes need o have some organizaion

capable o guiding he public agenda or atainmen, unding, and accounabiliy.

Insiuions need governing boards o balance he ineress o he sae wih insi-

uional ineress. Boh levels need o have he daa capaciy, people, and public

credibiliy o do he job.22

Neural business analyics ha ranslae spending ino readily accessible and

ransparen measures are an essenial ool or building language and shared under-sandings o acs and circumsances beween sae governmen and insiuional

leaders. Saes should be paricularly ocused on he quesion o public subsidies

as a percenage o insiuional coss, and how subsidies ranslae ino meeing

public goals. Saes need o be hinking o higher educaion unding as an inves-

men sraegy raher han as a way o und insiuions.


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o move in his direcion, hey need o be able o evaluae he ROI rom an inves-

men o unds in (or insance) a public communiy college, as conrased o a

or-pro insiuion, or even buying space in a neighboring sae. Ta means hey

need merics on average subsidies per suden, and subsidy coss on average or

each degree or credenial.

State budget reform

Te sae budge process or higher educaion needs o be rehough in almos all

saes in order o move rom he curren boom-bus patern o higher educaional

unding oward a pah ha suppors a muliyear invesmen sraegy o accomplish

public purposes. Tis means a shi rom he ron-end regulaory conrols dis-

cussed earlier in his paper o a beter ocus on perormance and resource use. In

addiion o models or perormance- and oucomes-based budgeing, and aten-

ion o use o subsidies, saes should be puting more pressure on insiuionalgoverning boards o demonsrae ha hey are looking a spending wihin he

insiuions, in ways ha promoe public ransparency abou where money comes

rom and how i is being spen.

Business analyics can make a big dierence in inorming hese ypes o decisions

by bringing ransparency o wha is now a black box o boh sae and insiuional

leaders. In addiion o looking a subsidies and oucomes, insiuional decision

makers should be looking a more granular measures o perormance, including

oal credi hour producion agains degrees (which helps show wha percenage o

credis are los eiher o atriion or o excess credis), marginal coss per suden by

level o suden and program, and indirec coss as a proporion o spending.

Changes in state funding allocations to improve lower-division

education

Saes and heir insiuions o higher learning boh need o address heir respon-

sibiliy or perpeuaing he upside-down allocaion o resources hrough und-

ing ormulas ha consisenly underund lower division educaion. Sae decisionmakers can advance his by changing how insrucional unds are allocaed, o

more nearly equalize subsidies beween lower-division, upper-division, and

graduae educaion.


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Geting hese merics righ will require dieren general ledger accouning sys-

ems in many insiuions o atach boh revenues and spending o courses and

programs. In mos insiuions, uni cos daa, which connecs inormaion abou

sudens, courses, and credis o aculy and sa salaries, is simply no available.

Insiuions also need o develop proocols or assigning indirec coss across

spending caegorieshe spending or general adminisraion, suden supporservices, academic suppor, and operaions and mainenance. In mos insiuions,

hese areas accoun or more han hal o all spending. Ye we do no have good

proocols or assigning heir coss o eiher inpus or oupus.


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Places to go for business analytics

Each insiuion should approach business analyics wih an eye o he ypes o

measures ha are bes suied o heir mission and marke. Addiionally, we believe

here are a number o common merics whose use would improve decision mak-

ing in all ypes o insiuions. Tey are:

Measures o average spending per sudenAverage spending per degree conerred Esimaes o coss associaed wih excess credis and wih suden atriion Cos, price and subsidy srucures, and he proporion o average coss ha are

subsidized by suden uiions Marginal cos per suden by program and level o insrucionAverage coss o shared services including overhead.

While no perec measures o eeciveness or eciency in and o hemselves

hose measures require qualiaive assessmens as wellhese merics pu higher

educaion nance ino a perormance conex, wih a ocus on spending and no

jus revenues, and he subsidy srucures required o suppor hem.

Tere are a number o places where insiuions and policymakers can go

or approaches o higher educaion business analyics. Te Dela Projec on

Possecondary Coss has developed a series o merics abou unding ha can be

aggregaed o he naional, sae, or insiuional level. Tese measures include:

oal revenues by source per sudenAverage spending or educaional and relaed expenses per suden (an average

ull cos gure including boh insrucional spending as well as spending on

suden services, academic and insiuional suppor, and physical plan) Te subsidy share o average coss, and he share ha is suppored wih suden

uiion dollarsAverage educaion and relaed expenses per credi hour, and per degree and

cericae conerred


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Te Dela daa are available publicly or more han 2,000 public and nonpro

colleges and universiies. A longiudinal daabase wih comparable revenue and

spending daa has been assembled going back o 1988; i can be downloaded rom

he Dela Cos Projec websie a htp://www.delacosprojec.org. An online

sysem addiionally presens insiuion-level daa in he Dela merics rom 2002

orward; ha is available a htp://www.cs-online.org.

