Handbook of Mindfulness and Self-Regulation

Brian D. Osta� nMichael D. RobinsonBrian P. Meier Editors

Handbook of Mindfulness and Self-Regulation

Brian D. Ostafi n • Michael D. Robinson Brian P. Meier Editors

Handbook of Mindfulness and Self-Regulation

ISBN 978-1-4939-2262-8 ISBN 978-1-4939-2263-5 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4939-2263-5

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015945105

Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifi cally the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfi lms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specifi c statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer Science+Business Media LLC New York is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

Editors Brian D. Ostafi n Department of Psychology University of Groningen Groningen , The Netherlands

Brian P. Meier Department of Psychology Gettysburg College Gettysburg , PA , USA

Michael D. Robinson Department of Psychology North Dakota State University Fargo , ND , USA

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1 Introduction: The Science of Mindfulness and Self-Regulation ....................................................................... 1 Brian D. Ostafi n , Michael D. Robinson , and Brian P. Meier

Section 1 Neuroscience and Cognitive Perspectives

2 The Emerging Neurobiology of Mindfulness and Emotion Processing ............................................................... 9 W. Michael Sayers , J. David Creswell , and Adrienne Taren

3 Mindfulness and Training Attention ........................................... 23 Yi-Yuan Tang and Michael I. Posner

4 Mindfulness, Attention, and Working Memory ......................... 33 Alexandra B. Morrison and Amishi P. Jha

5 Taming the Wild Elephant: Mindfulness and Its Role in Overcoming Automatic Mental Processes .............................. 47 Brian D. Ostafi n

Section 2 Personality and Social Psychology Perspectives

6 Burning Issues in Dispositional Mindfulness Research ............. 67 Robert J. Goodman , Jordan T. Quaglia , and Kirk Warren Brown

7 The “Why,” “What,” and “How” of Healthy Self-Regulation: Mindfulness and Well-Being from a Self-Determination Theory Perspective .......................... 81 Patricia P. Schultz and Richard M. Ryan

8 Self-Regulatory Strength and Mindfulness ................................ 95 Michael J. MacKenzie and Roy F. Baumeister

9 Mindfulness and Emotion Regulation ......................................... 107 Whitney L. Heppner , Claire A. Spears , Jennifer Irvin Vidrine , and David W. Wetter

Contents

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10 Self-Compassion: What It Is, What It Does, and How It Relates to Mindfulness ............................................. 121 Kristin D. Neff and Katie A. Dahm

Section 3 Clinical Perspectives

11 Mindfulness as a Key Construct in Modern Psychotherapy ............................................................................... 141 Patricia Bach , Steven C. Hayes , and Michael Levin

12 How Do Mindfulness-Based Interventions Work? Strategies for Studying Mechanisms of Change in Clinical Research ...................................................................... 155 Tory Eisenlohr-Moul , Jessica R. Peters , and Ruth A. Baer

13 Clinical Perspectives: Mindfulness- Based Cognitive Therapy and Mood Disorders ...................................................... 171 Brandilyn R. Willett and Mark A. Lau

14 Mindfulness and the Addictive Process: Psychological Models and Neurobiological Mechanisms .................................. 185 Judson A. Brewer , Nicholas T. Van Dam , and Jake H. Davis

15 Mindfulness, Eating Disorders, and Food Intake Regulation .......................................................................... 199 Jean L. Kristeller

16 Mindfulness and Self-Regulation: A Medical Approach to the Mind and Mental Health ................................. 217 James Davis-Siegel , Moriah Gottman , and Daniel J. Siegel

17 Mindfulness as a General Ingredient of Successful Psychotherapy ........................................................ 235 James Carmody

Section 4 Buddhist Perspectives

18 Buddhist Styles of Mindfulness: A Heuristic Approach ............ 251 John D. Dunne

19 The Emperor’s Clothes: A Look Behind the Western Mindfulness Mystique .................................................................. 271 Eleanor Rosch

Index ....................................................................................................... 293

Contents

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Brian D. Ostafi n , Ph.D. is an associate professor in the experimental psychopathology and clinical psychology program at the University of Groningen, the Netherlands. He received his doctorate in clinical psychology from Boston University in 2004. His research focuses on the role of implicit processes in psychopathology (with an emphasis on addictive behaviors) and the usefulness of mindfulness interventions to overcome such processes. This work has been funded by the NIH and other agencies.

