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Learning about Brazil

ContentsBrazilian Portuguese 1Portuguese grammar 22Brazil 40States of Brazil 69Brazilian people 72Culture of Brazil 79Economic history of Brazil 87

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 99Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 102

Article LicensesLicense 104

Brazilian Portuguese 1

Brazilian PortugueseBrazilian Portuguese (Portuguese: português brasileiro or português do Brasil; pt-BR) is a group of Portuguesedialects written and spoken by most of the 190 million inhabitants[1] of Brazil and by a few million Brazilianemigrants, mainly in the United States, United Kingdom, Portugal, Canada, Japan and Paraguay.Some authors compare the differences between Brazilian Portuguese and European Portuguese to those foundbetween British and American English,[2] while others see the differences between Brazilian and EuropeanPortuguese as greater or much greater.[3] [4] The differences in the spoken language are much more pronounced thanthe differences in the formal written language.[3] As many as 15% of the words are different and limited mainly toflora, fauna, foods, etc. As with many languages, the differences between standard Brazilian Portuguese and itsinformal vernacular are marked, though lexicon and most of the grammar rules remain the same. Nonetheless, thereare still scientific debates about the status of that variant due to those differences, especially whether or not it wouldbe a case of diglossia.Nevertheless, the comparatively recent development of Brazilian Portuguese (and its use by people of variouslinguistic backgrounds), the cultural prestige and strong government support accorded to the written standard hasmaintained the unity of the language over the whole of Brazil and ensured that all regional varieties remain fullyintelligible. Starting in the 1960s, the nationwide dominance of television networks based in the southeast (Rio deJaneiro and São Paulo) has made the dialects of that region into an unofficial spoken standard for the means ofcommunication, as well.

History

Portuguese legacyThe existence of Portuguese in Brazil is a legacy of Portuguese colonization of the Americas. The first wave ofPortuguese-speaking immigrants settled in Brazil in the 16th century, yet the language was not widely used then. Fora time Portuguese coexisted with Língua Geral, a lingua franca based on Amerindian languages that was used by theJesuit missionaries; as well as with various African languages spoken by thousands of slaves brought to the countrybetween the 16th and 19th centuries.By the end of the 18th century, however, Portuguese had affirmed itself as the national language. Some of the maincontributions to that swift change were the expansion of colonization to the Brazilian inlands, and the hugeimmigration of Portuguese during that time, who brought their language and became a much more important ethnicgroup in Brazil. Besides, they brought millions of slaves, who were in general more likely to learn Portuguese, sincethe Africans would speak lots of different languages that were mutually unintelligible and had more contact (even ifforcedly) with the Portuguese speakers.Since the early 18th century, Portugal's government had made many efforts to expand the use of Portuguese in all thecolony, particularly because its consolidation in Brazil would help guarantee to them the lands in dispute with Spain(according to various treaties signed in the 18th century, those lands would be ceded to the people who effectivelyoccupied them). Under the Marquis of Pombal administration (1750–1777), Brazil started to use only Portuguese,for he expelled the Jesuit missionares – who taught the Língua Geral – and prohibited the use of Nhengatu, orLingua Franca.[5]

The aborted colonization attempts by the French in Rio de Janeiro in the 16th century and the Dutch in the Northeast in the 17th century had negligible effect on Portuguese. Even the substantial non-Portuguese-speaking immigration waves of the late 19th and early 20th century (mostly from Italy, Spain, Germany, Poland, Japan and Lebanon) were linguistically integrated into the Portuguese-speaking majority within very few generations, except for some areas of the three southern states (in the case of Germans, Italians and Slavs) and rural corners of São Paulo (Italians and

Brazilian Portuguese 2

Japanese).Nowadays the overwhelming majority of Brazilians speak Portuguese as their mother tongue, with the exception ofsmall communities of descendants of European and Japanese immigrants – mostly in the South and Southeast – andAmerindian villages, who make up for an extremely minor part of the population. However, even in those cases, thepopulations use Portuguese frequently as a means of communication with other people and to understand televisionand radio programs, for example.

Influences from other languagesThe evolution of Brazilian Portuguese has certainly been influenced by the languages it supplanted: first theAmerindian tongues of the natives, then the various African languages brought by the slaves, and finally those oflater European and Asian immigrants. The influence is clearly detected in the Brazilian lexicon, which today hashundreds of words of Tupi–Guarani and Yoruba origin, among others. However, the vocabulary is stilloverwhelmingly Portuguese, since the contributions of other languages were restricted to a few subjects or areas ofknowledge.From South America, words deriving from the Tupi–Guarani language family are particularly prevalent in placenames (Itaquaquecetuba, Pindamonhangaba, Caruaru, Ipanema, Paraíba). The native languages also contributedfor the names of most of the plants and animals found in Brazil, such as arara ("macaw"), jacaré ("South Americanalligator"), tucano ("toucan"), mandioca ("manioc"), abacaxi ("pineapple"), and many more. However, it should benoted that many Tupi–Guarani toponyms did not derive directly from Amerindian expressions, but were in factcoined by European settlers and Jesuit missionaries, who used the Língua Geral extensively in the first centuries ofcolonization. Many of the Amerindian words entered the Brazilian Portuguese lexicon as early as in the 16th century,and some of them were eventually borrowed by European Portuguese and later even into other European languages.The African languages provided hundreds of words too, especially in the following subjects: food (e.g. quitute,quindim, acarajé, moqueca), religious concepts (mandinga, macumba, orixá, axé), African-Brazilian music (samba,lundu, maxixe, berimbau), body-related parts and diseases (banguela, bunda, capenga, caxumba), places (cacimba,quilombo, senzala, mocambo), objects (miçanga, abadá, tanga) and household concepts, such as cafuné ("caress onthe head"), curinga ("joker card"), caçula ("youngest child"), and moleque ("brat, spoiled child"). Though theAfrican slaves had various ethnic origins, the Bantu and Guinean-Sudanese groups contributed by far to most of theborrowings, above all the Kimbundu (from Angola), Kikongo (from Angola, the Republic of the Congo and theDemocratic Republic of the Congo[6] ), Yoruba/Nagô (from Nigeria), and Jeje/Ewe language (from Benin).There are also many borrowings from other European languages such as English (especially words connected to technology, modern science and finance, like layout, briefing, designer, slideshow, mouse (computing), forward, commodities, commercial terms like kingsize, fast food, delivery service, self service, drive-thru, telemarketing, franchise, merchandise, but also cultural aspects such as okay, junk food, hot dog, pet, nerd, geek, noob, punk, hooligan, cool, vibe, hype, overdose, junkie, cowboy, mullet, sex appeal, drag queen, bro, gospel, praise, bullying, stalking), French (food, furniture, luxurious fabrics and abstract concepts). Scholars affirm that even now, French remains as the largest foreign influence in Portuguese due to the fact that French borrowings were adopted by a strong cultural affinity. Brazilian Portuguese tends to adopt French suffixes as in aterrissagem, differently from European Portuguese. Brazilian Pt. also tends to adopt culture-bound concepts from French, but when it comes to technology, the major influence is the English, while European Pt. tends to adopt technological terms from French. That is the difference between estação and gare. An evident example of the dichotomy between English and French influences is the use of the expressions know-how, used in a technical context, and savoir-faire, in literal Portuguese saber-fazer, proficiência-da-feitura, saber-como), German and Italian (mostly food, music, arts and architecture), and, to a lesser extent, Asian languages such as Japanese. The latter borrowings are also mostly related to food and drinks or culture-bound concepts, such as quimono, from Japanese kimono. Besides strudel, pretzel, bratwurst, sauerkraut (chucrute), Oktoberfest, biergarten, there are also abstract terms from German like encrenca or blitz. A

Brazilian Portuguese 3

significant number of beer brands in Brazil are named after German culture-bound concepts due the fact that thebrewing process was brought by German immigrants. Besides, there were many Italian loan words and expressionswhich are not related to food or music: (italianisms) like tchau, imbróglio, bisonho, panetone, è vero, cicerone, malemale, terra roxa, capisce, mezzo, va bene, ecco, ecco fatto, ecco qui, caspita, cavolo, incavolarsi, engrouvinhado,andiamo via. Due to its large Italian diaspora, parts of the Southern and Southeast states have an Italian influenceover the prosody, the vocal patterns of the language, with an Italian sounding stress.[7]

The influence of these languages in the phonology and grammar of Brazilian Portuguese have been very minor.Some authors claim the loss of initial es in the verb estar – now widespread in Brazil – is an influence from Africanslaves' speech,[8] and it is also claimed that some common factors of BP – such as the near-complete disappearanceof certain verb inflections and the marked preference for compound tenses – recall the grammatical simplificationtypical of pidgins. However, the same or similar processes can be verified in the European variant, and such theorieshave not yet been proved.[9] Regardless of these borrowings and changes, it must be kept in mind that BrazilianPortuguese is not a Portuguese creole, since it can be traced as a direct evolution from 16th century EuropeanPortuguese.[9]

Written and spoken languagesThe written language taught in Brazilian schools has historically been based on the standard of Portugal, and untilthe 19th century, Portuguese writers have often been regarded as models by some Brazilian authors and universityprofessors. Nonetheless, this closeness and aspiration to unity was severely weakened in the 20th century bynationalist movements in literature and the arts, which awakened in many Brazilians the desire for true (own)national writing uninfluenced by standards in Portugal. Later on, agreements were made as to preserve at least theorthographical unity throughout the Portuguese-speaking world, including the African and Asian variants of thelanguage (which are typically more similar to EP, due to a Portuguese presence lasting into the end of the 20thcentury).On the other hand, the spoken language suffered none of the constraints that applied to the written language.Brazilians, when concerned with pronunciation, look up to what is considered the national standard variety, andnever the European one. Moreover, Brazilians in general have had very little exposure to European speech, evenafter the advent of radio, TV, and movies. The language spoken in Brazil has evolved largely independently of thatspoken in Portugal. To many Brazilians, the language spoken in Portugal is almost unintelligible.

Formal writingThe written Brazilian standard differs from the European one to about the same extent that written American Englishdiffers from written British English. The differences extend to spelling, lexicon, and grammar. Several Brazilianwriters were awarded with the highest prize of the Portuguese language. The Camões Prize awarded annually byPortuguese and Brazilians is often regarded as the equivalent of the Nobel Prize in Literature for works inPortuguese.Joaquim Maria Machado de Assis, João Guimarães Rosa, Carlos Drummond de Andrade, Graciliano Ramos, JoãoCabral de Melo Neto, Cecília Meireles, Clarice Lispector, José de Alencar, Rachel de Queiroz, Jorge Amado, CastroAlves, Antonio Candido, Autran Dourado, Rubem Fonseca, Lygia Fagundes Telles and Euclides da Cunha areBrazilian writers recognized for writing the most outstanding work in the Portuguese language.

Brazilian Portuguese 4

Spelling differencesFurther information: Spelling reforms of PortugueseThe Brazilian spellings of certain words differ from those used in Portugal and the other Portuguese-speakingcountries. Some of these differences are merely orthographic, but others reflect true differences in pronunciation.They are similar to how the English spellings of certain words in the United States differ from the spellings used inother English-speaking countries.A major subset of the differences relates to words with c and p followed by c, ç, or t. In many cases, the letters c or phave become silent in all varieties of Portuguese, a common phonetic change in Romance languages (cf. Spanishobjeto, French objet). Accordingly, they stopped being written down in BP, similar to Italian spelling standards, butare still written in other countries. For example, we have EP acção / BP ação ("action"), EP óptimo / BP ótimo("optimum"), and so on, where the consonant is silent both in BP and EP, but the words are spelled differently. Onlyin a small number of words is the consonant silent in Brazil and pronounced elsewhere or vice versa, as in the case ofBP fato, but EP facto.However, BP has retained those silent consonants in a few cases, such as detectar ("to detect"). In particular, BPgenerally distinguishes in sound and writing between secção ("section" as in anatomy or drafting) and seção("section" of an organization); whereas EP uses secção for both senses.Another major set of differences is the BP usage of ô or ê in many words where EP has ó or é, such as BP neurônio /EP neurónio ("neuron") and BP arsênico / EP arsénico ("arsenic"). These spelling differences are due to genuinelydifferent pronunciations. In EP, the vowels e and o may be open (é or ó) or closed (ê or ô) when they are stressedbefore one of the nasal consonants m, n followed by a vowel, but in BP they are always closed in this environment.The variant spellings are necessary in those cases because the general Portuguese spelling rules mandate a stressdiacritic in those words, and the Portuguese diacritics also encode vowel quality.Another source of variation is the spelling of the [ʒ] sound before e and i. By Portuguese spelling rules, that soundcan be written either as j (favored in BP for certain words) or g (favored in EP). Thus, for example, we have BPberinjela / EP beringela ("eggplant").

Formal versus informal registersThe linguistic situation of the BP informal speech in relation to the standard language is controversial. There areauthors who describe it as a case of diglossia, considering that informal BP has developed  – both in phonetics andgrammar  – in its own way and now constitutes a different, albeit quite similar, language, which would explain theunease that many Brazilians have when learning standard Portuguese. According to them, while diglossia inevitablydevelops in every literate society, it is much more striking in Brazil than in English or in European Portuguese.According to that theory, the formal register of Brazilian Portuguese has a written and spoken form. The writtenformal register (FW) is used in almost all printed media and written communication, is uniform throughout thecountry, and is the "Portuguese" officially taught at school. The spoken formal register (FS) is basically a phoneticrendering of the written form; it is used only in very formal situations like speeches or ceremonies, by educatedpeople who wish to stress their education, or when reading directly out of a text. While FS is necessarily uniform inlexicon and grammar, it shows noticeable regional variations in pronunciation. Finally the informal register (IS) isalmost never written down (basically only in artistic works or very informal contexts such as adolescent chat rooms).It is used to some extent in virtually all oral communication outside of those formal contexts – even by well educatedspeakers – and shows considerable regional variations in pronunciation, lexicon, and even grammar.However, the theory of diglossia in BP finds many oppositions, since diglossia does not mean simply the coexistence of different varieties or "registers" of the language  – formal and informal – . It means, in fact, the situation in which there are two (often related) languages: a formal one and an informal one, which is the spoken tongue. Opposers of that theory argue that the various aspects that separate the informal register and the formal one in Brazil cannot be

Brazilian Portuguese 5

compared with the numerous differences of standard Italian or German and their national dialects. Besides, therelatively "simplified" grammar of BP  – actually, many different levels of informal BP with distinct alterations ingrammar and pronunciation  – would be a reflex of the formation of informal speeches, which happens in everylanguage in the world.The discussion remains whether informal BP has enough differences in order to be actually considered alow-prestige language, spoken by the Brazilian people, who, therefore, must learn a language that is not their own,the Portuguese language. Thus, opposing to that theory, many arguments have been used:1. even in the most informal and low-prestige varieties of BP, almost the entirety of the lexicon is Portuguese, with

few differences of pronunciation in comparison to the standard BP, especially in what refers to the basicvocabulary;

2. there are several different aspects in the grammar, but many authors argue they are very minor (besides, some ofthose differences also arose during the recent development of European Portuguese);

3. the fact that the informal vocabulary is much smaller than the formal one happens in every literate language, so itcannot be used to prove the low-prestige variety constitutes another language in a typical situation of diglossia;

4. the preference for another form that is also considered correct by the standard/classical grammar also does notjustify the existence of diglossia (e.g. preferred compound tense vai faltar and faltará – "will lack" – are bothstandard BP; the common expression ter que is standard and equivalent to the verb dever);

5. the phonetic aspects of the informal language are mostly a matter of preference or accent, since the standardlanguage, in general, accepts most of them (for example, the devoicing of final r, which is accepted by standardBP, as well as the common contraction of words in Portuguese, such as para os becoming pros, as long as it is notwritten that way).

Characteristics of informal BPThe main and most general (i.e. not considering various regional variations) characteristics of the informal variant ofBP are the following (note that some of them may occur in EP, too):• nouns accompanied by plural articles or numerals appear in the singular form (dois menino ("two boy") instead of

dois meninos ("two boys"), as mulher ("the woman") instead of as mulheres ("the women")); (Not in EP)• dropping the first syllable of the verb estar ("to be") throughout the conjugation (ele tá ("he's") instead of ele está

("he is"), nós táva(mos/mo) ("we were") instead of nós estávamos ("we were")); (Exactly the same in EP)• dropping prepositions before subordinate and relative clauses beginning with conjunctions (Ele precisa que vocês

ajudem instead of Ele precisa de que vocês ajudem); (Exactly the same in EP)• replacing haver when it means "to exist" with ter ("to have"): há muitos problemas na cidade ("there are many

problems in the city") can be heard, but is much rarer than tem muitos problema(s) na cidade• lack of third-person object pronouns, which may be omitted completely or replaced by their respective personal

pronouns (eu vi ele or even just eu vi instead of eu o vi for "I saw him/it") (may occur in EP as well)• lack of second-person verb forms (except for a few parts of Brazil) and, in various regions, plural third-person

forms as well (mostly lower-class speakers) (tu cantas becomes tu canta or você canta; eles comeram may or notbecome eles comeu (Brazilian uses the pronoum "você" a lot but rarely uses "tu")

• lack of the relative pronoun cujo/cuja ("whose"), which is replaced by que ("that/which"), either alone (thepossession being implied) or along with a possessive pronoun or expression, such as dele/dela (A mulher cujofilho morreu ("the woman whose son died") becomes A mulher que o filho [dela] morreu ("the woman that [her]son died"))

• frequent use of the pronoun a gente ("the people") with 3rd p. sg verb forms instead of the 1st p. pl verb formsand pronoun nós ("we/us"), though both are formally correct and nós is still much used (uneducated speakers maycontaminate the two forms, e.g. say a gente fazemos instead of a gente faz); (Occurs in EP as well)

Brazilian Portuguese 6

• obligatory proclisis in all cases (always me disseram, rarely disseram-me), as well as use of the pronoun amidsttwo verbs in a verbal expression (always vem me treinando, never me vem treinando or vem treinando-me)

• contracting certain high-frequency phrases, which is not necessarily unacceptable in standard BP and is oftenrestricted to certain regions or circumstances (para > pra; vamos em boa hora > vamos embora > bora (only inthe northeast); em vocês, para vocês > n'ocês, p'r'ocês; dependo de ele ajudar > dependo d'ele ajudar; com as >c'as ; deixa eu ver > 'x'o vê; você está > cê tá etc.)

• preference for para over a in the directional meaning (Você vai para onde? instead of Aonde você vai? ("Whereare you going?"))

• use of certain idiomatic expressions, such as Cadê o carro? instead of Onde está o carro? ("Where is the car?")• lack of indirect object pronouns, especially lhe, which are replaced by para plus their respective personal pronoun

(Dê um copo de agua para ele instead of Dê-lhe um copo de agua ("Give him a glass of water"); Quero mandaruma carta para você instead of Quero te mandar uma carta ("I want to give you a letter"))

• use of dele and dela instead of seu when it means "his" or "her" (o marido dela instead of o seu marido ("herhusband"))

• replacement of first-person plural verb forms for third-person singular (nós vamos > nói vai ; nós fomos > nói foi)• use of aí as a pronoun for indefinite direct objects (similar to French 'en'). Examples: falaí (fala + aí) ("say it"),

esconde aí ("hide it"), 'per aí (espere aí = "wait a moment").• impersonal use of the verb dar ("to give") to express that something is feasible or permissible. Example: dá pra

eu comer? ("can/may I eat it?", literally "does-it-give so-that I to-eat?") ; deu pra eu entender ("I was able tounderstand", literally "it-gave so-that I to-understand")

LexiconThe vocabularies of Brazilian and European Portuguese also differ in a couple of thousand words, many of whichrefer to concepts that were introduced separately in BP and EP.Since Brazilian independence in 1822, BP has tended to borrow words from English and French. However, BPgenerally adopts foreign words with minimal adjustments, while EP tends to apply deeper morphological changes.However, there are instances of BP adapting English words, whereas EP retains the original form – hence estoqueand stock. Finally, one dialect often borrowed a word while the other coined a new one from native elements. So onehas, for example

BP mouse ← English "(computer) mouse" versus EP rato ← literal translation of "mouse" in Portuguese (inEP, the word "mouse" is also commonly used)BP esporte (alternatives: desporto, desporte) ← English "sport" versus EP desporto ← Spanish deporte

BP jaqueta ← English "jacket" versus EP blusão ← EP blusa ← French blouse (also used in BP)BP concreto ← English "concrete" versus EP betão ← French beton (in BP, a concrete truck is still called"betoneira")BP grampeador ("stapler") ← grapadora ← Spanish Krampe versus EP agrafador ← agrafo ← Frenchagrafe.

A few other examples are given in the following table:

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Brazil Portugal English

abridor de latas abre-latas can opener

aeromoça, comissária de bordo aeromoça, hospedeira flight stewardess

água-viva, medusa alforreca jellyfish

AIDS SIDA (Síndrome da ImunodeficiênciaAdquirida)

AIDS

alho poró alho-porro leek

aquarela aguarela watercolor

amerissagem amaragem landing on the sea, splash-down

aterrissagem aterragem landing

Band-Aid penso rápido band-aid (US), plaster (UK)

banheiro, toalete, toilettes, sanitário casa de banho, lavabos, sanitários bathroom, toilet

bonde, bonde elétrico eléctrico streetcar (US), tram (UK)

brócolis brócolos broccoli

cílio (Classical Latin "cilium"), pestana, celha pestana eyelash

café da manhã, desjejum, parva pequeno almoço, desjejum breakfast

caminhonete, van, perua (informal) camioneta station wagon (US), estate car(UK)

câncer cancro cancer (the disease)

carona boleia ride, hitchhiking

carteira de habilitação, carteira de motorista, carta carta de condução driver's license (US), drivinglicence (UK)

carteira de identidade, RG (from "Registro Geral") bilhete de identidade ID card

telefone celular (or simply and most common "celular"), aparelhode telefonia celular

telemóvel cell phone (US), mobile phone(UK)

canadense canadiano Canadian

caqui (from Japanese 柿 kaki) dióspiro persimmon

dublagem dobragem dubbing

durex, fita adesiva fita gomada, fita-cola, fita adesiva Scotch Tape (US), Sellotape (UK)

time, equipe equipa, equipe team

estação de trem gare, estação train station

estrada de ferro, ferrovia caminho de ferro, ferrovia railway

favela bairro de lata slum, shanty-town

fila bicha, fila line (US), queue (UK)

fones de ouvido auscultadores, auriculares headphones

freio, breque travão, freio brake

gol golo goal (in sports)

grama, relva relva grass (lawn)

Irã Irão Iran

Islã Islão Islam

Brazilian Portuguese 8

israelense, israelita israelita Israeli

maiô, maillot fato de banho woman's swimsuit

mamadeira biberão, biberon baby bottle

metrô metro, metropolitano underground railway, metropolitanrailway

Moscou Moscovo Moscow

ônibus autocarro bus

polonês, polaco polaco Polish

rúgbi, rugby râguebi, rugby rugby

secretária eletrônica atendedor de chamadas (telephone) answering machine

sutiã, soutien, soutien-gorge soutien, sutiã bra

tcheco, checo checo Czech

tela ecrã screen

trem, composição ferroviária comboio train

Vietnã Vietname Vietnam

fóton fotão photon

Some of the words shown in only one column (like comboio, atendedor de chamadas, and mamadeira) do exist inthe other dialect, but are rarely used.

Grammar

Syntactic and morphological features

Topic-prominent language

Modern linguistic studies have shown that Brazilian Portuguese is a topic-prominent or topic- and subject-prominentlanguage.[10] Sentences with topic are extensively used in Brazilian Portuguese, most often by means of an externalcomment that could have been included as an element (object or verb) of the sentence (topicalization), thusemphasizing it, e.g. in Esses assuntos eu não conheço bem – literally, "These subjects I don't know [them] well".[11]

The anticipation of the verb or object in the beginning of the phrase, repeating them or using the respective pronounreferring to it, is also quite common, e.g. in Essa menina, eu não sei o que fazer com ela ("This girl, I don't knowwhat to do with her") or Com essa menina eu não sei o que fazer. (With this girl I don't know what to do).[12]

Progressive

Portuguese makes extensive use of verbs in the progressive aspect, almost as in English.BP seldom has the present continuous construct estar a + infinitive, which, in contrast, has become quite common inEP in the last centuries. BP maintains the Classical Portuguese form of continuous expression, which is made byestar + gerund.Thus Brazilians will always write ela está dançando ("she is dancing"), seldom ela está a dançar. The samerestriction applies to several other uses of the gerund: BP uses ficamos conversando ("we kept on talking") and eletrabalha cantando ("he sings while he works"), but rarely ficamos a conversar and ele trabalha a cantar as is thecase in most varieties of EP.BP retains the combination a + infinitive for uses that are not related to continued action, such as voltamos a correr ("we went back to running"), and that some dialects of EP (namely from Alentejo, Algarve, Açores(Azores),

Brazilian Portuguese 9

Madeira) will also tend to use estar + gerund in the same way as Brazilians.

Ter instead of haver

In a few compound verb tenses, BP in general uses the auxiliary ter (originally "to hold", "to own"), where EP wouldnormally use haver ("to have, shall / will"). However, both forms are correct according to the prescribed grammar.Thus, ele tinha feito and ele havia feito (compound pluperfect "he had done") are interchangeable, and, in fact, thelater form is still used in BP, even if quite rarely.In particular, the EP construction há de cantar ("he will sing" or "he shall sing") is almost unheard in BP, except,sometimes, in the sense of swearing or promising (e.g. Eu hei de fazer esse negócio funcionar). BP also uses ter inexistential sense, whereas EP would use haver, hence "there is no money" will be both "não tem dinheiro" and "nãohá dinheiro".

Personal pronouns

Syntax

In general, the dialects that gave birth to Portuguese had a quite flexible use of the object pronouns in the proclitic orenclitic positions. In Classical Portuguese, the use of proclisis was very extensive, while, on the contrary, in modernEuropean Portuguese the use of enclisis has become indisputably majoritary.Brazilians normally place the object pronoun before the verb (proclitic position), as in ele me viu ("he saw me"). Inmany such cases, the proclisis would be considered awkward or even grammatically incorrect in EP, in which thepronoun is generally placed after the verb (enclitic position), namely ele viu-me. However, formal BP still followsEP in avoiding starting a sentence with a proclitic pronoun; so both will write Deram-lhe o livro ("They gavehim/her the book") instead of Lhe deram o livro., though it will seldom be spoken in BP (but would be clearlyunderstood).However, in verb expressions accompanied by an object pronoun, Brazilians normally place it amid the auxiliaryverb and the main one (ela vem me pagando but not ela me vem pagando or ela vem pagando-me). In some cases, inorder to adapt this use to the standard grammar, Brazilian scholars recommend that ela vem me pagando should bewritten like ela vem-me pagando (as in EP), in which case the enclisis could be totally acceptable if there would notbe a factor of proclisis. Therefore, this phenomenon may or not be considered improper according to the prescribedgrammar, since, according to the case, there could be a factor of proclisis that would not permit the placement of thepronoun between the verbs (e.g. when there is a negative adverb near the pronoun, in which case the standardgrammar prescribes proclisis, ela não me vem pagando and not ela não vem-me pagando).

Contracted forms

Even in the most formal contexts, BP never uses the contracted combinations of direct and indirect object pronounswhich are sometimes used in EP, such as me + o = mo, lhe + as = lhas. Instead, the indirect clitic is replaced bypreposition + strong pronoun: thus BP writes ela o deu para mim ("she gave it to me") instead of EP ela deu-mo; thelatter most probably will not be understood by Brazilians, being obsolete in BP.

Mesoclisis

The mesoclitic placement of pronouns (between the verb stem and its inflection suffix) is viewed as archaic in BP,and therefore is restricted to very formal situations or stylistic texts. Hence the phrase Eu dar-lhe-ia, still current inEP, would be normally written Eu lhe daria in BP. Incidentally, a marked fondness for enclitic and mesocliticpronouns was one of the many memorable eccentricities of former Brazilian President Jânio Quadros, as in hisfamous quote Bebo-o porque é líquido, se fosse sólido comê-lo-ia ("I drink it [liquor] because it is liquid, if it weresolid I would eat it")

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PreferencesThere are many differences between formal written BP and EP that are simply a matter of different preferencesbetween two alternative words or constructions that are both officially valid and acceptable.

Simple versus compound tenses

A few synthetic tenses are usually replaced by compound tenses, such as in:future indicative: eu cantarei (simple), eu vou cantar (compound, "ir"+infinitive)conditional: eu cantaria (simple), eu iria/ia cantar (compound, "ir"+infinitive)past perfect: eu cantara (simple), eu tinha cantado (compound, "ter"+past participle)"

Also, spoken BP usually uses the verb ter ("own", "have", sense of possession) and rarely haver ("have", sense ofexistence, or "there to be"), especially as an auxiliary (as it can be seen above) and as a verb of existence.

written: ele havia/tinha cantado (he had sung)spoken: ele tinha cantado

written: ele podia haver/ter dito (he might have said)spoken: ele podia ter dito

BP/EP differences in the formal spoken language

PhonologyIn many ways, compared to European Portuguese (EP), Brazilian Portuguese (BP) is conservative in its phonology.This also occurs in Angolan Portuguese, São Tomean Portuguese, and other African dialects. Brazilian Portuguese isa phonetically rich language, with 8 vowels, 5 nasal vowels, with several diphthongs, and triphthongs. BrazilianPortuguese is also considerably more nasal than European Portuguese due to Tupi influence.

Vowels

The reduction of vowels is one of the main phonetic characteristics of the Portuguese language, but the intensity andfrequency with which that phenomenon happens varies significantly between Brazilian Portuguese and EuropeanPortuguese.Brazilians generally pronounce vowels more openly than Europeans even when reducing them. In the syllables thatfollow the stressed one, BP generally pronounces o as [u], a as [ɐ], and e as [i]. Some dialects of BP also followthese rules for vowels before the stressed syllable.In contrast, EP pronounces unstressed a primarily as [ɐ], elides some unstressed vowels or reduces them to a veryshort, near central unrounded vowel [ɨ], a sound that does not exist in BP. Thus, for example, the word setembro is[seˈtẽbɾu]/[sɛˈtẽbɾʊ] in BP but [s(ɨ)ˈtẽbɾu] in EP.The main difference among the dialects of Brazilian Portuguese is the frequent presence or not of open vowels inunstressed syllables. In general, the Southern and Southeastern dialects would always pronounce e and o  – whenthey are not reduced to [i] and [u]  – as closed vowels [e] and [o] if they are not stressed, in which case thepronunciation will depend on the word. Thus, 'operação' (operation) and 'rebolar' (to shake one's body) may bepronounced [opeɾaˈsɐ̃ʊ̃] and [heboˈla].However, in the Northeastern and Northern accents, there are many complex rules that still have not been muchstudied which lead to the open pronunciation of e and o in a huge number of words. Thus, on the contrary of theother dialects, the open vowels [ɛ] and [ɔ] are not exclusively used in stressed syllables. Thus, the previous exampleswould be pronounced differently: [ɔpɛɾaˈsɐ̃ʊ̃] and [hɛbɔˈla].

Brazilian Portuguese 11

Another noticeable, if minor, difference between Northern-Northeastern dialects and Southern-Southeastern ones isthe frequency of nasalization of vowels before m and n: in the former, the vowels are nasalized in virtually all thecases, no matter if they are stressed or unstressed; on the other hand, in the latter dialects, the vowels may remainnon-nasalized if they are unstressed. A famous example of this distinction is the pronunciation of banana: aNortheastern BP speaker would speak [bɐ̃ˈnɐ̃nɐ], while a Southern one would speak [baˈnɐ̃nɐ].

Consonants

Palatalization of /di/ and /ti/

One of the most noticeable tendencies of modern BP is the palatalization of /d/ and /t/ by most regions, which arepronounced [dʒ] and [tʃ] (or [dᶾ] and [tᶴ]), respectively, before /i/. The word presidente "president", for example, ispronounced [pɾeziˈdẽtᶴi] in these regions of Brazil, but [pɾɨziˈdẽt(ɨ)] in Portugal. This pronunciation probably beganin Rio de Janeiro and is often still associated with this city, but is now standard in many other states and major cities,such as Belo Horizonte and Salvador, and has spread more recently to some regions of São Paulo (due to themigrants from other regions), where it is common in most speakers under 40 or so. It has always been standardamong Brazil's Japanese community, since this is also a feature of Japanese. The regions that still preserve thenon-palatalized [ti] are mostly in the Northeast and South of Brazil, due to stronger influence from EuropeanPortuguese (Northeast), and from Italian and Argentine Spanish (South).

Epenthesis in consonant clusters

BP tends to break up clusters where the first consonant is not /r/, /l/, or /s/ by the insertion of the epenthetic vowel /i/,which can also be characterized, in some situations, as a schwa.[13] This phenomenon happens mostly in pretonicposition and with the consonant clusters ks, ps, bj, dj, dv, kt, bt, ft, mn, tm and dm, i.e. clusters that are not verycommon in the Portuguese language ("afta": [ˈaftɐ] > [ˈafitɐ]; "opção" : [ɔpˈsɐ̃ʊ̃] > [ɔpiˈsɐ̃ʊ̃]).However, in some regions of Brazil (such as some Northeastern dialects), there has been an opposite tendency tofurther reduce the unstressed vowel [i] into a very weak vowel, resulting that partes or destratar are often realizedsimilarly to [pahts] and [dʃtɾaˈta]. Sometimes that phenomenon occurs even more intensely in unstressed post-tonicvowels (except the final ones), causing the reduction of the word and the creation of new consonant clusters (prática> prát'ca; máquina > maq'na; abóbora > abobra; cócega > cosca).[14]

L-vocalization and suppression of final "r"

Syllable-final /l/ is pronounced [u̯], and syllable-final [r] is weakened in most regions to [χ] or [h] or dropped(especially at the ends of words). This sometimes results in rather striking transformations of common words. Thebrand name "McDonald's", for example, is rendered [mɛ̝kiˈdõnawdᶾis], and the word "rock" is rendered as [ˈhɔki].(Initial /r/ and doubled 'r' are pronounced in BP as [h], as with syllable-final [r].) Combined with the fact that /n/ and/m/ are already disallowed at the end of syllables in Portuguese (being replaced with nasalization on the previousvowel), this makes BP have a phonology that strongly favors open syllables.Another remarkable aspect of BP is the suppression of final "r" even in formal speech. The final "r" may still bepronounced  – in most of Brazil as [χ] or [h]  – , in formal situations, at the end of a phrase, but almost never in acoda with other words (in which case the pronunciation would be [ɾ])). Thus, verbs like matar and correr arenormally pronounced [maˈta] and [koˈhe]. However, the same suppression also happens in EP, albeit with much lessfrequency than in BP.[15]

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Nasalization

Nasalization is much stronger in BP than EP. This is especially noticeable in vowels before /n/ or /m/ followed by avowel, which are pronounced in BP with nasalization as strong as in phonemically nasalized vowels, while in EPthey are nearly without nasalization. For the same reason, open vowels (which are disallowed under nasalization inPortuguese in general) cannot occur before /n/ or /m/ in BP, but can in EP. This sometimes affects the spelling ofwords. For example, EP, harmónico "harmonic" [ɐɾˈmɔniku] is BP harmônico [aɦˈmõniku]. It also can affect verbalparadigms – for example, EP distinguishes falamos "we speak" [fɐˈlɐmuʃ] from 'falámos' [fɐˈlamuʃ] "we spoke", butBP has falamos [faˈlɐ̃mus] for both.An important exception to this is the country's largest city, São Paulo, where, perhaps due to the influence of Italianimmigrants, nasalization of stressed vowels before a nasal consonant does not occur. Thus, the word homens 'men' ispronounced with an oral, non-nasal vowel /o/ in São Paulo, as opposed to the nasal /o/ to be heard in the rest ofBrazil.[16] This is relevant since São Paulo is a major media hub, and this open pronunciation is thus used onnationally-broadcast television shows.Related to this is the difference in pronunciation of the consonant represented by nh in many BP dialects. This isalways [ɲ] in EP, but in several parts of Brazil, it represents a nasalized semivowel [j̃], which nasalizes the precedingvowel, as well.[17] Example: manhãzinha [mɐ̃j̃ɐ̃zĩj̃ɐ] ("early morning").

