BMFB 4283 NDT & FAILURE ANALYSIS Lectures for Week 6 Prof. Qumrul Ahsan, PhD Department of Engineering Materials Faculty of Manufacturing Engineering

BMFB 4283NDT & FAILURE ANALYSIS

Lectures for Week 6

Prof. Qumrul Ahsan, PhD Department of Engineering MaterialsFaculty of Manufacturing Engineering

6.0 Eddy Current 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Electromagnetic Principles6.3 Equipment and Testing Techniques6.4 Inspection6.5 Application

Issues to address

Introduction

• This module is intended to present information on the NDT method of eddy current inspection.

• Eddy current inspection is one of several methods that use the principal of “electromagnetism” as the basis for conducting examinations. Several other methods such as Remote Field Testing (RFT), Flux Leakage and Barkhausen Noise also use this principle.

Outline

• Electromagnetic induction• Generation of eddy currents• Inspection applications • Equipment utilized in eddy current inspection

Probes/Coils Instrumentation Reference standard

• Advantages and Limitations• Glossary of Terms

Electromagnetic Induction

• Eddy currents are created through a process called electromagnetic induction.

• When alternating current is applied to the conductor, such as copper wire, a magnetic field develops in and around the conductor.

• This magnetic field expands as the alternating current rises to maximum and collapses as the current is reduced to zero.

Electromagnetic Induction (cont.)If another electrical conductor is brought into the proximity of this changing magnetic field, the reverse effect will occur. Magnetic field cutting through the second conductor will cause an “induced” current to flow in this second conductor. Eddy currents are a form of induced currents!

Current Flow

Generation of Eddy Currents

Eddy currents are induced electrical currents that flow in a circular path. They get their name from “eddies” that are formed when a liquid or gas flows in a circular path around obstacles when conditions are right.

Test Probe

Eddy Currents

Generation of Eddy Currents (cont.)•When an electrically conductive material is placed in the coil’s dynamic magnetic field electromagnetic induction will occur and eddy currents will be induced in the material.•Eddy currents flowing in the material will generate their own “secondary” magnetic field which will oppose the coil’s “primary” magnetic field.

Generation of Eddy Currents (cont.)

This entire electromagnetic induction process to produce eddy currents may occur from several hundred to several million times each second depending upon inspection frequency.


• The eddy currents produce their own magnetic fields that interact with the primary magnetic field of the coil.

• By measuring changes in the resistance and inductive reactance of the coil, information can be gathered about the test material.

• This information includes the electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability of the material, the amount of material cutting through the coils magnetic field, and the condition of the material (i.e. whether it contains cracks or other defects.)


Dep

th

Eddy Current DensityD

epth

Eddy Current DensityLow FrequencyLow ConductivityLow Permeability

High FrequencyHigh ConductivityHigh Permeability

Standard Depthof Penetration(Skin Depth)

1/e or 37 % of surface density

Generation of Eddy Currents (cont.)Eddy currents are strongest at the surface of the material and decrease in strength below the surface. The depth that the eddy currents are only 37% as strong as they are on the surface is known as the standard depth of penetration or skin depth. This depth changes with probe frequency, material conductivity and permeability.

The depth at which eddy current density has decreased to 1/e, or about 37% of the surface density, is called the standard depth of penetration (δ). Although eddy currents penetrate deeper than one standard depth of penetration, they decrease rapidly with depth. At two standard depths of penetration (2 δ), eddy current density has decreased to 1/e squared or 13.5% of the surface density. At three depths (3 δ), the eddy current density is down to only 5% of the surface density.

Where: d = Standard Depth of

Penetration (mm)pi = 3.14f = Test Frequency (Hz)µ = Magnetic Permeability (H/mm) = Electrical Conductivity (% IACS)

Inspection Data

• There are three characteristics of the specimen that affect the strength of the induced eddy currents.– The electrical conductivity of the material– The magnetic permeability of the material– The amount of solid material in the vicinity of the test

coil.• Information about the strength of the eddy currents within

the specimen is determined by monitoring changes in voltage and/or current that occur in the coil.

