BLUEPRINT - WGSI.orgwgsi.org/sites/wgsi-live.pi.local/files/Equinox_Blueprint_Energy... · BLUEPRINT A technological roadmap for a ... Yacine Kadi, Velma McColl, Greg Naterer, Linda

E Q U I N O X

E N E R G Y 2 0 3 0

B LU E P R I N T

A t e c h n o l o g i c a l ro a d m ap fo r a

l ow - c a r b o n , e l e c t r i f i e d f u t u re

Lead Authors: Jatin Nathwani and Jason Blackstock

Chapter Authors: Esther Adedeji, Will Catton, Zhewen Chen, Kerry Cheung, Felipe De Leon, Aaron A. Leopold, Marc McArthur,

Nigel Moore, Jakob Nygard, Lauren Riga, Vagish Sharma, Ted Sherk, Gita Syahrani, Miles Avery Ten Brinke, José Maria Valenzuela, Arthur Yip

Contributors: Jay Apt, Alán Aspuru-Guzik, Robin Batterham, Barry Brook, Jillian Buriak, Zoë Caron, Lia Helena Demange, Jian hua Ding,

Craig Dunn, Cathy Foley, Yacine Kadi, Velma McColl, Greg Naterer, Linda Nazar, Nicholas Parker, Walt Patterson, Tom Rand, Marlo Raynolds,

William D. Rosehart, David Runnalls, Ted Sargent, Maria Skyllas-Kazacos, Wei Wei

Lead Writer and Editor: Stephen Pincock

Editor-in-Chief: Wilson da Silva

A report on the outcomes of the Equinox Summit: Energy 2030, convened by the Waterloo Global Science Initiative and held in Waterloo, Ontario, Canada on 5-9 June 2011

FEBRUARY 2012

rtaylor

Text Box

. EXCERPT: SMART URBANIZATION This document is an excerpt of the Equinox Blueprint: Energy 2030. It contains two of ten available chapters. The full document is fully downloadable at WGSI.org. .

E Q U I N O X B L U E P R I N T : E N E R G Y 2 0 3 0

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Publisher: Waterloo Global Science InitiativeEditor-in-Chief: Wilson da SilvaLead Writer and Editor: Stephen PincockLead Authors: Jatin Nathwani, Jason BlackstockChapter Authors: Esther Adedeji, Will Catton, Zhewen Chen, Kerry Cheung, Felipe De Leon, Aaron A. Leopold, Marc McArthur, Nigel Moore, Jakob Nygard, Lauren Riga, Vagish Sharma, Ted Sherk, Gita Syahrani, Miles Avery Ten Brinke, José Maria Valenzuela, Arthur YipContributors: Jay Apt, Alán Aspuru-Guzik, Robin Batterham, Barry Brook, Jillian Buriak, Zoë Caron, Lia Helena Demange, Jian hua Ding, Craig Dunn, Cathy Foley, Yacine Kadi, Velma McColl, Nigel Moore, Greg Naterer, Linda Nazar, Nicholas Parker, Walt Patterson, Tom Rand, Marlo Raynolds, William D. Rosehart, David Runnalls, Ted Sargent, Maria Skyllas-Kazacos, Wei WeiArt Director: Lucy GloverDeputy Editor: Kate ArnemanCopy Editor: Dominic CaddenIllustrator: Fern Bale Picture Editor: Tara Francis Research Assistants: Zhewen Chen, Ganesh Doluweera, Miriel KoProofreaders: Heather Catchpole, Renae Soppe, Becky Crew, Fiona MacDonald

EQUINOX SUMMIT: ENERGY 2030 PATRON His Excellency The Right Honourable David Lloyd Johnston, CC, CMM, COM, CD, FRSC (Hon)Summit Moderator and Content Team Leader: Wilson da SilvaContent Team: Ivan Semeniuk, Lee SmolinScientific Advisor: Jatin Nathwani Forum Peer Advisor: Jason BlackstockFacilitator: Dan Normandeau Rapporteur: Stephen PincockStrategic Advisors: Jason Blackstock, Blair Feltmate, Thomas Homer-Dixon, David Keith, David Layzell, Kevin Lynch, Jatin NathwaniEvent Producers: Sean Kiely and Frank Taylor, Title Entertainment Inc.Presenting Media Partner: TVO

WATERLOO GLOBAL SCIENCE INITIATIVEBOARDDr Neil Turok (Chair)Director, Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics

Dr Feridun Hamdullahpur (Vice-Chair)President and Vice-Chancellor, University of Waterloo

Dr Arthur Carty (Secretary & Treasurer)Executive Director, Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology

Dr Tom Brzustowski, RBC Professor, Telfer School of Management, University of Ottawa; and Chair, Institute of Quantum Computing (IQC), University of Waterloo

Michael Duschenes, Chief Operating Officer, Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics

ADVISORY COUNCILMike Lazaridis (Chair)Founder & Chair of the Board, Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics; and Founder and Vice Chair of the Board, Research In Motion

Dr Tom Brzustowski (Vice-Chair)RBC Professor, Telfer School of Management, University of Ottawa; and Chair, Institute of Quantum Computing (IQC), University of Waterloo