Phonetic changes

BP did not participate in many sound changes that later affected EP, particularly in the realm of consonants. In BP,/b/, /d/, and /ɡ/ are stops in all positions, while they are weakened to fricatives [β], [ð], and [ɣ] in EP. Many dialectsof BP maintain syllable-final [s] and [z] as such, while EP consistently converts them to [ʃ] and [ʒ]. Whether such achange happens in BP is highly dialect-specific. Rio de Janeiro is particularly known for such a pronunciation; SãoPaulo and most Southern dialects are particularly known for not having it. Elsewhere, such as in the Northeast, it ismore likely to happen before a consonant than word-finally, and it varies from region to region: some dialects (suchas in Pernambuco) have the same pattern as Rio de Janeiro; and in several other dialects (such as in Ceará), thefricatives replace [s] and [z] only before the consonants /t/ and /d/. Another change in EP that does not occur in BP isthe lowering of /e/ to [ɐ] before palatal sounds ([ʃ], [ʒ], [ɲ] [ʎ] and [j]) and in the diphthong em /ẽĩ/, which mergeswith the diphthong ãe /ɐ̃ĩ/ in EP but not in BP.There are many dialect-specific phonetic aspects in BP, which can be essential characteristics of a dialect or anotherin Brazil. For example, the cearense dialect is notorious for changing [v] into [h] in rapid speech (vamos [vɐ̃mʊ],"let's go", becomes [hɐ̃mʊ]); the caipira dialect changes pre-consonantal "r" into [ɹ]; several dialects reduce thediminutive suffix inho to im (carrinho, "little car" – [kaˈhĩȷ̃ʊ] > [kaˈhĩ]) and several dialects nasalise the /d/ in thegerund form, such as: "cantando" [kɐ̃ˈtɐ̃dʊ] > [kɐ̃ˈtɐ̃nʊ]. Another common change that, in many cases, makes thedifference between two region's dialects is the palatalization of /n/ followed by the vowel /i/. Thus, there are twoslightly distinct pronunciations of the word menina, "girl": with palatalized ni [miˈnʲinɐ], and without palatalization[miˈninɐ].An interesting change that is in the process of spreading in BP, perhaps originating in the Northeast, is the insertionof [j] after stressed vowels before /s/ at the end of a syllable. This began in the context of /a/  – for example, mas"but" is now pronounced [majs] in most of Brazil, making it homophonous with mais "more". Additionally, thischange is spreading to other final vowels, and at least in the Northeast the normal pronunciations of voz "voice" andJesus are [vɔjs] and [ʒeˈzujs]. Similarly, três "three" becomes [tɾejs], making it rhyme with seis "six" [sejs]; this mayexplain the common Brazilian replacement of seis with meia ("half", as in "half a dozen") when spelling out phonenumbers.[18]

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BP/EP differences in the informal spoken languageThere are various differences between European and Brazilian Portuguese, such as the dropping of the second personconjugations (and, in some dialects, of the 2nd person pronoun itself) in everyday usage and use of subject pronouns(ele, ela, eles, elas) as direct objects. Portuguese people can understand Brazilian Portuguese well. However, someBrazilians find European Portuguese difficult to understand at first. This is mainly because European Portuguesetends to compress words to a greater extent than in Brazil – for example, tending to drop unstressed /e/ – and tointroduce greater allophonic modifications of various sounds. Another reason is that Brazilians have almost nocontact with the European variant, while Portuguese are used to watching Brazilian television programs and listeningto Brazilian music.

GrammarSpoken Brazilian usage differs considerably from European usage in many aspects. Between Brazilian Portuguese,particularly in its most informal varieties, and European Portuguese, there can be considerable differences ingrammar as well. The most prominent ones concern the placement of clitic pronouns and use of subject pronouns asobjects in the third person. Nonstandard inflections are also common in colloquial Brazilian Portuguese.

Affirmation and negation

Spoken Portuguese rarely uses the affirmation adverb sim ("yes") in informal speech. The verb in question isgenerally preferred.:EP:

— Já foste à câmara municipal?

— Já, fui ontem.

— Foste à câmara municipal?

— Fui (, fui ontem).

:BP:

— Você foi na/à/pra prefeitura? (Mineiro/Capixaba/Paulista variant)— Fui.

or— Tu foi na/à/pra prefeitura? (Rio de Janeiro variant)— Fui.

or— Tu fosse na/à/pra prefeitura? (Northeastern variant)— Fui.

or— Tu foste na/à/pra prefeitura? (Southern variant)— Fui.

Translation

"Have you gone to the City Hall yet?""Yes, I went there yesterday."

In BP, it is very common to include the verbal form não é (contracted in informal speech to né) at the end ofquestions as a sort of emphasis (like in English "He is a teacher, isn't he?"). Thus, the affirmation is often made bysimply saying "é" in response to that kind of question. Examples:

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— Ele não fez o que devia, né? (He didn't do what he should, did he?)— É. (He didn't.)or— Ela já foi atriz, né? (She was an actress, wasn't she?)— É. (She was.) or – É/Sim, ela já foi. (If a longer answer is preferred)It reveals a natural tendency that only occurs in Brazilian Portuguese, to not reply an answer to the question itself,literally, but many times already focused on what the speaker has intended to know through the question.It is also common to negate statements twice for emphasis, with não (no) at the beginning and end of the sentence::BP:

— Você fala inglês?

— Não falo, não.

"Do you speak English?""I don't speak [it], no."

Or only::BP:

— Você fala inglês?

— Não.

"Do you speak English?""No."

Sometimes even a "triple" negative is also possible. For example:— Você fala inglês?

— Não. Não falo, não

"Do you speak English?""No. I don't speak it, no."

In some regions, the first "não" of a "não...não" pair is pronounced [nũ].In some places, however, like Northeastern Brazil, the first of these two não's is considered redundant informalspeech, resulting in a word order for negation opposite to the one still prevailing in European Portuguese::EP:

— Você fala inglês?

— Não falo. (I don't speak):BP (Northeastern variant):

— Você fala inglês?

— Falo não. (I speak not)Translation

"Do you speak English?""No, I don't."

Brazilian Portuguese 15

Imperative

Standard Portuguese forms commands according to the grammatical person of the subject (the being who is orderedto do the action) using either the imperative form of the verb or the present subjunctive. Thus one should usedifferent inflections according to the pronoun used as subject: tu ('you', grammatical 2nd person with the imperativeform) or você ('you', grammatical 3rd person with the present subjunctive). For example:

Tu és burro, cala a boca!

Você é burro, cale a boca!

"You are stupid, shut up!"Currently, several dialects of BP have largely lost the second person pronouns, but even those dialects – and, ofcourse, the ones which still use tu – use the second person imperative in addition to the third person presentsubjunctive form that should be used with você:

BP: Você é burro, cale a boca! OR

BP: Você é burro, cala a boca!

It is interesting to notice that, although Brazilians use the second-person imperative forms even when referring tovocê and not tu, in the case of the verb ser 'to be (permanently)' and estar 'to be (temporarily)', the 2nd personimperative sê and está are almost never used, while the 3rd person subjunctive forms seja and esteja are completelydominant.The negative command forms use the subjunctive present tense forms of the verb. However, as for the second personforms, Brazilians rarely use the subjunctive-derived ones. Instead, they employ the imperative forms.As for the other grammatical persons, there is not such phenomenon, because both the Positive Imperative and theNegative Imperative forms derive from their respective present tense forms in the subjunctive mood. Examples: Nãojogue papel na grama (Don't throw paper on the grass); Não fume (Don't smoke).

Deictics

EP demonstrative adjectives and pronouns and their corresponding adverbs have three forms corresponding todifferent degrees of proximity.

Este 'this (one)' [near the speaker]Esse 'that (one)' [near the addressee]Aquele 'that (one)' [away from speaker and addressee]

In spoken BP, the first two of these adjectives/pronouns have merged into the second:Esse 'this (one)' [near the speaker] / 'that (one)' [near the addressee]Aquele 'that (one)' [away from both]

Example:Esta é a minha camisola nova. (EP)Essa é minha camiseta nova. (BP)This is my new T-shirt.

Perhaps as a means of avoiding or clarifying some doubts created by the fact that "este" ([st] > [s]) and "esse"merged into the same word, informal BP often uses the demonstrative pronoun with some adverb that indicates itsplacement in relation to the addressee. For example: if there are two skirts in a room and one says Pega essa saiapara mim (Take this skirt for me), there may be some doubt about which of them must be taken, so one may sayPega essa aí (Take this one there near you") in the original sense of the use of "essa", or Pega essa saia aqui (Takethis one here).

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Personal pronouns and possessives

Tu and você

In many dialects of BP, você (formal "you" in EP) replaces tu (informal "you" in EP). The object pronoun, however,is still te ([tʃi] or [ti]). Besides, other forms such as teu (possessive), ti (postprepositional), and contigo ("with you")are still common in most regions of Brazil, especially where tu still has frequent usage.Hence, the combination of object te with subject você in informal BP, for example: eu te disse para você ir (I toldyou that you should go). However, in all the country, the imperative forms may also be the same as the formalsecond-person forms, although it is argued by some that it is the third-person singular indicative which doubles asthe imperative, e.g. Fala o que você fez instead of Fale o que você fez ("Tell what you did").In the areas where você largely replaced tu, the forms ti/te and contigo may be replaced by você and com você.Therefore, either você (following the verb) or te (preceding the verb) can be used as object pronoun in informal BP.Hence a speaker may end up saying "I love you" in two ways: Eu amo você and/or Eu te amo. In parts of theNortheast, it is also common to use the indirect object pronoun lhe as a second-person object pronoun, thus resultingEu lhe amo.In parts of the South (Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina and southwest of Paraná), most of the Northeast (the mainexceptions are parts of Bahia – primarily its capital: Salvador) and the city of Santos (in São Paulo) andneighbourings the distinction between semiformal ‘você' and familiar ’tu' is still maintained; object and possessivepronouns pattern likewise. In Paraná state capital, Curitiba, there’s a slight different variety, 'tu' is not generallyused.[19] Curitiba’s accent is slightly different too.In Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina, for instance, você is almost never used in spoken language – o senhor/asenhora (highly formal third person pronoun) is employed whenever tu may sound too informal. The same happensin most of the Northeast, albeit in a less strict way (você may also be used informally, though mostly in order tosound more serious or polite).In Rio de Janeiro and minor parts of the Northeast (interior of some states and some speakers from the coast), both tuand você (and associated object and possessive pronouns) are used interchangeably with little to no difference(sometimes in the same sentence).[20] In Salvador, tu is never used, você is always used.Most Brazilians who use tu use it with the 3rd person verb: Tu vai ao banco. "Tu" accompanied by thesecond-person verb can still be found in Maranhão, Pernambuco, Piauí and Santa Catarina, for instance, and in a fewcities in Rio Grande do Sul (although in the rest of the state speakers may or may not use it in more formal talk),mainly near the border with Uruguay, with a slightly different pronunciation in some conjugations (tu vieste becomestu viesse), which is also present in Santa Catarina and Pernambuco. In Pará, tu is used more often than você and isalways accompanied by the second-person.In Brazil’s biggest city, São Paulo, the use of “tu” in print and conversation nowadays is not very common; “você” isused instead. However, it should be noted that São Paulo is now home to many imigrants of Northeastern origin,who may employ "tu" quite often in their everyday speech. Você is predominant in most of the Southeastern andCenter Western regions: Você is almost entirely prevalent in the states of Minas Gerais (apart from portions of thecountryside, such as the region of São João da Ponte, where "tu" is also present[21] ) and Espírito Santo, but “tu” isfrequent in Santos and all coastal region of São Paulo state as well as some cities in the countryside.In most of Brazil "você" is often reduced to even more contracted forms, resulting ocê (mostly in the caipira dialect)and, especially, cê.

Brazilian Portuguese 17

Third-person direct object pronouns

In spoken informal registers of BP, the third-person object pronouns 'o', 'a', 'os', and 'as', common in EP, are virtuallynonexistent – they are simply left out, or (when necessary, and usually only when referring to people) replaced bystressed subject pronouns (e.g., ele "he" or isso "that"); for example, Eu vi ele "I saw him" rather than Eu o vi.

seu and dele

When você is strictly a second-person pronoun, the use of possessive seu/sua may turn some phrases quiteambiguous, since one wouldn't know whether seu/sua refers to the second person você or to the third person ele/ela.Because of that, standard BP tends to use the third-person possessive 'seu' to mean "your" – given that você is athird-person pronoun – and uses 'dele', 'dela', 'deles', and 'delas' ("of him/her/them" and placed after the noun) asthird-person possessive forms. However, in situations where no ambiguity may arise (especially in narrative texts),seu is also used to mean 'his' or 'her' (e.g. O candidato apresentou ontem o seu plano de governo para os próximosquatro anos).Both forms ('seu' or 'dele(s) /dela(s)') are considered grammatically correct in EP and BP.

Definite article before a possessive

In Portuguese, one may or may not include the definite article before a possessive pronoun (meu livro or o meu livro,for instance). The variants of use in each dialect of Portuguese are mostly a matter of preference, i.e. it does notmean a dialect completely abandoned this or that form.In EP, a definite article normally accompanies a possessive when it comes before a noun: este é o meu gato 'this ismy cat'. In Southeastern BP, especially in the standard dialects of the cities of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, thedefinite article is normally used as in Portugal, but many speakers do not use it at the beginning of the sentence or intitles: Minha novela, Meu tio matou um cara etc. In Northeastern BP dialects and in Central and Northern parts ofthe state of Rio de Janeiro, (starting from Niterói), rural parts of Minas Gerais, and all over Espírito Santo state,speakers tend to drop the definite article, but there is nothing such as a total preference for this form instead of theother, making both esse é o meu gato and esse é meu gato likely in their speech.Formal written Brazilian Portuguese tends, however, to omit the definite article in accordance with prescriptivegrammar rules derived from Classical Portuguese, even though the alternative form is also considered correct, butmany professors consider it inelegant.

Syntax

Some of the examples on the right side of the table below are colloquial or regional in Brazil. Literal translations areprovided, to illustrate how the word order changes between varieties.

European Portuguese Brazilian Portuguese(formal)

Brazilian Portuguese(colloquial)

placement ofcliticpronouns

Eu amo-te. "I love you/thee." Eu te amo. "I you/thee love."

Responde-me! (tu) Responda-me!(você)

"Answer me!" (you)

Responda-me! (você) "Answer me!"(you)

Me responde! (você)1 "To-me answer!"(you)

use ofpersonalpronouns

Eu vi-a. "I saw her." Eu a vi. "I her saw." Eu vi ela. "I saw she."

The word order in the first Brazilian example is actually frequent in European Portuguese, too, for example in subordinate clauses like Sabes que eu te amo "You know that I love you", but not in simple sentences like "I love you." But in Portugal an object pronoun would never be placed at the start of a sentence, like in the second example.

Brazilian Portuguese 18

The example in the bottom row of the table, with its deletion of "redundant" inflections, would be consideredungrammatical by most educated urban middle-class speakers of BP, but it is nonetheless widely heard in Brazil,especially in certain regional dialects like caipira and mineiro.In Latin the word order was very flexible, that's why "I love you" could be said Ego te amo, in a proclitic form, orEgo amo te, in an enclitic form. Latin also had the forms: Te amo, Amo te and Vos amo. Brazilian Portuguese Eu teamo is an example of proclisis just like French Je t'aime. Other forms are possible in Portuguese besides Eu te amoand Eu amo-te like: Te amo, Amo-te, Vos amo, Eu amo você and Amo você.

Use of prepositions

Just as in the case of English, where the various dialects sometimes use different prepositions with the same verbs ornouns (stand in/on line, in/on the street), BP usage sometimes requires prepositions that would not be normally usedin EP in the same context.

chamar de

The verb chamar 'call' is normally used with the preposition de in BP, especially when it means 'to describe someoneas':

Chamei ele de ladrão. (BP)Chamei-lhe ladrão. (EP)I called him a thief.

em with verbs of movement

When describing movement toward a place, EP uses the preposition a with the verb, while BP uses em (contractedwith an article if necessary):

Fui na praça. (BP)Fui à praça. (EP)I went to the square. [temporarily]

In both EP and BP, the preposition para can also be used with such verbs, though with a different meaning:Fui para a praça. (BP, EP)I went to the square. [definitively]

DiglossiaAccording to some contemporary Brazilian linguists (Bortoni, Kato, Mattos e Silva, Perini and most recently, withgreat impact, Bagno), Brazilian Portuguese may be a highly diglossic language. This theory claims that there is anL-variant (termed "Brazilian Vernacular"), which would be the mother tongue of all Brazilians, and an H-variant(standard Brazilian Portuguese) acquired through schooling. L-variant represents a simplified form of the language(in terms of grammar, but not of phonetics) that could have evolved from 16th century Portuguese, influenced byAmerindian (mostly Tupi) and African languages, while H-variant would be based on 19th century EuropeanPortuguese (and very similar to Standard European Portuguese, with only minor differences in spelling and grammarusage). Mário A. Perini, a Brazilian linguist, even compares the depth of the differences between L- and H- variantsof Brazilian Portuguese with those between Standard Spanish and Standard Portuguese. However, his proposal is notwidely accepted by either grammarians or academics. Milton M. Azevedo wrote a chapter on diglossia in hismonograph: Portuguese language (A linguistic introduction), published by Cambridge University Press in 2005.

Brazilian Portuguese 19

UsageFrom this point of view, the L-variant is the spoken form of Brazilian Portuguese, which should be avoided only invery formal speech (court interrogation, political debate) while the H-variant is the written form of BrazilianPortuguese, avoided only in informal writing (such as songs lyrics, love letters, intimate friends correspondence).Even language professors many times use the L-variant while explaining students the structure and usage of theH-variant; in essays, nevertheless, all students are expected to use H-variant.The L-variant may used in songs, movies, soap operas, sitcoms and other television shows, although, at times, theH-variant is used in historic films or soap operas to make the language used sound more ‘elegant’ and/or ‘archaic’.There is a claim that the H-variant used to be preferred when dubbing foreign films and series into BrazilianPortuguese , but nowadays the L-variant is preferred, although this seems to lack evidence. Movie subtitles normallyuse a mixture of L- and H-variants, but remain closer to the H-variant.Most literary works are written in the H-variant. There would have been attempts at writing in the L-variant (such asthe masterpiece Macunaíma, written by Brazilian modernist Mário de Andrade and Grande Sertão: Veredas, by JoãoGuimarães Rosa), but, presently, the L-variant is claimed to be used only in dialogue. Still, many contemporarywriters like using the H-variant even in informal dialogue. This is also true of translated books, which never use theL-variant, only the H one. Children's books seem to be more L-friendly, but, again, if they are translated fromanother language (The Little Prince, for instance) they will use the H-variant only.

PrestigeThis theory also posits that the matter of diglossia in Brazil is further complicated by forces of political and culturalbias, though those are not clearly named. Language is sometimes a tool of social exclusion or social choice.Mário A. Perini, a Brazilian linguist, has said:

"There are two languages in Brazil. The one we write (and which is called "Portuguese"), and another one thatwe speak (which is so despised that there is not a name to call it). The latter is the mother tongue of Brazilians,the former has to be learned in school, and a majority of population does not manage to master itappropriately.... Personally, I do not object to us writing Portuguese, but I think it is important to make clearthat Portuguese is (at least in Brazil) only a written language. Our mother tongue is not Portuguese, butBrazilian Vernacular. This is not a slogan, nor a political statement, it is simply recognition of a fact.... Thereare linguistic teams working hard in order to give the full description of the structure of the Vernacular. So,there are hopes, that within some years, we will have appropriate grammars of our mother tongue, thelanguage that has been ignored, denied and despised for such a long time."

According to Milton M. Azevedo (Brazilian linguist):"The relationship between Vernacular Brazilian Portuguese and the formal prescriptive variety fulfills thebasic conditions of Ferguson's definition [of diglossia]...[...] Considering the difficulty encountered byvernacular speakers to acquire the standard, an understanding of those relationships appears to have broadeducational significance. The teaching of Portuguese has traditionally meant imparting a prescriptive formalstandard based on a literary register (Cunha 1985: 24) that is often at variance with the language with whichstudents are familiar. As in a diglossic situation, vernacular speakers must learn to read and write in a dialectthey neither speak nor fully understand, a circumstance that may have a bearing on the high dropout rate inelementary schools..."

According to Bagno (1999) the two variants coexist and intermingle quite seamlessly, but their status is not clear-cut.Brazilian Vernacular is still frowned upon by most grammarians and language teachers, with only remarkably fewlinguists championing its cause. Some of this minority, of which Bagno is an example, appeal to their readers bytheir ideas that grammarians would be detractors of the termed Brazilian Vernacular, by naming it a "corrupt" formof the "pure" standard, an attitude which they classify as "linguistic prejudice". Their arguments include the postulate

Brazilian Portuguese 20

that the Vernacular form simplifies some of the intricacies of standard Portuguese (verbal conjugation, pronounhandling, plural forms, etc.).Bagno denounces the prejudice against the vernacular in what he terms the "8 Myths":1. There is a striking uniformity in Brazilian Portuguese2. Nearly all Brazilians speak Portuguese poorly while in Portugal people speak it very well3. Portuguese is difficult to learn and speak4. People that have had poor education can't speak anything correctly5. In the state of Maranhão people speak a better Portuguese than elsewhere in Brazil6. We should speak as closely as possible to the written language7. The knowledge of grammar is essential to the correct and proper use of a language8. To master Standard Portuguese is the path to social promotionIn opposition to the "myths", Bagno counters that:1. The uniformity of Brazilian Portuguese is just about what linguistics would predict for such a large country

whose population has not, generally, been literate for centuries and which has experienced considerable foreigninfluence, that is, this uniformity is more apparent than real.

2. Brazilians speak Standard Portuguese poorly because they speak a language that is sufficiently different fromStardard Portuguese so that the latter sounds almost "foreign" to them. In terms of comparison, it is easier formany Brazilians to understand someone from a Spanish-speaking South American country than someone fromPortugal because the spoken varieties of Portuguese on either side of the Atlantic have diverged to the point ofnearly being mutually unintelligible.

3. No language is difficult for those who speak it. Difficulty appears when two conditions are met: the standardlanguage diverges from the vernacular and a speaker of the vernacular tries to learn the standard version. Thisdivergence is the precise reason why spelling and grammar reforms happen every now and then.

4. People with less education can speak the vernacular or often several varieties of the vernacular, and they speak itwell. They might, however, have trouble in speaking Standard Portuguese, but this is due to lack of experiencerather than to any inherent deficiency in their linguistic mastery.

5. The people of Maranhão are not generally better than fellow Brazilians from other states in speaking StandardPortuguese, especially because that state is one of the poorest and has one of the lowest literacy rates.

6. It is the written language that must reflect the spoken and not vice versa: it is not the tail that wags the dog.7. The knowledge of grammar is intuitive for those who speak their native languages. Problems arise when they

begin to study the grammar of a foreign language.8. Rich and influential people themselves often do not follow the grammatical rules of Standard Portuguese.

Standard Portuguese is mostly a jewel or shibboleth for powerless middle-class careers (journalists, teachers,writers, actors, etc.).

Whether Bagno's points are valid or not is open to debate, especially the solutions he recommends for the problemshe claims to have identified. Whereas some agree that he has captured the feelings of the Brazilians towards Brazil'slinguistic situation well, his book (Linguistic Prejudice: What it Is, What To Do) has been heavily criticized by somelinguists and grammarians, due to his unorthodox claims, sometimes asserted to be biased or unproven.

Brazilian Portuguese 21

ImpactThe cultural influence of Brazilian Portuguese in the rest of the Portuguese-speaking world has greatly increased inthe last decades of the 20th century, due to the popularity of Brazilian music and Brazilian soap operas. Since Braziljoined Mercosul, the South American free trade zone, Portuguese has been increasingly studied as a foreign languagein Spanish-speaking partner countries.Many words of Brazilian origin (also used in other Portuguese-speaking countries) have also entered into English:samba, bossa nova, cruzeiro, milreis and capoeira. While originally Angolan, the word "samba" only became famousworldwide because of its popularity in Brazil.After independence in 1822, Brazilian idioms with African and Amerindian influences were brought to Portugal byreturning Portuguese Brazilians (luso-brasileiros in Portuguese) [and some Amerindian Brazilians (índio-brasileirosin Portuguese), Afro-Brazilians (afro-brasileiros in Portuguese), mulatos, and cafuzos (known as zambos inEnglish-speaking countries)], who brought rich culture mixed with African and Native American elements.

pt-BRpt-BR is a language code for the Brazilian Portuguese, defined by ISO standards (see ISO 639-1 and ISO 3166-1alpha-2) and Internet standards (see IETF language tag).

Bibliography• Azevedo, Milton. 2005. Portuguese: A Linguistic Introduction. Cambridge University Press.• Azevedo, Milton; University of California. "Vernacular Features in Educated Speech in Brazilian Portuguese"[22]

• Bagno, Marcos. "Português ou Brasileiro? (Portuguese or Brazilian?)" [23]

• Bagno, Marcos."Português do Brasil: Herança colonial e diglossia" Revista da FAEEBA.[24]

• Módolo, Marcelo. As duas línguas do Brasil (The Two Languages of Brazil). Editora FAUUSP.• Perini, Mário. 2002. Modern Portuguese: A Reference Grammar. Yale University Press. New Haven.

References[1] IBGE. Censo 2010: população do Brasil é de 190.732.694 pessoas (http:/ / www. ibge. gov. br/ home/ presidencia/ noticias/ noticia_visualiza.

php?id_noticia=1766& id_pagina=1).[2] Say It in Portuguese, p. vii (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=DzYKdtWVYZ4C& pg=PR7), R. Prista], Courier Dover Publications,

1979[3] Portuguese for Dummies, p. 9 (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=EBK3o4GWqrgC& pg=PA9), Karen Keller, 2006[4] Learner English, p. 113 (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=6UIuWj9fQfQC& pg=PA113), Michael Swan, Bernard Smith, Cambridge

University Press, 2001[5] Johns Hopkins University (https:/ / jscholarship. library. jhu. edu/ bitstream/ handle/ 1774. 2/ 854/ Lee. ConversinginColony. 2005.

pdf?sequence=1)[6] Chilcote, Ronald H. (1967). Portuguese Africa (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=IPlAAAAAIAAJ& q=quicongo& dq=quicongo&

client=firefox-a& pgis=1). Prentice-Hall. p. 57. . Retrieved 2008-12-22.[7] Jornaldapaulista.com.br (http:/ / www. jornaldapaulista. com. br/ site/ page. php?key=223)[8] Pro.br (http:/ / www. paulohernandes. pro. br/ vocesabia/ 001/ vcsabia011. html)[9] Parabolaeditorial.com.br (http:/ / www. parabolaeditorial. com. br/ releaseorigens. htm)[10] Pontes, E. (1987). O tópico no português do Brasil. Pontes Editores.[11] Folologia.org (http:/ / www. filologia. org. br/ viiicnlf/ anais/ caderno05-07. html)[12] Filologia.org (http:/ / www. filologia. org. br/ viicnlf/ anais/ caderno07-05. html)[13] UFSC.br (http:/ / www. tede. ufsc. br/ tedesimplificado/ / tde_busca/ arquivo. php?codArquivo=70)[14] Ppglufpb.com.br (http:/ / www. ppglufpb. com. br/ teses/ Supressao da Vogal Postonica. pdf)[15] Iltec.pt (http:/ / www. iltec. pt/ pdf/ wpapers/ 2003-mhmateus-vibrante_em_coda. pdf)[16] Unicamp.br (http:/ / www. cori. unicamp. br/ jornadas/ completos/ UFMG/ ND1010. doc)[17] Omniglot.com (http:/ / www. omniglot. com/ writing/ portuguese. htm)[18] Dicionário Houaiss da Língua Portuguesa, p. 1882[19] (http:/ / www. abralin. org/ abralin11_cdrom/ artigos/ Lucelene_Franceschini. PDF)

Brazilian Portuguese 22

[20] (http:/ / www. celsul. org. br/ Encontros/ 09/ artigos/ Viviane dos Santos. pdf)[21] (http:/ / www. bibliotecadigital. ufmg. br/ dspace/ bitstream/ 1843/ AIRR-7DHJPA/ 1/ mariaalice_mota_diss. pdf)[22] Cervantesvirutal.com (http:/ / www. cervantesvirtual. com/ servlet/ SirveObras/ 79117399329793384100080/ p0000008. htm)[23] Terra.com (http:/ / paginas. terra. com. br/ educacao/ marcosbagno/ )[24] INEP.gov.br (http:/ / www. inep. gov. br/ pesquisa/ bbe-online/ det. asp?cod=51807& type=P)

External links• Brazilian Portuguese Lessons for iPod and DVD – Portuguese lessons (http:/ / www. semantica-portuguese. com)• Brazilian Portuguese Grammar (http:/ / www. orbilat. com/ Languages/ Portuguese-Brazilian/

Brazilian-Grammar. htm)• Brazilian Portuguese Podcast – Portuguese lessons (http:/ / www. brazilianportuguesepod. com)• Brazilian Portuguese – Online Lessons (http:/ / www. brazilianportuguese. us)• Brazilian Portuguese Online (http:/ / www. freeportuguese. com)

Portuguese grammarPortuguese grammar, the morphology and syntax of the Portuguese language, is similar to the grammar of mostother Romance languages—especially that of Spanish, and even more so to that of Galician. It is a relativelysynthetic, fusional language.Nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and articles are moderately inflected: there are two genders (masculine and feminine)and two numbers (singular and plural). The case system of the ancestor language, Latin, has been lost, but personalpronouns are still declined with three main types of forms: subject, object of verb, and object of preposition. Mostnouns and many adjectives can take diminutive or augmentative derivational suffixes, and most adjectives can take aso-called "superlative" derivational suffix. Adjectives usually follow the noun.Verbs are highly inflected: there are three tenses (past, present, future), three moods (indicative, subjunctive,imperative), three aspects (perfective, imperfective, and progressive), two voices (active and passive), and aninflected infinitive. Most perfect and imperfect are synthetic, totaling 11 conjugational paradigms, while allprogressive tenses and passive constructions are periphrastic. As in other Romance languages, there is also animpersonal passive construction, with the agent replaced by an indefinite pronoun. Portuguese is basically an SVOlanguage, although SOV syntax may occur with a few object pronouns, and word order is generally not as rigid as inEnglish. It is a null subject language, with a tendency to drop object pronouns as well, in colloquial varieties. It hastwo copular verbs.It has a number of grammatical features that distinguish it from most other Romance languages, such as a syntheticpluperfect, a future subjunctive tense, the inflected infinitive, and a present perfect with an iterative sense. A uniquefeature of Portuguese is mesoclisis, the infixing of clitic pronouns in some verbal forms.

Sentence structure

Word classesLike most Indo-European languages, including English, Portuguese classifies most of its lexicon into four wordclasses: verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. These are "open" classes, in the sense that they readily accept newmembers, by coinage, borrowing, or compounding. Interjections form a smaller open class.There are also several small closed classes, such as pronouns, prepositions, articles, demonstratives, numerals,conjunctions, and a few grammatically peculiar words such as eis ("here is"; cf. Latin ecce and French voilà), cadê("where is"), tomara ("let's hope"), and oxalá ("let's hope that").

Portuguese grammar 23

Within the four main classes there are many semi-regular mechanisms that can be used to derive new words fromexisting words, sometimes with change of class; for example, veloz ("fast") → velocíssimo ("very fast"), medir ("tomeasure") → medição ("measurement"), piloto ("pilot") → pilotar ("to pilot"). Finally, there are several phraseembedding mechanisms that allow arbitrarily complex phrases to behave like nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.

Subject, object, and complementFollowing the general Indo-European pattern, the central element of almost any Portuguese clause is a verb, whichmay directly connect to one, two, or (rarely) three nouns (or noun-like phrases), called the subject, the object (morespecifically, the direct object), and the complement (more specifically, the object complement or objectivecomplement). The most frequent order of these elements in Portuguese is subject–verb–object (SVO, as in examples(1) and (2) below), or, when a complement is present, subject–verb–object-complement (SVOC — examples (3) and(4)):

(1) {A Maria}S {ama}V {o Paulo}O, "Maria loves Paulo."(2) {O pedreiro}S {construiu}V {a casa}O, "The mason has constructed the house."(3) {O presidente}S {nomeou}V {Pedro}O {ministro}C, "The president appointed Pedro (as) minister."(4) {Ela}S {achou}V {o livro}O {uma chatice}C, "She found the book a bore."

Any of the three noun elements may be omitted if it can be inferred from the context or from other syntactic clues;but many grammatical rules will still apply as if the omitted part were there.A clause will often contain a number of adverbs (or adverbial phrases) that modify the meaning of the verb; theymay be inserted between the major components of the clause. Additional nouns can be connected to the verb bymeans of prepositions; the resulting prepositional phrases have an adverbial function. For example:

Ele carregou {sem demora} a mala {para ela} {do carro} {até a porta}, "He carried {without delay} the bag{for her} {from the car} {to the door}."

Null subject languagePortuguese is a null subject language, i.e., a language whose grammar permits and sometimes mandates the omissionof an explicit subject.In Portuguese, the grammatical person of the subject is generally reflected by the inflection of the verb. Sometimes,though an explicit subject is not necessary to form a grammatically correct sentence, one may be stated in order toemphasize its importance. Some sentences, however, do not allow a subject at all and in some other cases an explicitsubject would sound awkward or unnatural:• "I'm going home" can be translated either as Vou para casa or as Eu vou para casa, where eu means "I".• "It's raining" can be translated as Está a chover but not as Ele está a chover, where ele would correspond to

English "it".[1]

• "I'm going home. I'm going to watch TV." only in exceptional circumstances would be translated as Eu vou paracasa. Eu vou ver televisão. At least the second eu ("I") should be omitted.[2]

As in other null subject SVO languages, the subject is often postponed, mostly in existential sentences, answers topartial questions and contrast structures:• Existem muitos ratos aqui! ("There are many mice here")• Quem é que foi? Fui eu. ("Who was it? It was me.")• Ela não comeu o bolo, mas comi eu. ("She didn't eat the cake, but I did.")[3]

Portuguese grammar 24

Types of sentencesPortuguese declarative sentences, as in many languages, are the less marked.Imperative sentences use the imperative mood for the second person. For other grammatical persons and for everynegative imperative sentence, the subjunctive is used.Yes/no questions have the same structure as declarative sentences, and are marked only by a different tonal pattern(mostly a raised tone near the end of the sentence), represented by a question mark («?») in writing. Wh-questionsoften start with quem ("who"), o que ("what"), qual ("which"), onde ("where"), aonde ("where... to"), quando("when"), por que ("why"), etc. Quem, o que and qual can be preceded by any preposition, but in this case o que willmost times be replaced by que. In oral language, but often also in writing, these words are followed by theinterrogative device é que (literally, "is [it] that"; compare French est-ce que).Wh-questions sometimes occur without wh-movement, that is, wh-words remain in situ. In this case, o que and porque are to be replaced by their stressed counterparts o quê and por que (there are also four types of "porquê". Whenit is the first word in a sentence, comes as "por que"; if it be the last word, "por quê"; if meaning "because", porquê;and when it's a noun i.e. meaning "the reason of / in this / about this", hence it comes as "por quê"). For example:

O que é que ela fez?

"What did she do?"Ela fez o quê?

"What did she do?" or, if emphatic, "She did what?"Por quê?

"Why?"Em que dia é que isso aconteceu?

"On what day did that happen?"Isso aconteceu em que dia?

"On what day did that happen?"In Brazilian Portuguese, the phrase é que is more often omitted.

ReplyingNão ("no") is the natural negative answer to yes/no questions. As in Latin, positive answers are usually made withthe inflected verb of the question in the appropriate person and number. Portuguese is one of the few Romancelanguages keeping this Latin peculiarity. The adverbs já ("already"), ainda ("yet"), and também ("too", "also") areused when one of them appears in the question.