• The strength of the eddy currents changes the electrical impedance (Z) of the coil.

Inspection Data (cont.)

R~

XL

TestCoil

Impedance (Z) in an eddy current coil is the total opposition to current flow. In a coil, Z is made up of resistance (R) and inductive reactance (XL).

Definitions:

• Resistance - The opposition of current flow, resulting in a change of electrical energy into heat or another form of energy.

• Inductive Reactance (XL) - Resistance to AC current flow resulting from electromagnetic induction in the coil.

• Impedance (Z) - The combined opposition to current flow resulting from inductive reactance and resistance.

In an AC coil, induction from the magnetic field of one loop of the coil causes a secondary current in all other loops. The secondary current opposes the primary current.

Lift off in Eddy Current• The distance that the coil is from the conductive material is

called liftoff, and this distance affects the mutual-inductance of the circuits.

Fig. 1.a) Impedance plane diagram representation in conventional eddy current testing, b) zoomed-in and rotated area on the operating point; the lift-off variation is kept along the horizontal axis.

With increase of frequency will give wider angle (i.e diff in 20 kHz and 2 MHz

Phase Lag in Eddy Current• Phase lag is to obtain information about

the depth of a defect within a material. • Phase lag is the shift in time between

the eddy current response from a disruption on the surface and a disruption at some distance below the surface.

• Disruptions in the eddy currents away from the surface will produce more phase lag than disruptions near the surface.

• Both the signal voltage and current will have this phase shift or lag with depth

• discontinuities that have a significant dimension normal to the surface, will produce an angle that is based on the weighted average of the disruption to the eddy currents at the various depths along its length.

Phase lag can be calculated with the following equation.

Where:=Phase Lag (Rad or Degrees)x=Distance Below Surface (in or mm)δ=Standard Depth of Penetration (in or mm)

Impedance Plane (eddy scope)the strength of the eddy currents and the magnetic permeability of the test material cause the eddy current signal on the impedance plane to react in a variety of different ways.

If the eddy current circuit is balanced in air and then placed on a piece of aluminum, the resistance component will increase

(eddy currents are being generated in the aluminum and this takes energy away from the coil, which shows up as resistance)

the inductive reactance of the coil decreases (the magnetic field created by the eddy currents opposes the coil's magnetic field and the net effect is a weaker magnetic field to produce inductance).

If a crack is present in the material, fewer eddy currents will be able to form and the resistance will go back down and the inductive reactance will go back up.

Changes in conductivity will cause the eddy current signal to change in a different way.

Impedance Plane (eddy scope)the strength of the eddy currents and the magnetic permeability of the test material cause the eddy current signal on the impedance plane to react in a variety of different ways. When a probe is placed on a magnetic

material such as steel, something different happens.

eddy currents form, taking energy away from the coil, which shows up as an increase in the coils resistance.

the eddy currents generate their own magnetic field that opposes the coils magnetic field.

the reactance increases. This is because the magnetic permeability of the steel concentrates the coil's magnetic field. This increase in the magnetic field strength completely overshadows the magnetic field of the eddy currents.

The presence of a crack or a change in the conductivity will produce a change in the eddy current signal

Equipment

• Equipment for eddy current inspection is very diversified. Proper equipment selection is important if accurate inspection data is desired for a particular application.

• As a minimum, at least three basic pieces of equipment are needed for any eddy current examination:

– Instrumentation

– Probes

– Reference Standards

Equipment• Eddy current instruments can be purchased in a large variety

of configurations. Both analog and digital instruments are available. Instruments are commonly classified by the type of display used to present the data. The common display types are analog meter, digital readout, impedance plane and time versus signal amplitude. Some instruments are capable of presenting data in several display formats.