Anoher source wih deailed daa or direc insrucional coss (excluding suppor

and adminisraion) is he Naional Sudy o Insrucional Coss and Produciviy

hosed by he Universiy o Delaware, also known as he Delaware Cos Projec.

Te Delaware Projec is a volunary consorium o insiuions who collaborae

or he purpose o sharing daa abou spending. Paricipaing insiuions submi

daa o he projec using he Delaware sandard caegories and receive in reurn

benchmarks showing how heir insiuions compare in spending o ohers in

he naional daase. Insiuions waning o learn more abou he Delaware Cos

Projec may nd i a htp://www.udel.edu/IR/cos/.

And lasly, he Naional Governors Associaion has recenly promoed he adopion

o similar merics in heir monograph From Inormaion o Acion: Revamping

Higher Educaion Accounabiliy Sysems, par o heir Complee o Compee

iniiaive. In addiion o recommendaions on merics or measuring degree pro-

gression and degree compleion, he NGA monograph recommends ways o look

a resource use in relaion o degree producion and oucomes, including employ-

men and uure earnings. Te monograph also recommends ways or policymakers

o design sysems ha promoe common language beween sae decision makers

and insiuional leaders, beginning wih highly aggregaed measures agains broad

public goals a he sae level, bu connecing o much more deailed academic and

perormance inormaion wihin insiuions.23


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Conclusion: Cost and outcomes

Improving access and perormance in higher educaion is a naional impera-

iveessenial in our opinion o he qualiy o our democracy and o susaining

economic developmen and growh in he uure. Te days when colleges and

universiies could expec o receive generous public subsidies wihou much ques-

ioning abou value or eeciveness are over. o mainain public invesmens in

higher educaion and o use increasingly scarce resources o improve educaional

perormance, we need beter ways o undersand he relaionship beween spend-

ing and oucomes, and o use ha daa o guide how resources are allocaed.

Te qualiy o evidence abou spending and perormance in higher educaion is

errible. Beween public policy and higher educaion, we have made much more

progress in advancing he science o assessing learning oucomes han we have

in looking a he role ha resources do or don play in producing hose dieren

oucomes. We have avoided ransparency abou spending and perormance, parly

because o bad daa, parly because we couldn agree abou ways o measure

spending, and parly because we don like quaniaive measures o qualiy.

We can expec o ge away wih ha in he uure. Bu we need no remain

vicims o broken cos models in he uure. Higher educaion nance can be

sabilized, and we can nd a beter way o mach revenues wih spending prioriies

hrough more sysemaic applicaion o business analyics boh a a public policy

level and wihin insiuions. I we ail o mee his challenge, hen our unding

problems will become he excuse, i no he reason, or why he nex generaion

o Americans will be less educaed han he one ha has come beore. I is no a

uure we should accep, and we don need o.


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About the authors

Louis Soares is he Direcor o he Possecondary Educaion Program a he Cener or

American Progress. He brings more han 15 years o privae, nonpro, and public-sec-

or experience, and experise in sae sraegy and incenives or economic developmen,

adul lieracy, and workorce developmen. He has worked as a nonpro direcor, edu-caor, policy analys, voluneer, and advocae across he elds o workorce, educaion,

and economic developmen. A leader in workorce developmen and human capial

issues, Louis has published aricles and op-eds on workorce and innovaion.

Jane Wellman is he Execuive Direcor o he Dela Projec on Possecondary Coss,

Produciviy and Accounabiliy, an independen non-pro research and policy

organizaion ocused on ways o improve public ransparency abou higher educaion

nance including comparaive daa on cos merics. Wellman has over hiry years o

experience in higher educaion policy in he Unied Saes, a boh he sae and

ederal levels, working wih public, non-pro and or-pro insiuions. Prioro beginning he Dela Projec in 2007, she served wih he Insiue or Higher

Educaion Policy in Washingon DC, was Vice Presiden or Governmen Relaions

wih he Naional Associaion o Independen Colleges and Universiies, Depuy

Direcor o he Caliornia Possecondary Educaion Commission, and Sa

Direcor o he Caliornia Legislaures Ways and Means Commitee. She began

her career in higher educaion nance a he Universiy o Caliornia Oce o he

Presiden, and received her BA and MA degrees rom UC Berkeley. In addiion o

her work wih he Dela Projec, Wellman also serves as he Execuive Direcor o

he Naional Associaion o Sysem Heads, and is on he Board o Direcors or he

Associaion o American Colleges and Universiies.