Q: Gostaste do filme? A: Gostei. / Não.

Q: "Did you like the movie?" A: "Yes.", literally, "I liked." / "No."Q: Eu não tinha deixado aqui uma chave? A: Tinhas!

Q: "Didn't I leave here a key?" A: "Yes, you did!"Q: Já leste este livro? A: Já. / Ainda não.

Q: "Have you already read this book?" A: "Yes", literally, "Already." / "Not yet."The word sim ("yes") may be used for a positive answer, but, if used alone, it may in certain cases sound unnatural orimpolite. In Brazilian Portuguese, sim can be used after the verb for emphasis. In European Portuguese, emphasis inanswers is added with the duplication of the verb. In both versions of Portuguese, emphasis can also result fromsyntactical processes that are not restricted to answers, such as the addition of adverbs like muito ("much") ormuitíssimo ("very much").

Portuguese grammar 25

It is also acceptable, though sometimes formal, to use yes before the verb of the question, separated by a pause or, inwriting, a comma. The use of sim before the verb does not add emphasis, and may on the contrary be less assertive.

Q: Gostou do filme? A: Gostei, sim!

Q: "Did you like the movie?" A:"Yes, I did!" (Brazilian Portuguese)Q: Gostaste do filme? A: Gostei, gostei!

Q: "Did you like the movie?" A:"Yes, I did!"; literally, "I Liked, I liked!" (European Portuguese)Q: Há comboios a esta hora? A: Há, há!

Q: "Are there any trains at this time?" A:"Yes, there are!" (European Portuguese)Q: Ele gostou do filme? A: Sim, gostou...

Q:"Did he like the movie?" A:"Yes..." (Both Brazilian and European Portuguese)

ArticlesPortuguese has a definite article and an indefinite one, with different forms according to the gender and number ofthe noun to which they refer:

singular plural meaning

masculine feminine masculine feminine

definite article o a os as the

indefinite article um uma uns umas a, an; some

Unlike some other Romance languages or English, the written form of the Portuguese articles is the same,independently of the next word. The noun after the indefinite article may be elided, in which case the article isequivalent to English "one" (if singular) or "a few ones" (if plural): quero um também ("I want one too"), quero unsmaduros ("I want a few ripe ones").The definite article may appear before a noun in certain contexts where it is not used in English, for example beforecertain proper nouns, such as country, and organization names:

Ele visitou o Brasil, a China e a Itália, "He visited Brazil, China, and Italy"Ele visitou o Rio, "He visited Rio de Janeiro".A IBM patrocinou o MoMA, "IBM sponsored MoMA"Ele foi para o São Paulo, "He went to the São Paulo (soccer team)".

However:Ele visitou Portugal e Moçambique, "He visited Portugal and Mozambique"Ele foi para São Paulo, "He went to São Paulo (city or state)".

The article is never used with Portugal, Angola, Cabo Verde, Moçambique and Timor. In general, article usage forproper nouns is largely determined by tradition, and it may vary with dialect.

Portuguese grammar 26

Article before personal namesIn many varieties of the language, including all European varieties, personal names are normally preceded by adefinite article, a trait which Portuguese shares with Catalan. This is a relatively recent development, which someBrazilian dialects (e.g. those of the Northeast) have not adopted. In those dialects of Portuguese that do regularly usedefinite articles before proper nouns, the article may be omitted for extra formality, or to show distance in a literarynarrative.

A Maria saiu, "Maria left" (informal)A Sr.ª Maria saiu, "Ms. Maria left" (formal)

However:Maria Teixeira saiu, "Maria Teixeira left" (formal and mostly written)

NounsLike all western Romance languages, Portuguese does not inflect nouns to indicate their grammatical function,relying instead on the use of more prepositions (including an accusative preposition), phrasal prepositions, pleonasticobjects, or on the context or word order. It has fairly regular noun inflection rules to indicate number (singular orplural), and many semi-regular ones to express biological sex or social gender, size, endearment, deprecation, etc.Nouns are classified into two grammatical genders, and adjectives, articles and demonstratives must be inflected toagree with the noun in gender and number.There are two genders, masculine and feminine, and two numbers, singular and plural. Articles and adjectives areusually inflected to agree in gender and number with the nouns or pronouns they refer to. There are no cases; onlypersonal pronouns are still declined. Diminutive and augmentative forms exist for nouns.

Gender and numberMost adjectives and demonstratives, and all articles must be inflected according to the gender and number of thenoun they reference:

esta linda casa branca ("this nice white house")este lindo carro branco ("this nice white car")estas lindas aves brancas ("these nice white birds")estes lindos gatos brancos ("these nice white cats")

The agreement rules apply also to adjectives used with copulas, e.g. o carro é branco ("the car is white") vs. a casa ébranca ("the house is white").

Gender determination

As in all Romance languages, the grammatical gender of inanimate entities is quite arbitrary, and often differentfrom that used in sister languages: thus, for example, Portuguese árvore ("tree") and flor ("flower") are feminine,while Spanish árbol and Italian fiore are masculine; Portuguese mar ("sea") and mapa ("map") are masculine, whileFrench mer and mappe are feminine; and so on.The gender and number of many nouns can be deduced from its ending: the basic pattern is "-o" / "-os" for masculinesingular and plural, "-a" / "-as" for feminine. And, indeed, casa ("house"), mala ("suitcase"), pedra ("stone"), andinteligência ("intelligence") are all feminine, while carro ("car"), saco ("bag"), tijolo ("brick"), and aborrecimento("annoyance") are all masculine. However, the complete rules are quite complex: for instance, nouns ending in -çãoare usually feminine, except for augmentatives like bração ("big arm"). And there are many irregular exceptions. Forwords ending in other letters, there are few rules: flor ("flower"), gente ("folk"), nau ("ship"), maré ("tide") arefeminine, amor ("love"), pente ("comb"), pau ("stick"), café ("coffee") are masculine.

Portuguese grammar 27

The gender of animate beings often matches the biological sex, but there are many exceptions: autoridade("authority"), testemunha ("witness"), and girafa ("giraffe"), for example, are always feminine regardless of theirsex, and so are all respectful treatments such as Vossa Excelência ("Your Excellency"); whereas peixe fêmea("female fish") is strictly masculine.On the other hand, the gender of some nouns, as well as of 1st and 2nd person pronouns, is determined semanticallyby the biological sex of the referent: aquela estudante é nova, mas aquele estudante é velho ("this (female) student isnew, but that (male) student is old"; or eu sou brasileiro ("I am Brazilian", said by a man) and eu sou brasileira (thesame, said by a woman).Also, many animate masculine nouns have specific feminine derivative forms to indicate female biological sex: lobo("wolf" or "male wolf", masculine gender) → loba ("she-wolf", feminine), conde ("count", m.) → condessa("countess", f.), doutor ("doctor" or "male doctor", m.) → doutora ("female doctor", f.), ator ("actor", m.) → atriz("actress", f.), etc.. The feminine noun derivations should not be confused with the adjectival gender inflections,which use different (and more regular) rules.

Diminutives and augmentativesThe Portuguese language is abundant in the use of diminutives, which convey the senses of small size, endearmentor insignificance. Diminutives are very commonly used in informal language. On the other hand, most uses ofdiminutives are avoided in written and otherwise formal language.The most common diminutive endings are -inho and -inha, replacing -o and -a, respectively. Words with the stresson the last syllable generally have -zinho or -zinha added, such as café "coffee" and cafezinho "coffee served as ashow of Brazilian hospitality". In writing, a c (but not a ç) becomes qu in some words, like pouco ("few") andpouquinho ("very few"), in order to preserve the [k] pronunciation.Possible endings other than -inho(a) are:

-ito(a), e.g. copo/copito ("glass")-ico(a), e.g. burro/burrico ("donkey")-(z)ete, e.g. palácio/palacete ("palace")

-ote, e.g. saia/saiote ("skirt")-oto, e.g. lebre/lebroto ("hare/leveret")-ejo, e.g. lugar/lugarejo ("place")

-acho, e.g. rio/riacho ("river")-ola, e.g. aldeia/aldeola ("village")-el, e.g. corda/cordel ("rope")

It is also possible to form a diminutive of a diminutive, e.g. "burriquito" (burro + -ico + -ito).Portuguese diminutive endings are often used not only with nouns but also with adjectives, e.g. tonto/tontinho("silly" / "a bit silly"), or verde/verdinho ("green" / "nicely green") and occasionally with adverbs, e.g.depressa/depressinha ("quickly") and some other word classes, e.g. obrigadinho– diminutive for the interjectionobrigado "thanks". Even the numeral um (one) can informally become unzinho.The most common augmentatives are the masculine -ão and the feminine -ona, although there are others, like-aço(a) e.g. mulher/mulheraça ("woman"); or -eirão, e.g. voz/vozeirão ("voice"), less frequently used. Sometimesthe masculine augmentative can be applied to a feminine noun, which then becomes grammatically masculine, butwith a feminine meaning, e.g. a mulher / o mulherão ("the woman" / "the big woman").

Portuguese grammar 28

AdjectivesAdjectives normally follow the nouns which they modify. Thus "white house" is casa branca but the reverse orderbranca casa is possible. Some adjectives like bom ("good"), belo ("nice"), and grande ("great", "big") are oftenprefixed. Indeed, some of these have rather different meanings depending on position: um grande homem means "agreat man", um homem grande means "a big man".They are inflected for gender and number, and have also a "superlative" inflection, which actually enhances themeaning of the adjective without explicitly comparing it ("lindo", beautiful; "lindíssimo", very beautiful). The actualdegrees of comparison are expressed analytically, mostly with the adverb mais "more": mais alto (do) que = "higherthan", o mais alto "the highest". However, a few other adjectives (besides mais itself) have suppletivecomparative/superlative forms: melhor "better", pior "worse", menos "less".The rules for inflecting adjectives for gender and number are the same as those for nouns. There are a few basicpatterns, including:

(masc.singl., fem.singl., masc.pl., fem.pl.):

branco, branca, brancos, brancas ("white")francês, francesa, franceses, francesas ("French")verde, verde, verdes, verdes ("green")feliz, feliz, felizes, felizes ("happy")superior, superior, superiores, superiores ("superior")motor, motriz, motores, motrizes ("motorised")azul, azul, azuis, azuis ("blue")grandão, grandona, grandões, grandonas ("rather big")

However, there are a few exceptions, such as:bom, boa, bons, boas ("good")lilás, lilás, lilás, lilás ("lilac")

PrepositionsPortuguese prepositions are somewhat similar to those of neighboring Romance languages; but there are someconspicuous differences.There is no simple correspondence between English and Portuguese prepositions; the following table is a roughapproximation:

a = used before indirect object, it can also mean "to", "at", "in", "on", etc, or used before direct object(accusative preposition) for topicalization.

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até = "until"

com = "with"

de = "of", "from", "about", etc.

debaixo de = "under", "below"

desde = "from", "since"

em = "in", "on", "at"a

entre = "between", "among"

por = "by", "for", "through"

para = "for", "to", "in order to"

sem = "without"

sobre = "on", "above", "on top of", "about"

sob = "under" (mostly literary)

a partir de = "from"

acerca de = "about"

através de = "through"

dentro de = "inside"

em baixo de = "under"

em cima de = "above", "on"

junto com = "(together)with"

para com = "to"

vindo de = "from ,since"

The English possessive case has no systematic counterpart in Portuguese (or, for that matter, in any other Romancelanguage except Romanian and Latin). Portuguese generally uses de ("of") to indicate possession or, indeed, anyrelation (which must be deciphered from the context).Several prepositions contract with the definite article.

preposition article

o a os as

de do da dos das

em no na nos nas

por pelo pela pelos pelas

a ao à aos às

para prò1, pro1 prà1, pra1 pròs1, pros1 pràs1, pras1

1 colloquial

The contractions in the first four rows (with de, em, por, a) are mandatory in all registers. The grave accent in à / àshas phonetic value in Portugal and African countries, but not in Brazil (see Portuguese phonology). In Brazil, thegrave accent serves only to indicate the crasis in written text. The contractions in the last row are common in speech,but not used in formal writing. They may, however, appear when transcribing colloquial speech, for example incomic books. In the latter case, the grave accent is often omitted in Brazil, and it is also often mistakenly replacedwith an acute accent elsewhere.The prepositions de and em may also contract with the indefinite article, and with some pronouns that begin with avowel:

de + um/uma/uns/umas = dum/duma/duns/dumas ("of a", "from a")em + um/uma/uns/umas = num/numa/nuns/numas ("in a", "on a", "at a")

The contractions above are very common in the spoken language, formal or informal, and are also acceptable informal writing in Portugal. In Brazil, they are avoided in writing, especially those of the preposition de with theindefinite article.Across clause boundaries, contractions may occur in colloquial speech, but they are not done in writing, for claritysake:

Fui, apesar da loja estar fechada. (informal only)Fui, apesar de a loja estar fechada. (formal or informal)"I went, even though the shop was closed."

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The English concept of phrasal verb (like "set up", "get by", "pick out", etc.) does not exist in Portuguese: as a rule,prepositions are attached to the noun more strongly than to the verb.For a list of contracted prepositions in Portuguese, see Wikipedia in Portuguese: Contração gramatical.

Personal pronouns and possessivesPronouns are often inflected for gender and number, although many have irregular inflections.Personal pronouns are inflected according to their syntactic role. They have three main types of forms: for thesubject, for the object of a verb, and for the object of a preposition. In the third person, a distinction is also madebetween simple direct objects, simple indirect objects, and reflexive objects.Possessive pronouns are identical to possessive adjectives. As in other Romance languages, they are inflected toagree with the gender of the possessed being.

Deictics

Place adverbsAdverbs of place show a three-way distinction between close to the speaker, close to the listener, and far from both:

aqui, cá = "here"aí = "there" (near you)ali, lá (also acolá and além) = "over there" (far from both of us)

There seem to be differences in usage between aqui and cá, with the latter being used more often after prepositions:e.g. estamos aqui ("we are here") and vem para cá (lit., "come to here"). Differences also happen in the meaning ofali, lá and acolá (especially, lá seems to be farther than ali), but they are not quite distinct degrees of separation.

DemonstrativesDemonstratives have the same three-way distinction as place adverbs:

este lápis - "this pencil" (near me)esse lápis - "that pencil" (near you)aquele lápis - "that pencil" (over there, away from both of us)

In colloquial Brazilian Portuguese, esse is often used interchangeably with este when there is no need to make adistinction. This distinction is usually only made in formal writing or by people with more formal education.The noun after a demonstrative can be elided: quero esse também ("I want that one too"), vendi aqueles ontem ("Isold those yesterday").Demonstratives form contractions with some prepositions, like the articles: de + este = deste ("of this"), de + esse =desse ("of that"), em + aquilo = naquilo ("in that thing"), a + aquela = àquela ("to that").Demonstrative adjectives are identical to demonstrative pronouns: cf. Aquele carro "That car" with Aquele "Thatone."

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Indefinite pronounsThe indefinite pronouns todo, toda, todos, todas are followed by the definite article in European Portuguese, and alsoelsewhere when they mean "whole". Otherwise, articles and indefinite pronouns are mutually exclusive.In the demonstratives and in some indefinite pronouns, there is a trace of the neuter gender of Latin. For example,todo and esse are used with masculine referents, toda and essa are used with feminine referents, and tudo and issoare used when there is no definite referent e.g. todo livro or todo o livro, "every book"; toda salada or toda a salada,"every salad"; tudo "everything", and so on:

este, esta, estes, estas ("this", "these"); isto ("this thing")esse, essa, esses, essas ("that", "those"); isso ("that thing")aquele, aquela, aqueles, aquelas ("that", "those"); aquilo ("that thing")algum, alguma, alguns, algumas ("some"); algo ("something")nenhum, nenhuma, nenhuns, nenhumas ("no"); nada ("nothing")todo, toda, todos, todas ("every", "all"); tudo ("everything")

In terms of agreement, however, these "neuter" words function as masculine: both todo and tudo take masculineadjectives.

VerbsAs in most Romance languages, the Portuguese verb is usually inflected to agree with the subject's grammaticalperson (with three values, 1=I/we, 2=you, 3=he/she/it/they) and grammatical number (singular or plural), and toexpress various attributes of the action, such as time (past, present, future); completed, frustrated, or continuing;subordination and conditionality; command; and more. As a consequence, a regular Portuguese verb stem can takeover 50 distinct suffixes. (For comparison, regular French and Italian verbs have about 40 distinct forms.)

CopulaeRelated article: Romance copula

Two verbs are used as main copulae, as in some other Romance languages, the verbs ser and estar ("to be"). Theydeveloped from Latin SUM and STO, although the infinitive form ser actually comes from SEDERE. Most forms of sercome from SUM (infinitive ESSE), the only exceptions being the indicative future, the subjunctive present and theimperative. Ficar is also used as secondary copula, sometimes being translatable as "to become (to be)" or "to get (tobe)" (e.g., Fiquei rico. = "I got rich"), some other times as "to stay" (e.g., Fica aí! = "Stay there!"), some other timeseven as "to be" (e.g., Coimbra fica na Beira = "Coimbra is in Beira" and Fica quieto! = "Be still!").The distinction between ser and estar is perhaps a little more of a concept of permanent versus temporary, ratherthan essence versus state. This makes Portuguese closer to Catalan than to Spanish.• A cadeira é [feita] de madeira = "The chair is made of wood"The word meaning "made" is in square brackets here, as it is usually omitted.• Sou casado. = "I'm married."• Estou casado. = "I'm married now."The same applies in sentences such as the following, which use ser for the passive voice, with no special exceptionsfor prohibitions and the like:• É proibido fumar neste voo = "No smoking on this flight" (lit. "it is forbidden to...")Portuguese counts location either as fundamental or not, and accordingly uses ser or ficar and estar:• Onde é/fica a casa dela? = "Where is her house?"• Onde está o carro dela? = "Where is her car?"

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Note: Questions often include the interrogative structure é que (literally "is that"). The two last examples wouldprobably be uttered as Onde é que é/está/fica...

Nuance

• Estou tonta = "I'm dizzy"• Sou tonta = "I'm silly"• É sujo = "It's dirty" (i.e. "It's a dirty place" — characteristic)• Está sujo = "It's dirty" (i.e. "(right now) The place is dirty" — state)• É aberta = "She's open" (i.e. "She's an open sort of person" — characteristic)• Está aberta = "It's open" (probably referring to a door or window — state)• Ele é triste = "He is sad" (i.e. gloomy — characteristic)• (Ele) Está triste = "He is sad" (i.e. feeling down — state)• Como és? = "What are you like?" (i.e. "describe yourself" — characteristics)• Como estás? = "How are you?" (i.e. "how are you doing?" — state)With adjectives referring to beauty and the like, ser means "to be", and estar means "to look".• Que linda ela é! = "Wow, she's so beautiful" (characteristic)• Que linda ela está! = "Wow, she's looking so beautiful" (state)As in Spanish, the differentiation between "nature" and "state" makes sense when talking about the states of life anddeath: Está vivo (He is alive). Está morto (He is dead).Ser is used with adjectives of fundamental belief (Não sou católico, "I'm not Catholic"), nationality (És português,"You are Portuguese"), sex (É homem, "He's a man"), intelligence (Somos espertos, "We are smart"), etc.Due to Catholicism being the main religion in most Lusophone countries the use of católico ("Catholic") with estarhas a figurative meaning:• Eu não estou muito católico = "I'm not feeling very dependable/trustworthy." (possibly ill or drunk)• O tempo hoje não está muito católico = "The weather's not very nice today."With this exception, estar is not used for fundamental belief, nationality, sex, or intelligence. One can neverthelesssay Estou abrasileirado. ("I'm Brazilian-influenced." — state) or Estás americanizado. (You are Americanised —state).

Infinitive formThe infinitive is used, as in English, to make subordinate noun clauses that express an action at an indefinite time,and possibly with an indefinite or implicit subject, e.g. queremos cantar ("we would like to sing"), cantar éagradável (lit. "to sing is pleasant"). Many of its uses would be translated into English by the "-ing" nominal form,e.g. mesa para cortar ("cutting table"), cantar é bom ("singing is good"), trabalhe sem parar ("work withoutpausing")European Portuguese has the distinct feature of preferentially using the infinitive preceded by the preposition "a" inplace of the gerund as the typical method of describing continuing action:

Estou lendo.

"I am reading." (Brazilian Portuguese)Estou a ler.

"I am reading." (European Portuguese)Estavam dormindo.

"They were sleeping." (Brazilian Portuguese)Estavam a dormir.

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"They were sleeping." (European Portuguese)The gerund "-ndo" form is still correct in European Portuguese, but relatively rare (although its adverbial uses andthe other participle forms are not uncommon). On the other hand, the "a + infinitive" form is virtually nonexistent inBrazil, and considered an improper use in Brazilian Portuguese.A distinctive trait of Portuguese grammar (shared with Galician and Sardinian) is the existence of infinitive verbforms inflected according to the person and number of the subject:

É melhor voltar, "It is better to go back" (impersonal)É melhor voltares, "It is better that you go back"É melhor voltarmos, "It is better that we go back"

Depending on the context and intended sense, the personal infinitive may be forbidden, required, or optional.Personal infinitive sentences may often be used interchangeably with finite subordinate clauses. In these cases, finiteclauses are usually associated with the more formal registers of the language.

Conjugation classesVerbs are divided into three main conjugation classes according to the ending of their infinitive form, which may beeither -ar, -er, or -ir. There is also the irregular verb pôr ("to put") and its prefixed derivatives, which for historicalreasons many grammarians still place in the -er conjugation class (it used to be poer). Most stems belong to the -arconjugation class, which is the only one open to neologisms such as clicar ("to click" with a mouse).Each conjugation class has its own distinctive set of 50 or so inflection suffixes: cant/ar → cant/ou ("he sang"),vend/er → vend/eu ("he sold"), part/ir → part/iu ("he left"), rep/or → rep/ôs ("he put back") . Some suffixesundergo various regular adjustments depending on the final consonant of the stem, either in pronunciation, in thespelling, or in both. Some verbal inflections also entail a shift in syllable stress: 'canto ("I sing"), can'tamos ("wesing"), canta'rei ("I will sing"). See Portuguese verb conjugation.There are a couple hundred verbs with some irregular inflections, and about a dozen or so that are very irregular,including the auxiliaries ser ("to be"), haver ("there to be" or "to have"), ter ("to possess", "to have", "there to be" -in Brazilian Portuguese), ir ("to go"), and a few others.

Gerund and participle formsThe gerund form of a verb always ends with -ndo. It is used to make compound tenses expressing continuing action,e.g. ele está cantando ("he is singing"), ele estava cantando ("he was singing"); or as an adverb, e.g. ele trabalhacantando ("he works while singing"). It is never inflected for person or number.In European Portuguese, the gerund is often replaced by the infinitive (preceded by "a") when used to expresscontinuing action.The participle of regular verbs is used in compound verb tenses, as in ele tinha cantado ("he had sung"). It can alsobe used as an adjective:, and in this case it is inflected to agree with the noun's gender and number: um hino cantado("a sung anthem", masculine singular), três árias cantadas ("three sung arias", feminine plural). Some verbs havetwo distinct forms (one regular, one irregular), for these two uses. Additionally, a few verbs have two differentverbal participles, a regular one for the active voice, and an irregular one for the passive voice. An example is theverb matar (to kill): Bruto tinha matado César ("Brutus had killed Cesar"), César foi morto por Bruto ("Cesar waskilled by Brutus").

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Synthetic moods and tensesGrammarians usually classify the verbal inflections (i.e. the synthetic verb forms) into the following moods, tenses,and non-finite forms:• indicative mood, used in the main clauses of declarative sentences:

• present tense: cantas, "you sing"• past tenses:

• perfect past tense: cantaste, "you sang"• imperfect past tense: cantavas, "you were singing"• pluperfect past tense: cantaras, "you had sung"

• future tense: cantarás, "you will sing"• conditional tense: cantarias, "you would sing"

• subjunctive mood used in certain subordinate clauses:• subjunctive present tense: que cantes, "that you sing"• subjunctive past tense: se cantasses, "if you sang/would sing"• subjunctive future tense: se cantares, "if you sing/should sing"

• imperative mood: used to express a command, advice, encouragement, etc.:• affirmative: canta! ("sing!")• negative: não cantes!" ("don't sing!")

• infinitive form:• impersonal: cantar, "to sing"• personal: cantares, "you to sing", "that you sing" or "your singing"

• gerund form: cantando, "singing"• past (or passive) participle form: cantado, "sung"The conditional tense is usually called "future of the past" in Brazilian grammars, whereas in Portugal it is usuallyclassified as a separate "conditional mood". Portuguese grammarians call subjunctive "conjuntivo"; Brazilians call it"subjuntivo".In regular verbs, the personal infinitive is identical to the subjunctive future tense; but they are different in irregularverbs: quando formos ("when we go", subjunctive) versus é melhor irmos ("it is better that we go").There are also are many compound tenses expressed with inflected forms of the auxiliary verbs ser and estar(variants of "to be"), haver and ter (variants of "to have").

Compound formsLike all Romance languages, Portuguese has many compound verb tenses, consisting of an auxiliary verb (inflectedin any of the above forms) combined with the gerund, participle or infinitive of the principal verb.The basic auxiliary verbs of Portuguese are ter (originally "to hold", from Latin tenere, but nowadays meaning "tohave"), haver ("to have", from Latin habere; tends to be replaced with ter in most constructions), ser ("to be", fromLatin esse), estar ("to be", from Latin stare "to stand"), and ir ("to go", Latin ire), which have analogues in mostother Romance languages. Thus, for example, "he had spoken" can be translated as ele havia falado or ele tinhafalado. Other auxiliary verbs are ser (also "to be", from Latin esse), ficar ("to remain", "to become"), and ir ("togo").

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Compound perfect

In other Romance languages, compound perfect are constructed with a verb derived from Latin habere. This used tobe the case in Portuguese, too, but in recent centuries the verb ter, from Latin tenere, has been steadily overtakinghaver, although the latter is still used with some frequency in writing and in formal spoken registers. While ter isused as auxiliary by other Iberian languages, it is much more pervasive in Portuguese. In fact, there has been ageneral shift from haver, which in Old Portuguese literally meant "to have", towards ter, which used to mean "tohold", but has now taken the meaning of "to have". In colloquial European Portuguese, haver is only usedimpersonally, with the sense of "there to be", and in spoken Brazilian Portuguese it is replaced with ter even in thiscase, as in Tem muito peixe no mar "There are plenty of fish in the sea" (although the latter use is not endorsed byofficial grammar).Tenses with ter/haver + past participle (composed tenses):• Indicative preterit perfect - temos falado ("we have spoken" as in "we have spoken quite a lot lately" - there is an

iterative notion. Haver is not used nowadays. This tense may also be equivalent to the simple preterit for somefixed expressions, such as Tenho dito/concluído)

• Indicative pluperfect - tínhamos/havíamos falado ("we had spoken")• Indicative anterior pluperfect - tivéramos/houvéramos falado ("we had spoken", literary use only)• Indicative future perfect teremos/haveremos falado ("we will have spoken")• Conditional perfect - teríamos/haveríamos falado ("we would have spoken")• Subjunctive preterit perfect - desde que tenhamos/hajamos falado ("provided that we have spoken")• Subjunctive pluperfect - se/que tivéssemos/houvéssemos falado ("if/that we had spoken")• Subjunctive future perfect - se/quando tivermos/houvermos falado ("if/when we have spoken")• Personal infinitive perfect - termos/havermos falado ("to have spoken")With no inflexion:• Impersonal infinitive perfect - ter/haver falado ("to have spoken")• Gerund perfect - tendo/havendo falado ("having spoken")

Compound vs. simple pluperfect

In addition to the compound forms for completed past actions, Portuguese also retains a synthetic pluperfect: so eletinha falado and ele havia falado ("he had spoken") can also be expressed as ele falara. However, the pluperfect islosing ground to the compound forms. While pluperfect forms like falara are generally understood, they aregenerally limited to regional use (in some regions of Portugal) or written speech. In BP, its use is even less frequent.

Preterite vs. present perfect

The simple past (or pretérito perfeito simples in Portuguese) is widely used, sometimes corresponding to the presentperfect of English (this happens in many dialects of American Spanish, too).A present perfect also exists (normally called pretérito perfeito composto), but it has a very restricted use, denotingan action or a series of actions which began in the past and are expected to continue into the future, but will stopsoon. For instance, the meaning of "Tenho tentado falar com ela" may be closer to "I have been trying to talk to her"than to "I have tried to talk to her", in some contexts. This iterative sense of the present perfect is quite exceptionalamong Romance languages. It seems to be a recent construction, since it only allows the verb ter as auxiliary, neverhaver, and is absent from Galician.

Portuguese grammar 36

Progressive tenses

Portuguese originally constructed progressive tenses with a conjugated form of the verb "to be", followed by thegerund of the main verb, like English: e.g. Eu estou trabalhando "I am working" (cf. also the corresponding Italianphrase: (Io) sto lavorando). However, in European Portuguese an alternative construction has appeared, formed withthe preposition a followed by the infinitive of the main verb: e.g. Eu estou a trabalhar. This has replaced the ancientsyntax in central and northern Portugal. The gerund may also be replaced with a followed by the infinitive in lesscommon verb phrases, such as Ele ficou lá, trabalhando / Ele ficou lá, a trabalhar "He stayed there, working".However, the construction with the gerund is still found in southern and insular Portugal and in Portuguese literature,and it is the rule in Brazil.

estou falando or estou a falar ("I am speaking")estava falando/ a falar (imperfective: "I was speaking" [at the moment])estive falando/ a falar (perfective: "I was speaking [for a while]" / "I have been speaking" [for a while])estivera falando/ a falar ("I had been speaking")estarei falando/ a falar ("I will be speaking")esteja falando/ a falar ("be speaking"; or "am" or "is speaking")se estivesse falando/ a falar ("if I were speaking")quando estiver falando/ a falar ("when you are speaking" [in the future])estar falando/ a falar ("to be speaking")

Periphrastic construction with haver

Like in most romance languages, the simple future of the indicative and the conditional are formed by appending thepresent and the preterit imperfect of the verb haver to the infinitive, respectively. In Portuguese, it can also be usedbefore the verb, together with the proposition de. This is usually limited to oral speech.Examples:• Eu disse que havia de voltar for Eu disse que voltaria ("I said I should return")• Vós haveis de (or "heis-de") vencer for Vós vencereis ("You shall win")Sometimes, other tenses of haver are used, though it is infrequent. Example: Quem houver de ficar com a casa,há-de vir para aqui.The only other tenses commonly used are the conditional/future and their meaning is approximately the same of thepresent/preterit imperfect described herein.In EP, a hyphen is put between the monosyllabic forms of haver and de (hei, hás, há, heis and hão).There are, however, differences of meaning between this construction and the future of the indicative/conditional.The former usually conveys a sense of obligation/necessity (be it logic, circumstantial, of convenience, natural ormoral law, ...), duty, certainty or resolution, rather than simple futurity, although that would depend on the context.This is somewhat comparable to the use of shall outside the first person.Examples:• Hei-de lá ir amanhã (promise, "I will go there tomorrow") versus Irei lá amanhã (less emphatic, almost an

expectation, "I shall go there tomorrow")• Havemos de cá voltar (promise, but in an uncertain future, "We will return here") versus Voltaremos cá

(prediction or statement of an arrangement). Depending on the context, it can also be an invitation: Gostei de teter aqui, hás-de cá voltar ("I've enjoyed having you here, you should return").

• Havias de ter visto a reacção dela ("You should have seen her reaction") versus Terias visto a reacção dela("You would have seen her reaction"). The meaning is here quite different.

Portuguese grammar 37

• Que havia eu de fazer? ("What should I (was I to) do?") versus Que faria eu? ("What would I do?"). The latter ismerely an hypothetical question, the former could be asking for an advice or opinion about what ought to havebeen done.

It has also acquired other meanings - for instance, O que está cá dentro? Dinheiro! O que havia de ser?! could betranslated into What is in here? Money! What else?!.

Other compound tenses

Tenses with ir + infinitivevamos falar ("we will speak", "we are going to speak")íamos falar ("we were going to speak")iríamos falar ("we would speak", "we would be going to speak")

Tenses with multiple auxiliaries:teríamos estado falando/a falar ("we would have been speaking")tenho estado falando/a falar ("I have been speaking (until now)")

Passive voiceIt is possible to construct passive variants of clauses with transitive verb and object. The rules for it are basically asin English; namely, the original object becomes the subject; the original subject becomes an adverbial complementwith preposition por ("by"); and the verb is replaced by its past participle, preceded by the copular verb ser ("to be")inflected in the original mood and tense:

O rato comeu o queijo ("The mouse ate the cheese")O queijo foi comido pelo rato ("The cheese was eaten by the mouse")Aquela senhora cantará a ária ("That lady will sing the aria")A ária será cantada por aquela senhora ("The aria will be sung by that lady")Se você cantasse a aria, ele ficaria ("If you were to sing the aria, he would stay")Se a ária fosse cantada por você, ele ficaria ("If the aria were to be sung by you, he would stay")

As in Spanish, there is also a synthetic passive voice, in which the agent is replaced with the pronoun se, when itsidentity is not relevant:

Fizeram-se planos e criaram-se esperanças. ("Plans were made and hopes were created.")The same construction extends to some intransitive verbs, in which case the pronoun se denotes the subject(impersonal passive voice):

Comeu-se, bebeu-se e bailou-se. ("There was eating, drinking, and dancing.")

Subjunctive moodRelated article: Subjunctive.

Portuguese subjunctive mood is used mainly in certain kinds of subordinate clauses. There are three syntheticsubjunctive inflections, conventionally called "present", "past" and "future". The rules of usage are rather complex,but on a first approximation:• The present subjunctive tense is used in clauses, often introduced with que ("that"), which express wishes, orders,

possibilities, etc.:quero que cante, "I want her/him to sing"supondo que cante, "assuming that he/she will sing"

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ele será pago, cante ou não, "he will be paid, whether he sings or not"• The past subjunctive tense is used for adverbial subordinate clauses, introduced with se ("if") or equivalent, that

are conditions for main cause in the conditional tense. It is also used for nominal clauses, introduced with que,that were the object of frustrated past wishes or commands:

se cantasse, seria famoso ("if he would sing, he would be famous") OR ("if he might have sung, hewould be famous")se cantasse, teríamos aplaudido ("if she had sung, we would have applauded")esperávamos que cantasse ("we had hoped that he would sing")não esperávamos que cantasse ("we didn't think that he would sing")

• The future subjunctive tense is an uncommon feature among Indo-European languages. It is used in adverbialsubordinate clauses, usually introduced by se ("if") or quando ("when"), or in adjectival subordinate clauses, thatexpress a neutral or expected condition for a present- or future-tense main clause:

se cantarmos, seremos pagos ("If we (should) sing, we will be paid")se cantarmos, ele fica ("If we (should) sing, he stays")quando cantarmos, ele escutará ("When we (should) sing, he will listen")

• Often, the option between indicative and subjunctive depends on whether the speaker does or does not endorse theproposition expressed by the subordinate clause:

Admito que ele roubou a bicicleta. ("I admit that he stole the bicycle.")Admito que ele possa ter roubado a bicicleta. ("I admit that he could have stolen the bicycle.")

• In relative sentences, the option between indicative and subjunctive depends on whether the speaker does or doesnot identify a single object with the property expressed by the subordinate clause:

Ando à procura de um cão que fala! ("I'm looking for a certain dog which can speak!")Ando à procura de um cão que fale! ("I'm looking for any dog that speaks!")

More on the subjunctive mood in Portuguese can be found at Wikibooks: Variation of the Portuguese Verbs [4].