Dr David Dodge Chancellor, Queen’s University; and Sr. Advisory, Bennett Jones

Dr Suzanne Fortier President, Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada

Peter HarderSenior Policy Advisor, Fraser Milner Casgrain

Dr Chaviva Hošek President & CEO, Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR)

Dr Huguette LabelleChancellor Emeritus, University of Ottawa

John PollockCEO, Electrohome; and Chancellor Emeritus, Wilfrid Laurier University

Dr Cal Stiller Chair, Ontario Institute for Cancer Research; and Former Chair, Ontario Innovation Trust and Genome Canada

John M. Thompson Chancellor, University of Western Ontario; and Chairman of the Board, TD Bank Financial Group

The Hon. Pamela Wallin Senator, Government of Canada; and Chancellor Emeritus, University of Guelph

Lynton Ronald (Red) Wilson Chancellor, McMaster University; former CEO, Redpath; Chairman of the Board of BCE; and Former Deputy Minister

MANAGEMENT TEAM John Matlock Director, External Relations and Public Affairs, Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics

Tim Jackson Vice-President, External Relations, University of Waterloo

Ellen RéthoréAssociate Vice-President, Communications and Public Affairs, University of Waterloo

Martin Van NieropSenior Director of Government Relations and Strategic Initiatives, University of Waterloo

Stefan PregeljSenior Analyst, Financial Operations, Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics

STAFFWGSI Coordinator: Julie Wright WGSI Communications Liaison: RJ TaylorOperations Support: Jake Berkowitz, Lisa Lambert, Mike Leffering, Peter McMahon, Cassandra Sheppard, Graeme Stemp-Morlock, and the staff of the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics

February 2012 Waterloo Global Science Initiative. This work is published under a Creative Commons license requiring Attribution and Noncommercial usage. Licensees may copy, distribute, display and perform the work and make derivative works based only for noncommercial purposes, and only where the source is credited as follows: “produced by the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, a partnership between Canada’s Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics and the University of Waterloo”.

Waterloo Global Science Initiative 31 Caroline Street North Waterloo, ON, N2L 2Y5, Canada Tel: +1 (519) 569 7600 Ext. 5170 Fax: +1 (519) 569 7611 Email: [email protected] URL: www.wgsi.org

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A technolog ica l roadmap for low-carbon e lectr ic i ty product ion


8 PAGE INTRODUCTION

Quorum members during the working sessions. In the foreground, Cathy Foley, Chief of the

Division of Materials Science and Engineering at Australia’s Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO).

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A LOW CARBON ELECTRICITY ECOSYSTEM During Equinox Summit: Energy 2030, participants evolved their discussions

of technologies for generation, transport and storage of electricity into a

detailed exploration of the societal contexts into which such technologies

must be integrated.

From this emerged the concept of a Low Carbon Electricity Ecosystem. It

highlights how a series of technological, economic and social innovations

in different contexts can contribute to transforming how we, as individuals

and societies, think about and use energy. It also allows us to more clearly

consider how we might alter the future direction of our varied electricity

systems in a more sustainable direction.

Three of the Pathways focus on technologies that could help replace our

reliance on the burning of fossil fuels for the generation of constant, reliable

‘baseload’ power in long-established electrical systems: the deployment

of grid-scale battery storage to support renewable energy expansion; the

development of Enhanced Geothermal power potential; and the accelerated

development of Advanced Nuclear Power technologies.

A fourth Pathway focusses on opportunities for innovation in rapidly

expanding urban environments, which are already among the largest

contributors to greenhouse gas emissions. Taking advantage of ever-

improving information and communication technologies, coupled with

emerging battery technologies, could allow the simultaneous improvement

of urban transport systems and our cities’ electric grids. In addition,

emerging superconductor technology may allow a substantial increase in the

efficiency of electricity provision, allowing more energy to be delivered per

square metre of densely packed, power-hungry city cores. These together are

described as elements that could contribute to green urbanisation.

Finally, an important Exemplar Pathway developed by participants

focusses on the billions of people who currently live without adequate access

to electricity. This Pathway proposes routes for encouraging the development

of affordable, ‘off-grid’ power solutions for energy-poor regions.

Baseload arge scale storage

for rene able energy Geothermal dvanced nuclear

Smart urbanisation Enhanced grid lexible solar Superconductors

Electrified transport Storage

Off-grid lexible solar and

storage icro grids

INNOVATION AND

WEALTH CREATION

Figure 3: As discussions progressed, a new model for the global electricity landscape emerged: the Low-Carbon Electricity Ecosystem. It allowed participants to better conceptualise the enormous changes required, and how they could be integrated.


9PAGEINTRODUCTION

BLUEPRINT STRUCTURE The Equinox Blueprint contains two parts:

Part One details the Exemplar Pathways developed by participants of the Equinox Summit: Energy 2030, and incorporates specific proposals for addressing important aspects of the global energy problem. Each of these Exemplar Pathways identifies specific opportunities for action – aspects of the energy problem that are amenable to improvement with science or technology. They describe existing barriers to that improvement, and describe a series of steps to overcoming those barriers. Each Pathway includes interventions and action points for generating change, as proposed by participants.