• The most basic eddy current testing instrument consists of an alternating current source, a coil of wire connected to this source, and a voltmeter to measure the voltage change across the coil. An ammeter could also be used to measure the current change in the circuit instead of using the voltmeter.

Instrumentation - Meters

Meters are typically the simplest form of eddy current instrumentation.

The two general categories of meters are digital and analog.

Digital Meters

Digital meters are typically designed to examine one specific attribute of a test component such as conductivity or nonconductive coating thickness. These meters tend to have slightly higher accuracy than analog devices.

Analog Meters

Analog meters can be used for many different inspection applications such as crack detection, material thickness measurements, nonconductive coating measurements or conductive coating measurements.

Analog Meters (cont.)

The display read-out found on most analog instruments is typically either a calibrated or uncalibrated display. • Calibrated displays have an inherent scaling

factor which correlates to the property the instrument is designed to measure such as conductivity.

• Uncalibrated displays are typically more flexible in the variety of different tests they can perform. These types of instruments, however, require the use of data extrapolation techniques if quantitative data is desired.

Portable Eddy Scopes

Portable Eddy Scopes (cont.)

Portable eddy scopes are another category of instrumentation and they present the inspection data in the form of an impedance plane diagram. • On the impedance diagram,

the total impedance is displayed by plotting its resistance component and inductive reactance component at 90 degrees to each other.

• This is beneficial for both separation and identification of test variables that can effect inspection results.


Modern eddy scopes are usually digital based instruments which can often be purchased as either a single or dual frequency tester. Dual frequency instruments are capable of sequentially driving a probe at two different inspection frequencies.


Digital scopes often have an RS232 (serial) connection for interfacing with a serial printer or computer as well as provisions for output of signals to recording devices such as a strip-chart recorder. In addition, these instruments contain a small amount of RAM so that equipment settings as well as screen presentations can be stored for later reference.

Multi-Frequency Eddy Current Instruments

Multi-Frequency Eddy Current Instruments (cont.)

• Multi-Frequency instruments usually refer to equipment that can drive inspection coils at more than two frequencies either sequentially (multiplexing) or simultaneously.

• This type of instrumentation is used extensively for tubing inspection in the power generation, chemical and petrochemical industries.

• These instruments are often capable of being computer networked and may have as many as four probes attached to them at one time.


Advantages of Multi-frequency inspections: Allows increased inspection information to be collected from one

probe pulling. Provides for comparison of same discontinuity signal at different

frequencies. Allows mixing of frequencies which helps to reduce or eliminate

sources of noise. Often improves detection, interpretation and sizing capabilities of

discontinuities.


Screen of multi-frequency instrument during inspection.

Eddy Current Probes

Eddy Current Probes (cont.)

• Probes selection is critical to acquiring adequate inspection data.

• Several factors to consider include:– Material penetration requirements (surface vs.

subsurface)– Sensitivity requirements– Type of probe connections on eddy current instrument

(many variations)– Probe and instrument impedance matching (will probe

work with instrument)– Probe size (smaller probes penetrate less)– Probe type (absolute, differential, reflection or hybrid)


Surface probes are coils that are typically mounted close to one end of a plastic housing. As the name implies, the technician moves the coil end of the probe over the surface of the test component.


Some surface probes are specifically designed for crack detection of fastener holes. These include sliding probes, ring probes and hole probes.


Surface probes can be very small in size to allow accessibility to confined areas.

Finger Probe


Inside Diameter (I.D.) probes, also known as bobbin probes, are coils that are usually wound circumferentially around a plastic housing. These probes are primarily designed for inspection inside of tubular materials.


Outside Diameter (O.D.) probes are coils that are wound the circumference of a hollow fixture. The coil is designed such that the test part is ran through the middle of the coil. These probes can be used to inspect bars, rods as well as tubes.

Eddy Current Probes (cont.)• Absolute probes generally have a single test coil that is used

to generate the eddy currents and sense changes in the eddy current field

• AC is passed through the coil and this sets up an expanding and collapsing magnetic field in and around the coil.