Verbal derivativesPortuguese has also many adjectives which consist of a verbal stem plus an ending in -nte, which are applied tonouns that perform that action; e.g. dançar ("to dance") ~ areia dançante ("dancing sand"), ferver ("to boil") ~ águafervente ("boiling water"), and many others.However, those adjectives were not always derived from the corresponding Portuguese verbs. Most of them weredirectly derived from the accusatives of the present participles of Latin verbs, a form which was not retained byPortuguese. Thus, for example, Portuguese mutante ("changing", "varying") does not derive from the Portugueseverb mudar ("to change"), but directly from the Latin accusative present participle mutantem ("changing"). On theother hand, those pairs of words were eventually generalized by Portuguese speakers into a derivation rule, that issomewhat irregular and defective but still productive. So, for example, within the last 500 years we had thederivation pï'poka (Tupi for "to pop the skin") → pipoca (Portuguese for "popcorn") → pipocar ("to pop up allover") → pipocante ("popping up all over").Similar processes resulted in many other semi-regular derivation rules that turn verbs into words of other classes. Forexample,

clicar ("to click") → clicável ("clickable")vender ("to sell") → vendedor ("seller")encantar ("to enchant") → encantamento ("enchantment")destilar ("to distill") → destilação ("distillation")

Portuguese grammar 39

The latter rule is quite productive, to the point that the pervasive -ção ending (derived from Latin -tione) is the mostvisually striking feature of written Portuguese.

References• Mario Squartini (1998) Verbal Periphrases in Romance—Aspect, Actionality, and Grammaticalization ISBN

3-11-016160-5

Notes[1] This example is typical for European Portuguese. The most common Brazilian equivalents are Está chovendo and *Ele está chovendo.[2] In Brazilian Portuguese the most common spoken is not to omit the "eu" ("I"), therefore Eu vou para casa. Eu vou ver televisão. sounds more

natural[3] In Brazilian Portuguese the subject would not be postponed in this case as well as in other contrasting structures, therefore one would say mas

eu comi instead of "mas comi eu

External links• Descriptive grammar of Portuguese at Orbis Latinus (http:/ / www. orbilat. com/ Languages/ Portuguese/

Grammar/ )• Portuguese Grammar Lessons (http:/ / www. onlineportuguesehelp. com/ lesson/ 2/ Grammar)• A brief introduction to Portuguese grammar (http:/ / www. sonia-portuguese. com/ text/ grammar. htm)

Brazil 40

Brazil

Federative Republic of BrazilRepública Federativa do Brasil (Portuguese)

Motto: "Ordem e Progresso"(Portuguese)"Order and Progress"

Anthem: Hino Nacional Brasileiro(Portuguese)"Brazilian National Anthem"

National sealSelo Nacional do Brasil

(Portuguese)"National Seal of Brazil"

Capital Brasília15°45′S 47°57′W

Largest city São Paulo

Official language(s) Portuguese

Ethnic groups (2008[1] )

48.43% White43.80% Brown (Multiracial)6.84% Black0.58% Asian0.28% Amerindian

Demonym Brazilian

Government Federal presidential constitutional republic

 -  President Dilma Rousseff (PT)

 -  Vice President Michel Temer (PMDB)

 -  President of the Chamber of Deputies Marco Maia (PT)

 -  President of the Senate José Sarney (PMDB)

Brazil 41

 -  Chief Justice Cezar Peluso

Legislature National Congress

 -  Upper House Federal Senate

 -  Lower House Chamber of Deputies

Independence from Kingdom of Portugal

 -  Declared 7 September 1822 

 -  Recognized 29 August 1825 

 -  Republic 15 November 1889 

 -  Current constitution 5 October 1988 

Area

 -  Total 8514877 km2 (5th)3287597 sq mi

 -  Water (%) 0.65

Population

 -  2010 census 190,732,694 [2]  (5th)

 -  Density 22/km2 (182nd)57/sq mi

GDP (PPP) 2010 estimate

 -  Total $2.172 trillion[3]

 -  Per capita $11,239[3]

GDP (nominal) 2010 estimate

 -  Total $2.090 trillion[3]

 -  Per capita $10,816[3]

Gini (2008) ▼ 49,3[4]

HDI (2010) 0.699[5]  (high) (73rd)

Currency Real (R$) (BRL)

Time zone BRT[6] (UTC-2 to -4[6] )

 -  Summer (DST) BRST (UTC-2 to -4)

Date formats dd/mm/yyyy (CE)

Drives on the right

ISO 3166 code BR

Internet TLD .br

Calling code +55

Brazil (  /en-us-Brazil.oggbrəˈzɪl/; Portuguese: Brasil, IPA: [bɾaˈziw]), officially the Federative Republic ofBrazil[7] [8] (Portuguese: República Federativa do Brasil, listen), is the largest country in South America. It is theworld's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 190 million people.[9] [10] It isthe only Portuguese-speaking country in the Americas and the largest lusophone (Portuguese-speaking) country inthe world.[9]

Brazil 42

Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of over 7491 km (4655 mi).[9] It is bordered on thenorth by Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and the French overseas department of French Guiana; on the northwest byColombia; on the west by Bolivia and Peru; on the southwest by Argentina and Paraguay and on the south byUruguay. Numerous archipelagos form part of Brazilian territory, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, SaintPeter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz.[9] It borders all other South American countries exceptEcuador and Chile.Brazil was a colony of Portugal from the landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 until 1815, when it was elevatedto United Kingdom with Portugal and Algarves. The colonial bond was in fact broken in 1808, when the capital ofthe Portuguese Kingdom was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, after Napoleon invaded Portugal.[11] Theindependence from Portugal was achieved in 1822. Initially independent as the Empire of Brazil, the country hasbeen a republic since 1889, although the bicameral legislature, now called Congress, dates back to 1824, when thefirst constitution was ratified.[11] Its current Constitution defines Brazil as a Federal Republic.[12] The Federation isformed by the union of the Federal District, the 26 States, and the 5,564 Municipalities.[12] [13]

The Brazilian economy is the world's seventh largest economy by nominal GDP[14] and the eighth largest bypurchasing power parity.[15] Brazil is one of the world's fastest growing major economies. Economic reforms havegiven the country new international recognition.[16] Brazil is a founding member of the United Nations, the G20,CPLP, Latin Union, the Organization of Ibero-American States, Mercosul and the Union of South American Nations,and is one of the BRIC countries. Brazil is also home to a diversity of wildlife, natural environments, and extensivenatural resources in a variety of protected habitats.[9]

EtymologyThe etymology of Brazil remains unclear. Traditionally, the word "Brazil" comes from brazilwood, a timber tree thatmany sailors traded from Brazilian regions to Europe in the 16th century.[17] In Portuguese brazilwood is calledpau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology "red like an ember", formed from Latin brasa("ember") and the suffix -il (from -iculum or -ilium).[18] [19] [20] This theory is taught as official in schools of Braziland Portugal.However, the Brazilian scholar José Adelino da Silva Azevedo has postulated that the word is much older, either ofCeltic or Phoenician origin. The Phoenicians traded a red dye extracted from a mineral mined in Celtic lands, fromIberia to Ireland.[21] In Irish mythology there is a Western island called Hy-Brazil, and this is seen by some,including Tolkien,[22] as one of the most likely etymological sources for the name "Brazil". The same theory wasalso advanced by 16th century scholars.[17]

In the Guarani language, an official language of Paraguay, Brazil is called "Pindorama". This was the name thenatives gave to the region, meaning "land of the palm trees".

History

Portuguese colonizationThe land now called Brazil was claimed by Portugal in April 1500, on the arrival of the Portuguese fleet commandedby Pedro Álvares Cabral.[23] The Portuguese encountered stone age natives divided into several tribes, most ofwhom spoke languages of the Tupi–Guarani family, and fought among themselves.[24]

Though the first settlement was founded in 1532, colonization was effectively begun in 1534, when Dom João III divided the territory into twelve hereditary captaincies,[25] [26] but this arrangement proved problematic and in 1549 the king assigned a Governor-General to administer the entire colony.[26] [27] The Portuguese assimilated some of the native tribes[28] while others were enslaved or exterminated in long wars or by European diseases to which they had no immunity.[29] [30] By the mid-16th century, sugar had become Brazil's most important export[24] [31] and the

Brazil 43

Portuguese imported African slaves[32] [33] to cope with the increasing international demand.[29] [34]

The first Christian mass in Brazil, 1500.

Through wars against the French, the Portuguese slowly expandedtheir territory to the southeast, taking Rio de Janeiro in 1567, and to thenorthwest, taking São Luís in 1615.[35] They sent military expeditionsto the Amazon rainforest and conquered British and Dutchstrongholds,[36] founding villages and forts from 1669.[37] In 1680 theyreached the far south and founded Sacramento on the bank of the Riode la Plata, in the Eastern Strip region (present-day Uruguay).[38]

At the end of the 17th century, sugar exports started to decline[39] butbeginning in the 1690s, the discovery of gold by explorers in the regionthat would later be called Minas Gerais (General Mines) in currentMato Grosso and Goiás, saved the colony from imminent collapse.[40]

From all over Brazil, as well as from Portugal, thousands of immigrants came to the mines.[41]

The Spanish tried to prevent Portuguese expansion into the territory that belonged to them according to the 1494Treaty of Tordesillas, and succeeded in conquering the Eastern Strip in 1777. However, this was in vain as theTreaty of San Ildefonso, signed in the same year, confirmed Portuguese sovereignty over all lands proceeding fromits territorial expansion, thus creating most of the current Brazilian borders.[42]

In 1808, the Portuguese royal family, fleeing the troops of the French Emperor Napoleon I that were invadingPortugal and most of Central Europe, established themselves in the city of Rio de Janeiro, which thus became theseat of the entire Portuguese Empire.[43] In 1815 Dom João VI, then regent on behalf of his incapacitated mother,elevated Brazil from colony to sovereign Kingdom united with Portugal.[43] In 1809 the Portuguese invaded FrenchGuiana (which was returned to France in 1817)[44] and in 1816 the Eastern Strip, subsequently renamedCisplatina[45] (but Brazil lost it in 1828 when it became an independent nation known as Uruguay).[46]

The public flogging of a slave in Rio de Janeiro.From Jean-Baptiste Debret, Voyage Pittoresque

et Historique au Bresil (1834–1839).

Independence and Empire

King João VI returned to Europe on 26 April 1821, leaving his elderson Prince Pedro de Alcântara as regent to rule Brazil.[47] ThePortuguese government attempted to turn Brazil into a colony onceagain, thus depriving it of its achievements since 1808.[48] TheBrazilians refused to yield and Prince Pedro stood by them declaringthe country's independence from Portugal on 7 September 1822.[49] On12 October 1822, Pedro was declared the first Emperor of Brazil andcrowned Dom Pedro I on 1 December 1822.[50]

Declaration of the Brazilian independence byEmperor Pedro I on 7 September 1822.

At that time most Brazilians were in favour of a monarchy andrepublicanism had little support.[51] [52] The subsequent Brazilian Warof Independence spread through almost the entire territory, with battlesin the northern, northeastern, and southern regions.[53] The lastPortuguese soldiers surrendered on 8 March 1824[54] and independencewas recognized by Portugal on 29 August 1825.[55]

The first Brazilian constitution was promulgated on 25 March 1824,after its acceptance by the municipal councils across the country.[56]

Brazil 44

[57] [58] [59] Pedro I abdicated on 7 April 1831 and went to Europe to reclaim his daughter’s crown, leaving behind hisfive year old son and heir, who was to become Dom Pedro II.[60] As the new emperor could not exert hisconstitutional prerogatives until he reached maturity, a regency was created.[61]

Disputes between political factions led to rebellions and an unstable, almost anarchical, regency.[62] It is estimatedthat from 30 to 40% of the population of the Province of Grão-Pará died during the Cabanagem revolt.[63] Therebellious factions, however, were not in revolt against the monarchy,[64] [65] even though some declared thesecession of the provinces as independent republics, but only so long as Pedro II was a minor.[66] Because of this,Pedro II was prematurely declared of age and "Brazil was to enjoy nearly half a century of internal peace and rapidmaterial progress."[67]

Brazilian forces (in blue uniform) engage theParaguayan army (some in red uniform and othershirtless) during the War of the Triple Alliance.

Brazil won three international wars during the 58-year reign of Pedro II(the Platine War, the Uruguayan War and the War of the TripleAlliance, which left over 50,000 dead)[68] and witnessed theconsolidation of representative democracy, mainly due to successiveelections and unrestricted freedom of the press.[69] Most importantly,slavery was extinguished after a slow but steady process that beganwith the end of the international traffic in slaves in 1850[70] and endedwith the complete abolition of slavery in 1888.[71] The slave populationhad been in decline since Brazil's independence: in 1823, 29% of theBrazilian population were slaves but by 1887 this had fallen to 5%.[72]

When the monarchy was overthrown on 15 November 1889[73] there was little desire in Brazil to change the form ofgovernment[74] and Pedro II was at the height of his popularity among his subjects.[75] [76] However, he "bore prime,perhaps sole, responsibility for his own overthrow."[77] After the death of his two sons, Pedro believed that "theimperial regime was destined to end with him."[78] He cared little for the regime's fate[79] [80] and so neither didanything, nor allowed anyone else to do anything, to prevent the military coup, backed by former slave owners whoresented the abolition of slavery.[81] [82] [83]

Early republic

The Brazilian coup d'état of 1930 raised GetúlioVargas (center with military uniform but no hat)to power. He ruleed the country for fifteen years.

Although the beginning of the republican government has been littlemore than a military dictatorship,[73] the then newly constitutiondespite its content still held severe restrictions as e.g. about votingrights,[84] [85] provided direct elections for 1894.[86] However, alreadyin 1891, from the unfoldings of the encilhamento bubble[87] [88] and ofthe 1st naval revolt, the country entered in a prolonged cycle offinancial, social and polital instability, that would extend until the1920s keeping the country plagued by several rebellions, bothcivilian[89] [90] [91] as military,[92] [93] [94] which little by littleundermined the regime in a such extent, that by 1930 it was possible tothe defeated presidential candidate Getúlio Vargas, supported by themajority of military,[95] lead a coup d'état and assume the presidency.[96]

Vargas and the military, who were supposed to assume the government temporarily to implement democraticreforms related to 1891's Constitution, closed the Congress and ruled with emergency powers, replacing the states'governors with their supporters.[97] [98] Under the Claiming of the broken promises of changing, in 1932 theoligarchy of São Paulo tried to regain the power[99] and in 1935 the Communists rebelled,[100] having both been

defeated. However, the communist threat served as an excuse for Vargas to preclude elections launching another coup d'état in 1937, creating a full dictatorship[101] [102] [103] [104] In May 1938, there was another failed attempt to

Brazil 45

takeover the power by local fascists.[105] [106]

In foreign policy, the success in resolving border disputes with neighboring countries[107] in the early years of thisperiod, was followed by a failed attempt to permanently exert a prominent role in the League of Nations[108] aftermilitary involvement in World War I.[109] [110] [111] Notwithstanding, Brazil remained neutral at the beginning ofWorld War II until the Pan-American Conference of January 1942 when Brazil stood alongside the U.S.A. severingdiplomatic relations with the Axis powers.[112] In retaliation, Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy extended theirsubmarine warfare against Brazil, which led the country to enter the war on the allied side in August of that year.[113]

[114]

With the allied victory in 1945 and the end of the Nazi-fascist regimes in Europe, Vargas's position becameunsustainable and he was swiftly overthrown in another military coup.[115] Democracy was reinstated and GeneralEurico Gaspar Dutra was elected president taking office in 1946.[116] Having returned to power democraticallyelected at the end of 1950, Vargas committed suicide in August 1954 amid a political crisis.[117] [118]

Contemporary era

The transition from Fernando Henrique Cardosoto Luís Inácio Lula da Silva revealed that Brazil

had finally succeeded in achieving its long-soughtpolitical stability.

Several brief interim governments succeeded after Vargas'ssuicide.[119] Juscelino Kubitscheck became president in 1956 andassumed a conciliatory posture towards the political opposition thatallowed him to govern without major crises.[120] The economy andindustrial sector grew remarkably,[121] but his greatest achievementwas the construction of the new capital city of Brasília, inaugurated in1960.[122] His successor was Jânio Quadros, who resigned in 1961 lessthan a year after taking office.[123] His vice-president, João Goulart,assumed the presidency, but aroused strong political opposition[124]

and was deposed in April 1964 by a coup that resulted in a militaryregime.[125]

The new regime was intended to be transitory[126] but it graduallyclosed in on itself and became a full dictatorship with the promulgation of the Fifth Institutional Act in 1968.[127]

The repression of the dictatorship's opponents, including urban guerrillas,[128] was harsh, but not as brutal as in otherLatin American countries.[129] Due to the extraordinary economic growth, known as an "economic miracle", theregime reached its highest level of popularity in the years of repression.[130]

General Ernesto Geisel became president in 1974 and began his project of re-democratization through a process thathe said would be "slow, gradual and safe."[131] [132] Geisel ended the military indiscipline that had plagued thecountry since 1889,[133] as well as the torture of political prisoners, censorship of the press,[134] and finally, thedictatorship itself, after he extinguished the Fifth Institutional Act.[127] However, the military regime continued,under his chosen successor General João Figueiredo, to complete the transition to full democracy.[135]

The civilians fully returned to power in 1985 when José Sarney assumed the presidency[136] but, by the end of histerm, he had become extremely unpopular due to the uncontrollable economic crisis and unusually highinflation.[137] Sarney's unsuccessful government allowed the election in 1989 of the almost unknown FernandoCollor, who was subsequently impeached by the National Congress in 1992.[138] Collor was succeeded by hisVice-President Itamar Franco, who appointed Fernando Henrique Cardoso as Minister of Finance.Cardoso produced a highly successful Plano Real (Royal or Real Plan)[139] that granted stability to the Brazilianeconomy[140] and he was elected as president in 1994 and again in 1998.[141] The peaceful transition of power toLuís Inácio Lula da Silva, who was elected in 2002 and re-elected in 2006, proved that Brazil had finally succeededin achieving its long-sought political stability.[142] Lula was succeeded in 2011 by the current president, DilmaRousseff.[143]

Brazil 46

Geography

Topography map of Brazil

Brazil occupies a large area along the eastern coast of South Americaand includes much of the continent's interior,[144] sharing land borderswith Uruguay to the south; Argentina and Paraguay to the southwest;Bolivia and Peru to the west; Colombia to the northwest; andVenezuela, Suriname, Guyana and the French overseas department ofFrench Guiana to the north. It shares a border with every country inSouth America except for Ecuador and Chile. It also encompasses anumber of oceanic archipelagos, such as Fernando de Noronha, RocasAtoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz.[9] Itssize, relief, climate, and natural resources make Brazil geographicallydiverse.[144] Including its Atlantic islands, Brazil lies between latitudes6°N and 34°S, and longitudes 28° and 74°W.

Brazil is the fifth largest country in the world, after Russia, Canada,China and the United States, and third largest in the Americas; with a total area of 8514876.599 km2 ( sq mi),[145]

including 55455 km2 (21411 sq mi) of water.[9] It spans three time zones; from UTC-4 in the western states, toUTC-3 in the eastern states (and the official time of Brazil) and UTC-2 in the Atlantic islands.[6]

Brazilian topography is also diverse and includes hills, mountains, plains, highlands, and scrublands. Much of theterrain lies between 200 metres (660 ft) and 800 metres (2600 ft) in elevation.[146] The main upland area occupiesmost of the southern half of the country.[146] The northwestern parts of the plateau consist of broad, rolling terrainbroken by low, rounded hills.[146]

The southeastern section is more rugged, with a complex mass of ridges and mountain ranges reaching elevations ofup to 1200 metres (3900 ft).[146] These ranges include the Mantiqueira and Espinhaço mountains and the Serra doMar.[146] In the north, the Guiana Highlands form a major drainage divide, separating rivers that flow south into theAmazon Basin from rivers that empty into the Orinoco River system, in Venezuela, to the north. The highest point inBrazil is the Pico da Neblina at 2994 metres (9823 ft), and the lowest is the Atlantic Ocean.[9]

Brazil has a dense and complex system of rivers, one of the world's most extensive, with eight major drainage basins,all of which drain into the Atlantic.[147] Major rivers include the Amazon (the world's second-longest river and thelargest in terms of volume of water), the Paraná and its major tributary the Iguaçu (which includes the Iguazu Falls),the Negro, São Francisco, Xingu, Madeira and Tapajós rivers.[147]

Climate

Snow in São Joaquim, Santa Catarina in 2010 (South) and tropical climate in Cabedelo, Paraiba (Northeast).

The climate of Brazil comprises a wide range of weather conditions across a large area and varied topography, butmost of the country is tropical.[9] According to the Köppen system, Brazil hosts five major climatic subtypes:equatorial, tropical, semiarid, highland tropical, temperate, and subtropical. The different climatic conditionsproduce environments ranging from equatorial rainforests in the north and semiarid deserts in the northeast, totemperate coniferous forests in the south and tropical savannas in central Brazil.[148] Many regions have starklydifferent microclimates.[149] [150]

Brazil 47

An equatorial climate characterizes much of northern Brazil. There is no real dry season, but there are somevariations in the period of the year when most rain falls.[148] Temperatures average 25 °C (77 °F),[150] with moresignificant temperature variation between night and day than between seasons.[149]

Over central Brazil rainfall is more seasonal, characteristic of a savanna climate.[149] This region is as extensive asthe Amazon basin but has a very different climate as it lies farther south at a higher altitude.[148] In the interiornortheast, seasonal rainfall is even more extreme. The semiarid climatic region generally receives less than 800millimetres (31.5 in) of rain,[151] most of which generally falls in a period of three to five months of the year[152] andoccasionally less than this, creating long periods of drought.[149] Brazil's 1877–78 Grande Seca (Great Drought), themost severe ever recorded in Brazil,[153] caused approximately half a million deaths.[154] The one from 1915 wasdevastating too.[155]

South of Bahia, near São Paulo, the distribution of rainfall changes, with rain falling throughout the year .[148] Thesouth enjoys temperate conditions, with cool winters and average annual temperatures not exceeding 18 °C(64.4 °F);[150] winter frosts are quite common, with occasional snowfall in the higher areas.[148] [149]

Biodiversity

The Amazon Rainforest, the largest tropicalforest in the world.

Brazil's large territory comprises different ecosystems, such as theAmazon Rainforest, recognized as having the greatest biologicaldiversity in the world,[156] with the Atlantic Forest and the Cerrado,sustaining the greatest biodiversity.[157] In the south, the Araucariapine forest grows under temperate conditions.[157]

The rich wildlife of Brazil reflects the variety of natural habitats. Muchof it, however, remains largely undocumented, and new species areregularly found. Scientists estimate that the total number of plant andanimal species in Brazil could approach four million.[157]

Larger mammals include pumas, jaguars, ocelots, rare bush dogs, andfoxes; peccaries, tapirs, anteaters, sloths, opossums, and armadillos are abundant. Deer are plentiful in the south, andmany species of New World monkeys are found in the northern rain forests.[157] [158] Concern for the environmenthas grown in response to global interest in environmental issues.[159]

EnvironmentThe natural heritage of Brazil is severely threatened by cattle ranching and agriculture, logging, mining, resettlement,oil and gas extraction, over-fishing, wildlife trade, dams and infrastructure, water contamination, climate change,fire, and invasive species.[156] In many areas of the country, the natural environment is threatened bydevelopment.[160] Construction of highways has opened up previously remote areas for agriculture and settlement;dams have flooded valleys and inundated wildlife habitats; and mines have scarred and polluted the landscape.[159]

[161] At least 70 dams are said to be planned for the Amazon region, including controversial Belo Montehydroelectric dam.[162]

Brazil 48

Politics

The National Congress in Brasília, the capital ofBrazil.

The Brazilian Federation is the "indissoluble union" of three distinctpolitical entities: the States, the Municipalities and the FederalDistrict.[12] The Union, the states and the Federal District, and themunicipalities, are the "spheres of government." The Federation is seton five fundamental principles:[12] sovereignty, citizenship, dignity ofhuman beings, the social values of labour and freedom of enterprise,and political pluralism. The classic tripartite branches of government(executive, legislative, and judicial under the checks and balancessystem), is formally established by the Constitution.[12] The executiveand legislative are organized independently in all three spheres ofgovernment, while the judiciary is organized only at the federal andstate/Federal District spheres.

All members of the executive and legislative branches are directly elected.[163] [164] [165] Judges and other judicialofficials are appointed after passing entry exams.[163] Brazil has a multi-party system for most of its history. Votingis compulsory for the literate between 18 and 70 years old and optional for illiterates and those between 16 and 18 orbeyond 70.[12] Together with several smaller parties, four political parties stand out: Workers' Party (PT), BrazilianSocial Democracy Party (PSDB), Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (PMDB), and Democrats (DEM). Almostall governmental and administrative functions are exercised by authorities and agencies affiliated to the Executive.

The form of government is that of a democratic republic, with a presidential system.[12] The president is both head ofstate and head of government of the Union and is elected for a four-year term,[12] with the possibility of re-electionfor a second successive term. The current president is Dilma Rousseff who was inaugurated on January 1, 2011.[166]

The President appoints the Ministers of State, who assist in government.[12] Legislative houses in each politicalentity are the main source of law in Brazil. The National Congress is the Federation's bicameral legislature,consisting of the Chamber of Deputies and the Federal Senate. Judiciary authorities exercise jurisdictional dutiesalmost exclusively.Fifteen political parties are represented in Congress. It is common for politicians to switch parties, and thus theproportion of congressional seats held by particular parties changes regularly. The largest political parties are theWorkers' Party (PT), Democrats (DEM), Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (PMDB-center), Brazilian SocialDemocratic Party (PSDB), Progressive Party (PP), Brazilian Labor Party (PTB), Liberal Party (PL), BrazilianSocialist Party (PSB), Popular Socialist Party (PPS), Democratic Labor Party (PDT), and the Communist Party ofBrazil (PCdoB).[167]

Law

Supreme Federal Court building at the Praça dosTrês Poderes.

Brazilian law is based on Roman-Germanic traditions[168] and civil lawconcepts prevail over common law practice. Most of Brazilian law iscodified, although non-codified statutes also represent a substantialpart, playing a complementary role. Court decisions set out interpretiveguidelines; however, they are seldom binding on other specific cases.Doctrinal works and the works of academic jurists have stronginfluence in law creation and in law cases.

The legal system is based on the Federal Constitution, which waspromulgated on 5 October 1988, and is the fundamental law of Brazil.

Brazil 49

All other legislation and court decisions must conform to its rules.[169] As of April 2007, there have been 53amendments. States have their own constitutions, which must not contradict the Federal Constitution.[170]

Municipalities and the Federal District have "organic laws" (leis orgânicas), which act in a similar way toconstitutions.[12] [171] Legislative entities are the main source of statutes, although in certain matters judiciary andexecutive bodies may enact legal norms.[12] Jurisdiction is administered by the judiciary entities, although in raresituations the Federal Constitution allows the Federal Senate to pass on legal judgments.[12] There are alsospecialized military, labor, and electoral courts.[12] The highest court is the Supreme Federal Court.This system has been criticised over the last few decades for the slow pace of decision making. Lawsuits on appealmay take several years to resolve, and in some cases more than a decade elapses before definitive rulings.[172]

Nevertheless, the Supreme Federal Tribunal was the first court in the world to transmit its sessions on television, andalso via YouTube.[173] [174] More recently, in December 2009, the Supreme Court adopted Twitter to display itemson the day planner of the ministers, to inform the daily actions of the Court and the most important decisions madeby them.[175]

Brazil continues to have high crime rates in a number of statistics, despite recent improvements. More than 500,000people have been killed by firearms in Brazil between 1979 and 2003, according to a new report by the UnitedNations.[176] In 2010, there were 473,600 people incarcerated in Brazilian prisons and jails.[177]

Foreign relations

Itamaraty Palace, headquarters of the Ministry ofForeign Affairs.

Brazil is a political and economic leader in Latin America.[178] [179]

However, social and economic problems prevent it from becoming aneffective global power.[180] Between World War II and 1990, bothdemocratic and military governments sought to expand Brazil'sinfluence in the world by pursuing a state-led industrial policy and anindependent foreign policy. More recently, the country has aimed tostrengthen ties with other South American countries, and engage inmultilateral diplomacy through the United Nations and theOrganization of American States.[181]

Brazil's current foreign policy is based on the country's position as: aregional power in Latin America, a leader among developing countries,and an emerging world power.[182] In general, current Brazilian foreign policy reflects multilateralism, peacefuldispute settlement, and nonintervention in the affairs of other countries.[183] The Brazilian Constitution alsodetermines that the country shall seek the economic, political, social and cultural integration of the nations of LatinAmerica.[12] [184] [185] [186]

An increasingly well-developed tool of Brazil's foreign policy is providing aid as a donor to other developingcountries.[187] Brazil does not just use its growing economic strength to provide financial aid, but it also provideshigh levels of expertise and most importantly of all, a quiet non-confrontational diplomacy to improve governancelevels.[187] Total aid is estimated to be around $1 billion per year that includes:[187]

• technical cooperation of around $480 million ($30 million in 2010 provided directly by the Brazilian CooperationAgency (ABC))

• an estimated $450 million for in-kind expertise provided by Brazilian institutions specialising in technicalcooperation

In addition, Brazil manages a peacekeeping mission in Haiti ($350 million) and makes in-kind contributions to theWorld Food Programme ($300 million).[187] This is in addition to humanitarian assistance and contributions tomultilateral development agencies. The scale of this aid places it on par with China and India and ahead of manywestern donors.[187] The Brazilian South-South aid has been described as a "global model in waiting."[188]

Brazil 50

MilitaryThe armed forces of Brazil consist of the Brazilian Army, the Brazilian Navy, and the Brazilian Air Force. With atotal of 371,199 active personnel,[189] they comprise the largest armed force in Latin America.[190] The Army isresponsible for land-based military operations and has 235,978 active personnel.[191]

The Military Police (States' Military Police) is described as an ancillary force of the Army by the constitution, but isunder the control of each state's governor.[12] The Navy is responsible for naval operations and for guardingBrazilian territorial waters. It is the oldest of the Brazilian armed forces and the only navy in Latin America tooperate an aircraft carrier, the NAe São Paulo (formerly FS Foch of the French Navy).[192] The Air Force is theaerial warfare branch of the Brazilian armed forces, and the largest air force in Latin America, with about 700manned aircraft in service.[193]

Administrative divisions

AtlanticOcean

PacificOcean

North RegionNortheast Region

Central-West RegionSoutheast Region

South RegionAcre

AmazonasPará

Brazil 51

RoraimaAmapá

RondôniaTocantinsMaranhão

BahiaPiauíCeará

Rio Grandedo NorteParaíba

PernambucoAlagoasSergipe

Mato GrossoMato Grosso

do SulFederalDistrictGoiás

Minas GeraisSão Paulo

Rio de JaneiroEspírito Santo

ParanáSanta Catarina

Rio Grandedo Sul

Argentina

Bolivia

Chile

Colombia

French Guiana

Guyana

Paraguay

Peru

Suriname

Uruguay

Venezuela

Brazil 52

Brazil is a federation composed of 26 States, one federal district (which contains the capital city, Brasília) andmunicipalities.[12] States have autonomous administrations, collect their own taxes and receive a share of taxescollected by the Federal government. They have a governor and a unicameral legislative body elected directly bytheir voters. They also have independent Courts of Law for common justice. Despite this, states have much lessautonomy to create their own laws than in the United States. For example, criminal and civil laws can only be votedby the federal bicameral Congress and are uniform throughout the country.[12]

The states and the federal district may be grouped into regions: Northern, Northeast, Central-West, Southeast andSouthern. The Brazilian regions are merely geographical, not political or administrative divisions, and they do nothave any specific form of government. Although defined by law, Brazilian regions are useful mainly for statisticalpurposes, and also to define the application of federal funds in development projects.Municipalities, as the states, have autonomous administrations, collect their own taxes and receive a share of taxescollected by the Union and state government.[12] Each has a mayor and an elected legislative body, but no separateCourt of Law. Indeed, a Court of Law organized by the state can encompass many municipalities in a single justiceadministrative division called comarca (county).

Economy

An Embraer ERJ-135 commercial jet. Brazil isthe world's third largest aircraft producer.

Brazil is the largest national economy in Latin America, the world'sseventh largest economy at market exchange rates and the eighthlargest in purchasing power parity (PPP), according to the InternationalMonetary Fund and the World Bank. Brazil has a Mixed economy withabundant natural resources. The Brazilian economy has been predictedto become one of the five largest in the world in the decades to come,the GDP per capita following and growing.[194] Its current GDP (PPP)per capita is $10,200, putting Brazil in the 64th position according toWorld Bank data. It has large and developed agricultural, mining,manufacturing and service sectors, as well as a large labor pool.[195]

Brazilian exports are booming, creating a new generation oftycoons.[196] Major export products include aircraft, electrical equipment, automobiles, ethanol, textiles, footwear,iron ore, steel, coffee, orange juice, soybeans and corned beef.[197] The country has been expanding its presence ininternational financial and commodities markets, and is one of a group of four emerging economies called the BRICcountries.[198]

Brazil pegged its currency, the real, to the U.S. dollar in 1994. However, after the East Asian financial crisis, theRussian default in 1998[199] and the series of adverse financial events that followed it, the Central Bank of Braziltemporarily changed its monetary policy to a managed-float scheme while undergoing a currency crisis, untildefinitively changing the exchange regime to free-float in January 1999.[200]

Brazil received an International Monetary Fund rescue package in mid-2002 of $30.4 billion,[201] then a record sum.Brazil's central bank paid back the IMF loan in 2005, although it was not due to be repaid until 2006.[202] One of theissues the Central Bank of Brazil recently dealt with was an excess of speculative short-term capital inflows to thecountry, which may have contributed to a fall in the value of the U.S. dollar against the real during that period.[203]

Nonetheless, foreign direct investment (FDI), related to long-term, less speculative investment in production, isestimated to be $193.8 billion for 2007.[204] Inflation monitoring and control currently plays a major part in theCentral bank's role of setting out short-term interest rates as a monetary policy measure.[205]

Between 1993 and 2010, 7'012 mergers & acquisitions with a total known value of $707 billion with the involvement of Brazlian firms have been announced.[206] The year 2010 was a new record in terms of value with 115 bil. USD of transactions. The largest transaction with involvement of Brazilian companies has been: Cia Vale do Rio Doce

Brazil 53

acquired Inco in a tender offer valued at $18.9 billion USD.

Components and energy

Itaipu Dam, the world's largest hydroelectricplant by energy generation and second-largest by

installed capacity.

Brazil's economy is diverse,[207] encompassing agriculture, industry,and many services.[196] [208] [209] [210] The recent economic strengthhas been due in part to a global boom in commodities prices withexports from beef to soybeans soaring.[209] [210] Agriculture and alliedsectors like forestry, logging and fishing accounted for 5.1% of thegross domestic product in 2007,[211] a performance that putsagribusiness in a position of distinction in terms of Brazil's tradebalance, in spite of trade barriers and subsidizing policies adopted bythe developed countries.[212] [213]

The industry — from automobiles, steel and petrochemicals tocomputers, aircraft, and consumer durables— accounted for 30.8% ofthe gross domestic product.[211] Industry, which is often

technologically advanced, is highly concentrated in metropolitan São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Campinas, Porto Alegre,and Belo Horizonte.[214]

Brazil is the world's tenth largest energy consumer with much of its energy coming from renewable sources,particularly hydroelectricity and ethanol; nonrenewable energy is mainly produced from oil and natural gas.[215] Aglobal power in agriculture and natural resources, Brazil experienced tremendous economic growth over the pastthree decades.[216] It is expected to become a major oil producer and exporter, having recently made huge oildiscoveries.[217] [218] [219] The governmental agencies responsible for the energy policy are the Ministry of Minesand Energy, the National Council for Energy Policy, the National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels,and the National Agency of Electricity.[220] [221]

Science and technology

Brazilian National Laboratory of SynchrotronLight in Campinas.