Acknowledgements

Te auhors would like o hank he Lumina Foundaion or is suppor o his research.


23/24


Endnotes

1 cy m. chi h, dipig cg: Hw dip-iv Ivi c Big Qiy abiiy P-y ei (Whig: c ai Pg, 2011),vib hp://www.ipg.g/i/2011/02/ipig_g.h.

2 li s chiph mzz, cg-ry s,s-ry cg: a ag Ipvig dg cp-i i Py ei (Whig: c aiPg, 2008), vib hp://www.ipg.g/i/2008/08/g_y.h; J Hk PlFi, th ai High sh Gi r t lv. Wkig Pp 13670 (ni B ei r-h, 2007); W I cii High ei,Kkig h cg d, Pji High sh G- by s r/ehiiy, 1992-2022 (2008); ogii ei c-pi dvp, ei G2010 (2010). th ui s w k 19h g ii-iz i yg , i B.a. gh i, whih i h high ih w.

3 s, xp: rih a Jip rk, aiyai: lii lig cg cp (chig: uiviy chig P, 2011).

4 ahy P. cv, sv r, B chh, th cgPy: ei, opi lii eig (Wh-ig: Ggw uiviy c ei hWk, 2011).

5 d m. dh, c m. lih, J V. W,t i cg spig, 1998-2008 (Whig: d Pj-, 2010).

6 Ibi.

7 Bi Bwh, ci c: a ayi sb-B- ci (Whig: cp cg ai, 2010).

8 B V, Gig P G: rbiig h ri eiBig cg s (dv, co: ei cii h s, 2010).

9 J W, th Py ai chg Fig

Pbi sy (Whig: ni aii syH, 2011).

10 dh h, t i cg spig; nic Pbi Piy High ei, mig up.,

11 J W, Fiig, a ai, Fby 25,2010, vib hp://www.hw.g/-/jw.pp; Wi dy Ji dy, th BWh, spb 23, 2008, vib hp://www.wip.wi./Pg/Pg.px?Id=0784-7-45-9244-547876412.

12 s, xp: og uiviy sy, ous Gvchg Pp (2011), vib hp://./i///p/gv//2011IBGv.p;Wii IPhip, vib hp://www.wii./wip/.

13 J V. W, d m. dh, c m. lih,

th Gwig Ib: r t i u.s. Pyei Fi (Whig: d Pj, 2008).

14 chi h, dipig cg.

15 Ibi.

16 c thi J sih, c r s Kwg:Wh c High ei l ab Piviy?, chg,mh-api 2011, vib hp://www.hgg.g/a-hiv/Bk%20I/2011/mh-api%202011/---.h.

17 shi B cg, ai B, J sy, F-s csy (B, co: s High ei exiv of,2010), vib hp://www.h.g//sHeeo_c%20sy%20rp_2010.p.

18 Bi P Jh lvi, r-igiig ciy cg ih 21 cy: a s-c apph High e-i (Whig: c ai Pg, 2009), vib hp://www.ipg.g/i/2009/12/igi-ig_iy_g.h.

19 G Wi, th Pii a r i High ei.dii Pp 54 (Wii Pj h ei Highei, 2000).

20 rb Zky Wii my, th li h rh,Piy Ppiv 2 (4) (1990), vib hp://www.hi-gi.i/d/J2004/doc-2004J12-1073931090.p.

21 th g pivizi pbi iii i pviby: J d Fi Wk, th F h Pbiuiviy i ai (Bi, md: Jh Hpki uiviyP, 2003).

22 s, xp: Jph Bk, ni Piip: svig h PbiG i ti chgig Gv m cg

uivii, ni ck 13 (4) (2005); th d Pj Py ei c, Piviy, abiiy,

th ni c High ei mg sy, th ni c Pbi Piy High ei,sghig cg oppiy P: F,s Iii lhip, ni ck 18 (2) (2010);s cpiy High ei Piy, ni ck 13(3) (2005), vib hp://www.highi.g/k/0305/w0305-i.p.

23 ni Gv aii, F Ii ai:rvpig High ei abiiy sy (2011),vib hp://www.g.g//iv/i/nGa//p/1107c2cactIonGuIde.PdF.
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