Michael D. Robinson , Ph.D. is a Professor of Psychology at North Dakota State University. He received his doctorate in social psychology from the University of California, Davis, in 1996. Subsequently, he was trained in a 3-year NIMH-supported postdoctoral position, working during this time with Richard J. Davidson and Gerald L. Clore. He is a prolifi c researcher in the areas of personality, assessment, self-regulation, cognition, and emotion. In addition, his work has been funded by NSF and NIH. He has been or is an Associate Editor for Cognition and Emotion , Emotion , Journal of Personality , Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , and Social and Personality Psychology Compass (emotion/motivation section). In addition, he has edited two recent books: Handbook of Cognition and Emotion (Robinson, Watkins, & Harmon-Jones, 2013; Guilford Press) and The Power of Metaphor (Landau, Robinson, & Meier, 2014; American Psychological Association). He is con-sidered an expert in implicit approaches to personality and in cognitive approaches to emotion and self-regulation.

Brian P. Meier , Ph.D. is an associate professor of psychology at Gettysburg College, where he teaches courses on general psychology, social psychology, and statistics. He received his doctorate in social psychology from North Dakota State University in 2005. His research is focused on social and per-sonality psychology topics including mindfulness, self-regulation, embodi-ment, emotion, aggression, and prosocial behavior. Dr. Meier is a consulting editor for multiple journals and his research has been funded by multiple agencies.

About the Editors

1© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015 B.D. Ostafi n et al. (eds.), Handbook of Mindfulness and Self-Regulation, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4939-2263-5_1

Introduction: The Science of Mindfulness and Self-Regulation

Brian D. Ostafi n , Michael D. Robinson , and Brian P. Meier

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Introduction: The Science of Mindfulness and Self-Regulation

The fi rst and best victory is to conquer self.—Plato

One who conquers himself is greater than another who conquers a thousand times a thousand on the battlefi eld.

—Buddha

The human being is a confl icted animal. On the one hand, we have a multitude of desires as part of our genetic birthright. Desires for sex, food, safety, certainty, and self-esteem are among these. On the other hand, we are expected to forego our desires a good proportion of the time in the service of cultural values. Observers have long noted that this situation is rife with the potential for confl ict. Plato’s Phaedrus (trans. 2003) characterized a confl ict of wills whereby

the charioteer of reason must attempt to subdue the wild horse of appetite. Freud ( 1949 ) similarly described the manner in which a person’s ego and superego must wrestle with the instinctual drives of the id. Confl icts between the short-term desires of our animal nature and the long-term goals derived from cultural values also fi gure prominently in modern theories of self-regulation (e.g., Vohs & Baumeister, 2011 ).

Despite our best intentions, reason often fails to control our appetites. Along these lines, St. Paul lamented “… the evil which I would not do, that I do” (Romans: 7:19) and Freud declared that “the ego is not master of its own house” (Freud, 1917 , p. 143). Data support these insights. For example, one study examined the success of New Year’s resolutions such as losing weight, working on relationships, and quitting smoking (Norcross, Ratzin, & Payne, 1989 ). The results revealed that a majority of people (80 %) main-tained their resolutions for a week but only a minority of people (40 %) did so for 6 months. These and similar fi ndings underscore the diffi -culties in regulating desires that seem part of the human condition. Further, such regulation diffi -culties can give rise to a wide range of problem-atic outcomes such as addiction, crime, domestic violence, educational underachievement, and obesity (Baumeister & Heatherton, 1996 ). Self-regulation failure additionally leads to decreases in well-being, in some cases contributing to clini-cal disorders such as depression (Pyszczynski &

B. D. Ostafi n (*) Department of Psychology , University of Groningen , Groningen , The Netherlands e-mail: b.d.ostafi n@rug.nl

M. D. Robinson Department of Psychology , North Dakota State University , Fargo , ND , USA

B. P. Meier Department of Psychology , Gettysburg College , Gettysburg , PA , USA

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Greenberg, 1987 ). More broadly, a number of Western philosophical and spiritual traditions contend that self- control is a necessary founda-tion for inner peace, spiritual wisdom, and con-necting with the divine (e.g., Galatians 5: 16–25; Hadot, 1995 ; 2002 ; Merton, 1969 ).

Given the crucial role that self-regulation plays in people’s lives, we need to know how to facilitate it. Freud’s ( 1917 ) analysis is a useful departure point in doing so. Freud metaphorically defi ned the unruly part of the mind as the id and the executive part of the mind as the ego. Consistent with the analysis above, the id and the ego often confl ict with each other for control over behavior with the id favoring impulsive actions and the ego favoring more thoughtful actions (see Strack & Deutsch, 2004 , for a related analysis). It is natural to characterize the resulting tensions in terms of a battle between the id and the ego, which in turn suggests particular ways of facili-tating self-regulation. The id’s forces must be defeated somehow, either by weakening the id or strengthening the ego and then engaging in com-bat. We note that there are fairly close parallels between this analysis and recommendations made in the self-control literature (e.g., Friese, Hofmann, & Wiers, 2011 ). Battles are costly, however, and they are grim. Freud ( 1917 ) antici-pated this as well in his suggestion that a long- term solution to the self-regulation problem may depend on developing greater insight into how the mind works. Mindfulness similarly aims to increase the individual’s freedom through insight.