Technological research in Brazil is largely carried out in publicuniversities and research institutes. But more than 73% of funding forbasic research still comes from government sources.[222] Some ofBrazil's most notable technological hubs are the Oswaldo CruzInstitute, the Butantan Institute, the Air Force's Aerospace TechnicalCenter, the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation and the INPE.The Brazilian Space Agency has the most advanced space program inLatin America, with significant capabilities in launch vehicles, launchsites and satellite manufacturing.[223]

Uranium is enriched at the Resende Nuclear Fuel Factory to fuel the country's energy demands and plans areunderway to build the country's first nuclear submarine.[224] Brazil is one of the three countries in Latin America[225]

with an operational Synchrotron Laboratory, a research facility on physics, chemistry, material science and lifesciences. And Brazil is the first and only Latin American country to have a semiconductor company with its own fab,the CEITEC.[226]

Brazil 54

Transport

BR-116 highway in the outskirts of Fortaleza.

Brazil has a large and diverse transport network. Roads are the primarycarriers of freight and passenger traffic. The road system totaled 1.98million km (1.23 million mi) in 2002. The total of paved roadsincreased from 35,496 km (22,056 mi) in 1967 to 184,140 km(114,425 mi) in 2002.[227]

Recife Airport.

Brazil's railway system has been declining since 1945, when emphasisshifted to highway construction. The total length of railway track was30,875 km (19,186 mi) in 2002, as compared with 31,848 km(19,789 mi) in 1970. Most of the railway system belongs to the FederalRailroad Corp., with a majority government interest. The governmentalso privatized seven lines in 1997.[228] The São Paulo Metro was thefirst underground transit system in Brazil. The other metro systems arein Rio de Janeiro, Porto Alegre, Recife, Belo Horizonte, Brasília,Teresina, Fortaleza, and Salvador.

There are about 2,500 airports in Brazil, including landing fields: thesecond largest number in the world, after the United States.[229] São Paulo-Guarulhos International Airport, near SãoPaulo, is the largest and busiest airport, handling the vast majority of popular and commercial traffic of the countryand connecting the city with virtually all major cities across the world.[230]

Coastal shipping links widely separated parts of the country. Bolivia and Paraguay have been given free ports atSantos. Of the 36 deep-water ports, Santos, Itajaí, Rio Grande, Paranaguá, Rio de Janeiro, Sepetiba, Vitória, Suape,Manaus and São Francisco do Sul are some of the most important.[231]

Demographics

Colour/Race (2008)

White 48.43%

Brown (Multiracial) 43.80%

Black 6.84%

Asian 0.58%

Amerindian 0.28%

The population of Brazil, as recorded by the 2008 PNAD, was approximately 190 million[232] (22.31 inhabitants per square kilometer), with a ratio of men to women. of 0.95:1[233] and 83.75% of the population defined as urban.[234]

The population is heavily concentrated in the Southeastern (79.8 million inhabitants) and Northeastern (53.5 million inhabitants) regions, while the two most extensive regions, the Center-West and the North, which together make up

Brazil 55

64.12% of the Brazilian territory, have a total of only 29.1 million inhabitants.Brazil's population increased significantly between 1940 and 1970, due to a decline in the mortality rate, even thoughthe birth rate underwent a slight decline. In the 1940s the annual population growth rate was 2.4%, rising to 3.0% inthe 1950s and remaining at 2.9% in the 1960s, as life expectancy rose from 44 to 54 years[235] and to 72.6 years in2007.[236] It has been steadily falling since the 1960s, from 3.04% per year between 1950–1960 to 1.05% in 2008and is expected to fall to a negative value of –0.29% by 2050 [237] thus completing the demographic transition.[238]

According to the National Research by Household Sample (PNAD) of 2008, 48.43% of the population (about 92million) described themselves as White; 43.80% (about 83 million) as Brown (Multiracial), 6.84% (about 13 million)as Black; 0.58% (about 1.1 million) as Asian; and 0.28% (about 536 thousand) as Amerindian, while 0.07% (about130 thousand) did not declare their race.[1]

In 2007, the National Indian Foundation reported the existence of 67 different uncontacted tribes, up from 40 in2005. Brazil is believed to have the largest number of uncontacted peoples in the world.[239]

Most Brazilians descend from the country's indigenous peoples, Portuguese settlers, and African slaves.[240] Sincethe arrival of the Portuguese in 1500, considerable intermarriage between these three groups has taken place. Thebrown population (as multiracial Brazilians are officially called; pardo in Portuguese)[241] [242] is a broad categorythat includes Caboclos (descendants of Whites and Indians), Mulattoes (descendants of Whites and Blacks) andCafuzos (descendants of Blacks and Indians).[240] [241] [242] [243] [244] [245] Caboclos form the majority of thepopulation in the Northern, Northeastern and Central-Western regions.[246] A large Mulatto population can be foundin the eastern coast of the northeastern region from Bahia to Paraíba[245] [247] and also in northern Maranhão,[248]

[249] southern Minas Gerais[250] and in eastern Rio de Janeiro.[245] [250] From the 19th century, Brazil opened itsborders to immigration. About five million people from over 60 countries migrated to Brazil between 1808 and1972, most of them from Portugal, Italy, Spain, Germany, Japan and the Middle-East.[251]

In 2008, the illiteracy rate was 11.48%[252] and among the youth (ages 15–19) 1.74%. It was highest (20.30%) in theNortheast, which had a large proportion of rural poor.[253] Illiteracy was high (24.18%) among the rural populationand lower (9.05%) among the urban population.[254]

Religion

Religion in Brazil (2000 Census)[255]

Religion Percent

Roman Catholicism 73.8%

Protestantism 15.4%

No religion 7.4%

Spiritism 1.3%

Others 2.1%

Roman Catholicism is the country's predominant faith. Brazil has the world's largest Catholic population.[256]

According to the 2000 Demographic Census (the PNAD survey does not inquire about religion), 73.57% of thepopulation followed Roman Catholicism; 15.41% Protestantism; 1.33% Kardecist spiritism; 1.22% other Christiandenominations; 0.31% Afro-Brazilian religions; 0.13% Buddhism; 0.05% Judaism; 0.02% Islam; 0.01% Amerindianreligions; 0.59% other religions, undeclared or undetermined; while 7.35% have no religion.[255]

However, in the last ten years Protestantism, particularly Pentecostal Protestantism, while the proportion of Catholicshas dropped sharply.

Brazil 56

UrbanizationThe largest metropolitan areas in Brazil are São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Belo Horizonte — all in the SoutheasternRegion — with 19.5, 11.5, and 5.1 million inhabitants respectively.[257] Almost all of the state capitals are the largestcities in their states, except for Vitória, the capital of Espírito Santo, and Florianópolis, the capital of Santa Catarina.There are also non-capital metropolitan areas in the states of São Paulo (Campinas, Santos and the Paraíba Valley),Minas Gerais (Steel Valley), Rio Grande do Sul (Sinos Valley), and Santa Catarina (Itajaí Valley).[258]

Language

Museum of the Portuguese Language in SãoPaulo, the first language museum in the world.

The official language of Brazil is Portuguese,[10] which almost all ofthe population speaks and is virtually the only language used innewspapers, radio, television, and for business and administrativepurposes. The exception to this is in the municipality of São Gabriel daCachoeira where Nheengatu, an indigenous language of SouthAmerica, has been granted co-official status with Portuguese.[260]

Brazil is the only Portuguese-speaking nation in the Americas, makingthe language an important part of Brazilian national identity and givingit a national culture distinct from those of its Spanish-speakingneighbors.[261]

Brazilian Portuguese has had its own development, influenced by theAmerindian and African languages.[262] As a result, the language is somewhat different, mostly in phonology, fromthe language of Portugal and other Portuguese-speaking countries. These differences are comparable to thosebetween American and British English.[262]

In 2008, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), which included representatives from allcountries with Portuguese as the official language, reached an agreement on the reform of Portuguese into oneinternational language, as opposed to two diverged dialects of the same language. All CPLP countries were givenfrom 2009 until 2014 to adjust to the necessary changes.[263]

Minority languages are spoken throughout the nation. One hundred and eighty Amerindian languages are spoken inremote areas and a number of other languages are spoken by immigrants and their descendants.[262] There aresignificant communities of German (mostly the Hunsrückisch, a High German language dialect) and Italian (mostlythe Talian dialect, of Venetian origin) speakers in the south of the country, both of which are influenced by thePortuguese language.[264] [265] Brazil is the first country in South America to offer Esperanto to High Schoolstudents.[266]

CultureThe core culture of Brazil is derived from Portuguese culture, because of its strong colonial ties with the Portugueseempire. Among other influences, the Portuguese introduced the Portuguese language, Roman Catholicism andcolonial architectural styles.[267] The culture was, however, also strongly influenced by African, indigenous andnon-Portuguese European cultures and traditions.[268] Some aspects of Brazilian culture were influenced by thecontributions of Italian, German and other European immigrants who arrived in large numbers in the South andSoutheast of Brazil.[269] The indigenous Amerindians influenced Brazil's language and cuisine; and the Africansinfluenced language, cuisine, music, dance and religion.[270]

Brazil 57

Machado de Assis, poet and novelistwhose work extends to almost all

literary genres, is widely regarded asthe greatest Brazilian writer.[271]

Brazilian art has developed since the 16th century into different styles that rangefrom Baroque (the dominant style in Brazil until the early 19th century)[272] [273]

to Romanticism, Modernism, Expressionism, Cubism, Surrealism andAbstractionism.

Brazilian cinema dates back to the birth of the medium in the late 19th centuryand has gained a new level of international acclaim in recent years.[274]

Music

Brazilian music encompasses various regional styles influenced by African,European and Amerindian forms. It developed distinctive styles, among themsamba, MPB, choro, Sertanejo, brega, forró, frevo, maracatu, bossa nova, andaxé.

Literature

Brazilian literature dates back to the 16th century, to the writings of the first Portuguese explorers in Brazil, such asPêro Vaz de Caminha, filled with descriptions of fauna, flora and natives that amazed Europeans that arrived inBrazil.[275] Brazil produced significant works in Romanticism — novelists like Joaquim Manuel de Macedo and Joséde Alencar wrote novels about love and pain. Alencar, in his long career, also treated Indigenous people as heroes inthe Indigenist novels O Guarany, Iracema, Ubirajara.[276]

Cuisine

Feijoada, a dish made with black beans, pork,rice, collard greens, cassava flour and orange

Brazilian cuisine varies greatly by region, reflecting the country's mixof native and immigrant populations. This has created a nationalcuisine marked by the preservation of regional differences.[277]

Examples are Feijoada, considered the country's national dish;[278] andregional foods such as vatapá, moqueca, polenta and acarajé.[279]

Brazil has a variety of candies such as brigadeiros (chocolate fudgeballs), cocada (a coconut sweet), beijinhos (coconut truffles and clove)and romeu e julieta (cheese with a guava jam known as goiabada).Peanut is used to make paçoca, rapadura and pé-de-moleque. Localcommon fruits like açaí, cupuaçu, mango, papaya, cocoa, cashew,guava, orange, passionfruit, pineapple, and hog plum are turned injuices and used to make chocolates, popsicles and ice cream.[280]

Popular snacks are pastel (a pastry), coxinha (chicken croquete), pão de queijo (cheese bread and cassava flour /tapioca), pamonha (corn and milk paste), esfirra (Lebanese pastry), kibbeh (from Arabic cuisine), empanada (pastry)and empada little salt pies filled with shrimps or hearth of palm.

But the everyday meal consist mosty of rice and beans with beef and salad.[281] Its common to mix it with cassavaflour (farofa). Fried potatoes, fried cassava, fried banana, fried meat and fried cheese are very often eaten in lunchand served in most typical restaurants.[282]

The national beverage is coffee and cachaça is Brazil's native liquor. Cachaça is distilled from sugar cane and is themain ingredient in the national cocktail, Caipirinha.

Brazil 58

Sports

Football (soccer) is the most popular sport inBrazil.[283]

The most popular sport in Brazil is football (soccer). The Braziliannational football team is ranked among the best in the world accordingto the FIFA World Rankings, and has won the World Cup tournamenta record five times.[284] Basketball, volleyball, auto racing, and martialarts also attract large audiences. Brazil men's national volleyball team,for example, currently holds the titles of the World League, WorldGrand Champions Cup, World Championship and the World Cup.Others sports practiced in Brazil are tennis, team handball, swimming,and gymnastics have found a growing number of enthusiasts over thelast decades. Some sport variations have their origins in Brazil: beachfootball,[285] futsal (indoor football)[286] and footvolley emerged inBrazil as variations of football. In martial arts, Brazilians developedCapoeira,[287] Vale tudo,[288] and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu.[289] In auto racing, three Brazilian drivers have won theFormula One world championship eight times.[290] [291] [292]

Brazil has hosted several high-profile international sporting events, including the 1950 FIFA World Cup[293] and hasbeen chosen to host the 2014 FIFA World Cup.[294] The São Paulo circuit, Autódromo José Carlos Pace, hosts theannual Grand Prix of Brazil.[295] São Paulo organized the IV Pan American Games in 1963,[296] and Rio de Janeirohosted the XV Pan American Games in 2007.[296] On 2 October 2009, Rio de Janeiro was selected to host the 2016Olympic Games, the first to be held in South America[297] and second in Latin America after Mexico.In May 2010 Brazil launched TV Brasil Internacional, an international television station, initially broadcasting to 49countries. Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, former President of Brazil, described its aim as "presenting Brazil to theworld."[298]

References[1] 2008 PNAD, IBGE. " População residente por cor ou raça, situação e sexo (http:/ / www. sidra. ibge. gov. br/ bda/ tabela/ protabl.

asp?c=262& i=P& nome=on& notarodape=on& tab=262& unit=0& pov=3& opc1=1& poc2=1& OpcTipoNivt=1& opn1=2& nivt=0&orc86=3& poc1=1& orp=6& qtu3=27& opv=1& poc86=2& sec1=0& opc2=1& pop=1& opn2=0& orv=2& orc2=5& qtu2=5& sev=93&sev=1000093& opc86=1& sec2=0& opp=1& opn3=0& sec86=0& sec86=2776& sec86=2777& sec86=2779& sec86=2778& sec86=2780&sec86=2781& ascendente=on& sep=43344& orn=1& qtu7=9& orc1=4& qtu1=1& cabec=on& pon=1& OpcCara=44& proc=1& opn7=0&decm=99)."

[2] IBGE. Censo 2010: população do Brasil é de 190.732.694 pessoas (http:/ / www. ibge. gov. br/ home/ presidencia/ noticias/ noticia_visualiza.php?id_noticia=1766& id_pagina=1).

[3] "Brazil" (http:/ / www. imf. org/ external/ pubs/ ft/ weo/ 2011/ 01/ weodata/ weorept. aspx?sy=2008& ey=2011& scsm=1& ssd=1&sort=country& ds=. & br=1& c=223& s=NGDPD,NGDPDPC,PPPGDP,PPPPC,LP& grp=0& a=& pr. x=25& pr. y=4). InternationalMonetary Fund. . Retrieved 2011-04-21.

[4] Peduzzi, Pedro (2009-08-04). "Desigualdade e pobreza continuaram caindo no Brasil mesmo com crise, revela Ipea" (http:/ / www.rumosustentavel. com. br/ desigualdade-e-pobreza-continuaram-caindo-no-brasil-mesmo-com-crise-revela-ipea/ ) (in Portuguese). AgênciaBrasil. . Retrieved 2009-10-18.

[5] UNDP Human Development Report 2010. "Table H: Human development index 2010 and its components" (http:/ / hdr. undp. org/ en/ media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete. pdf) (PDF). UNDP. . Retrieved 2010-11-02.

[6] "Hora Legal Brasileira" (http:/ / pcdsh01. on. br/ Fusbr. htm). Observatório Nacional. . Retrieved 2009-02-21.[7] As on for example the national website (http:/ / www. brasil. gov. br/ ?set_language=en).[8] Mugnier, Clifford (January 2009). Grids & Datums – Federative Republic of Brazil (http:/ / www. asprs. org/ resources/ GRIDS/

01-2009-brazil. pdf). .[9] "Geography of Brazil" (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ br. html). Central Intelligence Agency. 2008.

. Retrieved 2008-06-03.[10] "People of Brazil" (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ br. html). Central Intelligence Agency. 2008. .

Retrieved 2008-06-03.[11] "Introduction of Brazil" (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ br. html). Central Intelligence Agency.

2008. . Retrieved 2008-06-03.

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[12] "Brazilian Federal Constitution" (http:/ / www. planalto. gov. br/ ccivil_03/ Constituicao/ Constituiçao. htm) (in Portuguese). Presidency ofthe Republic. 1988. . Retrieved 2008-06-03. "Brazilian Federal Constitution" (http:/ / www. v-brazil. com/ government/ laws/ titleI. html).v-brazil.com. 2007. . Retrieved 2008-06-03. "Unofficial translate"

[13] "Territorial units of the municipality level" (http:/ / www. sidra. ibge. gov. br/ bda/ territorio/ tabunit. asp?n=6& t=2& z=t& o=4) (inPortuguese). Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics. 2008. . Retrieved 2008-06-03.

[14] " World Development Indicators database (http:/ / siteresources. worldbank. org/ DATASTATISTICS/ Resources/ GDP. pdf)" (PDF file),World Bank, 7 October 2009.

[15] "CIA – The World Factbook – Country Comparisons – GDP (purchasing power parity)" (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/the-world-factbook/ rankorder/ 2001rank. html). Cia.gov. . Retrieved 25 January 2011.

[16] Clendenning, Alan (2008-04-17). "Booming Brazil could be world power soon" (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ money/ economy/2008-04-17-310212789_x. htm). USA Today – The Associated Press. p. 2. . Retrieved 2008-12-12.

[17] (Portuguese) Eduardo Bueno, Brasil: uma História (São Paulo: Ática, 2003; ISBN 8508082134), p.36.[18] CNRTL (http:/ / www. cnrtl. fr/ etymologie/ brésil) – Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales (French)[19] Michaelis (http:/ / michaelis. uol. com. br/ moderno/ portugues/ index. php?lingua=portugues-portugues& palavra=brasil) – Moderno

Dicionário da Língua Portuguesa (Portuguese)[20] iDicionário Aulete (http:/ / aulete. uol. com. br/ site. php?mdl=aulete_digital& op=loadVerbete& pesquisa=1& palavra=brasil)

(Portuguese)[21] (Portuguese) " República Federativa do Brasil (http:/ / www. enciclopedia. com. pt/ articles. php?article_id=486)". Consulted on October

9, 2010.[22] [Tolkien, J. R. R., On Fairy Stories, (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1964) p. 13. ],- Tolkien refers to the theory as well established in his

1947 essay.[23] Boxer, p. 98.[24] Boxer, p. 100.[25] Boxer, pp. 100–101.[26] Skidmore, p. 27.[27] Boxer, p. 101.[28] Boxer, p. 108[29] Boxer, p. 102.[30] Skidmore, pp. 30, 32.[31] Skidmore, p. 36.[32] Boxer, p. 110[33] Skidmore, p. 34.[34] Skidmore, pp. 32–33.[35] Bueno, pp. 80–81.[36] Facsimiles of multiple original documents (http:/ / www. s4ulanguages. com/ wic. html) relating about the events in Brazil in the 17th

century that led to a Dutch influence and their final defeat[37] Calmon, p. 294.[38] Bueno, p. 86.[39] Boxer, p. 164.[40] Boxer, pp. 168, 170.[41] Boxer, p. 169.[42] Boxer, p. 207.[43] Boxer, p. 213.[44] Bueno, p. 145.[45] Calmon (2002), p. 191.[46] Barman (1999), pp.18, 27[47] Lustosa, pp. 109–110[48] Lustosa, pp. 117–119[49] Lustosa, pp. 150–153[50] Vianna, p. 418[51] Hendrik Kraay apud Lorenzo Aldé, Revista de História da Biblioteca Nacional, issue 50, year 5 (Rio de Janeiro: SABIN, 2009), p. 20[52] Sérgio Buarque de Holanda, O Brasil Monárquico: o processo de emancipação, 4th ed. (São Paulo: Difusão Européia do Livro, 1976),

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Brazil 65

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Brazil 67

Bibliographic• Azevedo, Aroldo. O Brasil e suas regiões. São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1971. (Portuguese)

• Barman, Roderick J. Citizen Emperor: Pedro II and the Making of Brazil, 1825–1891. Stanford: StanfordUniversity Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8047-3510-7 (English)

• Boxer, Charles R.. O império marítimo português 1415–1825. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2002. ISBN8535902929 (Portuguese)

• Bueno, Eduardo. Brasil: uma História. São Paulo: Ática, 2003. (Portuguese) ISBN 8508082134• Calmon, Pedro. História da Civilização Brasileira. Brasília: Senado Federal, 2002. (Portuguese)

• Carvalho, José Murilo de. D. Pedro II. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2007. (Portuguese)

• Coelho, Marcos Amorim. Geografia do Brasil. 4th ed. São Paulo: Moderna, 1996. (Portuguese)

• Diégues, Fernando. A revolução brasílica. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2004. (Portuguese)

• Enciclopédia Barsa. Volume 4: Batráquio – Camarão, Filipe. Rio de Janeiro: Encyclopædia Britannica do Brasil,1987. (Portuguese)

• Fausto, Boris and Devoto, Fernando J. Brasil e Argentina: Um ensaio de história comparada (1850–2002), 2nded. São Paulo: Editoria 34, 2005. ISBN 8573263083(Portuguese)

• Gaspari, Elio. A ditadura envergonhada. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2002. ISBN 8535902775(Portuguese)

• Janotti, Aldo. O Marquês de Paraná: inícios de uma carreira política num momento crítico da história danacionalidade. Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1990. (Portuguese)

• Lyra, Heitor. História de Dom Pedro II (1825–1891): Ascenção (1825–1870). v.1. Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1977.(Portuguese)

• Lyra, Heitor. História de Dom Pedro II (1825–1891): Declínio (1880–1891). v.3. Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1977.(Portuguese)

• Lustosa, Isabel. D. Pedro I: um herói sem nenhum caráter. São Paulo: Companhia das letras, 2006. ISBN8535908072 (Portuguese)

• Moreira, Igor A. G. O Espaço Geográfico, geografia geral e do Brasil. 18. Ed. São Paulo: Ática, 1981.(Portuguese)

• Munro, Dana Gardner. The Latin American Republics; A History. New York: D. Appleton, 1942. (English)

• Schwarcz, Lilia Moritz. As barbas do Imperador: D. Pedro II, um monarca nos trópicos. 2nd ed. São Paulo:Companhia das Letras, 1998. ISBN 8571648379 (Portuguese)

• Skidmore, Thomas E. Uma História do Brasil. 4th ed. São Paulo: Paz e Terra, 2003. (Portuguese) ISBN8521903138

• Souza, Adriana Barreto de. Duque de Caxias: o homem por trás do monumento. Rio de Janeiro: CivilizaçãoBrasileira, 2008. (Portuguese) ISBN 9788520008645

• Vainfas, Ronaldo. Dicionário do Brasil Imperial. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2002. ISBN 8573024410 (Portuguese)

• Vesentini, José William. Brasil, sociedade e espaço – Geografia do Brasil. 7th Ed. São Paulo: Ática, 1988.(Portuguese)

• Vianna, Hélio. História do Brasil: período colonial, monarquia e república, 15th ed. São Paulo: Melhoramentos,1994. (Portuguese)

Brazil 68

Further reading• Alves, Maria Helena Moreira (1985). State and Opposition in Military Brazil. Austin, TX: University of Texas

Press.• Amann, Edmund (1990). The Illusion of Stability: The Brazilian Economy under Cardoso. World Development

(pp. 1805–1819).• "Background Note: Brazil" (http:/ / www. state. gov/ r/ pa/ ei/ bgn/ 35640. htm). US Department of State.

Retrieved 2011-06-16.• Bellos, Alex (2003). Futebol: The Brazilian Way of Life. London: Bloomsbury Publishing plc.• Bethell, Leslie (1991). Colonial Brazil. Cambridge: CUP.• Costa, João Cruz (1964). A History of Ideas in Brazil. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.• Fausto, Boris (1999). A Concise History of Brazil. Cambridge: CUP.• Furtado, Celso. The Economic Growth of Brazil: A Survey from Colonial to Modern Times. Berkeley, CA:

University of California Press.• Leal, Victor Nunes (1977). Coronelismo: The Municipality and Representative Government in Brazil. Cambridge:

CUP.• Malathronas, John (2003). Brazil: Life, Blood, Soul. Chichester: Summersdale.• Martinez-Lara, Javier (1995). Building Democracy in Brazil: The Politics of Constitutional Change. Macmillan.• Prado Júnior, Caio (1967). The Colonial Background of Modern Brazil. Los Angeles, CA: University of

California Press.• Schneider, Ronald (1995). Brazil: Culture and Politics in a New Economic Powerhouse. Boulder Westview.• Skidmore, Thomas E. (1974). Black Into White: Race and Nationality in Brazilian Thought. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.• Wagley, Charles (1963). An Introduction to Brazil. New York, New York: Columbia University Press.• The World Almanac and Book of Facts: Brazil. New York, NY: World Almanac Books. 2006.

External links• Tourist Guide of Brazil (http:/ / www. obamonteverde. com. br/ )• Brazil Business Guide (http:/ / www. brazil-factoid. com/ doing-business-in-brazil. html/ )• Brazilian Federal Government (http:/ / www. brasil. gov. br/ ?set_language=en)• Chief of State and Cabinet Members (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ world-leaders-1/

world-leaders-b/ brazil. html)• Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (http:/ / www. ibge. gov. br/ english/ )• Information and Pictures Tourism of Brazil (http:/ / www. ptbrazil. com/ )• Brazil (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ br. html) entry at The World

Factbook• Brazil (http:/ / ucblibraries. colorado. edu/ govpubs/ for/ brazil. htm) at UCB Libraries GovPubs• Brazil (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Regional/ South_America/ Brazil/ ) at the Open Directory Project• Country Profile (http:/ / lcweb2. loc. gov/ frd/ cs/ brtoc. html) from the U.S. Library of Congress (1997)• Brazil travel guide from Wikitravel• Video report on Brazil in 1961 (http:/ / www. itnsource. com/ shotlist/ / BHC_ITN/ 1961/ 10/ 12/ X12106101/ )kbd:Бразил xmf:ბრაზილია

States of Brazil 69

States of Brazil

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Atlantic OceanAtlanticOceanPacific OceanPacificOceanNorth Region, BrazilNorth RegionNortheast Region,BrazilNortheast RegionCentral-West Region, BrazilCentral-West RegionSoutheast Region, BrazilSoutheastRegionSouth Region, BrazilSouth RegionAcre (state)AcreAmazonas (Brazilianstate)AmazonasParáRoraimaAmapáRondôniaTocantins (state)TocantinsMaranhãoBahiaPiauíCearáRio Grande doNorteRio Grandedo NorteParaíbaPernambucoAlagoasSergipeMato GrossoMato Grosso do SulMato GrossodoSulBrazilian Federal DistrictFederalDistrictGoiásMinas GeraisSão Paulo (state)São PauloRio de Janeiro (state)Riode JaneiroEspírito SantoParaná (state)ParanáSanta Catarina (state)Santa CatarinaRio Grande do SulRio GrandedoSulArgentinaArgentinaBoliviaBoliviaChileChileColombiaColombiaFrench GuianaFrenchGuianaGuyanaGuyanaParaguayParaguayPeruPeruSurinameSurinameUruguayUruguayVenezuelaVenezuelaThe BrazilFederative Republic of Brazil is a union of twenty-seven Federative Units (PortugueselanguagePortuguese: Unidades Federativas (UF)): twenty-six states (estados; singular estado) and one federal district(Brazilian Federal DistrictDistrito Federal) which contains the capital city, Brasília. The states are generally based onhistorical, conventional borders which have developed over time, though some boundaries are arbitrary. The federaldistrict is not a state in its own right, but shares some characteristics of a state and some of a List of cities inBrazilmunicipality. The Federal District is bordered by the states of Goiás and Minas Gerais. The codes given beloware defined in ISO 3166-2:BR.History The first administrative divisions of Brazil were the Captaincyhereditarycaptaincies (capitanias hereditárias), stretches of land leased to Portuguese noblemen or merchants with a charter tocolonize the land. The captaincies were to be passed from father to son, but the crown retained the power of revokingit, which the king indeed did in the 16th century. Then the vast Portuguese dominion in South America was dividedbetween the State of Brazil, in the southern half, and the State of Maranhão, in the northern half (note that Maranhãoby then referred not only to current Maranhão, but rather to the whole of the AmazoniaAmazon region; the namemarã-nã in Old Tupi language means "wide river", i.e. the Amazon River).After the Iberian Union (1580–1640), theterritory of Portuguese colonial domains in South America was more than doubled, and the land was divided intocaptaincies, royal captaincies and provinces. Unlike Spanish America, the whole territory was united under a singleviceroy, with a seat in Salvador, BahiaSalvador (and after 1763, Rio de Janeiro). This situation contributed later tokeeping Brazil as a unified nation-state and avoiding the fragmentation of the Spanish domains. With independenceof Brazilindependence, in 1822, the colony became an empire and all captaincies were turned into provinces. Mostinternal borders were kept unchanged from the colonial period, generally following natural features such as riversand mountain ridges. Minor changes were made to suit domestic politics (such as the Triângulo Mineiro from Goiásto Minas Gerais, the splitting of Paraná (state)Paraná and the left bank of the São Francisco River from Pernambucoto Bahia), as well as additions resulting from diplomatic settlement of territorial disputes by the end of the 19thcentury (Amapá, Roraima, Palmas). When Brazil became a republic in 1889, all provinces were immediately turnedinto states. In 1943, with the entrance of Brazil into the Second World War, the Getulio VargasVargas regimedetached seven strategic territories from the border of the country in order to administer them directly: Amapá,RoraimaRio Branco, Acre (state)Acre, RondôniaGuaporé, Território de Ponta PorãPonta Porã, Território doIguaçuIguaçu and the archipelago of Fernando de Noronha. After the war, the first three territories became states,with Rio Branco and Guaporé being renamed Roraima and Rondônia, respectively, whilst Ponta Porã and Iguaçu

States of Brazil 70

remained as territories. In 1988, Fernando de Noronha became part of Pernambuco. In 1960, the square-shapedBrazilian Federal DistrictDistrito Federal was carved out of Goiás in preparation for the new capital, Brasília. Theprevious federal district became the state of Guanabara until in 1975 it was merged with the Rio de Janeiro(state)state of Rio de Janeiro, retaining its name and with the Rio de Janeiromunicipality of Rio de Janeiro as itscapital.In 1977, Mato Grosso was split into two states. The northern area retained the name Mato Grosso while thesouthern area became the state of Mato Grosso do Sul, with Campo Grande as its capital. The new Mato Grosso doSul incorporated the territory of Ponta Porã and the northern part of Iguaçu. Central Iguaçu went to Paraná(state)Paraná, and southern Iguaçu went to Santa Catarina (state)Santa Catarina. In 1988, the northern portion ofGoiás became the state of Tocantins (state)Tocantins, with Palmas, TocantinsPalmas as its capital. ProposedDivision of Pará In 2011 a plebiscite will be held in the state of Pará to consult the population about the possibility ofcreation of two other states in its territory. Depending of the results, both new states of Tapajós and Carajás, one ofthem or neither will be created. If the referendum is favorable to the creation of both states, Pará's territory will bereduced to about 25% of its original size and the number of Brazilian states will increase to twenty-eight.1534Capitanias hereditárias1573Two states1709São Paulo at its greatest extent1789InconfidênciaMineira1823Imperial provinces1889At the Start of Republic1943Border territories1990CurrentList of Brazilianstates Flags of Brazilian statesFlagState ISO 3166-2:BRAbbreviationList of capitals of BrazilCapitalList of the statesof Brazil by areaArea (km²) List of the states of Brazil by populationPopulation (2010) List of the states of Brazil bypopulation densityDensity (2010) List of Brazilian states by GDPGDP List of the states of Brazil by GDPparticipation(% total) (2008) List of the states of Brazil by GDP per capitaGDP per capita PPP (R$) (2008) List ofthe states of Brazil by HDIHDI (2007) List of the states of Brazil by literacy rateLiteracy (2009) List of the states ofBrazil by infant mortalityInfant Mortality (2009) List of Brazilian states by life expectancyLife Expectancy (2009)Acre (state)AcreAC Rio Branco152581.4 732793 4.80 6730000 (0.2%) 9896 0.78084% 28.9‰ 72.0 AlagoasALMaceió27767.7 3168922 112.39 19477000 (0.6%) 6227 0.72075% 46.4‰ 67.6 AmapáAP Macapá142814.6 6686894.68 6765000 (0.2%) 11033 0.80097% 22.5‰ 71.0 Amazonas (Brazilian state)AmazonasAM Manaus1570745.73480937 2.21 46823000 (1.6%) 14014 0.80093% 24.3‰ 72.2 BahiaBA Salvador, BrazilSalvador564692.714021432 24.83 121508000 (3.9%) 8378 0.76783% 31.4‰ 72.6 CearáCE Fortaleza148825.6 8448055 56.7660099000 (1.9%) 7112 0.74981% 27.6‰ 71.0 Brazilian Federal DistrictDistrito FederalDF Brasília5822.1 2562963441.74 117572000 (3.8%) 45978 0.90097% 15.8‰ 75.8 Espírito SantoES Vitória, BrazilVitória46077.5 351167276.23 69870000 (2.3%) 20231 0.82192% 17.7‰ 74.3 GoiásGO Goiânia340086.7 6004045 17.65 75275000 (2.5%)12879 0.82491% 18.3‰ 73.9 MaranhãoMA São Luís, MaranhãoSão Luís331983.3 6569683 19.78 38487000 (1.2%)6104 0.72281% 36.5‰ 68.4 Mato GrossoMT Cuiabá903357.9 3033991 3.36 53023000 (1.6%) 17927 0.80890%19.2‰ 73.7 Mato Grosso do SulMS Campo Grande357125.0 2449341 6.85 33145000 (1.1%) 14188 0.83091%16.9‰ 74.3 Minas GeraisMG Belo Horizonte586528.3 19595309 33.40 282522000 (9.1%) 14233 0.82592% 19.1‰75.1 ParáPA Belém1247689.5 7588078 6.08 58519000 (1.9%) 7993 0.78288% 23.0‰ 72.5 ParaíbaPB JoãoPessoa56439.8 3766834 66.74 25697000 (0.9%) 6866 0.75278% 35.2‰ 69.8 Paraná (state)ParanáPRCuritiba199314.9 10439601 52.37 179270000 (6.1%) 16928 0.84693% 17.3‰ 74.7 PernambucoPE Recife98311.68796032 89.47 70441000 (2.3%) 8065 0.74282% 35.7‰ 69.1 PiauíPI Teresina251529.2 3119015 12.40 16761000(0.5%) 5373 0.74076% 26.2‰ 69.7 Rio de Janeiro (state)Rio de JaneiroRJ Rio de Janeiro43696.1 15993583 366.01343182000 (11.2%) 21621 0.85296% 18.3‰ 73.7 Rio Grande do NorteRN Natal, Rio Grande do NorteNatal52796.83168133 60.00 25481000 (0.8%) 8203 0.75382% 32.2‰ 71.1 Rio Grande do SulRS Porto Alegre281748.510695532 37.96 199499000 (6.6%) 20331 0.84795% 12.7‰ 75.5 RondôniaRO Porto Velho237576.2 1560501 6.5617888000 (0.6%) 11977 0.78490% 22.4‰ 71.8 RoraimaRR Boa Vista, RoraimaBoa Vista224299.0 451227 2.014889000 (0.2%) 11845 0.78293% 18.1‰ 70.6 Santa Catarina (state)Santa CatarinaSC Florianópolis95346.26249682 65.54 123283000 (4.1%) 20369 0.86095% 15.0‰ 75.8 São Paulo (state)São PauloSP São Paulo248209.441252160 166.19 1003016000 (33.9%) 24457 0.85795% 14.5‰ 74.8 SergipeSE Aracaju21910.3 2068031 94.8319522000 (0.7%) 9779 0.77084% 31.4‰ 71.6 Tocantins (state)TocantinsTO Palmas, TocantinsPalmas277620.91383453 4.98 13091000 (0.4%) 10233 0.78486% 25.6‰ 71.9 External links Economic statistical data for Brazil's 26

States of Brazil 71

states and federal district (in English, Portuguese, and Spanish) States of Brazil at the Open DirectoryProjectWikimedia Atlas of Brazil Map of Brazil, showing states and their regulartimezoneshttp://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/condicaodevida/indicadoresminimos/sinteseindicsociais2010/SIS_2010.pdf

Brazilian people 72

Brazilian people

Brazilians

(Brasileiros)

(First row:) Emperor Pedro II · Duke of Caxias · Viscount of Mauá · André Rebouças· (Second row:) Carlos Gomes · Machado de Assis · Joaquim Nabuco · Alberto Santos Dumont

· (Third row:) Native Brazilian · Pelé · Ayrton Senna · Fernanda Montenegro· (Fourth row:) Vanessa da Mata · Gisele Bündchen · Sérgio Vieira de Mello · Alice Braga

Total population

c. 192,853,373 Brazilians (2010)

Regions with significant populations

 Brazil        190 million[1]

 United States ~100,000 [2]

 Paraguay ~455,000 [2]

 Japan 136,967 [3]

 Portugal 46,220 [4]

 Spain ~60,000 [5]

 Italy ~27,000 [2]

 United Kingdom 10,000–70,000 [6] [7]

 Germany ~20,000 [2]

 Switzerland ~20,000 [8]

 Argentina 34.712

 Canada ~20,000

 Netherlands ~6,000 [9]

 Chile ~15,000 [2]

Languages

Portuguese (99%)Indigenous languages (0.2%)

German(Hunsrückisch,Pomerisch and Plautdietsch) (0.8%)

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Religion

Predominantly Roman Catholic (70%)Protestantism (19%)

No religious affiliation (7.4%)Spiritism (1.3%)

Afro-Brazilian religions (0.3%)

Related ethnic groups

Portuguese • Italian • Latin Americans • Africans • Indigenous peoples • Japanese • Brasiguayos • Other Lusophone peoples • German • Other europeans

Brazilians (brasileiros in Portuguese) are all people born in Brazil. A Brazilian can be also a person born abroad to aBrazilian parent or a foreigner living in Brazil who applied for Brazilian citizenship.