Part Two is a more detailed discussion of the scientific and technical context of each of these Exemplar Pathways. It describes the science, technology and societal underpinnings of each proposed Pathway. The focus in this section is on clarifying the scale and nature of specific facets of the energy problem, and on identifying the technological or societal developments needed to address those problems.

Part One is aimed at policy makers, the media and the general public, and provides a detailed discussion of the proposals. Part Two delves deeper into the technical and scientific challenges and opportunities of each proposal, and is aimed at the scientific, engineering and academic community.

Within each of these two major sections, chapters have a similar structure: they each detail the Opportunities and Challenges of each proposal, and the suggested Pathway to Innovation. These are followed by proposed Actions, or other suggested initiatives to help make the recommendations a reality.

The chapters are built around the five Exemplar Pathways, which are the core pillars of the proposals contained herein. In Part One, they are:

REPLACING COAL FOR BASELOAD POWER Chapter 1: Large-scale Storage with Renewables 12 Chapter 2: Enhanced Geothermal 18 Chapter 3: Advanced Nuclear 24

REENGINEERING ELECTRICITY USE Chapter 4: Off-grid Electricity Access 30 Chapter 5: Smart Urbanisation 36

In Part Two, which focuses on the scientific and technical discussion of each of the five Exemplar Pathways, the chapters follow a similar structure:

REPLACING COAL FOR BASELOAD POWER Chapter 6: Large-scale Storage with Renewables 54 Chapter 7: Enhanced Geothermal 64 Chapter 8: Advanced Nuclear 72

REENGINEERING ELECTRICITY USE Chapter 9: Off-grid Electricity Access 80 Chapter 10: Smart Urbanisation 90

C H A P T E R 5 : SMART URBANISATIONE Q U I N O X B L U E P R I N T : E N E R G Y 2 0 3 0

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SMART URBANISATION

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Passive solar designs are a growing consideration in new constructions in modern cities, helping to minimise energy consumption for heating and cooling.


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1 World Energy Council, Energy and Urban Innovation 2010.

THE WORLD IS UNDERGOING the largest wave

of urban growth in history. In 2008, for the first time in

history, more than half of the world’s population lived in

urban centres. By 2030, the global population is expected to

swell to almost 8 billion, with 60% living in cities, and urban

growth concentrated in Africa and Asia. While mega-cities will account for

a substantial part of this, most of the new growth will take place in smaller

towns and cities, which have fewer resources with which to respond to the

magnitude of such change.

Fortunately, the coming expansion of cities provides an unparalleled

opportunity - since they have yet to be built – to address a number of social

and environmental problems, including the amount of greenhouse gas

emissions. With good planning and enlightened governance, cities can deliver

education, health care and other services more efficiently and with fewer

emissions than less densely settled regions – such as rural areas – simply

because of their advantages of scale and proximity. Improvements in how

urbanisation unfolds are easier to manage, and can have a significant positive

impact on energy use and consumption.

The global movement of people into urban centres is a positive

development: cities generate jobs and income, and present opportunities

for social mobilisation and women’s empowerment, helping to address the

energy poverty issues outlined earlier. In addition, the density of urban areas

can help relieve population pressure on natural habitats and biodiversity.

Building them sustainably from the outset is an opportunity to avoid a new

future source of greenhouse gas emissions, as well as develop more liveable

and efficient urban centres for future generations.

OPPORTUNITIESCities represented two-thirds of global energy consumption in 2006 and this

proportion is expected to grow to almost three-quarters by the year 2030.1

Transport is an important contributor to the greenhouse gas emissions of

cities. In those with high densities that favour public transport, total transport

energy consumption is four to seven times less than in cities with low densities.

Summit participants proposed a high level of integration of existing

technologies to deliver a Smart Energy Network that is information-rich,

intelligently operated through a Smart Grid design, utilises superconductors

for enhanced capacity of electricity transmission, and allows transportation

needs to be met by multiple approaches not reliant on private ownership of

vehicles which, coupled together, could be transformative. Improvements in

how urbanisation unfolds will be easier to manage through widespread adoption

of such technologies, and can have significant positive impact on energy use and

consumption. These approaches include:

The widespread electrification of transport has the potential to make

a substantial contribution to reduced greenhouse gas emissions and

fossil fuel use.

A shifting away from personal ownership of vehicles towards ubiquitous

access to mobility through vehicle-sharing and mass transit could reduce


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emissions, and have a significant positive impact on several aspects of

urban life, such as pollution, traffic congestion and health.

New information and communication technologies, integrated and

enabled through the development of Smart Electricity Grids can help

reduce demand for electricity, manage loads and help make public mass

transit more efficient and convenient.

The electricity needs of dense urban environments that incorporate

electric vehicles and other innovations can be efficiently met through

superconducting transmission and distribution infrastructure.

CHALLENGES The electrification of cars and similar light-duty vehicles faces challenges

that stem from limitations in storage technology. These barriers include

higher capital costs, the range anxiety of users and integration issues.