What is mindfulness? It is a state of conscious-ness and a way of being that can be described as “… paying attention in a particular way; on pur-pose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmen-tally” (Kabat-Zinn, 1994 , p. 4; also see Bishop et al., 2004 ). Although this defi nition originates in the Buddhist tradition (Chap. 18 ), similar ideas of attending to the moment with an accepting attitude can be found in Western traditions such as the Stoic practice of “delimiting the present” (Hadot, 1995 ). In both cases, the suggestion is that the untrained mind is poorly controlled, prone to problematic attachments and egoism, and ultimately not very conducive to harmonious living in the world. Meditation practices designed

to improve capacities to sustain attention, to increase awareness of thoughts and feelings as they occur, and to develop a nonjudgmental acceptance of these thoughts and feelings are proposed to free the mind from its vices. In sim-pler terms, the mind has some bad habits that can either be lessened or worked with more function-ally to the extent that one retains awareness of what is currently happening.

While the original purpose of mindfulness practice was to deconstruct ordinary experience for the sake of spiritual enlightenment (Rahula, 1959 ), Western psychologists have found that mindfulness is also conducive to a variety of practical forms of self-regulation. These include the regulation of negative emotions (Chap. 9 ; Hofmann, Sawyer, Witt, & Oh, 2010 ) and prob-lematic behaviors of multiple types (Chap. 14 ; Zgierska et al., 2009 ). Mindfulness also appears to facilitate personal growth (Chap. 7 ) and its benefi ts have been touted for home (Kabat-Zinn & Kabat-Zinn, 1997 ), school (Rechtschaffen, 2014 ), and work (Carroll, 2007 ) settings. Independent of these potential benefi ts, mindful-ness is a fascinating state of consciousness that has had a long attraction for Western psychology (James, 1902 ; Jung, 1964 ) and which warrants close study in its own right. The current volume provides this close study in the form of state-of- the-art reviews by international experts who review what is known about whether and how mindfulness works while making recommenda-tions for future study. All chapters address the interface of mindfulness and self-regulation, with chapters covering a range from basic research to real-world applications in the clinic.

Overview of the Volume

As a general orientation, we should make two points. At its core, mindfulness involves paying attention to present-moment experiences in a nonjudgmental manner. Long-term meditation practice can help one achieve this state more reli-ably, but long-term meditation practice is not necessary to achieve it. Accordingly, the volume reviews research in which mindfulness (a)

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naturally varies across people as an aspect of per-sonality, (b) is temporarily induced among medi-tation-naïve participants as an experimental manipulation, (c) follows from clinical interven-tions, or (d) is the result of formal meditation training outside the context of a clinical interven-tion. These different ways of studying mindful-ness often converge in their conclusions (e.g., Chap. 2 ), but we should be alert to possible diver-gences as well (Chap. 6 ).

The second point is that although the bene-fi ts of mindfulness are traditionally linked to insight (Rahula, 1959 ), there can be other mechanisms of action. For example, mindful-ness stabilizes attention, which is conducive to purposeful behavior (Chap. 4 ). Many of our problems are caused by habits of the mind and mindfulness reduces the infl uence of such hab-its (Chap. 5 ). When mindful, one can become aware of negative thoughts and feelings sooner, which allows one to regulate them before they escalate (Chap. 13 ). And mindfulness allows one to identify an observer self that is not syn-onymous with the contents of the mind (Chap. 9 ). There are thus a number of different, though perhaps interconnected, ways in which mind-fulness can support self-regulation, as will be highlighted in this volume. For organizational purposes, the chapters are organized into four sections.

Section 1: Neuroscience and Cognitive Perspectives

An emerging body of work, reviewed in this sec-tion, has revealed that mindfulness changes the way in which the brain works. Such changes in neural activity and cognition are likely to under-lie some of the benefi cial consequences of mind-fulness. In addition, the section chapters cover topics such as emotion regulation, executive attention, and addictive behavior.

• Sayers, Creswell, and Taren (Chap. 2 ) review fMRI and EEG studies on the brain mecha-nisms through which mindfulness enhances

the regulation of emotions. Among other fi ndings, studies have linked mindfulness to reduced activity in the amygdala, a structure implicated in emergency-based reactions, and to increased activation in the dorsolateral pre-frontal cortex, a structure implicated in emo-tion regulation and sustained attention. Mindfulness seems to support a more refl ec-tive, less reactive mode of brain functioning.