Who is a Brazilian?According to the Constitution of Brazil, a Brazilian citizen is:• Anyone born in Brazil, even if to foreign parents. However, if the foreign parents were at the service of a foreign

State (like foreign diplomats), the child is not Brazilian;• Anyone born abroad to a Brazilian parent, with registration of birth in a Brazilian Embassy or Consulate. Also, a

person born abroad to a Brazilian parent who was not registered but who, after turning 18 years old, went to livein Brazil;[10]

• A foreigner living in Brazil who applied for and was accepted as a Brazilian citizen (naturalized Brazilian).According to the Constitution, all people who hold Brazilian citizenship are equal, regardless of race, ethnicity,gender or religion.[10]

A foreigner can apply for Brazilian citizenship after living for 15 uninterrupted years in Brazil and being able tospeak Portuguese. A native person from an official Portuguese language country (Portugal, Angola, Mozambique,Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, Guinea Bissau and East Timor) can request the Brazilian nationality after only1 uninterrupted year living in Brazil. A foreign born person who holds Brazilian citizenship has exactly the samerights and duties of the Brazilian citizen by birth, but cannot occupy some special public positions such as thePresidency of the Republic, Vice-presidency of the Republic, Minister (Secretary) of Defense, Presidency (Speaker)of the Senate, Presidency (Speaker) of the House of Representatives, Officer of the Armed Forces and Diplomat.[10]

The Portuguese prerogativeAccording to the Brazilian Constitution, the Portuguese people have a special status in Brazil. Article 12, firstparagraph of the Constitution, grants to citizens of Portugal with permanent residence in Brazil "the rights attachedto Brazilians", excluded from the constitutional prerogatives of Brazilian born. Requirements for the granting ofequality are: habitual residence (permanent), the age of majority and formulation of request from the Minister ofJustice.In Brazil, the Portuguese may require equal treatment with regard to civil rights; moreover, they may ask to begranted political rights granted to Brazilians (except the rights exclusive to the Brazilian born). In the latter case, thisrequires a minimum of three years of permanent residence.The use of citizenship by non-Brazilian nationals (in this case, Portuguese) is a rare exception to the principle thatnationality is a sine qua non for citizenship, granted to the Portuguese - if with reciprocal treatment for the Braziliansin Portugal - due to the historic relationship between the two countries.

Brazilian people 74

Ethnic groupsBrazil is a multiethnic society, which means that it is home to people of many different ethnical backgrounds. As aresult, the people there usually treat their nationality as a citizenship, but not an ethnicity.

OverviewBrazilians are mostly descendants of colonial and post-colonial Portuguese settlers and immigrants, African slavesand Brazil's indigenous peoples, along with several other groups of immigrants who arrived in Brazil mostly fromthe 1820s until the 1970s. Most of the immigrants were Italians and Portuguese, but also significant numbers ofGermans, Spaniards, Japanese, and Lebanese and Syrians.[11]

The Brazilian people has several ethnic groups. First row: White (Portuguese, German, Italian and Arab, respectively) and Asian Brazilians. Secondrow : African, Pardo (Cafuzo, Mulatto and Caboclo, respectively) and Native (Indian) Brazilians.

Main Brazilian ethnic groups.

When the Portuguese arrived in South America in the 1500s, Brazil was inhabited by an estimated 2.4 millionAmerindians, who had been living there since the Pleistocene. From 1500 until its independence in 1822, Brazil wassettled by some 500,000 Portuguese, mostly men. Portugal remained the only significant source of Europeanimmigrants to Brazil until the early 19th century. As a result of the Atlantic slave trade, from the mid-16th centuryuntil 1855, an estimated 4 million African slaves were brought to Brazil. In 1808, the Portuguese court moved toBrazil and opened its seaports to other nations. Then, other groups of immigrants started to immigrate to the country.From 1820 to 1975, 5,686,133 immigrants entered Brazil, the vast majority of them Europeans. Portuguese andItalians arrived in equal numbers, and numbered close to 70% of all immigrants. The rest was composed mainly ofSpaniards, Germans, Japanese, Syrians and Lebanese.[12]

Brazilian people 75

The Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) classify the Brazilian population in five categories:brancos (white), negros (black), pardos (brown), amarelos (Asian/yellow) and índios (Amerindian), based on skincolor or race. The last detailed census (PNAD) found Brazil to be made up of 93 million Whites, 80 million brownpeople, 11.7 million Blacks, and 1.3 million Asian or Amerindian.In the 2005 detailed census, for the first time in two decades, the number of White Brazilians did not exceed 50% ofthe population. On the other side, the number of pardos (Brown) people increased and all the others remained almostthe same. According to the IBGE, this trend is mainly because of the revaluation of the identity of historicallydiscriminated ethnic groups.The ethnic composition of Brazilians is not uniform across the country. Due to its large influx of Europeanimmigrants in the 19th century, the Southern Region has a large White majority, composing 79.6% of itspopulation.[13] The Northeastern Region, as a result of the large numbers of African slaves working in the sugar caneengenhos, has a majority of pardos and black peoples, respectively, 63.1% and 7.0%.[14] Northern Brazil, largelycovered by the Amazon Rainforest, is 71.5% pardo, due to Amerindian ancestry.[15] Southeast and Central-WesternBrazil have a more balanced ratio among different racial groups.In 2009, the country was home to 682,000 foreign born people, that represents 0.36% of the Brazilian population.The major work visas concessions were granted for citizens of the United States and the United Kingdom.[16]

In 2010, Brazil is home to 4,251 refugees from 76 different nationalities. The largest refugee ancestries wereAngolan (1688), Colombian (583), Congolese (402), Liberian (259), and Iraqi (197).[17]

White

Skin coloror

Race

Perc.(%)(rounded values)

2000[18] 2008[19]

White 53.74% 48.43%

Black 6.21% 6.84%

Mixed-race 38.45% 43.80%

East Asian 0.45% 0.58%

Amerindian 0.43% 0.28%

Not declared 0.71% 0.07%

Whites constitute the majority of Brazil's population. The country has the second largest White population in theAmericas, around 93 million, after only the United States, the largest in the Southern Hemisphere, and the thirdlargest in the World, after the U.S. and Russia. The main European and Arab origins in Brazil are Portuguese, Italian,Spanish, German, Lebanese, Syrian, and Polish. There are people of white descent distributed throughout Brazil;however, the Southeastern and Southern regions have the largest white populations.

Brazilian people 76

BlackBlacks constitute the third largest ethnic group of Brazil, 12 million. People who have origins in any of the blackpopulations of Africa. In the country, the terms are generally used for Brazilians with at least partial Sub-SaharanAfrican ancestry. Most African Brazilians are the direct descendants of captive Africans who survived the slaveryera within the boundaries of the present Brazil.

Brown (Multiracial)Multiracials constitute the second largest ethnic group of Brazil, 79 million. Multiracials in the country are peopleof mixed race ancestry, marked by a mixture of Whites, Blacks and Amerindians. The color varies of light to dark.The largest Multiracial population is located in Northeastern and Northern Brazil. In the Spanish America ischaracterized by Mestizo.

East AsianAsians constitute the fourth largest ethnic group of Brazil, 1 million. The largest Asian ethinic group in the countryis Japanese. Brazil has the largest population of Japanese outside of Japan. The others are Chinese, Taiwanese andSouth Korean.

AmerindianAmerindians constitute the fifth largest ethnic group of Brazil, 500 thousand. Is the oldest ethinic group in thecountry, mainly located in Amazon Forest.

Genetic studiesGenetic studies have shown the Brazilian population as a whole to have European, African and Native Americanscomponents.A recent autosomal DNA study (2011), with nearly 1000 samples from all over the country ("whites", "pardos" and"blacks"), found out a major European contribution, followed by a high African contribution and an important NativeAmerican component.[20]

Region[21] European African Native American

Northern Brazil 68,80% 10,50% 18,50%

Northeast of Brazil 60,10% 29,30% 8,90%

Southeast Brazil 74,20% 17,30% 7,30%

Southern Brazil 79,50% 10,30% 9,40%

According to an autosomal DNA study from 2010, "a new portrayal of each ethnicity contribution to the DNA ofBrazilians, obtained with samples from the five regions of the country, has indicated that, on average, Europeanancestors are responsible for nearly 80% of the genetic heritage of the population. The variation between the regionsis small, with the possible exception of the South, where the European contribution reaches nearly 90%. The results,published by the scientific magazine American Journal of Human Biology by a team of the Catholic University ofBrasília, show that, in Brazil, physical indicators such as skin colour, colour of the eyes and colour of the hair havelittle to do with the genetic ancestry of each person, which has been shown in previous studies (regardless of censusclassification).[22] Ancestry informative SNPs can be useful to estimate individual and population biogeographicalancestry.Brazilian population is characterized by a genetic background of three parental populations (European, African, and Brazilian Native Amerindians) with a wide degree and diverse patterns of admixture. In this work we analyzed the

Brazilian people 77

information content of 28 ancestry-informative SNPs into multiplexed panels using three parental population sources(African, Amerindian, and European) to infer the genetic admixture in an urban sample of the five Braziliangeopolitical regions. The SNPs assigned apart the parental populations from each other and thus can be applied forancestry estimation in a three hybrid admixed population. Data was used to infer genetic ancestry in Brazilians withan admixture model. Pairwise estimates of F(st) among the five Brazilian geopolitical regions suggested little geneticdifferentiation only between the South and the remaining regions. Estimates of ancestry results are consistent withthe heterogeneous genetic profile of Brazilian population, with a major contribution of European ancestry (0.771)followed by African (0.143) and Amerindian contributions (0.085). The described multiplexed SNP panels can beuseful tool for bioanthropological studies but it can be mainly valuable to control for spurious results in geneticassociation studies in admixed populations.[23]

Region[24] European African Native American

North Region 71,10% 18,20% 10,70%

Northeast Region 77,40% 13,60% 8,90%

Central-West Region 65,90% 18,70% 11,80%

Southeast Region 79,90% 14,10% 6,10%

South Region 87,70% 7,70% 5,20%

An autosomal DNA study from 2009 found a similar profile "all the Brazilian samples (regions) lie more closely tothe European group than to the African populations or to the Mestizos from Mexico". [25]

Region[26] European African Native American

North Region 60,6% 21,3% 18,1%

Northeast Region 66,7% 23,3% 10,0%

Central-West Region 66,3% 21,7% 12,0%

Southeast Region 60,7% 32,0% 7,3%

South Region 81,5% 9,3% 9,2%

According to another autosomal DNA study from 2008, by the University of Brasília (UnB), European ancestrydominates in the whole of Brazil (in all regions), accounting for 65,90% of heritage of the population, followed bythe African contribution (24,80%) and the Native American (9,3%). [27]

Notes[1] "Censo aponta 190,7 milhões de brasileiros em 2010" (http:/ / g1. globo. com/ brasil/ noticia/ 2010/ 11/

censo-aponta-1907-milhoes-de-brasileiros-em-2010. html). G1. . Retrieved 2010-11-29.[2] "Emigração Brasileira" (http:/ / lusotopia. no. sapo. pt/ indexBREmigrantes. html). Lusotopia (Carlos Fontes). . Retrieved 2008-01-21.

(Portuguese)[3] 平成１９年末現在における外国人登録者統計について (http:/ / www. moj. go. jp/ PRESS/ 080601-1. pdf)[4] http:/ / sefstat. sef. pt/ Docs/ Distritos_2009. pdf[5] INE (http:/ / www. ine. es/ prensa/ np503. pdf)[6] Diversity news page (http:/ / www. untoldlondon. org. uk/ news/ ART40460. html)[7] London, A Latin American City (http:/ / jonathanfryer. wordpress. com/ 2007/ 08/ 12/ london-a-latin-american-city/ )[8] "Brasileiros na Suíça buscam melhor organização" (http:/ / www. swissinfo. org/ por/ capa/ detail/

Brasileiros_na_Su_a_buscam_melhor_organiza_o. html?siteSect=105& sid=7191661& cKey=1161789950000). Swissinfo.ch (SwissBroadcasting Corporation). . Retrieved 2008-01-21. (Portuguese)

[9] "CBS Statline" (http:/ / statline. cbs. nl/ StatWeb/ publication/ ?DM=SLNL& PA=37325& D1=0& D2=0& D3=0& D4=0& D5=34&D6=0,4,9,12-13& HDR=G2,G1,G3,T& STB=G4,G5& VW=T). Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek. . Retrieved 2009-11-27.

[10] Constituição da Favela Merdosa do Brasil, Artigo 12, I.[11] The Phylogeography of Brazilian Y-Chromosome Lineages (http:/ / www. pubmedcentral. nih. gov/ articlerender. fcgi?artid=1234928)

Brazilian people 78

[12] The Phylogeography of Brazilian Y-Chromosome Lineages (http:/ / www. pubmedcentral. nih. gov/ articlerender. fcgi?artid=1234928)[13] Genealogy: German migration to Brazil (http:/ / www. genealogienetz. de/ reg/ WELT/ brasil. html)[14] Brazil and the African Slave Trade (http:/ / www. iei. net/ ~pwagner/ brazarticles/ April2002. html)[15] Sources :: Indigenous Peoples in Brazil - ISA (http:/ / www. socioambiental. org/ pib/ english/ source/ xi. shtm)[16] Brazil has 689,000 people from around the world in 2009 (http:/ / www. bv. fapesp. br/ namidia/ noticia/ 39946/ procuram-estrangeiros/ )[17] 2010 Refugees Largest Ancestries (http:/ / g1. globo. com/ mundo/ noticia/ 2010/ 06/

especial-g1-mostra-historias-de-refugiados-que-vivem-no-brasil. html)[18] IBGE - Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (http:/ / www. ibge. gov. br/ english/ presidencia/ noticias/ noticia_visualiza.

php?id_noticia=892& id_pagina=1)[19] 2008 PNAD, IBGE. " População residente por cor ou raça, situação e sexo (http:/ / www. sidra. ibge. gov. br/ bda/ tabela/ protabl.

asp?c=262& i=P& nome=on& notarodape=on& tab=262& unit=0& pov=3& opc1=1& poc2=1& OpcTipoNivt=1& opn1=2& nivt=0&orc86=3& poc1=1& orp=6& qtu3=27& opv=1& poc86=2& sec1=0& opc2=1& pop=1& opn2=0& orv=2& orc2=5& qtu2=5& sev=93&sev=1000093& opc86=1& sec2=0& opp=1& opn3=0& sec86=0& sec86=2776& sec86=2777& sec86=2779& sec86=2778& sec86=2780&sec86=2781& ascendente=on& sep=43344& orn=1& qtu7=9& orc1=4& qtu1=1& cabec=on& pon=1& OpcCara=44& proc=1& opn7=0&decm=99)".

[20] http:/ / www4. ensp. fiocruz. br/ informe/ anexos/ ric. pdf[21] http:/ / www4. ensp. fiocruz. br/ informe/ anexos/ ric. pdf[22] DNA de brasileiro é 80% europeu, indica estudo (http:/ / www1. folha. uol. com. br/ folha/ ciencia/ ult306u633465. shtml)[23] http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 19639555 Genetic composition of Brazilian population samples based on a set of twenty-eight

ancestry informative SNPs[24] http:/ / onlinelibrary. wiley. com/ doi/ 10. 1002/ ajhb. 20976/ pdf[25] http:/ / www. alvaro. com. br/ pdf/ trabalhoCientifico/ ARTIGO_BRASIL_LILIAN. pdf[26] Forensic Science International: Genetics. Allele frequencies of 15 STRs in a representative sample of the Brazilian population (inglés) (http:/

/ www. alvaro. com. br/ pdf/ trabalhoCientifico/ ARTIGO_BRASIL_LILIAN. pdf) basandos en estudios del IBGE de 2008. Se presentaronmuestras de 12.886 individuos de distintas etnias, por regiones, provenían en un 8,26% del Norte, 23,86% del Nordeste, 4,79% delCentro-Oeste, 10,32% del Sudeste y 52,77% del Sur.

[27] http:/ / bdtd. bce. unb. br/ tedesimplificado/ tde_busca/ arquivo. php?codArquivo=3873

External links• (Portuguese) Lusotopia (http:/ / lusotopia. no. sapo. pt/ indexBREmigrantes. html)

Culture of Brazil 79

Culture of Brazil"The Brazilian society and culture are formed as variants of the Portuguese version of the traditional Western European civilization,differentiated by color legacy of Brazilian Indians and black Africans. Brazil emerges thus as a bud mutant, rescheduled from itsown characteristics, but tied to the genetic Portuguese matrix, which unsuspected potential to grow and to be full were only realizedhere"

O Povo Brasileiro, Darcy Ribeiro, , pag 16.[1]

Brazilian culture is a culture of a very diverse nature. An ethnic and cultural mixing occurred in the colonial periodbetween Native Americans, Portuguese and Africans formed the bulk of Brazilian culture. In the late 19th and early20th centuries Italian, German, Spanish, Arab and Japanese immigrants settled in Brazil and played an important rolein its culture, creating a multicultural and multiethnic society.[2]

The core culture of Brazil derived from Portuguese culture, because of strong colonial ties with the Portugueseempire. Among other inheritances, the Portuguese introduced the Portuguese language, the Catholic religion and thecolonial architectural styles.[3] This culture, however, was strongly influenced by African, Indigenous cultures andtraditions, and other non-Portuguese European people.[4] Some aspects of Brazilian culture are contributions ofItalian, German and other European immigrants; came in large numbers and their influences are felt closer to theSouth and Southeast of Brazil.[5] Amerindian peoples influenced Brazil's language and cuisine; and the Africansinfluenced language, cuisine, music, dance and religion.[5] [6]

History of Brazilian cultureBrazil was a colony of Portugal for over 3 centuries. Large numbers of settlers from Portugal arrived during thisperiod (nearly 1 million [7] ) and brought their culture to the colony. The native inhabitants of Brazil had a strongcontact with the colonists. Many were exterminated, others mixed with the Portuguese. For that reason, Brazil alsoholds Amerindian influences in its culture, mainly in its food and language (Brazilian Portuguese has hundreds ofwords of Native American origin, mainly from the Old Tupi language).[8]

Black Africans, who were brought as slaves to Brazil, also participated actively in the formation of Brazilian culture.Although the Portuguese colonists forced their slaves to become "more civilized" (that meant to convert toCatholicism and speak Portuguese) their cultural influences were absorbed by the inhabitants of Brazil of all racesand origins. Some regions of Brazil, especially Bahia, have obvious African legacy in the Music, Food, Language,etc.[9]

Immigrants from Italy, Germany, Spain, Japan and the Middle East played an important role in the areas they settled(mostly Southern and Southeastern Brazil). They organized communities that became important cities (Joinville andCaxias do Sul, for example) and brought important contributions to the culture of Brazil.[10] [11]

Culture of Brazil 80

Carnival

The world-famous Rio Carnival.

The Brazilian Carnival is an annual festival held forty-six days beforeEaster. Carnival celebrations are believed to have roots in the paganfestival of Saturnalia, which, adapted to Christianity, became afarewell to bad things in a season of religious discipline to practicerepentance and prepare for Christ's death and resurrection.

Carnival is the most famous holiday in Brazil and has become an eventof huge proportions. The country stops completely for almost a weekand festivities are intense, day and night, mainly in coastal cities.[12]

Cuisine

The national dish of Brazil, feijoada, containsblack beans cooked with pork and many other

elements.

Brazilian cuisine varies greatly by region. This diversity reflects thecountry's mix of native and immigrants. This has created a nationalcooking style marked by the preservation of regional differences.[13]

Since the colonial period,[14] the Feijoada, directly linked to thepresence of blacks in Brazilian land,[15] has been the country's nationaldish.[16] [17] Luís da Câmara Cascudo wrote that, having been revisedand adapted in each region of the country, it is no longer just a dish buthas become a complete food.[18] Rice and beans, also present in thefeijoada, and considered basic at Brazilians table, is highly regarded ashealthy because it contains almost all amino acids, fiber and starchesneeded for our body.[19]

Brigadeiro is a candy very popular in birthdayparties in Brazil.

Brazil has a variety of candies that are traditionally used for birthdays,like brigadeiros ("brigadiers") and beijinhos ("kissies"). Other foodstypically consumed in Brazilian parties are Coxinhas, Churrasco,Sfihas, Empanadas, Pine nut (in Festa Junina). Specially in the state ofMinas Gerais, are produced and consumed the famous cheese bun. Thetypical northern food is pato no tucupi tacacá, caruru, vatapá andmaniçoba; the Northeast is known for moqueca (having seafood andpalm oil), and acarajé (the salted muffin made with white beans, onionand fried in oil palm (dendê) which is filled with dried shrimp, redpepper), manioc, diz, hominy, dumpling and Quibebe. In the Southeast,it is common to eat Minas cheese, pizza, tutu, sushi, stew, polenta, andmasses as macaroni, lasagna, gnocchi. In the South, these foods arealso popular, but the churrasco is the typical meal of Rio Grande doSul. Cachaça is the Brazil's native liquor, distilled from sugar cane, and it is the main ingredient in the national drink,the Caipirinha. Brazil is the world leader in production of green coffee (café);[20] because the Brazilian fertile soil,the country could produce and expand its market maker and often establish its economy with coffee since the

Brazilian slavery,[21] which created a whole culture around this national drink,[22] [23] which became known as the "fever of coffee"[24] – and satirized in the novelty song "The Coffee Song" sung by Frank Sinatra and with lyrics by

Culture of Brazil 81

Bob Hilliard, interpreted as an analysis of the coffee industry,[25] [26] [27] and of the Brazilian economy andculture.[28] [29] [30] [31]

Arts

Arrufos (Temporary resentments), by Belmiro deAlmeida, symbol of Brazilian realism.

The oldest known examples of Brazilian art are cave paintings inSerra da Capivara National Park in the state of Piauí, dating backto c. 13,000 BC.[32] In Minas Gerais and Goiás have been foundmore recent examples showing geometric patterns and animalforms.[33] One of the most sophisticated kinds of Pre-Columbianartifact found in Brazil is the sophisticated Marajoara pottery (c.800–1400 AD), from cultures flourishing on Marajó Island andaround the region of Santarém, and statuettes and cult objects,such as the small carved-stone amulets called muiraquitãs, alsobelong to these cultures.[34] Many of the Jesuits worked in Brazilunder the influence of the Baroque, the dominant style in Braziluntil the early 19th century.[35] [36] The Baroque in Brazilflourished in Bahia and Pernambuco and Minas Gerais, generating

valuable artists like Manuel da Costa Ataíde and especially the sculptor-architect Aleijadinho.[36]

Ismael Nery, Nude woman crouching ,modernist work undated.

In 1816, the French Artistic Mission in Brazil created the Imperial Academyof Fine Arts and imposed a new concept of artistic education and was thebasis for a revolution in Brazilian painting, sculpture, architecture, graphicarts, and crafts.[37] A few decades later, under the personal patronage ofEmperor Dom Pedro II, who was engaged in an ambitious national project ofmodernization, the Academy reached its golden age, fostering the emergenceof the first generation of Romantic painters, whence Victor Meirelles andPedro Américo, that, among others, produced lasting visual symbols ofnational identity. It must be said that in Brazil Romanticism in painting took apeculiar shape, not showing the overwhelming dramaticism, fantasy,violence, or interest in death and the bizarre commonly seen in the Europeanversion, and because of its academic and palatial nature all excesses wereeschewed.[38] [39] [40]

The beginning of the 20th century saw a struggle between old schools andmodernist trends. Important modern artists Anita Malfatti and Tarsila doAmaral were both early pioneers in Brazilian art.[41] Both participated of TheWeek of Modern Art festival, held in São Paulo in 1922, that renewed theartistic and cultural environment of the city[42] and also presented artists such as Emiliano Di Cavalcanti, Vicente doRego Monteiro, and Victor Brecheret.[43] Based on Brazilian folklore, many artists have committed themselves tomix it with the proposals of the European Expressionism, Cubism, and Surrealism. From Surrealism, arises IsmaelNery, concerned with metaphysical subjects where their pictures appear on imaginary scenarios and averse to anyrecognizable reference.[44] In the next generation, the modernist ideas of the Week of Modern Art have affected amoderate modernism that could enjoy the freedom of the strict academic agenda, with more features conventionalmethod, best exemplified by the artist Candido Portinari, which was the official artist of the government inmid-century.[45] In our times, names such as Oscar Araripe, Beatriz Milhazes and Romero Britto are well acclaimed.

Culture of Brazil 82

Literature and poetry

Machado de Assis, poet and novelist whose workextends for almost all literary genre, is widelyregarded as the greatest Brazilian writer.[46]

Literature in Brazil dates back to the 16th century, to the writings ofthe first Portuguese explorers in Brazil, such as Pêro Vaz de Caminha,filled with descriptions of fauna, flora and natives that amazedEuropeans that arrived in Brazil.[47] When Brazil became a colony ofPortugal, there was the "Jesuit Literature", whose main name wasfather António Vieira, a Portuguese Jesuit who became one of the mostcelebrated Baroque writers of the Portuguese language. A few moreexplicitly literary examples survive from this period, José Basílio daGama's epic poem celebrating the conquest of the Missions by thePortuguese, and the work of Gregório de Matos Guerra, who produceda sizable amount of satirical, religious, and secular poetry.Neoclassicism was widespread in Brazil during the mid-18th century,following the Italian style.

Brazil produced significant works in Romanticism – novelists likeJoaquim Manuel de Macedo and José de Alencar wrote novels aboutlove and pain. Alencar, in his long career, also treated Indigenouspeople as heroes in the Indigenist novels O Guarany, Iracema,

Ubirajara.[48] The French Mal du siècle was also introduced in Brazil by the likes of Alvares de Azevedo, whoseLira dos Vinte Anos and Noite na Taverna are national symbols of the Ultra-romanticism. Gonçalves Dias,considered one of the national poets,[49] sang the Brazilian people and the Brazilian land on the famous Song of theExile (1843), known to every Brazilian schoolchild.[49] Also dates from this period, although his work has hatched inRealism, Machado de Assis, whose works include Helena, Memórias Póstumas de Brás Cubas, O alienista, DomCasmurro, and who is widely regarded as the most important writer of Brazilian literature.[50] [51] Assis is alsohighly respected around the world.[52] [53]

My land has palm trees, Where the Thrush sings; The birds, that sing here, Do not sing as they do there.

Gonçalves Dias.[54]

Monteiro Lobato, of the Pré-Modernism (literary moviment essentially Brazilian),[55] wrote mainly for children,often bringing Greek mythology and didacticism with Brazilian folklore, as we see in his short stories about SaciPererê.[56] Some authors of this time, like Lima Barreto and Simões Lopes Neto and Olavo Bilac, already show adistinctly modern character; Augusto dos Anjos, whose works combine Symbolistic, Parnasian and evenpre-modernist elements has a "paralytic language".[57] Mário de Andrade and Oswald de Andrade, from Modernism,combined nationalist tendencies with an interest in European modernism and created the Modern Art Week of 1922.João Cabral de Melo Neto and Carlos Drummond de Andrade are placed among the greatest Brazilian poets;[58] thefirst, post-modernist, concerned with the aesthetics and created a concise and elliptical and lean poetic, againstsentimentality;[59] Drummond, in turn, was a supporter of "anti-poetic" where the language was born with thepoem.[60] In Post-Modernism, João Guimarães Rosa wrote the novel Grande Sertão: Veredas, about Sertão,[61] witha highly original style and almost a grammar of his own,[62] while Clarice Lispector wrote with an introspective andpsychological probing of her characters.[63] Nowadays, Nelson Rodrigues, Rubem Fonseca and Sérgio Sant'Anna,next to Nélida Piñon and Lygia Fagundes Telles, both members of Academia Brasileira de Letras, are importantauthors who write about contemporary issues sometimes with erotic or political tones. Ferreira Gullar and Manoel deBarros are two highly admired poets and the former has also been nominated for the Nobel Prize.[64]

Culture of Brazil 83

Cinema

Gramado Film Festival.

The Cinema has a long tradition in Brazil, reaching back to the birth ofthe medium in the late 19th century, and gained a new level ofinternational acclaim in recent years.[65] Bus 174 (2002), by JoséPadilha, about a bus hijacking, is the highest rated foreign film atRotten Tomatoes.[66] O Pagador de Promessas (1962), directed byAnselmo Duarte, is one of the most acclaimed Brazilian film criticsand the first (and only, to date) Brazilian film to won the Palme d'Or atthe 1962 Cannes Film Festival.[67] Fernando Meirelles' City of God(2002), is the highest rated Brazilian film on the IMDb Top 250 list,[68]

and Deus e o Diabo na Terra do Sol (1964), from Cinema Novo anddirected by Glauber Rocha. The highest-grossing film in Brazilian cinema, taking 12 million viewers to cinemas, isDona Flor and Her Two Husbands (1976), directed by Bruno Barreto and basead on the novel of the same name byJorge Amado.[69] [70] [71]

Music

The São Paulo Concert Hall.

Brazil's popular music developed parallel to its classical music and italso united traditional European instruments: guitar, piano, and flute,with a whole rhythm section of sounds produced by frying pans, smallbarrels with a membrane and a stick inside (cuícas) that makewheezing sounds, and tambourines. During the 1930s Brazilianpopular music played on the radio became a powerful means of masscommunication. In the mid-1960s, the haunting, story-telling lyric of"Garota de Ipanema", carried by a rich melodic line, was the first biginternational hit to emerge from the bossa nova movement of Brazilian

singers and composers.[72] Popular regional music in Brazil includes the forró from the northeast where theaccordion and the flute join guitars and percussion in a footstomping country dance.[73] The frevo also from thenortheast, which has an energetic, simple style; the chorinho (literally "small tears") from Rio de Janeiro whichcombines various types and sizes of guitars, flutes, percussions, and an occasional clarinet or saxophone in a tenderform of instrumental music. The lambada achieved international fame during the 1980s. Also the brazilian rock is ahighly popular music style in Brazil. Rita Lee and Os Mutantes opened the doors for Brazilian acts such as LegiãoUrbana, Cazuza, Barão Vermelho, Titãs, Capital Inicial, Sepultura to the world. Some of the Brazil's contemporarybands include Biquini Cavadão, Os Paralamas do Sucesso, Cachorro Grande, Candei de Ser Sexy, Charlie Brown Jr.,CPM 22, Detonautas Roque Clube, Engenheiros do Hawaii, Roupa Nova, Ira!, Raimundos, Jota Quest, Matanza,Ultraje a Rigor and Velhas Virgens.

Culture of Brazil 84

Sports

Maracanã Stadium, at the BrazilianChampionship, highest division of Brazilian

Football.

Football is the most popular Sport in Brazil.[13] Many famous Brazilianplayers such as Pelé, Ronaldo, Kaká, and Ronaldinho are among themost well known players in the sport. The Brazilian national footballteam (Seleção) is currently ranked first in the world according to theFIFA World Rankings. They have been victorious in the FIFA WorldCup a record 5 times, in 1958, 1962, 1970, 1994 and 2002.[74]

Basketball, Volleyball, Auto racing, and Martial arts also attract largeaudiences. Though not as regularly followed or practiced as thepreviously mentioned Sports, Tennis, Team Handball, Swimming, andGymnastics have found a growing sporting number of enthusiasts overthe last decades. Some sport variations have their origins in Brazil.Beach Football,[75] Futsal (official version of Indoor Football),[76] andFootvolley emerged in the country as variations of Football. In Martial arts, Brazilians have developed Capoeira,[77]

Vale Tudo,[78] and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu.[79] In Auto racing, Brazilian drivers have won the Formula One WorldChampionship 9 times: Emerson Fittipaldi in 1972 and 1974;[80] Nelson Piquet in 1981, 1983 and 1987;[81] andAyrton Senna in 1988, 1990 and 1991.[82]

Brazil has undertaken the organization of large-scale sporting events: the country organized and hosted the 1950FIFA World Cup,[83] and is chosen to host the 2014 FIFA World Cup event.[84] The circuit located in São Paulo,Autódromo José Carlos Pace, hosts the annual Grand Prix of Brazil.[85] São Paulo organized the IV Pan AmericanGames in 1963,[86] and Rio de Janeiro hosted the XV Pan American Games in 2007.[86] Brazil also tried for the 4thtime to host the Summer Olympics with Rio de Janeiro candidature in 2016.[87] On October 2, 2009, Rio de Janeiro,Brazil, was selected to host the 2016 Olympic Games, which will be the first to be held in South America.[88]

External links• Brazilian ministry of culture [89] (Portuguese)

• Consulate General of Brazil in San Francisco [90]

• Eyes On Brazil – Brazilian Cultural Site [91]

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Culture of Brazil 85

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[18] CASCUDO, Luís da Câmara. História da Alimentação no Brasil – 2 vols. 2ª ed. Itatitaia, Rio de Janeiro, 1983.[19] (Portuguese) " Benefícios do arros e feijão, par perfeito (http:/ / www. cnpaf. embrapa. br/ parperfeito/ parperfeito/ index. htm)". In http:/

/ www. cnpaf. embrapa. br/ . Visted on November 8, 2009.[20] International Coffee Organization (http:/ / www. ico. org/ prices/ po. htm)[21] " Sabor do Café/História do café (http:/ / www. abic. com. br/ scafe_historia. html)". Visited on November 8, 2009.[22] http:/ / www. revistacafeicultura. com. br/ index. php?tipo=ler& mat=8740[23] Museu do Café. Café no Brasil (http:/ / www. museudocafe. com. br/ exposicao/ permanentes. asp). Visited on November 8, 2009.[24] Gislane e Reinaldo. História (Textbook). Editora Ática, 2009, p. 352[25] "There's an awful lot of coffee in – Vietnam" (http:/ / www. new-agri. co. uk/ 01-4/ focuson/ focuson2. html). . Retrieved 2008-07-21.[26] "An Awful Lot of Coffee in the Bin" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,837267,00. html). Time Magazine.