The electricity supply infrastructure will need to be expanded, likely

by an order of magnitude, if electricity becomes a primary source of

power for transportation.

Behaviour change will be vital, both for reducing demand overall and,

in particular, for vehicle use. Currently, ownership is a status symbol

in many societies, meaning the shift to different models will require

a change in attitudes.

The communications protocols and techniques for organising the data

produced by information technology networks must be standardised;

current communication systems that utilities are developing for smart

meters will not be adequate to support full Smart Grid development.2

Electric vehicles and the smart grid are closely linked. With Smart

Technology, the grid can be an enabler for electric vehicles by maximising

charging flexibility; without it, the grid may be a barrier to the adoption

of electric vehicles.

Superconducting technology has not matured technologically and

economically to be instantly deployed in dense urban areas, and requires

more limited testing in the near term.

The most constructive way to support low-carbon urbanisation is

through two Pathways to innovation: Smart Transport and Smart Cities.

A description and timetables for action are outlined for each Pathway on

the following pages.

2 Independent Electricity System Operator, Ontario, Canada. Enabling Tomorrow’s Electricity System: Report of the Ontario Smart Grid Forum, 2009.

Amsterdam has the biggest electric car share project in the world, with 300 cars. The number of charging points in the city will grow to around 1000 in 2012.

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PATHWAYS TO INNOVATIONSmart Transport

Extension of bicycle lanes in densely populated urban regions to

encourage greater use of bicycles for daily commuting. Electric bicycles

allow greater access to this mode of transport for less fit members of

society. Improved bicycle lane safety features and bike lane awnings for

protection against the elements would further enhance take-up and the

move away from cars. Secure, weather- protected bicycle parking stations

with recharging facilities for electric bicycles close to city centres would

also offer range extension and peace of mind to those choosing this

transport mode for their daily commute to work. Lithium ion batteries are

expected to continue to be the dominant technology for electric bicycles,

but further improvements in cycle life management will help to reduce

replacement and operating costs.

To facilitate a greater shift to electric cars, urban planners also need to

provide recharging stations at central locations and at all major shopping

centres to reduce consumer range anxiety. Also, access to transit lanes by

electric cars during peak driving times and discounts for free parking in

the central business districts (adjacent to recharging stations) will further

encourage the adoption of electric vehicles in the shorter term. Further

improvements in the energy density of lithium ion and lithium air

batteries (expected to continue to be the dominant technology for electric

cars in the short term) will help to remove range anxiety and lower capital

costs; while improved cycle life management of batteries themselves will

reduce replacement and operating costs.

Mass transit needs to be clean and zero emitting. Extension of electrified

railway and tram lines will enhance access to these modes of public

transport to a greater number of commuters encouraging a shift away

from private cars.

The use of electric buses in urban areas will further reduce urban

emissions while allowing a shift away from conventional carbon-based

transport fuels. Unlike private car usage, however, buses need to be on the

road for up to 20 hours a day, making conventional battery technologies –

with their limited range and long charging times – unsuitable for mass

transport applications. An alternative approach would involve the use of

a mechanically rechargeable battery or fuel cell that allows rapid refuelling

and unlimited range extension. Flow batteries, being a cross between a

fuel cell and a regular battery, are unique in being both electrically and

mechanically rechargeable, providing the greatest versatility in operation.

Recent enhancements in the energy density of the Vanadium Redox

Battery – by using mixed acid electrolytes – put the energy density into

the range needed for implementation in electric buses and, with regular

refuelling, will allow buses to stay on the road for up to 24 hours a day.

The ability to recharge the spent solutions during off-peak electricity

tariff times, or during periods of excess wind power generation, will

also provide load levelling capabilities to the recharging infrastructure

and eliminate the need to build additional power stations to meet the

increased electricity demand from electric vehicle recharging.


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PATHWAYS TO INNOVATIONSmart Cities

Energy efficiency and integration of renewable energy should be enabled

by information science and communication technologies.

Existing buildings would need to be retrofitted and new buildings would

need to be constructed with attention to passive solar and other efficient

building designs.

Demand-management should utilise participatory incentive-based schemes

and information networks to foster smarter energy choices by end-users.

The Smart City of the future will comprise energy-efficient building

designs that not only incorporate low-energy intensive materials and

appliances, but passive solar designs that minimise energy consumption

for heating and cooling.

Greater integration of photovoltaic power systems in residential, commercial

and industrial buildings will provide a wider distributed energy network

that will reduce the need for additional transmission lines to meet the

increased demand for power with increasing population numbers.

Integration of energy storage units close to the load – both at the

substation and neighbourhood level – will provide greater electricity

security and reduce the incidence of power outages caused by bad weather

and insufficient generation and distribution capacity during very hot or

very cold days.

Batteries are ideally suited for use in urban and residential areas since

they are modular, are not site specific, are quiet and non-polluting and can

be scaled from kW to MW sizes to meet the specific needs of the user.