• Tang and Posner (Chap. 3 ) present a model in which executive attention—the ability to resolve mental confl icts in favor of goal- directed processing—underlies multiple forms of self-regulation. The authors present two categories of interventions that may ben-efi t executive attention: practices that involve controlling mental content (e.g., working memory training) and mindfulness medita-tion, which does not involve changing the con-tent of thoughts but rather involves a “state of restful alertness.” The authors review several studies in which signifi cant behavioral, struc-tural, and functional changes occur as a func-tion of mindfulness training.

• Morrison and Jha (Chap. 4 ) consider the over-lap of mindfulness with contemporary brain- based models of information processing. Mindfulness may facilitate self-regulation by training executive attention, by changing working memory operations, or by increasing the monitoring of off-task thoughts. The authors present evidence for the benefi ts of mindfulness training in each of these areas and discuss ways in which mindfulness is dis-tinct from other types of cognitive enhance-ment training.

• Ostafi n (Chap. 5 ) notes that many self- regulation failures can be traced to automatic cognitive and behavioral responses. Accounts of mindfulness suggest that the individual can learn to observe such habits without necessar-ily acting on them. Support for this account has been found in several studies in which mindfulness—trait and manipulated—decou-ples the relationship between automatic processes and outcome variables such as rumination or alcohol consumption.

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Section 2: Personality and Social Psychology Perspectives

People differ in mindfulness skills independent of meditation practice or experience. Research in personality and social psychology takes advan-tage of this fact, thus contributing to a basic understanding of how mindfulness functions. Among other topics, chapters in this section link mindfulness, both trait and interventions, to major theories of the self and psychological well-being.

• Goodman, Quaglia, and Brown (Chap. 6 ) review the major progress that has been made in assessing mindfulness as a dispositional quality—a key way in which people differ from each other. The chapter discusses issues related to how mindfulness should be defi ned and measured, including a discussion of how mindfulness differs from other measures of attention. The authors then present evidence for the validity of trait mindfulness measures such as an inverse relation with emotional reactivity in both neural and psychophysiolog-ical studies.

• Schultz and Ryan (Chap. 7 ) propose that mindfulness may be important to living one’s life in a self-determined, health-promoting way. When people are mindful, they should be more fully aware of their deep-seated values and goals and therefore in a better position to act on them. Consistent with this framework, studies have linked mindfulness to less defen-siveness, a greater focus on intrinsically moti-vated goals, and to higher levels of psychological well-being.

• MacKenzie and Baumeister (Chap. 8 ) present evidence for a strength model of self-control whereby self-control requires effort and is dependent on a limited pool of volitional resources. Support for this model has primar-ily come from studies in which resources are depleted, but there is also evidence that self- control resources can be strengthened over time. The authors suggest that mindfulness training may be a useful strategy to build such resources.

• Heppner, Adams, Vidrine, and Wetter (Chap. 9 ) consider the multiple ways in which mindful-ness should support emotion regulation. These include the ability to identify problematic thoughts and feelings early on, the willingness to experience unpleasant states, and the insight that aversive experiences naturally fade over time without the need to do something about them. Consistent with these ideas, research has shown that mindful people are less reac-tive to negative events and less prone to addic-tive relapse in the context of cravings and stress.

• Neff and Dahm (Chap. 10 ) note that Buddhist practices seek to increase both mindfulness and self-compassion and that these are par-tially independent states of mind. Self- compassion is mindful, but also involves bringing an attitude of caring kindness toward oneself. Dispositional and intervention research converges on the idea that compas-sion toward the self increases well-being while decreasing symptoms of anxiety and depression.

Section 3: Clinical Perspectives

The benefi ts of mindfulness have perhaps been best documented in the clinical literature. Trait variations in mindfulness are inversely predictive of depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, and addictive disorders. Additionally, mindfulness- based treatment protocols have proven useful in treating a number of clinical disorders.

• Bach, Hayes, and Levin (Chap. 11 ) introduce the section by examining the broad questions of how to best defi ne mindfulness and the rea-sons behind the growing popularity of mindfulness- based interventions. The authors note the potential pitfalls of tying mindfulness too closely to a particular technique (i.e., Eastern contemplative practices) and instead advocate an approach that is based on the pro-cess of paying attention in a particular way and the outcomes of doing so. The authors

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suggest that the growing popularity of mind-fulness is due not only to persuasive research evidence, but also to its curative properties in addressing the psychological imbalances caused by modern society.