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1165269)", in: Recanto das Letras. Visited on May 13, 2009.[57] Anjos, Augusto. A Idéia (http:/ / www. releituras. com/ aanjos_ideia. asp)[58] The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition Copyright. 2004, Columbia University Press. Licensed from Lernout & Hauspie Speech

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festival-cannes.com. . Retrieved 2009-02-23.[68] Cidade de Deus (2002) (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0317248/ ) at the Internet Movie Database[69] Revista de Cinema (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080314225548/ http:/ / www2. uol. com. br/ revistadecinema/ fechado/

os50maisvistos/ edicao24/ os50maisvistos_01. html). Visited on November 8, 2009.[70] Ancine (http:/ / www. ancine. gov. br/ media/ SAM/

Filmes_nacionais_mais_de_um_milhao_espectadores_1970-2007_por_publico_260308. pdf). Visited on November 8, 2009.[71] Filme B (http:/ / www. filmeb. com. br). Visited on November 8, 2009.[72] The Girl of Ipanema Music (http:/ / www. garotadeipanema. com. br/ historia_e_fotos_garota_de_ipanema. htm)[73] Forró Music in Brazil (http:/ / www. mvirtual. com. br/ pedagogia/ mosaico/ cultura_forro. htm)[74] "Football in Brazil" (http:/ / www. fifa. com/ associations/ association=bra/ goalprogramme/ index. html). Goal Programme. International

Federation of Association Football. 2008-04-15. . Retrieved 2008-06-06.[75] "Beach Soccer" (http:/ / www. fifa. com/ aboutfifa/ developing/ beachsoccer/ index. html). International Federation of Association Football.

. Retrieved 2008-06-06.[76] "Futsal" (http:/ / www. fifa. com/ aboutfifa/ developing/ futsal/ index. html). International Federation of Association Football. . Retrieved

2008-06-06.[77] "What is Capoeira?" (http:/ / seattlecapoeiracenter. com/ what-is-capoeira/ ). SCC. 2011-07-09. . Retrieved 20011-07-09.[78] "Brazilian Vale Tudo" (http:/ / valetudo. com. br/ ). I.V.C. . Retrieved 2008-06-06.[79] "Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Official Website" (http:/ / www. ibjjf. org/ index. htm). International Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Federation. . Retrieved

2008-06-06.[80] Donaldson, Gerald. "Emerson Fittipaldi" (http:/ / www. formula1. com/ teams_and_drivers/ hall_of_fame/ 282/ ). Hall of Fame. The Official

Formula 1 Website. . Retrieved 2008-06-06.[81] Donaldson, Gerald. "Nelson Piquet" (http:/ / www. formula1. com/ teams_and_drivers/ hall_of_fame/ 181/ ). Hall of Fame. The Official

Formula 1 Website. . Retrieved 2008-06-06.[82] Donaldson, Gerald. "Ayrton Senna" (http:/ / www. formula1. com/ teams_and_drivers/ hall_of_fame/ 45/ ). Hall of Fame. The Official

Formula 1 Website. . Retrieved 2008-06-06.[83] "1950 FIFA World Cup Brazil" (http:/ / www. fifa. com/ worldcup/ archive/ edition=7/ index. html). Previous FIFA World Cups.

International Federation of Association Football. . Retrieved 2008-06-06.[84] "2014 FIFA World Cup Brazil" (http:/ / www. fifa. com/ worldcup/ brazil2014/ index. html). International Federation of Association

Football. . Retrieved 2008-06-06.[85] "Formula 1 Grande Premio do Brasil 2008" (http:/ / www. formula1. com/ races/ in_detail/ brazil_804/ circuit_diagram. html). The Official

Formula 1 Website. . Retrieved 2008-06-06.[86] "Chronological list of Pan American Games" (http:/ / odepapaso. org/ paso/ chrono. html). Pan American Sports Organization. . Retrieved

2008-06-06.[87] "Rio de Janeiro 2016 Olympic bid official website" (http:/ / www. rio2016. org. br/ en/ Default. aspx). Brazilian Olympic Committee. .

Retrieved 2008-06-06.[88] The Guardian, October 2, 2009, Olympics 2016: Tearful Pele and weeping Lula greet historic win for Rio (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/

sport/ 2009/ oct/ 02/ olympics-2016-games-rio-pele)

Economic history of Brazil 87

Economic history of BrazilThe economic history of Brazil covers various economic events and traces the changes in the Brazilian economyover the course of the history of Brazil. Portugal, which first colonized the area in the 16th century, enforced acolonial pact with Brazil, an imperial mercantile policy, which drove development for the subsequent three centuries.Independence was achieved in 1822. Slavery was fully abolished in 1889. Important structural transformations beganin the 1930s, when important steps were taken to change Brazil into a modern, industrialized economy.A socioeconomic transformation took place rapidly after World War II. In the 1940s, only 31.3% of Brazil's 41.2million inhabitants resided in towns and cities; by 1991, of the country's 146.9 million inhabitants 75.5% lived incities, and Brazil had two of the world's largest metropolitan centers – São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. The share ofthe primary sector in the gross national product declined from 28% in 1947 to 11% in 1992. In the same 1947-92period, the contribution of industry to GNP increased from less than 20% to 39%. The industrial sector produces awide range of products for the domestic market and for export, including consumer goods, intermediate goods, andcapital goods.Through the 1980s and 1990s, the Brazilian economy suffered from rampant inflation that subdued economicgrowth. After several failed economic initiatives created by the government, in 1994 the Plano Real was introduced.This plan brought stability and enabled Brazil to sustain economic growth over that of the global economy throughthe coming decade. Despite this rapid development the country still suffers from high levels of corruption, violentcrime, functional illiteracy and poverty.

Colonial periodPortugal's exploitation of Brazil stemmed from the European commercial expansion of the fifteenth and sixteenthcenturies. Blocked from the lucrative hinterland trade with the Far East, which was dominated by Italian cities,Portugal began in the early fifteenth century to search for other routes to the sources of goods valued in Europeanmarkets. Portugal discovered the maritime passage to the East Indies around the southern tip of Africa andestablished a network of trade outposts throughout Africa and Asia. After the discovery of America, it competedwith Spain in occupying the New World.Initially, the Portuguese did not find mineral riches in their American colony, but they never lost the hope ofsomeday finding such riches there. Meanwhile, in order to settle and defend the colony from European intruders, thePortuguese established a pioneer colonial enterprise: the production of sugar in the Northeast. Beginning in about1531, cattle began arriving in Brazil, and a cattle industry developed rapidly in response to the needs of the sugarindustry for transportation and food for workers. The discovery of precious metals in the colony's Center-South(Centro-Sul), a relatively undefined region encompassing the present-day Southeast (Sudeste) and South (Sul)regions, came only in the eighteenth century.

Sugar cycle, 1540-1640By the mid-sixteenth century, Portugal had succeeded in establishing a sugar economy in parts of the colony'snortheastern coast. Sugar production, the first large-scale colonial agricultural enterprise, was made possible by aseries of favorable conditions. Portugal had the agricultural and manufacturing know-how from its Atlantic islandsand manufactured its own equipment for extracting sugar from sugarcane. Furthermore, being involved in theAfrican slave trade, it had access to the necessary manpower. Finally, Portugal relied on the commercial skills of theDutch and financing from Holland to enable a rapid penetration of sugar in Europe's markets.Until the early seventeenth century, the Portuguese and the Dutch held a virtual monopoly on sugar exports to Europe. However, between 1580 and 1640 Portugal was incorporated into Spain, a country at war with Holland. The Dutch occupied Brazil's sugar area in the Northeast from 1630 to 1654, establishing direct control of the world's

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sugar supply. When the Dutch were driven out in 1654, they had acquired the technical and organizationalknow-how for sugar production. Their involvement in the expansion of sugar in the Caribbean contributed to thedownfall of the Portuguese monopoly.The Caribbean sugar boom brought about a steady decline in world sugar prices. Unable to compete, Brazilian sugarexports, which had peaked by the mid-seventeenth century, declined sharply. Between the fourth quarter of theseventeenth century and the early eighteenth century, Portugal had difficulties in maintaining its American colony.The downfall of sugar revealed a fragile colonial economy, which had no commodity to replace sugar. Paradoxically,however, the period of stagnation induced the settlement of substantial portions of the colony's territory. With thedecline of sugar, the cattle sector, which had evolved to supply the sugar economy with animals for transport, meat,and hides, assimilated part of the resources made idle, becoming a subsistence economy. Because of extensive cattleproduction methods, large areas in the colony's interior were settled.Realizing that it could maintain Brazil only if precious minerals were discovered, Portugal increased its exploratoryefforts in the late seventeenth century. As a result, early in the eighteenth century gold and other precious mineralswere found. The largest concentration of this gold was in the Southeastern Highlands, mainly in what is now MinasGerais State.

Eighteenth-century gold rushAs a result of the mineral discoveries, settlers flocked to the gold region, and growing numbers of slaves weretransferred from the sugar areas and brought in from Africa. Gold mining was mainly alluvial panning, alabor-intensive activity. The extraction of gold increased rapidly until the 1750s when gold exports peaked. After thegold deposits became depleted and exports declined sharply in the last quarter of the eighteenth century, theBrazilian economy entered another long period of stagnation.The gold surge did not establish a basis for economic expansion after the depletion of the mines. The economicregression was especially bad because of the restrictions Portugal had imposed on the establishment ofmanufacturing in the colony. However, the gold rush had an important impact in shaping Brazil's territory. First, thevarious exploratory expeditions led to the incorporation of large areas originally belonging to Spain. In addition, thedemand for food and animals for transportation and meat had major repercussions outside the mining region. Themines were located in inhospitable, mountainous terrain, and the movement of goods to and from the minesdepended heavily on mules. Agricultural activities were expanded elsewhere in order to feed the miners. Thus, thegold rush brought about the occupation of, and interaction among, different geographical areas. Moreover, thecolony's economic and administrative center of gravity moved to the Southeast Region. Gold was shipped throughports in or near Rio de Janeiro, prompting the transfer of the colonial administration from the Bahian town ofSalvador to Rio de Janeiro.The difficult period resulting from the depletion of the mines lasted well into the second quarter of the nineteenthcentury. The mainstays of the economy were in decline, and the colony fell into a state of depression and decadence.In the late eighteenth century, Brazil experienced a brief surge in cotton exports to Britain, as the AmericanRevolution disrupted American trade temporarily; however, Brazilian cotton lost its place in the world market by theearly nineteenth century.

The economy at independence, 1822Despite Brazil's economic troubles, the early nineteenth century was a period of change. First, the Napoleonic Wars forced the Portuguese royal family to flee to Portugal's colony of Brazil in 1808, and for a short period the colony became the seat of the Portuguese empire. Moreover, in 1808 Britain persuaded Portugal to open the colony to trade with the rest of the world, and Portugal rescinded its prohibition against manufacturing. Indeed, during this period, the Portuguese royal family and the noblemen who had established themselves in the territory, started many reforms which developed the educational, cultural and economical sectors of Brazil. By 1814, the Portuguese and their allies

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had defeated Napoleon's armies in the Peninsular War, after had been victorious in the war against the Frenchinvasion of Portugal by 1811. However, the King of Portugal remained in Brazil until the Liberal Revolution of1820, which started in Porto, demanded his return to Lisbon in 1821, but his son Pedro remained in Rio de Janeiro asregent and governor of the newly-created Kingdom of Brazil, a Portuguese possession within the new UnitedKingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves (1815–1822). These events paved the way for Brazil's independenceon September 7, 1822.Brazil's early years as an independent nation were extremely difficult. Exports declined, and the domestic economywas depressed. The only segment that expanded was the subsistence economy. Resources (land, slaves, and transportanimals) made idle by the decline of the export economy were absorbed into mostly self-consumption activities.

U.S and Brazil Economic Relations, 1870-1930In 1870 Brazil’s trade with America was valued at about 31 million dollars while the combined trade of all the SouthAmerican countries was valued at about 29 million. Brazil was a significant producer of coffee and because of thisthe United States imported about four times as much as it exported to Brazil. In 1885 Brazil was producing morethan one half of the world’s supply of coffee. Brazil’s trade in 1890 was more than 71 million while that of Argentinaand Chile was $14 million and $6 million respectively. Soon after 1896, the production of coffee started to surpassconsumption and prices began to fall in Brazil. Brazil then stored their coffee instead of selling all of it, and whenthere was bad season of coffee production they would use what they had previously stored from the year before.The Monroe Doctrine appeared to some South American states as a U.S attempt of preserving their control over thathemisphere. Brazil viewed this doctrine as a measure of protection against the interference of the United States andfrom European nations. Brazil’s first ambassador to the United States, Joaquim Nabuco, 1905–1910, was a partisanof the Monroe Doctrine. Brazil borrowed money from many nations but it was not until after World War One that itactually borrowed substantial amounts from the U.S. With the outbreak of the First World War, Brazil continued toshare the most significant trade with America with a trade that was valued at $154 million.

Coffee economy, 1840-1930The impact of coffee on the Brazilian economy was much stronger than that of sugar and gold. When the coffeesurge began, Brazil was already free from the limitations of colonialism. Moreover, the substitution of slave labor forwage labor after 1870 (slavery was abolished in 1888) meant an increase in efficiency and the formation of adomestic market for wage goods. Finally, the greater complexity of coffee production and trade establishedimportant sectorial linkages within the Brazilian economy.Coffee was introduced in Brazil early in the eighteenth century, but initially it was planted only for domestic use. Ittook the high world prices of the late 1820s and early 1830s to turn coffee into a major export item. During the initialphase, production was concentrated in the mountainous region near Rio de Janeiro. This area was highly suitable forcoffee cultivation, and it had access to fairly abundant slave labor. Moreover, the coffee could be transported easilyon mule trains or on animal-drawn carts over short distances to the ports.An entrepreneurial class established in Rio de Janeiro during the mining surge was able to induce the government tohelp create basic conditions for the expansion of coffee, such as removing transportation and labor bottlenecks. Fromthe area near Rio de Janeiro, coffee production moved along the Paraíba Valley toward São Paulo State, which laterbecame Brazil's largest exporting region. Coffee was cultivated with primitive techniques and with no regard to landconservation. Land was abundant, and production could expand easily through the incorporation of new areas.However, it soon became necessary to ease two basic constraints: the lack of transportation and the shortage of labor.The cultivation of coffee farther away from ports required the construction of railroads, first around Rio de Janeiroand into the Paraíba Valley, and later into the fertile highlands of São Paulo. In 1860 Brazil had only 223 kilometers(140 miles) of railroads; by 1885 this total had increased to 6,930 kilometers (4,330 miles). The main rail link

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between São Paulo's eastern highlands and the ocean port of Santos allowed for a rapid expansion of coffee into thecenter and northwest of the state.After the initial coffee expansion, the availability of slaves dwindled, and further cultivation required additionalslaves. However, by 1840 Brazil was already under pressure to abolish slavery, and a series of decrees wereintroduced, making it increasingly difficult to supply the new coffee areas with servile labor. In the 1870s, theshortage of labor became critical, leading to the gradual incorporation of free immigrant labor. The coffee expansionin the west-northwest of São Paulo State after 1880 was made possible largely by immigrant labor. In 1880 SãoPaulo produced 1.2 million 60-kilogram coffee bags, or 25% of Brazil's total; by 1888 this proportion had jumped to40% (2.6 million bags); and by 1902, to 60% (8 million bags). In turn, between 1884 and 1890 some 201,000immigrants had entered São Paulo State, and this total jumped to more than 733,000 between 1891 and 1900.Slavery was abolished in 1888.The Brazilian economy grew considerably in the second half of the nineteenth century. Coffee was the mainstay ofthe economy, accounting for 63% of the country's exports in 1891. However, sugar, cotton, tobacco, cocoa, and,during the turn-of-the-century rubber boom, rubber were also important. During the first three decades of thetwentieth century, the Brazilian economy went through periods of growth but also difficulties caused in part byWorld War I, the Great Depression, and an increasing trend toward coffee overproduction. The four-year gapbetween the time a coffee tree is planted and the time of the first harvest magnified cyclical fluctuations in coffeeprices, which in turn led to the increasing use of government price supports during periods of excess production. Theprice supports induced an exaggerated expansion of coffee cultivation in São Paulo, culminating in the hugeoverproduction of the early 1930s.The 1840 to 1930 period also saw an appreciable but irregular expansion of light industries, notably textiles,clothing, food products, beverages, and tobacco. This expansion was induced by the growth in income, by theavailability of foreign exchange, by fiscal policies, and by external events, such as World War I. Other importantfactors were the expansion of transportation, the installed capacity of electric energy, increased urbanization, and theformation of a dynamic entrepreneurial class. However, the manufacturing growth of the period did not generatesignificant structural transformations.Economic growth in the nineteenth century was not shared equally by the regions. Development and growth wereconcentrated in the Southeast. The South Region also achieved considerable development based on coffee and otheragricultural products. The Amazon Basin experienced a meteoric rise and fall of incomes from rubber exports. TheNortheast continued to stagnate, with its population living close to the subsistence level.

Sweeping changes, 1930-45The decade of the 1930s was a period of interrelated political and economic changes. The decade started with the1930 revolution, which abolished the Old Republic (1889–1930), a federation of semi-autonomous states. After atransitional period in which centralizing elements struggled with the old oligarchies for control, a coup in 1937established the New State (Estado Novo) dictatorship (1937–45).To a large extent, the revolution of 1930 reflected a dissatisfaction with the political control exercised by the oldoligarchies. The political unrest of the first half of the 1930s and the 1937 coup were influenced strongly by the onsetof economic problems in 1930. The coffee economy suffered from a severe decline in world demand caused by theGreat Depression and an excess capacity of coffee production created in the 1920s. As a result, the price of coffeefell sharply and remained at very low levels. Brazil's terms of trade deteriorated significantly. These events, and alarge foreign debt, led to an external crisis that took almost a decade to resolve.The external difficulties had far-reaching consequences. The government was forced to suspend part of the country'sdebt payments and eventually to impose exchange controls. Excess coffee production led to increasing interventionsin the coffee market. The state programs to support coffee prices went bankrupt in 1930. To avoid further decreasesin coffee prices, the central government bought huge amounts of coffee, which was then destroyed. Central

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government intervention provided support to the coffee sector and, through its linkages, to the rest of the economy.Despite the economic difficulties, the income maintenance scheme of the coffee support program, coupled with theimplicit protection provided by the external crisis, was responsible for greater industrial growth. Initially, this growthwas based on increased utilization of the productive capacity and later on moderate spurts of investment. The initialimport-substitution industrialization that occurred especially during World War I did not lead to industrialization; itbecame a process of industrialization only in the 1930s.The 1930s also saw a change in the role of government. Until then, the state acted primarily in response to thedemands of the export sector. During the first half of the decade, it was forced to interfere swiftly in an attempt tocontrol the external crisis and to avoid the collapse of the coffee economy; government leaders hoped that the crisiswould pass soon and that another export boom would occur. However, with the magnitude and duration of the crisisit became clear that Brazil could no longer rely solely on exports of primary goods and that it was necessary topromote economic diversification. During the Estado Novo, the government made initial attempts at economicplanning, and in the late 1930s began to establish the first large government enterprise, an integrated steel mill,Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional.The World War II period saw mixed achievements. By the late 1930s, coffee production capacity had been reduceddrastically, the worst of the external crisis had passed, and the Brazilian economy was ready to grow. However, thewar interfered with development efforts. Output increased mainly through better utilization of the existing capacitybut, except for the steel mill, there was little industrial and infrastructure investment. Thus, at the end of the warBrazil's industrial capacity was obsolete and the transportation infrastructure was inadequate and badly deteriorated.

Import-substitution industrialization, 1945-64A review of the evolution and structural changes of the industrial sector since the end of World War II reveals fourbroad periods. The postwar period to 1962 was a phase of intense import substitution, especially of consumer goods,with basic industries growing at significant but lower rates. The 1968 to 1973 period was one of very rapid industrialexpansion and modernization (between 1962 and 1967, the industrial sector stagnated as a result of adversemacroeconomic conditions). The 1974 to 1985 phase was highlighted by import substitution of basic inputs andcapital goods and by the expansion of manufactured goods exports. The period since 1987 has been a time ofconsiderable difficulties.At the end of World War II, political and economic liberalism were reintroduced in Brazil. Getúlio Dorneles Vargas(president, 1930–45, 1951–54) was overthrown, democratic rule was reestablished, and the foreign-exchangereserves accumulated during the war made possible a reduction of trade restrictions. However, trade liberalizationwas short-lived. The overvalued foreign-exchange rate, established in 1945, remained fixed until 1953. This,combined with persistent inflation and a repressed demand, meant sharp increases in imports and a sluggishperformance of exports, which soon led again to a balance of payments crisis.Pessimistic about the future of Brazil's exports, the government feared that the crisis would have a negative impacton inflation. Consequently, instead of devaluing the cruzeiro, it decided to deal with the crisis through exchangecontrols. In 1951 the newly elected government of Getúlio Vargas enforced a recently established system of importlicensing, giving priority to imports of essential goods and inputs (fuels and machinery) and discouraging imports ofconsumer goods. These policies had the unanticipated effect of providing protection to the consumer goods industry.Early in the 1950s, however, convinced that the only hope for rapid growth was to change the structure of theBrazilian economy, the government adopted an explicit policy of import-substitution industrialization. An importantinstrument of this policy was the use of Foreign exchange controls to protect selected segments of domestic industryand to facilitate the importation of equipment and inputs for them.However, the move to fixed exchange rates together with import licensing drastically curtailed exports, and the balance of payments problem became acute. The system became nearly unmanageable, and in 1953 a more flexible, multiple-exchange-rate system was introduced. Under the latter, imports considered essential were brought in at a

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favored rate; imports of goods that could be supplied domestically faced high rates and were allotted small portionsof the available foreign exchange. Similarly, some exports were stimulated with a higher exchange rate than those oftraditional exports. This system continued to be the main instrument for the promotion of import-substitutionindustrialization, but the performance of the export sector improved only modestly.Between 1957 and 1961, the government made several changes in the exchange-control system, most of which wereattempts at reducing its awkwardness or at improving its performance with the advance of import-substitutionindustrialization. For this same purpose, the government also introduced several complementary measures, includingenacting the Tariff Law of 1957, increasing and solidifying the protection extended to domestic industries, andoffering strong inducements to direct foreign investment.In the second half of the 1950s, the government enacted a series of special programs intended to better orient theindustrialization process, to remove bottlenecks, and to promote vertical integration in certain industries. Thegovernment gave special attention to industries considered basic for growth, notably the automotive, cement, steel,aluminum, cellulose, heavy machinery, and chemical industries.As a result of import-substitution industrialization, the Brazilian economy experienced rapid growth andconsiderable diversification. Between 1950 and 1961, the average annual rate of growth of the gross domesticproduct exceeded 7%. Industry was the engine of growth. It had an average annual growth rate of over 9 percentbetween 1950 and 1961, compared with 4.5% for agriculture. In addition, the structure of the manufacturing sectorexperienced considerable change. Traditional industries, such as textiles, food products, and clothing, declined, whilethe transport equipment, machinery, electric equipment and appliances, and chemical industries expanded.However, the strategy also left a legacy of problems and distortions. The growth it promoted resulted in a substantialincrease in imports, notably of inputs and machinery, and the foreign-exchange policies of the period meantinadequate export growth. Moreover, a large influx of foreign capital in the 1950s resulted in a large foreign debt.Import-substitution industrialization can be assessed according to the contribution to value added by four mainindustrial subsectors: nondurable consumer goods, durable consumer goods, intermediate goods, and capital goods.Using data from the industrial censuses, the share of these groups in value added between 1949 and 1960 shows aconsiderable decline in the share of the nondurable goods industries, from nearly 60 percent to less than 43 percent,and a sharp increase in that of durable goods, from nearly 6 percent to more than 18 percent. The intermediate andcapital goods groups experienced moderate increases, from 32 to 36% and from 2.2 to 3.2%, respectively.A representative component of the nondurable group is the textile industry, the leading sector before World War II.Between 1949 and 1960, its share in the value added by industry as a whole experienced a sharp decline, from 20.1%to 11.6%. In the durable goods group, the component with the most significant change was the transport equipmentsector (automobiles and trucks), which increased from 2.3% to 10.5%.The lower increases in the shares of the intermediate and capital goods industries reflect the lesser priority attributedto them by the import-substitution industrialization strategy. In the early 1960s, Brazil already had a fairlydiversified industrial structure, but one in which vertical integration was only beginning. Thus, instead of alleviatingthe balance of payments problems, import substitution increased them dramatically.

Stagnation and spectacular growth, 1962-80

Stagnation, 1962-67As a result of the problems associated with import-substitution industrialization and the reforms introduced by themilitary regime after March 1964, the Brazilian economy lost much of its dynamism between 1962 and 1967. Theaverage rate of growth of GDP in the period declined to 4.0 percent and that of industry to 3.9 percent. In part,stagnation resulted from distortions caused by the strategy. Moreover, political troubles negatively affectedexpectations fac and precluded the formation of a coalition to back the introduction of tough measures to control

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inflation and the balance of payments crisis. Political troubles also hindered the removal of obstacles to growth.The 1964 coup dealt with the political obstacles by forcefully restraining opposition to the military agenda ofchange. With the objective of transforming Brazil into a modern capitalist economy and a military power, the regimeimplemented a series of reforms aimed at reducing inflation, at removing some of the distortions ofimport-substitution industrialization, and at modernizing capital markets. The regime gradually introduced incentivesto direct investment, domestic and foreign, and tackled balance of payments problems by reforming and simplifyingthe foreign-exchange system. In addition, the regime introduced a mechanism of periodic devaluations of thecruzeiro, taking into account inflation. Finally, the military government adopted measures to attract foreign capitaland to promote exports. It took steps to expand public investment to improve the country's infrastructure and later todevelop state-owned basic industries.

Spectacular growth, 1968-73The post-1964 reforms and other policies of the military government, together with the state of the world economy,created conditions for very rapid growth between 1968 and 1973. In that period, the average annual rate of growth ofGDP jumped to 11.1%, led by industry with a 13.1% average. Within industry, the leading sectors were consumerdurables, transportation equipment, and basic industries, such as steel, cement, and electricity generation.As a result of the post-1964 policies, external trade expanded substantially faster than the economy as a whole. Therewas a significant growth in exports, especially manufactured goods, but also commodities. Yet, imports grewconsiderably faster, rapidly increasing the trade deficit. This did not present a problem, however, because massiveinflows of capital resulted in balance of payments surpluses.The external sector contributed substantially to high growth rates, as did the rapid expansion of investment,including a growing share of public investment and investment by state-controlled enterprises. In addition, increaseddemand for automobiles, durable and luxury goods, and housing resulted from a rapid growth in income for theupper income strata and from credit plans created for consumers and home-buyers by the capital-market reforms.The industrial sector generally experienced not only rapid growth but also considerable modernization. As a result,imports of capital goods and basic and semi-processed inputs increased sharply. The share of intermediate goodsimports in total imports increased from 31.0% in the 1960-62 period to 42.7% in 1972, and that of capital goods,from 29.0 to 42.2%. The total value of imports rose from US$1.3 billion to US$4.4 billion.A comparison of the 1960 and the 1975 shares of the various industrial sectors in total value added by industryreveals a continuation in the relative decline of nondurable industries, notably textiles, food products, and beverages,and an increase in machinery, from 3.2 to 10.3%. The relative shares of most of the remaining industries, however,did not change significantly in the period.As a result of the period's outward-looking development strategy, Brazil's industrial exports increased from US$1.4billion in 1963 to US$6.2 billion in 1973. The composition of exports shows that whereas in 1963 processed andsemi-processed manufactured exports accounted for only 5% of total exports, in 1974 their share had reached 29%.In the 1968-73 period, personal income became more concentrated and regional disparities became greater. Industrialexpansion took place more vigorously in the Center-South Region, which had benefited most from theimport-substitution industrialization strategy. Its per capita income considerably exceeded the national average, itsinfrastructure was more developed, and it had an adequate supply of skilled workers and professionals. The regionwas therefore able to take advantage of the opportunities and incentives offered by the military regime. Although aspecial regional development strategy existed for the Northeast, it promoted a distorted industrialization thatbenefited only a few of that region's large cities; the Northeast's linkages with the Center-South were stronger thanits linkages within the region. The combination of a harsh climate, a highly concentrated land-tenure system, and anelite that consistently resisted meaningful change prevented the Northeast from developing effectively.

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Growth with debt, 1974-80Brazil suffered drastic reductions in its terms of trade as a result of the 1973 oil shock. In the early 1970s, theperformance of the export sector was undermined by an overvalued currency. With the trade balance under pressure,the oil shock led to a sharply higher import bill. Brazil opted to continue a high-growth policy. Furthermore, itadopted renewed strategies of import-substitution industrialization and of economic diversification. In themid-1970s, the regime began implementing a development plan aimed at increasing self-sufficiency in many sectorsand creating new comparative advantages. Its main components were to promote import substitution of basicindustrial inputs (steel, aluminum, fertilizers, petrochemicals), to make large investments in the expansion of theeconomic infrastructure, and to promote exports.This strategy was effective in promoting growth, but it also raised Brazil's import requirements markedly, increasingthe already large current-account deficit. The current account was financed by running up the foreign debt. Theexpectation was that the combined effects of import-substitution industrialization and export expansion eventuallywould bring about growing trade surpluses, allowing the service and repayment of the foreign debt.Thus, despite the world recession resulting from other countries' adjustments to the oil shock, Brazil was able tomaintain a high growth rate. Between 1974 and 1980, the average annual rate of growth of real GDP reached 6.9percent and that of industry, 7.2 percent. However, the current-account deficit increased from US$1.7 billion in 1973to US$12.8 billion in 1980. The foreign debt rose from US$6.4 billion in 1963 to nearly US$54 billion in 1980.Brazil was able to raise its foreign debt because, at the time, the international financial system was awash inpetrodollars and was eagerly offering low-interest loans. By the end of the 1970s, however, the foreign debt hadreached high levels. Additionally, the marked increase of international interest rates raised the debt service, forcingthe country to borrow more only to meet interest payments. Productive capacity, exports, and the substitution ofimports in various sectors expanded and became more diversified. However, the expected impacts on Brazil's currentaccount were not to materialize until the mid-1980s.Another feature of the 1974-80 period was an acceleration of inflation. Between 1968 and 1974, the rate of inflationhad declined steadily, but afterward the trend was reversed. From 16.2 percent a year in 1973, the growth rate of thegeneral price index increased to 110.2 percent a year by 1980.

Stagnation, inflation, and crisis, 1981-93The effect of the 1974-85 period's industrialization on the balance of trade was significant. The balance of trademoved from an average deficit of US$3.4 billion in the 1974-76 period to an average surplus of US$10.7 billion inthe 1983-85 period. In 1985 the share of manufactures (processed and semi-processed) of total exports reached 66percent, and between 1971–75 and 1978-83 the share of basic input imports in total imports declined from 32.3% to19.2%. The recession and stagnation of the early 1980s had a role in reducing imports. However, import substitutionwas also important, as demonstrated by the few years of the 1980s that experienced a significant growth in GDPwhile the trade surplus was maintained.Between 1981 and 1992, the GDP increased at an average annual rate of only 2.9% and per capita income declined6%. Gross investment, as a proportion of GDP, fell from 21 to 16 percent, in part as a result of the fiscal crisis andthe loss of public-sector investment capacity. The decline also reflected growing uncertainties regarding the future ofthe economy. The 1980s became known as the "lost decade," and its problems spilled over into the 1990s. Despitethe stagnation of the 1981-92 period, inflation remained a major problem (see stagflation). It stayed in the 100%level until the mid-80's and then grew to more than 1000% a year, reaching a record 5000% in 1993.

Economic history of Brazil 95

1981-84 periodIn 1979 a second oil shock nearly doubled the price of imported oil to Brazil and lowered the terms of trade further.The rise in world interest rates increased sharply Brazil's balance of payments problem and the size of the foreigndebt. Nevertheless, the government continued borrowing, mainly to face an increasing debt burden, while it triedvainly to maintain the high-growth strategy. At the beginning of the 1980s, however, the foreign-debt problembecame acute, leading to the introduction of a program to generate growing trade surpluses in order to service theforeign debt. The program was achieved by reducing growth and, with it, imports, and by expanding exports. As aresult, in 1981 real GDP declined by 4.4 percent. The 1982 Mexican debt crisis ended Brazil's access to internationalfinancial markets, increasing the pressure for economic adjustment.Some unorthodox economists like Stephen Kanitz attribute the debt crisis not to the high Brazilian level ofindebtedness nor to the disorganization of the country's economy. They say that the cause of the crisis was rather aminor error in the U.S. government banking regulations which forbids its banks from lending over ten times theamount of their capital, a regulation that, when the inflation eroded their lending limits, forced them to cut the accessof underdeveloped countries to international savings. [1]The austerity program imposed by the International Monetary Fund in late 1979 continued until 1984, but substantialtrade surpluses were obtained only from 1983 on, largely as a delayed result of the import-substitutionindustrialization programs of the 1970s and the reduction in imports brought about by economic decline. Theausterity program enabled Brazil to meet interest payments on the debt, but at the price of economic decline andincreasing inflation.Inflation accelerated as a result of a combination of factors: the exchange-rate devaluations of the austerity program,a growing public deficit, and an increasing indexation of financial balances, wages, and other values for inflation.The first two factors are classical causes of inflation; the last became an important mechanism for propagatinghyperinflation and in preventing the usual instruments of inflation control from operating.By the mid-1980s, domestic debt nearly displaced foreign debt as Brazil's main economic problem. During thehigh-growth 1970s, a significant portion of foreign borrowing had been by state enterprises, which were the mainactors in the import-substitution industrialization strategy. Initially, they borrowed to finance their investments.However, toward the end of the decade, with the acute shortage of foreign exchange, the government forced stateenterprises to borrow unnecessarily, increasing their indebtedness markedly. Their situation worsened with the sharprise in international interest rates in the late 1970s, the devaluations of the austerity program, and the decreasing realprices of goods and services provided by the public enterprises stemming from price controls. Because the stateenterprises were not allowed to go bankrupt, their debt burden was transferred gradually to the government, furtherincreasing the public debt. This, and a growing disorganization of the public sector, transformed the public debt intoa major economic problem. By the mid-1980s, the financial burden stemming from the debt was contributingdecisively to its rapid expansion.

1985-89 periodDuring the second half of the 1980s, it became increasingly clear that a large-scale fiscal reform, one that enablednoninflationary financing of the public sector, was needed not only to control inflation but also to restore the publicsector's capacity to invest. Both were essential for an economic recovery. However, political obstacles prevented thereform from materializing. And, because inflation had become the most visible symptom of the public-sectordisequilibrium, there were several attempts to bring inflation under control through what came to be known as"heterodox economic shocks". The period saw three such shocks: the Cruzado Plan (1986), the Bresser Plan (1987),and the Summer Plan (1989).The objective of the Cruzado Plan was to eliminate inflation with a dramatic blow. Between 1980 and 1985, the risein the CPI had escalated from 86.3% to 248.5% annually. Early in 1986, the situation became desperate, prodding

Economic history of Brazil 96

the implementation of the plan. Its main measures were a general price freeze, a wage readjustment and freeze,readjustment and freeze on rents and mortgage payments, a ban on indexation, and a freeze on the exchange rate.The plan's immediate results were spectacular: the monthly rate of inflation fell close to zero, economic growthsurged upward, and the foreign accounts remained under control. However, by the end of 1986 the plan was introuble. The wage adjustments were too large, increasing aggregate demand excessively and creating inflationarypressures. Moreover, the price freeze was maintained for too long, creating distortions and leading to shortages of agrowing number of products. The plan could have been rescued if adjustments had been made at crucial moments.Instead, inflation accelerated again, and there was a return of indexation. The country has imposed a moratorium onits foreign debt service on 20 February 1987.The two other stabilization plans amounted to renewed attempts at bringing inflation down from very high levels. Itwas soon clear that without a thorough reform of the public sector, controlling inflation would be impossible. Bothplans introduced a price freeze and eliminated indexation, but there were differences between them, and with theCruzado Plan. Neither was able to address the public-sector disequilibrium effectively. The objective of the SummerPlan, for instance, was mainly to avoid hyperinflation in an election year.In fact, the public-sector disequilibrium became virtually locked in as a result of the 1988 constitution, which createdadvantages for various segments of society without indicating how these advantages would be paid for. Moreover, ittransferred large portions of the tax revenues from the federal government to state and municipal governments,without requiring them to provide additional public services. With less revenue and more responsibility, the federalaccounts experienced growing deficits. In addition, several subsidies were locked into the legislation. These factorsand the financial burden of the public debt meant growing problems of public finance.The 1980s ended with high and accelerating inflation and a stagnant economy, which never recovered after thedemise of the Cruzado Plan. The public debt was enormous, and the government was required to pay very highinterest rates to persuade the public to continue to buy government debt instruments.