SMART TRANSPORTIn the cities of 2030, citizens could have access to modes of mass transit made

fast, efficient and easy by smartphones, WiFi and other modes of information

and communication technology. If they need a car, motorbike or truck, they

could use an electric vehicle with low carbon emissions, perhaps as part of a

car-sharing scheme. The core strategy in such a city would be to replace the

idea of ownership with the principle of access.

The technology to make much of this vision a reality is either available now,

or within easy reach. Infrastructure such as smart grids – allowing information

and communication technology to be interwoven with the electrical grid

systems, along with other enabling elements – are emerging. Together they

produce a net energy system that is flexible, responsive and efficient, compatible

with electric transportation and a bi-directional flow of electricity.

However, city authorities, planners and, crucially, individual citizens, need

to be shown how each of these elements can work together to help them move

around the urban environment quickly, easily and efficiently – in a way that

meets their needs while reducing their impact on the environment.

Crucially, as existing electricity supply infrastructure is put under stresses

by electrification of transportation and the expansion of information and

A mobile phone base station. By 2030, urban residents could have access to modes of mass transit made fast, efficient and easy by smartphones.

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communication technology, transmission and distribution systems will

become significantly undersized to meet these needs.

As 85% of primary energy currently comes from fossil fuels, and considering

that this number is even higher for transportation, the electricity supply

infrastructure will need to be expanded dramatically – especially if electricity

becomes a primary source of power for transportation – in addition to the

demand requirements of a dense urban population for high quality energy.

Participants in the Equinox Summit believe that demonstrations in pilot

cities would serve as testing grounds for potential solutions. They could show

the way to an urban future where getting around does not rely on burning oil

and degrading air quality or contributing to climate change.

Pilot projects

We propose the establishment of pilot projects in a small sample of cities

around the world. The main objective of these is to create a ‘first version’

of the proposed model, with the opportunity to identify the key issues and

challenges as well as to evaluate the triggered impacts based on the set out

objectives.3 We propose to mostly focus on developing countries, which face

the increasing detrimental effects of poor transportation systems, and where

rapid growth means such changes may have the greatest immediate benefit.

Potential pilot sites include the Lembang district of West Java, Indonesia. For

the purpose of having a ‘down-to-earth’ understanding of the implementation

level, we have structured our Pathways using a case study approach.

3 Workplace Competence International Limited, Ontario, Canada. “Managing Pilot Projects: Some Guidelines Derived from Experience”, 2001. 4 Setiawati, I. “Jakarta’s population surpasses 15-year forecast”, Jakarta Post. 5 National Council on Climate Change, Jakarta, Indonesia. Witoelar, R. Indonesia Voluntary Mitigation Actions, January 2010. 6 BBC News, 15 June 2011. Safitri, D. “Why is Indonesia so in love with the Blackberry?”

CASE STUDY: JAKARTA, INDONESIAThe population of Jakarta reached 9.5 million in 2010. As the centre of business, millions of people also commute to Jakarta from surrounding areas, and the number of vehicles on the roads is increasing substantially,4 leaving the city gasping as a result of chronic congestion, poor air quality and dangerous traffic.

STUDY OF EXISTING CONDITIONS To set out a feasible and sustainable strategy, an early stage in the process of developing a pilot site is to understand the existing needs of the transportation sector in Jakarta and liaising with authorities about existing regulations.

In January 2010, the executive chair of the National Council on Climate Change of Indonesia submitted its voluntary national mitigation actions plan to the secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Indonesia is aiming for a 26% emission reduction by 2020 against the projection of its business-as-usual scenario.5 Shifting to a low-emissions transportation system was chosen as one of the actions to achieve this goal.

Potential sources of funding for such a project include the Asian Development Bank, the African Development Bank, the Inter-American Development Bank, the Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia), the United Nations Economic

and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, the United Nations Centre for Regional Development, GIZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit or German Agency for International Cooperation) and Veolia Transport (the international transport services division of the French-based multinational, Veolia Environnement).

We believe Jakarta would be an ideal pilot city; Indonesia currently has 30 million Internet users and 3 million Blackberry users.6 The involvement of the private sector can also be attracted through the proposed vehicle-sharing and electric transportation concepts.

ENCOURAGING A BEHAVIOUR SWITCHThe proposed Pathway involves shifting end-users toward sustainable modes of urban transport. Initiatives to address institutional issues include campaigns for public acceptance and to promote the brand in collaboration with media.

We propose to engage civil society and NGOs operating in Indonesia. Grassroots movements and lifestyle groups with members all across Indonesia can also be strategic partners in promoting sustainable urban transport.

Another possible initiative is workshop-style policy engagement bringing together government, civil society, investors and businesses to develop business models and financing options.

Every week 4 million people use Hong Kong’s subway, which has over 150 stations.

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ACTIONSDevelop a flow battery powered electric bus and refuelling station

demonstration project.

SMART CITIESIf the energy systems of the 20th century were built on the premise of cheap

and abundant fossil fuels being available, then the energy systems of the 21st

century are likely to be characterised by cheap and abundant use of information

science and communication technology. This will enable more efficient energy

use and integration of renewable energy through an integrated energy network.