• Eisenlohr-Moul, Peters, and Baer (Chap. 12 ) document the fact that mindfulness-based interventions have demonstrated their effi cacy in a substantial number of studies. Accordingly, there is a growing need for research into the mechanisms through which mindfulness works. The authors provide a number of use-ful recommendations for conducting research of this type.

• Willett and Lau (Chap. 13 ) present an analysis of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) for depression. The chapter describes the MBCT intervention, presents evidence for its value in preventing depression relapse, and outlines newer applications such as treating bipolar disorder and acute depressive symp-toms. The authors also discuss alternative delivery formats such as via phone or the Internet.

• Brewer, Van Dam, and Davis (Chap. 14 ) explain why mindfulness may be particularly useful in dealing with the dysregulated desires of addiction. As the authors document, there are striking parallels between Buddhist accounts of craving and modern accounts of the addictive process. The chapter summa-rizes existing research on mindfulness inter-ventions for addiction and discusses the potential neurological mechanisms involved.

• Kristeller (Chap. 15 ) discusses mindfulness interventions as a means to improve the self- regulation of eating among eating-disordered clients. Among other processes, mindfulness may be helpful in this population by facilitat-ing awareness of the factors that precipitate binge eating and of internal cues of satiety. An overview of a mindfulness-based intervention for dysregulated eating is presented next, fol-lowed by a review of research on the intervention.

• Davis-Siegel, Gottman, and Siegel (Chap. 16 ) propose that awareness and integration are general keys to health. As these activities are

also central to mindfulness, mindfulness may play broad roles in health promotion. The authors use this framework to explain the problems endemic to certain disorders of per-sonality and to impulsive forms of behavior.

• Carmody (Chap. 17 ) discusses the challenges and benefi ts of teaching mindfulness to Western psychotherapy clients. Although mindfulness and therapy both have the aim to reduce suffering and increase well-being, the idea and practice of mindfulness can seem somewhat foreign to Western clients. Carmody shows how such issues of translation can be circumvented through framing the goals of mindfulness in more familiar terms.

Section 4: Buddhist Perspectives

As this volume demonstrates, Western psycholo-gists have generated a great deal of productive research on the topic of mindfulness. The roots of mindfulness, however, are Buddhist. The last section presents two commentaries on the rela-tion between Buddhism and mindfulness as prac-ticed and researched in the West.

• Dunne (Chap. 18 ) provides an informative account of the relation between contemporary Western mindfulness practices and two tradi-tions in Buddhism that he terms “classical” and “nondual.” These two strands of Buddhism hold different theories about the causes of suf-fering, giving rise to distinct meditation prac-tices. By recognizing such distinctions and by taking advantage of centuries of knowledge accumulated by Buddhist practitioners, Western scientists and clinicians can further develop their mindfulness-based efforts.

• Rosch (Chap. 19 ) suggests that there are impor-tant differences between Western and Buddhist versions of mindfulness and that we should take a close look at these differences to better understand what our science has thus far docu-mented. Among other issues, it will be impor-tant to know whether there is more to our interventions than relaxation (or social support)

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and whether dispositional measures of mindfulness capture something beyond psycho-logical mindedness or verbal abilities. Rosch’s analysis encourages a number of directions for future research, including the need for disman-tling studies on mindfulness interventions.

Conclusions

The mind seems to have a mind of its own. It can want things that are not good for us, it composes narratives about the self that may or may not be true, and it seems to have extraordinary defi cits in staying on-task. As the opening quotes suggest, bringing such an unruly creature under control can be a challenge. The Buddhist tradition sug-gests that mindfulness can help to tame the mind and Western research has begun to provide sup-port for this idea. When mindful, we can become aware without becoming attached and may be bet-ter able to act in accordance with health- promoting values and goals. As detailed in this volume, these ideas are not just interesting but also practical. Mindfulness changes how we process external and internal stimuli (section 1), allows us to better enact the goals of the self (section 2), and has demonstrated value in dealing with problematic symptoms and behaviors (section 3). Such gains may be increased through a deep study of Buddhist ideas and practices (section 4). Staying aware in the present moment, the chapters will suggest, benefi ts self-regulation in multiple ways.

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Carroll, M. (2007). The mindful leader: Awakening your natural management skills through mindfulness medi-tation . Boston, MA: Trumpeter Books.

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Pyszczynski, T., & Greenberg, J. (1987). Self-regulatory perseveration and the depressive self-focusing style: A self-awareness theory of reactive depression. Psychological Bulletin, 102 , 122–138.

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Section 1

Neuroscience and Cognitive Perspectives