1990-93 periodThe first post-military-regime president elected by popular suffrage, Fernando Collor de Mello (1990–92), wassworn into office in March 1990. Facing imminent hyperinflation and a virtually bankrupt public sector, the newadministration introduced a stabilization plan, together with a set of reforms, aimed at removing restrictions on freeenterprise, increasing competition, privatizing public enterprises, and boosting productivity.Heralded as a definitive blow to inflation, the stabilization plan was drastic. It imposed an eighteen-month freeze onall but a small portion of the private sector's financial assets, froze prices, and again abolished indexation. The newadministration also introduced provisional taxes to deal with the fiscal crisis, and took steps to reform the publicsector by closing several public agencies and dismissing public servants. These measures were expected not only toswiftly reduce inflation but also to lower inflationary expectations.However, few of the new administration's programs succeeded. Major difficulties with the stabilization and reformprograms were caused in part by the superficial nature of many of the administration's actions and by its inability tosecure political support. Moreover, the stabilization plan failed because of management errors coupled withdefensive actions by segments of society that would be most directly hurt by the plan.After falling more than 80 percent in March 1990, the GPI's monthly rate of growth began increasing again. The bestthat could be achieved was to stabilize the GPI at a high and slowly rising level. In January 1991, it rose by 19.9%,reaching 32% a month by July 1993. Simultaneously, political instability increased sharply, with negative impacts onthe economy. The real GDP declined 4.0% in 1990, increased only 1.1% in 1991, and again declined 0.9% in 1992.President Collor de Mello was impeached in September 1992 on charges of corruption. Vice President Itamar Franco was sworn in as president (1992–94), but he had to grapple to form a stable cabinet and to gather political support. The weakness of the interim administration prevented it from tackling inflation effectively. In 1993 the economy

Economic history of Brazil 97

grew again, but with inflation rates higher than 30 percent a month, the chances of a durable recovery appeared to bevery slim. At the end of the year, it was widely acknowledged that without serious fiscal reform, inflation wouldremain high and the economy would not sustain growth. This acknowledgment and the pressure of rapidlyaccelerating inflation finally jolted the government into action. The president appointed a determined minister offinance, Fernando Henrique Cardoso, and a high-level team was put in place to develop a new stabilization plan.Implemented early in 1994, the plan met little public resistance because it was discussed widely and it avoided pricefreezes.The stabilization program, called Plano Real had three stages: the introduction of an equilibrium budget mandated bythe National Congress a process of general indexation (prices, wages, taxes, contracts, and financial assets); and theintroduction of a new currency, the Brazilian real, pegged to the dollar. The legally enforced balanced budget wouldremove expectations regarding inflationary behavior by the public sector. By allowing a realignment of relativeprices, general indexation would pave the way for monetary reform. Once this realignment was achieved, the newcurrency would be introduced, accompanied by appropriate policies (especially the control of expenditures throughhigh interest rates and the liberalization of trade to increase competition and thus prevent speculative behavior).By the end of the first quarter of 1994, the second stage of the stabilization plan was being implemented. Economistsof different schools of thought considered the plan sound and technically consistent.

1994-present (Post "Real Plan" economy)The Plano Real ("Real Plan"), instituted in the spring 1994, sought to break inflationary expectations by pegging thereal to the U.S. dollar. Inflation was brought down to single digit annual figures, but not fast enough to avoidsubstantial real exchange rate appreciation during the transition phase of the Plano Real. This appreciation meant thatBrazilian goods were now more expensive relative to goods from other countries, which contributed to large currentaccount deficits. However, no shortage of foreign currency ensued because of the financial community's renewedinterest in Brazilian markets as inflation rates stabilized and memories of the debt crisis of the 1980s faded.The Real Plan successfully eliminated inflation, after many failed attempts to control it. Almost 25 million peopleturned into consumers.The maintenance of large current account deficits via capital account surpluses became problematic as investorsbecame more risk averse to emerging market exposure as a consequence of the Asian financial crisis in 1997 and theRussian bond default in August 1998. After crafting a fiscal adjustment program and pledging progress on structuralreform, Brazil received a $41.5 billion IMF-led international support program in November 1998. In January 1999,the Brazilian Central Bank announced that the real would no longer be pegged to the U.S. dollar. This devaluationhelped moderate the downturn in economic growth in 1999 that investors had expressed concerns about over thesummer of 1998. Brazil's debt to GDP ratio of 48% for 1999 beat the IMF target and helped reassure investors thatBrazil will maintain tight fiscal and monetary policy even with a floating currency.The economy grew 4.4% in 2000, but problems in Argentina in 2001, and growing concerns that the presidentialcandidate considered most likely to win, leftist Luis Inácio Lula da Silva, would default on the debt, triggered aconfidence crisis that caused the economy to decelerate. Poverty was down to near 16%.In 2002, Luis Inácio Lula da Silva won the presidential elections and was re-elected in 2006. During his government,the economy began to grow more rapidly. In 2004 Brazil saw a promising growth of 5.7% in GDP, following 2005with a 3.2% growth, 2006 with a 4.0%, 2007 with a 6.1% and 2008 with a 5.1% growth. Due the 2008-2010 worldfinancial crisis, Brazil's economy was expected to slow down in 2009 between a decline of -0.5% and a growth of0.0%. In reality, economic growth as continued at a high rate with economic growth hitting 7.5% in 2010. [1]

Economic history of Brazil 98

Notes[1] Brazil's Battle Against Inflation (http:/ / www. soundsandcolours. com/ articles/ brazil/ brazil-battle-against-inflation/ )

For Further ReadingBaer, Werner; The Brazilian Economy: Growth and Development. 5th. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 2001

 This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents (http:/ / lcweb2. loc. gov/ frd/ cs/ )of the Library of Congress Country Studies.

Article Sources and Contributors 99

Article Sources and ContributorsBrazilian Portuguese  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=442676465  Contributors: Aaker, Abenyosef, Aciampolini, Adammathias, Agiesbrecht, AlexanderKaras, Alexlange,Alsandro, Amire80, AnandaLima, AnonMoos, Anonymous from the 21st century, Antonielly, Antonio Prates, Arael2, Arges, AxelBoldt, Babbage, Bbportuguese, Bento00, Benwing,Betacommand, BilCat, Blueboy96, Bluedenim, Bradenchase, Branddobbe, Brazilonusa, Brrryan, Caiaffa, Calliopejen1, CanisRufus, CarrotMan, Cassowary, Cataphract, Cdc, ClaudioMB,Claviola, Cmdrjameson, Cookiehead, Cotoco, Dantadd, Dawnjessy, Dekimasu, Delirium, Diego UFCG, Diogo sfreitas, Discospinster, Download, Drapen, Dthomsen8, Ebalter, Edmilsonz,Eduardo Sellan III, Elagatis, Emmyceru, Eric Shalov, Erin Billy, Eumedemito, Felix ahlner, Fenice, Fetofs, Fiet Nam, FilipeS, Filipemagno, Flarkins, Florian Blaschke, Foros2000, Fratrep,Fsolda, Fsouza, Furrykef, Garion96, GaryColemanFan, Ghartman86, Giorgioz, GraemeL, Gronky, Grover cleveland, HQCentral, Haeleth, Hajor, Hansch, Hdante, Hempfel, Hentzer, Hippietrail,Hmains, Husond, IW.HG, Ian Pitchford, Ikescs, Inge-Lyubov, Intgr, Itaj Sherman, JDDunn9, JaGa, Jack O'Neill, JamesAM, Jamirabastos, Jcscavuzzo, Jhall 3rd, Jmartgarza8, JohnCD, JonHarder,Jorge Stolfi, Joseph Solis in Australia, José San Martin, Juppiter, JustAGal, Jvatoledo, K matt thos, Kakofonous, Khoikhoi, KirrVlad, Kittybrewster, Kman543210, Ko'oy, Krash, Krauss, Kudzu1,Kwamikagami, LSUniverse, Leandrod, Learnportuguese, Lenineleal, Leviel, LilHelpa, Limongi, Linda Martens, Ling.Nut, Lipsman, Livajo, Lomibz, Lotje, Luizdl, Luna Whistler, MBisanz,MCBastos, MaGioZal, Macgreco, Mackeriv, Mafmafmaf, Malo, Man vyi, Marco Neves, Martarius, Mateus RM, Maximus Rex, Mbruno, Mhking, Michael Hardy, Michaeldsuarez, Mike Rosoft,Missionary, Mle3542, Modulatum, Mulatao, Muukalainen, Muñata, Mário, Neier, Nick Number, Nicolae Coman, Oborseth, Oobopshark, Opinoso, Opraco, Otaviomaciel, OwenBlacker, PaulAugust, PedroOG, PedroPVZ, Peter Isotalo, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Phastolph, Phi beta, Phil Bridger, Primetime, Quiensabe, Rabin, Raven in Orbit, Rescbr, Retired username, Rex Germanus,Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Ross Burgess, Rui Gabriel Correia, S. Neuman, SEWilco, Sam Hocevar, Sardanaphalus, Saxbryn, SebastianHelm, Secretlondon, Shakescene, Shunpiker, SpiceMan,Spidey104, Spmoura, Storkk, Sutermeister, TShilo12, Teles, TenIslands, The Ogre, Theunixgeek, Tide rolls, Tomyumgoong, Travelbird, Tugazo, Ulric1313, Unoffensive text or character, Vbs,Velho, Visor, Vogensen, Wakuran, Wandering-teacher, WhisperToMe, Wildie, Wmahan, Woohookitty, Wyverald, Xcff ggre233, Yak314, YgorCoelho, Zyvo01, Zzuuzz, 638 anonymous edits

Portuguese grammar  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=441366614  Contributors: Altenmann, Amire80, Antonielly, BD2412, Babajobu, Barticus88, Bender235, Bsdlogical,Btw, Cataphract, Charles Matthews, Christopher Sundita, Cln23, Cmdrjameson, Cícero, Dawn Bard, Doethwr, Dpv, El estremeñu, Eumedemito, FilipeS, Fotoplasma, Furrykef, Futurepower(R),Gaius Cornelius, Gbnogkfs, Glebchik, Googl, Goregantuan, Gregbard, HCa, Husond, JLDBooth, Jggouvea, John M Baker, Jorge Stolfi, Karam.Anthony.K, Ke6jjj, Kikuta, Kotabatubara,Kwamikagami, LeRobert, LiDaobing, LjL, LtDoc, Lundgren8, M baptiste, Macgreco, Macrakis, MikeLynch, Nricardo, Olaf Davis, Patrickhernandez, PedroPVZ, Poccil, Richwales, Rikkidisco,Rjanag, Rjwilmsi, Rui Gabriel Correia, Samwaltz, Sanmartin, Teltnuag, Tharsaile, Trev M, Uanfala, Velho, Vincent Pace, Whitelet, Wikitiki89, Woohookitty, Wprlh, Zaheen, Zé da Silva, 181anonymous edits

Brazil  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=443011732  Contributors: (:Julien:), -- April, -unicycle-pro-, 1234r00t, 123Hedgehog456, 159753, 172, 200.204.171.xxx, 21655, 2help, 322095480th, 334a, 4twenty42o, 5 albert square, 99econ, A Werewolf, A.Z., A8UDI, AA, ACSE, AV3000, Aaron Einstein, Aaron Schulz, Aaron045, Aaronbrick, Aaronthered, Abductive, Aboydvd, Abreuzinho, Abu badali, Abueno97, Abyssal, Academic38, Acer, Achangeisasgoodasa, Acolston, Acs4b, AdamFouracre, Adashiel, Addlertod05, AdeMiami, Adolphus79, Adrian, Adrian Robson, Aervanath, Aesopian, Aesopos, Aeusoes1, AfC, Affleck, Afiler, Afluent Rider, Agil, Ahoerstemeier, Ahuskay, Ahwaz, Aivazovsky, Aj2121, Ajwitney, Akanemoto, Akradecki, Al-Andalus, Alan Liefting, Alan lyra, Alan27, Alanbcao, Alansohn, Alberto msr, Alcguerreiro, AlefZet, Alex houlbrook, Alex-ridgeway, AlexBrainer, AlexCovarrubias, Alexander Domanda, Alexcetera, Alexinc9, AlexiusHoratius, Alexwcovington, Algarb, Alihadji, Alison, AliveFreeHappy, Aliyevramin, Allstar86, Alvarolima, Alvaroludolf, Amakuru, Amarao, Amazonien, Amdsweb, Amgreg, AmigoDoPaulo, Amnesia the dark descent 2010, Anakay, Anarchist92, Andre Engels, Andrecury, AndrewWTaylor, Andrewlp1991, Andrewpmk, Andrewudstraw, Andrwsc, Andy Marchbanks, Angela, Angelo De La Paz, Angie Y., Angr, Angusmclellan, Anis93, Anna, Anonymous from the 21st century, Antandrus, Anthony, Anthonyd3ca, Antipodean Contributor, Antt296, ApS Camper, Aquintero82, Aramaicus, Ard77, Arendedwinter, Arialblack, Ariedartin, Armpit1999, Arpingstone, Art LaPella, Arthur Rubin, Arthurhenriquemsm, Artur 55, Asabovesobellow, Asdfghjklasdfjk, Assab, Astronautics, Asyndeton, Atick22, Atmoz, AuburnPilot, Aude, Augusto f. arruda fontes, Auréola, Australia boy, Autocracy, Autoerrant, Autolykos2, Avala, Aventinus, Avenue, Avicennasis, Axeman89, Azips, BGManofID, BSTIMELESS, Bagunceiro, Baliok, Banana04131, Barfooz, Baristarim, BarkerJr, Barneca, BarretBonden, Barryob, Bart133, Barticus88, Bazonka, Bcnviajero, Bcoverson, Beatrijs9, Beeblebrox, Beelzebubs, Behemoth, Bein04, Belache, Ben Ben, Bender235, Bendono, BenettonHuhera, Bensci54, Benson85, Bepp, Betacommand, Beyond silence, Bgwwlm, Bidabadi, Bility, Bill Thayer, Bill37212, Billgunyon, Billscottbob, Billybobdoodle, Birdmessenger, Biruitorul, Bishop^, Bj the pimp, Bjarki S, Bkell, Blackable2323, Blake24, Blamed, Blaxthos, Blessthishouse, Bletch, Blizzardstep0, Bloodshedder, Blue520, Bmil, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Bogdan, Bolivian Unicyclist, Bomac, Bombs Bombs Away!, Bomfim, Bookandcoffee, Boomshadow, Bowei Huang, Bownser, Bpiereck, BradBeattie, Brasilturismo, Brazil4Linux, BrazilBoy1996, Brazilian101, Brazillianideas, Brazzer, Brazzillover, Bremen, BrendelSignature, Brian0918, Brianski, Brion VIBBER, Brisvegas, Brother Officer, Broux, Browni1992, Brutaldeluxe, Bryan Derksen, BryanWhite5858, Btball, Buaidh, Buchanan-Hermit, Bucksburg, BuddyX, Bull Market, Bumm13, Burgaqueen14, Buttered Bread, Bwabes, CALR, CEBR, CMoosey, Cactus.man, Cadr, Caesar, Califate123!, Calmer Waters, Caltas, Calton, Cambalachero, CambridgeBayWeather, Camenzind, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canadian Eclat, CanadianLinuxUser, Canderson7, Caniago, CanisRufus, Cantus, Caribbean H.Q., Cariello, Carioca, Carlaude, Carlon, Carlosguitar, Carnildo, CasanovaUnlimited, Catstamford, Ccmfarias, Cdc, Ceilican, Celestra, Centrx, Ceres1251, Cesar Moura, CesarB, Ceyockey, Chafis, Chamdarae, Chan Han Xiang, Chanting Fox, Charlesblack, CharlotteWebb, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Chaser, Che829, Cheiro de lysoform, Chensiyuan, ChiPHeaD, Chicchick, Chicocvenancio, Chinneeb, Chowhotin, Chrislk02, Christoff2k7, Chromega, Chubberi, Ciacchi, Ciao 90, CieloEstrellado, Cillmore, Civil Engineer III, CjGenius, Ck3001, Ckatz, ClaudioMB, Claygate, Cloretti, Cloretti2, Cmaster360, Cmdrbond, Cmdrjameson, Codex Sinaiticus, Col tom, Coleecer, Colipon, Colonies Chris, CommonsDelinker, Confiteordeo, Connormah, Conscious, Constihill, Conversion script, Cool Stuff Is Cool, Cool boy 96, CordeliaNaismith, Corvus13, CrazySlyHawk, Crazypersonbb, Credema, Creedence, Cripipper, Crisco 1492, Cromag, Crownjewel82, Crum375, Crònica, Cs-wolves, Cup22, Curps, Cvalente, Cwebb4000, Cyapt81, Cyberanto, Cybershore, D6, DCGeist, DDerby, DE MAGIC PICKLE, DH85868993, DMac, DMeyering, DMorpheus, DNewhall, DO'Neil, DTC, Daffy100, Daftpunker88, Dalillama, Damirgraffiti, Danga, Daniel Callegaro, Daniel G Rego, Daniel J. 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States of Brazil  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=440845366  Contributors: Aaronbrick, Acntx, Ahoerstemeier, Algumacoisaqq, Altes, Andrwsc, Antipodean Contributor,Bejnar, Berton, Bobo192, Bolivian Unicyclist, Caerwine, CesarB, Chanheigeorge, Chezi-Schlaff, CommonsDelinker, Creedence, Crusoe8181, DO'Neil, Daarznieks, David Kernow, Davin,DeirYassin, Docu, Dthomsen8, Electionworld, Elockid, Felipe Menegaz, Filemon, Fruitpunchline, Fulano, Gadfium, Giorgi13, Green Giant, Guilherme Paula, Hectorbonilia, Hede2000,HennessyC, Hongooi, Hvn0413, Immanuel Giel, Innv, Italodal, JaGa, JeLuF, Johnluisocasio, Joseph Solis in Australia, Leoadec, Little Savage, LordVetinari, Loukinho, MSex, Macgreco,MeltBanana, Mikaey, Missionary, Morwen, Mosmof, Mschiffler, Mátyás, Nepenthes, Nhishands4ever, Nohat, Nricardo, Nuno Tavares, Opinoso, Patrick, Pedro Aguiar, PedroAguiar, PhilipR,Pikolas, Polylerus, Postlebury, Ppntori, R'n'B, Rafaelgr, Rafavargas, Ramalha Soares, Rarelibra, Raven in Orbit, Rich Farmbrough, Ringbang, Robert1947, Roke, Romanm, Sagurga, Saopaulo1,Sardanaphalus, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Sverdrup, T.Kimura, TigreTiger, Tobias Conradi, Tomdo08, Tomtom9041, Ulises Heureaux, UtherSRG, Waldir, Wavelength, Wfroede, Wik,Woohookitty, Worobiew, Раптор, 94 anonymous edits

Brazilian people  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=441571816  Contributors: Aaker, Acalamari, Ade1982, Aidarzver, Amicon, Anarchyonbr, Andre 16 martins, AndyMarchbanks, Ary29, BD2412, Bab-a-lot, Barticus88, Bobblehead, Bobeatbob, Bonadea, Bsadowski1, CEBR, Catgut, Ciao 90, Classic Case, Closedmouth, CoCoLumps, Crazyaboutlost,Crazymapleleaf, Creedence, Dalillama, Dantadd, DocWatson42, Dodger67, DoubleBlue, ESkog, Edward, Epbr123, Europe101, Extransit, Face-2-face, Fama Clamosa, Felipe Menegaz,Fieldday-sunday, Flewis, Floridianed, Fratrep, Fxate, Gamersarecool, Garion96, Genius101, Gimelthedog, Green Giant, Grenzer22, Guilherme Paula, HJ Mitchell, Hentzer, Hmains, IANVS,Intershark, JaGa, Jvatoledo, Kidzrule631, Kirachinmoku, Kman543210, L Kensington, LS C HIST, Lacobrigo, Lear's Fool, Learnportuguese, Lecen, Leonardo Alves, Licor, Limongi, LonerXL,M5891, Maunaloadu, Maunus, MayaSimFan, Mayumashu, Miguelzinho, Mike Rosoft, Mikheil88, Millahnna, My76Strat, Ninguém, Oneiros, Opinoso, Oxymoron83, PaddySnuffles, Pinnecco,Plankhead, Prashanthns, Psemmusa, Quissamã, Rcerque1, Red dwarf, Rio12, Rjanag, Rojeru, Ron 1987, Sardanaphalus, Sellyme, Sentōkisei, Silly rabbit, Skanter, Snowolf, Sunny256, Svick,TheXenocide, Tide rolls, Tim1357, Veertlte, Woohookitty, Ytfc23, Zachlipton, 248 anonymous edits

Culture of Brazil  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=438622178  Contributors: AKAkrayzie, AKeen, Achevalier, Adashiel, Addshore, AfroLusoTupiBrazilianNationalist, Aitias, Alansohn, Alberto msr, Ale jrb, Amerika, AnandaLima, Andre Engels, Angoleiro, Anonymous anonymous, Arakunem, Ashleyy osaurus, Avsa, Batman55, Ben Ben, BenjyT, Blackwolfjsr, Bletch, Bobo192, Bovineboy2008, Brazucs, CARLMART, CWY2190, CaliforniaAliBaba, Caltas, CambridgeBayWeather, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Caper13, Capricorn42, CesarB, Charles Matthews, Christian75, Chuckiesdad, Cjhpereira, Closedmouth, Courcelles, Cyberanto, DMacks, DO'Neil, Daniel 1992, Darth Panda, Davewild, David Kernow, Denisarona, Designium, Dfrg.msc, Dougweller, Dr. Blofeld, Draffinix, DragonForceRox007, Drahcir, Dysprosia, ESkog, Edderso, Edededed, Edward, Edward130603, Egmontaz, Enviroboy, Epbr123, Evil Monkey, FJPB, Felipe Menegaz, FlyingToaster, Frencheigh, Fsouza, Grundle, Hajor, Heitor CJ, Hentzer, Hmains, Horselover Frost, Ian.thomson, Insanity Incarnate, Iridescent, JaGa, JamesAM, Jay Litman, Jbmurray, Jclemens, Jebba, Jeff G., Jengod, Jj137, Jncraton, John254, Johnbrownsbody, Jonkerz, JoshuaD1991, Juliancolton, Kaiba, Karolvs, Kathar, Keilana, Khoikhoi, KnightRider, Kusma, Kwamikagami, L Kensington, LeaveSleaves, Limitante, LuckyInWaco, Luk, MER-C, Macgreco, Mahanga, Malik Shabazz, Man It's So Loud In Here, Mandarax, MarcusAnniusCatiliusSeverus, Martpol, Maxis ftw, Meekywiki, MelM, Michael Devore, Michael.prewitt, Mike Halterman, Minimac's Clone, Mochalox, Monkeyman2, Muenda, Mwilso24, N Shar, NawlinWiki, Neilalecrim, Nhishands4ever, Nimuaq, Ninguém, Nufy8, OllieFury, Onorem, Opinoso, Orudge, Oxymoron83, Palnu, Paul Richter, Paul foord, Philip Trueman, Radon210, RafaelFdeA, Ramirez72, RasputinAXP, Raven in Orbit, Reconsider the static, Red Director, Ricardo Frantz, Robwingfield, Rodrigostrauss, Ronhjones, Rsabbatini, Sam Hocevar, Sanbeg, Sardanaphalus, Scetoaux, Secret, Sherwoodgreshamjr, Signalhead, Singingdaisies, Siroxo, Skanter, Slof, Snowolf, StAnselm, SteveRamone, Streetlightmit, Suns, Szczesny, TUF-KAT, Tanthalas39, Thatguyflint, The way, the truth, and the light, Think outside the box, ThinkBlue, Thue, Tide rolls, Topperfalkon, TransUtopian, Truco, Ulmo, Userresuuser, UtherSRG, Vague Rant, Versus22, WOSlinker, Warofdreams, Waxigloo, Weetoddid, Wik, WikiHendrik, Will Beback Auto, Wilt, Wimt, Woohookitty, Wtmitchell, X!, Xp54321, ZeroJanvier, ZooFari, 619 anonymous

Article Sources and Contributors 101

edits

Economic history of Brazil  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=440766150  Contributors: AtomAnt, Avalon, Belovedfreak, Bkwillwm, Dalillama, David Kernow, Dawkeye,DorisH, Eastlaw, EconomistBR, Edward, Either way, Excelsior Deo, Frank, Golgofrinchian, Gurch, Hmains, Iridescent, JamesAM, Jomig, Joseph Solis in Australia, Lawrencekhoo, Miguel inPortugal, Minnesota1, Nancy, Nbarth, Neutrality, OneWorld22, Ospalh, Pecan mom, Pedro Aguiar, Philip Trueman, Pularoid, RafaelG, Rconner, Rigadoun, Ronz, Sadads, Safm16, Shoeofdeath,Steven J. Anderson, Svpersteve, Tugaworld, Versus22, Victor Lopes, VinculumMan, Wayne Slam, YohoLungfish, Zaledin, 62 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 102

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Flag of Brazil.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Brazilian GovernmentFile:Coat of arms of Brazil.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coat_of_arms_of_Brazil.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Brazilian GovernmentFile:National Seal of Brazil (color).svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:National_Seal_of_Brazil_(color).svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Tonyjeff, based onnational symbol.File:Brazil (orthographic projection).svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brazil_(orthographic_projection).svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: SsolbergjFile:Loudspeaker.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Loudspeaker.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bayo, Gmaxwell, Husky, Iamunknown, Myself488,Nethac DIU, Omegatron, Rocket000, The Evil IP address, Wouterhagens, 9 anonymous editsFile:Meirelles-primeiramissa2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Meirelles-primeiramissa2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:TetraktysFile:Pelourinho.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pelourinho.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dantadd, Darwinius, G.dallorto, Juiced lemon, JuremaOliveira, SsasantosFile:Independência ou Morte.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Independência_ou_Morte.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: CommonsDelinker, Dantadd,Dornicke, Lecen, Limongi, Lycaon, Picture Master, Pikolas, Raeky, Rocket000, Stigmj, Tetraktys, Tonyjeff, Zephynelsson Von, Ö, 2 anonymous editsFile:Americo-avaí.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Americo-avaí.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dornicke, Lecen, Picture Master, Pikolas, Tetraktys,Vearthy, 3 anonymous editsFile:Revolução de 1930.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Revolução_de_1930.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Claro Jansson (1877-1954)File:Inauguration of Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva in 2003.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Inauguration_of_Luiz_Inácio_Lula_da_Silva_in_2003.jpeg  License:Agência Brasil  Contributors: Marcello Casal Jr./ABrFile:Brazil topo.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brazil_topo.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was Captain Blood aten.wikipediaImage:1988b.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1988b.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: Caio CesarImage:Cabedelo-pb.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cabedelo-pb.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: Neto0File:Anavilhanas1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anavilhanas1.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Jason Auch from Calgary, CanadaFile:Congresso Nacional.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Congresso_Nacional.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Gribiche(Rob Sinclair)File:Supreme Federal Court of Brazil.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Supreme_Federal_Court_of_Brazil.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike2.0  Contributors: Rob SinclairFile:Itamaraty.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Itamaraty.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: xenïa antunes from Brasilia, BrazilFile:Brazil Labelled Map.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brazil_Labelled_Map.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: Felipe Menegaz, Giro720, Guilherme Paula,UlammFile:Continental Embraer 135.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Continental_Embraer_135.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: gab_744File:Itaipu noche.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Itaipu_noche.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Carlosbenitez26File:Lnls.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lnls.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: OnboxFile:BR116 Viaduto em Fortaleza.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BR116_Viaduto_em_Fortaleza.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors:Francisco Marinho de AndradeFile:Aeroporto do recife.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aeroporto_do_recife.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Alphax, Andre bispo, Jo, Mattes, 1 anonymous editsFile:Museu da Língua Portuguesa.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Museu_da_Língua_Portuguesa.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors:Marilane BorgesFile:Machado-450.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Machado-450.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Academia Brasileira de Letras.File:Feijoada 01.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Feijoada_01.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Jurema Oliveira, Kintetsubuffalo, Ras67,Zephynelsson VonFile:Barnetta061115-01.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Barnetta061115-01.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Reto Stauffer,www.hopp-schwiiz.chImage:Brazil states1534.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brazil_states1534.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors:Electionworld, Pedro Aguiar, Quissamã, Raphael.lorenzeto, 3 anonymous editsImage:Brazil states1572.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brazil_states1572.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors:Electionworld, Pedro Aguiar, Quissamã, Raphael.lorenzeto, 3 anonymous editsImage:Brazil states1709.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brazil_states1709.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors:Electionworld, Luan, Pedro Aguiar, Quissamã, Raphael.lorenzeto, 1 anonymous editsImage:Brazil states1789.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brazil_states1789.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors:Electionworld, Man vyi, Pedro Aguiar, Quissamã, Raphael.lorenzeto, 1 anonymous editsImage:Brazil states1823.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brazil_states1823.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors:Electionworld, Pedro Aguiar, Quissamã, Raphael.lorenzeto, 3 anonymous editsImage:Brazil states1889.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brazil_states1889.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors:Electionworld, Pedro Aguiar, Quissamã, Raphael.lorenzeto, 2 anonymous editsImage:Brazil states1943.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brazil_states1943.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors:Electionworld, Pedro Aguiar, Quissamã, Raphael.lorenzeto, 1 anonymous editsImage:Brazil states1990.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brazil_states1990.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors:Electionworld, Pedro Aguiar, Quissamã, Raphael.lorenzeto, 1 anonymous editsImage:Bandeira do Acre.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bandeira_do_Acre.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anaty, Anime Addict AA, Denniss, E2m,Felipe Menegaz, Giro720, Guilherme Paula, Homo lupus, Huhsunqu, Lokal Profil, Mattes, PatríciaR, Philipi, Raphael.lorenzeto, Sarang, Ö, Владимир турчаниновImage:Bandeira de Alagoas.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bandeira_de_Alagoas.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Giro720Image:Bandeira do Amapá.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bandeira_do_Amapá.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Denniss, E2m, Felipe Menegaz,Guilherme Paula, Huhsunqu, Lokal Profil, PatríciaR, Philipi, Raphael.lorenzetoImage:Bandeira do Amazonas.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bandeira_do_Amazonas.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:E2m (E2m)Image:Bandeira da Bahia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bandeira_da_Bahia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: E2mImage:Bandeira Estado Ceara Brasil.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bandeira_Estado_Ceara_Brasil.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors:SrfortesImage:Bandeira do Distrito Federal.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bandeira_do_Distrito_Federal.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dantadd, Denniss,E2m, Eugenio Hansen, OFS, Felipe Menegaz, Fry1989, Guilherme Paula, Huhsunqu, Jonny84, Lokal Profil, Mattes, PatríciaR, Philipi, Smooth OImage:Bandeira do Espírito Santo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bandeira_do_Espírito_Santo.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Denniss, E2m, FelipeMenegaz, Guilherme Paula, Huhsunqu, Lokal Profil, PatríciaR, Philipi, Raphael.lorenzeto

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 103

Image:Bandeira de Goiás.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bandeira_de_Goiás.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Denniss, E2m, Felipe Menegaz, GuilhermePaula, Huhsunqu, Lokal Profil, PatríciaR, Philipi, Raphael.lorenzetoImage:Bandeira do Maranhão.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bandeira_do_Maranhão.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Denniss, E2m, Felipe Menegaz,Giro720, Guilherme Paula, Huhsunqu, Lokal Profil, PatríciaR, Raphael.lorenzetoImage:Bandeira de Mato Grosso.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bandeira_de_Mato_Grosso.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Denniss, E2m, EugenioHansen, OFS, Felipe Menegaz, Guilherme Paula, Huhsunqu, Lokal Profil, Mattes, PatríciaR, Philipi, Raphael.lorenzeto, Ö, Владимир турчаниновImage:Bandeira de Mato Grosso do Sul.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bandeira_de_Mato_Grosso_do_Sul.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: E2mImage:Bandeira de Minas Gerais.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bandeira_de_Minas_Gerais.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Denniss, E2m, FelipeMenegaz, Guilherme Paula, Huhsunqu, Lokal Profil, Maislucinha, PatríciaR, Philipi, Raphael.lorenzeto, Vsolymossy, 2 anonymous editsImage:Bandeira do Pará.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bandeira_do_Pará.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Denniss, E2m, Felipe Menegaz, GuilhermePaula, Huhsunqu, Lokal Profil, PatríciaR, Philipi, Raphael.lorenzetoImage:Bandeira da Paraíba.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bandeira_da_Paraíba.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dantadd, Denniss, E2m, FelipeMenegaz, Guilherme Paula, Huhsunqu, Lokal Profil, PatríciaR, Philipi, Raphael.lorenzetoImage:Bandeira do Paraná.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bandeira_do_Paraná.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: FXXXImage:Bandeira de Pernambuco.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bandeira_de_Pernambuco.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: user:E2mImage:Bandeira do Piauí.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bandeira_do_Piauí.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: E2m, Giro720Image:Bandeira Estado RiodeJaneiro Brasil2.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bandeira_Estado_RiodeJaneiro_Brasil2.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution2.5  Contributors: FORTESImage:Bandeira do Rio Grande do Norte.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bandeira_do_Rio_Grande_do_Norte.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: Own workImage:Bandeira Estado RioGrandedoSul Brasil.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bandeira_Estado_RioGrandedoSul_Brasil.svg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution 2.5  Contributors: SrfortesImage:Bandeira de Rondônia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bandeira_de_Rondônia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: E2mImage:Bandeira de Roraima.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bandeira_de_Roraima.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: E2mImage:Bandeira Santa Catarina.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bandeira_Santa_Catarina.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Tonyjeff, based on nationalsymbolImage:Bandeira do Estado de São Paulo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bandeira_do_Estado_de_São_Paulo.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: Felipe MacaroniLalliImage:Bandeira de Sergipe.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bandeira_de_Sergipe.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: E2mImage:Bandeira do Tocantins.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bandeira_do_Tocantins.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Denniss, E2m, Felipe Menegaz,Guilherme Paula, Homo lupus, Huhsunqu, Lokal Profil, Mattes, PatríciaR, Philipi, Raphael.lorenzeto, SrfortesImage:Brazilians 000.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brazilians_000.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Lecen (talk)created this composite image based on photos by Savaman, Gabriele, Tiago Chediak, Wilson Dias/Agência Brasil (ABr), David Shankbone, Valter Campanato, Wilson Dias, José Goulão, et al.File:Flag of the United States.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dbenbenn, Zscout370,Jacobolus, Indolences, Technion.File:Flag of Paraguay.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Paraguay.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Republica del ParaguayFile:Flag of Japan.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Japan.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: VariousFile:Flag of Portugal.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Portugal.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Vítor Luís Rodrigues, António Martins-Tuválkin,User:NightstallionFile:Flag of Spain.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Spain.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Pedro A. Gracia Fajardo, escudo de Manual de ImagenInstitucional de la Administración General del EstadoFile:Flag of Italy.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Italy.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: see belowFile:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original flag by James Iof England/James VI of ScotlandSVG recreation by User:Zscout370File:Flag of Germany.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Germany.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Madden, User:Pumbaa80, User:SKoppFile:Flag of Switzerland.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Switzerland.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Marc Mongenet Credits: User:-xfi-User:Zscout370File:Flag of Argentina.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Argentina.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Work of Dbenbenn about a national signFile:Flag of Canada.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Canada.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:E Pluribus Anthony, User:MzajacFile:Flag of the Netherlands.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Zscout370File:Flag of Chile.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Chile.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: SKoppImage:Brazilians 001.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brazilians_001.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Various. 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