In coming decades, our cities could incorporate intelligent infrastructure

that can accommodate renewable energy solutions to allow, for example,

load to be matched to the availability of renewable energy, and for transport

to be electrified. The truly paradigm-shifting potential of information and

telecommunications-enabled distributed energy systems comes from opening

up the energy sector to greater human-machine interaction. Energy is more

than a technical problem. Energy supply and consumption are influenced by

the behaviour of individuals and the ways incentives and prices determine the

evolution of the overall energy system. Technology and behaviour co-evolve

with each other over time.

Fostering a Smart Culture

Retrofitting existing buildings and incorporating passive and other efficient

building designs will be vital early steps in the roll-out of smart grids. There

also exists today a severe knowledge gap between developed and developing

economies, one which will expand with the growth of population and

urban centres. Creating a global grassroots ‘green urbanisation knowledge

consortium’ will be one way to bridge that gap. Furthermore, to some extent

the largest obstacle to sustainable development is culture – the way in which

those of us currently connected to a large-scale grid, consume (and waste)

energy. Some of the greatest value in demand-management, participatory

programs and information networks is their impact on the global and

localised cultures of consumption.

Our Exemplar Pathway is to select a number of cities to host high-profile

demonstrations of the transformational opportunities of technology,

integrated with enabling policy platforms. The demonstration projects are

organised into two categories:

‘Low-hanging fruit’/emerging opportunities

Carbon-neutral communities.

Low-hanging fruit: within one to two years and ongoing

The purpose of these demonstration projects is to illustrate the scale of

overlooked opportunities, which are already cost-effective today for the

reduction of climate-forcing emissions and land use changes (such as the

destruction of carbon sinks).

The concepts discussed at the Equinox Summit envisage the wide-scale

deployment of the most cost-effective CO2-mitigation measures available

to the market today. These include energy-efficient building retrofits,

distributed cogeneration, distributed renewables combined with storage,

A rack of rental bikes in a Paris street..

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heat pumps, solar hot water and space heating and smart metering. The key

emphasis of this demonstration project is to harness economies of scale so

the costs of building retrofits can be lowered, demonstrating the scale of

CO2-mitigation that is possible without increasing housing costs.

The deployment of these technologies should be accompanied and driven

by policy actions such as:

Smart Grid standards, ‘decoupling’ schemes to incentivise adoption of

energy-efficient measures by utilities

Energy-efficiency standards for buildings

Implementing incentives for demand management and demand response.

CARBON-NEUTRAL COMMUNITIES: WITHIN 5 YEARS AND BEYONDIn the ‘carbon-neutral communities’ demonstration project, the aim is

to showcase the possibility of achieving genuine carbon-neutrality in an

urban context, by way of a series of neighbourhood showcases. They would

incorporate the ‘low-hanging fruit’ opportunities mentioned earlier, as well

as higher cost measures. Such measures could include high penetrations of

renewable energy generation with local storage, disincentives to the use of

climate-forcing fuels, the encouragement of electric vehicle use, and a greater

emphasis on energy efficiency and the displacement of fossil fuels.

Piloting demonstrations in carefully selected neighbourhoods that combine

these technologies could provide the knowledge needed for the developing

world to leap-frog over the inefficient and unsustainable designs of the past.

This initiative would involve:

Identifying neigbourhoods where low-carbon energy designs and

technologies are being used

Identifying new land areas released for urban expansion and negotiating

with governments and local planning authorities to provide incentives to

developers to implement energy-efficiency and ‘energy self-sufficiency’

philosophies in new urban areas

Creating knowledge products and services, such as reports or smartphone

applications, to communicate best practices between neighbourhoods

Implementing innovative policies such as a city-scale ‘tax and dividend’

scheme, increasing the cost of household electricity, and incentivising

improvements in energy efficiency, while equitably redistributing the

proceeds within the community, pro rata, to all householders

Using mass-marketing to increase the uptake of technologies that are

being limited primarily by lack of awareness.


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REALISING THE POTENTIAL OF SUPERCONDUCTORS: WITHIN 20 YEARS AND BEYONDThe stresses on existing electricity distribution and supply infrastructure will

be exacerbated by the growth of the electrification of transportation, and the

information and communication technology expansion to meet broadband

applications such as video conferencing, telepresence and telecommuting.

Superconductivity – the ability for materials to exhibit zero resistance

against the flow of electricity – has a role to play in all of this. In dense urban

settings or locations with severe geographic limitations, superconductors can

dramatically increase both the capacity and efficiency of power transmission

by allowing much more current to pass through much narrower wires.

Second generation high-temperature superconducting transmission wires

have been deployed on a commercial scale in Japan, South Korea and the

United States. To date, applications have been mainly linked to public-private

partnership funding, or some niche markets. The main barrier to greater

market penetration for superconductors is price performance – costs remain

high. Consequently, some combination of sales volume and better wire

performance will be needed for more widespread application.

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many cities are developing light rail infrastructure, such as the Light-Rail LYNX system in Charlotte, North Carolina, USA.


