Consensus-driven explanation of poor African governance Politically-focused, historically-based theory

The power (and “right”) of rule is given to individuals instead of offices Even with formal legal codes and constitutions Loyalty and power > accountability and transparency

Observed in extremely high incidences in African nations Empirical Results

Political instability, strong military use, poor service administration high inequality, reduced economic growth, controlled freedoms vicious cycle of poor governance

Overly general theory Used to explain poor economic performance in addition to

ineffective governance

Paul Collier: “perverse governmental performance”

Endogenously-based policies and politics have hampered Africa’s post-colonial development

“Neo-patrimonialism plus”

Effects of poor governance

Civil war/insurrection/coups ($64B each)

Natural resource dependence/curse

Stifles real economic development/sunk assets

Geography makes a difference

Landlocked sub-Saharan country 1.8 million people in Texas/France-sized landmass

1966: GDP/cap of $70 2008: GDP/cap of $5600 Dramatic rise from extremely poor to middle-income

Annual growth rate of 9% per year, among the world’s highest

Driven by the diamond trade, $2.9B/year Still large (40%) but declining share of GDP Government-controlled extraction (with DeBeers)

Freest economy in Africa (Heritage Foundation) Very competitive economy (World Bank) “A” credit rating from Standard & Poor

Low debt-service load (4%), stringent monetary policy The “Swiss Franc” of Africa

European Union Common Trade Agreement

Progressive constitution, free and fair elections “Usual suspects:” property rights, political debate, and

the balance of power through strong political and economic organization

De-facto one party rule by the Botswana Democratic Party

36th on the 2009 Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index In the same range as France and Portugal

3rd for governance quality on the 2008 Ibrahim Index of African Governance

Historical Legacy•Inherited Political Systems and Legal Codes•Cultural Structure and Social Composition•Geographic Location and Natural Resources

Political Stability and Freedom•Free and Fair Elections•Rule of Law and Human Rights•Corruption and Safety

Policy Formation and Implementation•Regulatory Quality•Government Programmatic Effectiveness•Sustainable Economic Development

Citizen Interaction and Participation•Participation and Voice•Accountability and Transparency•Human Development

EVALUATIVE META-FRAMEWORK

Historical Legacy•Tribal Cohesion•Defensive Modernization•Early State Formation

Political Stability and Freedom•Anti-Corruption Policies•Strong Constitutional Rights

Policy Formation and Implementation•Long-term strategic planning•Decentralized Management and Governance•Natural Resource Management Regimes•Technocratic Democratic Bureaucracy

Citizen Interaction and Participation•Performance Measurement and Accountability•Civil Society Supports•Major Investments in Health and Education

1890—British protectorate over the Tswana tribe and Bechuanaland Initially planned to be part of South Africa and Rhodesia

Successfully resisted attempts at colonization through adept modernization and diplomacy Agricultural and mineral development initiatives

Bourgeois, community-based, market-focused leadership Role of the kglota in stimulating democratic norms

Early adoption of Western ideals around religion, education, and social progress Negotiated with British for autonomy and freedom Fought off human exportation and slavery Unity policies preserved national spirit and cultural self-identity

“Exceptional Leadership” Seretse Khama, first president

Major decentralization thrust after independence Policy planning and

administration go to local units

Intended Goals Equalize the distribution of

economic and social resources among citizens,

Enhance local governance capacity

Improve accountability and participation in governance

Decentralization helped government absorb major demographic changes

68% of population under 30

Regulated elite control and urban/rural bias

Increased popular participation, transparency, and accountability

Still issues with financial autonomy

Zero-tolerance policy for corruption

Little evidence of largess Sound management of natural resources

Strong development of institutions

Governmental culture and norms Exceptional leadership

Tswana-based obligation to “do things”

Merit-based civil service system

Presidential Inquiry Panels International anti-corruption assistance

Biggest area of problem and promise in Botswana 20% of government spending goes into education

81% enrollment rate, free, equal education through tertiary Surplus of workers, feel entitled to jobs Still shortage of tertiary-educated, high skills workers

20% unemployment, 40% below poverty line Should not overshadow tremendous movement out of

progress for most of the country (66% above)

Major HIV/AIDS problem, 23.9% prevalence Tanked country’s HDI ranking (72 in 1990, 126 in 2008) Life expectancy has slipped from 56 to 40 in 10 years 131,000 AIDS-related orphans in the country First nation to provide free ARV/universal treatment policy

Implications for good governance regime

Clarifying the purpose of “good governance.”

Prioritizing governance reforms for poverty reduction.

Matching governance for the times.

Looking over time, not just regions.

Adjusting for normal expectations.

Mostly about the good governance pedagogy, and applying Botswana’s lessons to improving theory