• When the probe is positioned next to a conductive material, the changing magnetic field generates eddy currents within the material.

• The generation of the eddy currents take energy from the coil and this appears as an increase in the electrical resistance of the coil.

• The eddy currents generate their own magnetic field that opposes the magnetic field of the coil and this changes the inductive reactance of the coil.

• By measuring the absolute change in impedance of the test coil, information can be gained about the test material.

Eddy Current Probes (cont.)• Absolute coils can be used for

– flaw detection, – conductivity measurements, – liftoff measurements– thickness measurements.

• Since absolute probes are sensitive to things such as conductivity, permeability liftoff and temperature, steps must be taken to minimize these variables when they are not important to the inspection being performed.

• It is very common for commercially available absolute probes to have a fixed "air loaded" reference coil that compensates for ambient temperature variations.

Eddy Current Probes (cont.)• Differential Probes• Differential probes have two active coils usually wound in opposition• When the two coils are over a flaw-free area of test sample, there is no

differential signal developed between the coils since they are both inspecting identical material.

• However, when one coil is over a defect and the other is over good material, a differential signal is produced.

• They have the advantage of being very sensitive to defects yet relatively insensitive to slowly varying properties such as gradual dimensional or temperature variations.

• Probe wobble signals are also reduced with this probe type. • There are also disadvantages to using differential probes.

– Most notably, the signals may be difficult to interpret. For example, if a flaw is longer than the spacing between the two coils, only the leading and trailing edges will be detected due to signal cancellation when both coils sense the flaw equally.

Eddy Current Probes (cont.)• Reflection Probes• Reflection probes have two coils similar to a differential

probe• one coil is used to excite the eddy currents and the other is

used to sense changes in the test material. • Probes of this arrangement are often referred to as

driver/pickup probes.• The advantage of reflection probes is that the driver and

pickup coils can be separately optimized for their intended purpose.

• The driver coil can be made so as to produce a strong and uniform flux field in the vicinity of the pickup coil, while the pickup coil can be made very small so that it will be sensitive to very small defects.

Reference Standards

Reference Standards (cont.)

• In order to give the eddy current inspector useful data while conducting an inspection, signals generated from the test specimen must be compared with known values.

• Reference standards are typically manufactured from the same or very similar material as the test specimen.

• Many different types of standards exist for due to the variety of eddy current inspections performed.

• The following slides provide examples of specific types of standards.


Material thickness standards used to help determine such things as material thinning caused by corrosion or erosion.


Crack Standards:


ASME Tubing Pit Standard:


Nonconductive coating (paint) standard with various thickness of paint on aluminum substrate.

Inspection Applications One of the major advantages of eddy current as an NDT tool is the variety of inspections that can be performed.

Application of EC

• Eddy current equipment can be used for a variety of applications

• such as the detection of cracks (discontinuities), measurement of metal thickness,

• detection of metal thinning due to corrosion and erosion,• determination of coating thickness, • and the measurement of electrical conductivity and magnetic

permeability. • Eddy current inspection is an excellent method for detecting

surface and near surface defects when the probable defect location and orientation is well known.

Material Thickness Measurement

• Thickness measurements are possible with eddy current inspection within certain limitations.

• Only a certain amount of eddy currents can form in a given volume of material.

• Therefore, thicker materials will support more eddy currents than thinner materials.

• The strength (amount) of eddy currents can be measured and related to the material thickness.

Eddy Currents

Magnetic FieldFrom Probe

TestMaterial

Material Thickness Measurement (cont.)

Eddy current inspection is often used in the aviation industries to detect material loss due to corrosion and erosion.

Material Thickness Measurement (cont.)

Eddy current inspection is used extensively to inspect tubing at power generation and petrochemical facilities for corrosion and erosion.

Crack Detection•Crack detection is one of the primary uses of eddy current inspection. Cracks cause a disruption in the circular flow patterns of the eddy currents and weaken their strength. This change in strength at the crack location can be detected.•especially high sensitivity to detection of surface breaking cracks.