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TIMELINE ACTIONS

WITHIN 1-2 YEARS ‘Low-hanging fruit’/emerging opportunities Summit participants (See Appendix for biographies of Summit participants): 1-3 months, identify appropriate partners (rewards program operator, target market); 4-12 months, negotiate strategic alliances with partners towards project implementation Multi-stakeholder: wide-scale deployment of energy-efficient building retrofits, heat pumps, innovative metering Politics and civil society: legislated energy-efficiency standards for buildings (ongoing periodic review) Business: development of incentives for demand management and demand response Business and government: mass-marketing technologies that are being limited primarily by lack of awareness Academia, R&D: applied research to validate energy-related business and policy efforts aimed at climate change mitigation.

WITHIN 5 YEARS Multi-stakeholder actions: pilot demonstrations of carbon-neutral communities in carefully selected neighbourhoods Continued uptake of ‘low hanging fruit’ opportunities, as well as urban co-generation, district heating, solar hot water and space heating, solar electricity generation Waterloo Global Science Initiative: manage implementation and promotion of smart cities actions ‘embedded’ within value-aligned organisations Politics: policies to advance smart grid applications at the utility scale, improved energy-efficiency standards for buildings (ongoing periodic review)

Policy support for niche military/defence applications of superconductors Civil society: transformed social norms reflecting congruent economic and ecological sustainability, accelerated continuous and step-wise behaviour change Business: technological and business model innovation

Expand niche applications of superconductors with PPP funding and support.

WITHIN 20 YEARS Business: sales volume increases needed for commercialisation of superconductors. Academia and business: R&D efforts to increase superconducting wire performance and reduce costs.

ACTIONS

C H A P T E R 1 0 : SMART URBANISATIONE Q U I N O X B L U E P R I N T : E N E R G Y 2 0 3 0

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1 World Energy Council, September 2010: Energy and Urban Innovation. 2 For example, district heating and reduced intra-urban travel distances. Also see 1.

THE WORLD IS BECOMING increasingly urbanised.

It has been predicted that by 2030, nearly 60% of the world’s

population will live in cities, and that 29 megacities will be home

to 10 million inhabitants or more.1 Environmentally, this rapid

transition creates both challenges and opportunities.

Urban densification and a focus on ‘smart’ planning of the urban

environment has significant potential to improve quality of life and to

reduce the carbon footprint of cities; the per capita emissions from dense

urban areas tend to be less than those of suburban or rural regions due to the

conglomeration of buildings, which facilitates design-level efficiencies.2

The global trend towards urbanisation and growth of medium-sized and

megacities is clear. Making our cities more energy-smart, through renewal

of ageing infrastructure and reinventing the urban landscape by design and

good planning, offers a powerful incentive to incorporate innovations in

energy efficiency and renewable energy generation. Substantial reduction of

energy requirements and greenhouse gas emissions is achievable by adopting

strategies that focus on Smart Urbanisation and electric transport.

Beyond the built environment, urban centres offer another major

opportunity to reduce greenhouse gas emissions: personal transportation.

Desire for personal mobility and its link to economic development has been a

key determinant of how the transport system has evolved to enable increased

productivity, competition and consumption. However, personal transportation

is currently dominated by the internal combustion engine, with its attendant

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3 Gesellschaft für. Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ): Bongardt, Daniel et al “Beyond the fossil city: towards low carbon transport and green growth”. 4 United Nations Development Program, 2011: Dalkmann, Holger et al, “Transport: Investing in energy and resource efficiency”, Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development. 5 Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford, 2006: Darby, Sarah “The effectiveness of feedback on energy consumption: A review for DEFRA of the literature on metering, billing and direct displays”.

environmental impacts. These vehicles produce 13% of total greenhouse gas

emissions,3 consume more than half of liquid fossil fuels globally and generate

more than 80% of air pollution within some cities in developing countries.4

Population growth and economic development will amplify these concerns

if the trends towards urban sprawl are not arrested. Since urban centres and

megacities are expected to host much of the forecasted population growth

in coming decades, rising car ownership will create significant problems

of congestion. Many urban centres in developing countries lack adequate

transportation infrastructure to cope with the immense growth in automobile

use, leading to traffic congestion, reduced quality of life and more greenhouse

gas emissions. Smart urbanisation reinforced by electric mobility and enabled

by creative ownership models for personal transport and improved mass

transit are the critical developments required to meet the challenge.

OPPORTUNITIESHere we focus on five interrelated opportunities for matching energy supply

and demand for cities and sustainable urban transportation with a lower

carbon footprint:

Efficient energy use enabled by Smart Grid technologies and an integrated

energy network supported by information science and technology

Promotion of public and self-powered transport

Advanced information and communication technologies for transport

Electrification of transport

Advanced technologies such as superconductors for the provision of a

higher level of electricity use in dense urban centres with strict geographic

limitations.

SMART GRIDS TO IMPROVE ENERGY USEIf the energy systems of the 20th century were premised on the availability

of cheap and abundant fossil fuels, the energy systems of the 21st century

are likely to be characterised by cheap and abundant use of information and

communication technology (ICT), enabling more efficient energy use and

integration of renewable energy through an integrated energy network.