Magnetic FieldFrom Test Coil

Magnetic Field From Eddy Currents

Eddy Currents

Crack

Crack Detection (cont.)

Eddy current inspection of “bead seat” area on aircraft wheel for cracks using special probe that conforms to the shape of the rim.

Crack Detection (cont.)

Loading points, such as fastener holes, are high stress areas and often the site of service induced fatigue cracking. Rotating probe guns can be used to inspect a large number of holes in a short period of time. The photo on the right is a waterfall plot of the cross section of a fastener hole. Each horizontal line represents one rotation of the probe gun. A vertical signal indicates a crack.

Thickness Measurements of Nonconducting Coatings on Conductive Materials

The thickness of nonmetallic coatings on metal substrates can be determined simply from the effect of liftoff on impedance. This method has widespread use for measuring thickness of paint and plastic coatings. The coating serves as a spacer

between the probe and the conductive surface. As the distance between the probe and the conductive base metal increases, the eddy current field strength decreases because less of the

probe's magnetic field can interact with the base metal. Thicknesses between 0.5 and 25 µm can be measured to an accuracy between 10% for lower values and 4% for higher

values. Contributions to impedance changes due to conductivity variations should be phased out, unless it is known that conductivity variations are negligible, as normally found at

higher frequencies.

Fairly precise measurements can be made with a standard eddy current flaw detector and a calibration specimen. The probe is nulled in air and the direction of the lift-off signal is established. The location of the signal is marked on the screen as the probe is placed on the calibration specimen in areas of decreasing coating thickness. When the probe is placed on the test surface, the position of the signal will move from the air null position to a point that can be correlated to the calibration markings.

Nonconductive Coating MeasurementNonconductive coatings on electrically conductive substrates can be measured very accurately with eddy current inspection. (Accuracy of less that one mil is not uncommon.)

ConductiveBase Metal

NonconductiveCoating

Eddy Currents

This reduction in strength can be measured and related to coating thickness.

The coating serves as a spacer between the probe and the conductive surface. As the distance between the probe and the conductive base metal increases, the eddy current field strength decreases because less of the probe's magnetic field can interact with the base metal.

Nonconductive Coating Measurement (cont.)

The photo to the left shows an aircraft panel paint thickness inspection. On the right, the display of a digital eddy current inspection instrument shows the different signals obtained by measuring eight different thicknesses of paint on aluminum.

Increasing paint thickness

Monitoring Conductivity and Permeability Variations

Eddy current inspection is sensitive to changes in a material’s electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability. This “sensitivity” allows the inspection method to be used for such inspection procedures as:

• Material Identification• Material Sorting• Determination of heat damage• Cladding and plating thickness measurement• Case depth determination• Heat treatment monitoring

Conductivity Measurements

Boeing employees in Philadelphia were given the privilege of evaluating the Liberty Bell for damage using NDT techniques. Eddy current methods were used to measure the electrical conductivity of the Bell's bronze casing at a various points to evaluate its uniformity.

Advantages of Eddy Current Inspection

• Sensitive to small cracks and other defects• Detects surface and near surface defects• Inspection gives immediate results• Equipment is very portable• Method can be used for much more than flaw detection• Minimum part preparation is required• Test probe does not need to contact the part• Inspects complex shapes and sizes of conductive materials

Limitations of Eddy Current Inspection

• Only conductive materials can be inspected • Surface must be accessible to the probe• Skill and training required is more extensive than other

techniques• Surface finish and and roughness may interfere• Reference standards needed for setup• Depth of penetration is limited• Flaws such as delaminations that lie parallel to the probe coil

winding and probe scan direction are undetectable

Documents

BMFB 4283 NDT & FAILURE ANALYSIS Lectures for Week 6 Prof. Qumrul Ahsan, PhD Department of Engineering Materials Faculty of Manufacturing Engineering