The paradigm-shifting potential of ICT-enabled energy systems comes

from the way they can open up the energy sector to unprecedented levels

of human-machine interaction. Energy supply and consumption are

influenced by the behaviour of individuals, and by the way incentives

and prices can determine the evolution of the overall energy system.

Technical and physical improvements to building design, although a necessary

requirement, are not enough to guarantee reduced energy consumption. The

role of human behaviour is critical. Evidence shows even in identical homes

designed to be low-energy dwellings, energy consumption can easily differ by a

factor of two or more depending on the behaviour of the inhabitants.5 Attempts

to modify the energy supply infrastructure without a clear understanding of

the role of individual behaviour or social constraints may lead to unintended

consequences or less than desirable outcomes. Empowering consumers


92 PAGE

through real-time feedback of energy consumption is a positive approach

that can only be enabled through ICT to the fullest extent in an integrated

energy network. Beyond real-time feedback, the role of ICT through

automation that enables remote decision-making and control of multiple

devices in homes and business is key to optimisation and reduced energy use.

Smart grids

Today, electricity grid systems are primarily a vehicle for moving electricity

from generators to consumers. In the near future, the grid will enable two-way

flows of electricity and of information, as new

technologies make possible new forms of electricity

production, delivery and use. The Smart Grid is the

name given to the new electricity system that will

emerge from this paradigm shift.

A Smart Grid is a modernised electric system

that uses sensors, monitoring, communications,

distribution system automation, advanced data

analytics and algorithmics for anomaly detection

to improve the flexibility, security, reliability,

efficiency, and safety of the electricity system. It

increases consumer choice by allowing them to

better control their electricity use in response to

prices or other parameters. A Smart Grid includes

diverse and distributed energy resources and

accommodates electric vehicle charging. In short,

it brings all elements of the electricity system –

production, delivery and consumption – closer

together to improve overall system operation for the benefit of consumers

and the environment.6

Contrasted with today’s existing electricity grid, a Smart Grid has different

characteristics as outlined in Figure 2 at left. These characteristics mean that

new or increased information exchange is needed to enable effective Smart

Grid operation, through increased coordination among the divisions of the

system. The information exchanged may include:8

Power flow: voltage, frequency, phase, load flow, losses, outages status,

power quality

Operational information: protection, control, system state, supply and

demand, weather, spare capacity, short circuit levels, planned outages,

islanding control, time-to-restoration

Dispatch: control signals for dispatch generation and load

Market information: generation mix, reserve capacity

Price: price of electricity, rates, connection costs, tariffs

Metering: interval metering, meter data management

Figure 1: Hybrid cars and consumer electricity production will enable a grid with two-way electricity flow incorporating end-user as well as primary generation systems.

6 Independent Electricity System Operator, Ontario, Canada, 2009: Enabling Tomorrow’s Electricity System: Report of the Ontario Smart Grid Forum. 7 IEEE Power and Energy Magazine, January-February 2010: Farhangi, H. “The path of the smart grid”. 8 See 6.

Efficeintbuildingsystems

Renewables

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Internet

Utilitycommunications

Consumer portaland building EMS

Dynamicsystemscontrol

Distributedoperations

Advancedmetering

Plug-inHybrids

Distributedgenerationand storage

Datamanagement

Smartend-usedevices

Controlinterface

Figure 2: The Smart Grid compared with the existing grid.7

Existing grid Smart Grid

Electromechanical Digital

One-way communication Two-way communication

Centralised generation Distributed generation

Hierarchical Network

Few sensors Sensors throughout

Blind Self-monitoring

Manual restoration Self-healing

Failures and blackouts Adaptive and islanding

Manual check/test Remote check/test

Limited control Pervasive control

Few customer choices Many customer choices

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Customer: billing, home device control, carbon footprint, choices/

overrides, consumption history, call centre, utility programs/offers,

demand response, behind-the-meter generation control

Transportation plug-in hybrid vehicle (PHEV) control, vehicle-to-grid

(V2G) control, and managing intermittent demand.

EVH2

EVH2

Consumers(residential, commercial and industrial)

Model:Consumer

Model:Community

Model:Municipality

CHP

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provinceMarkets Operators

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Operators

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Powerdistribution

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Figure 3: How the ‘Smart Energy Network’ will work.7


94 PAGE

Smart Energy Networks

A smarter energy system that builds upon the smart grid concept is illustrated

below. Smart urbanisation is predicated on good urban planning and building

design concepts that are supplied by a Smart Grid, natural gas network,

distributed generation, and district heating/cooling networks to help reduce

greenhouse gas emissions. Integrating all components in the system with

information and communication technology that can differentiate and meet

the needs of consumers, communities, municipalities and regions is essential.

(See Figure 3)9

The development of cost-effective energy storage technologies integrated

with a network of transmission and distribution that provides

flexibility for new energy carriers such as hydrogen and

bioethanol from distributed sources can reduce overall costs

to the consumer and expand the contributions of a variety of

energy supply options. For example, hydrogen can be used

through direct combination or used to power a fuel cell and it has

potential for additional applications. A Smart Energy Network

therefore provides a comprehensive picture of how the cost and

contributions of infrastructure development can be optimised for

meeting the needs of a model consumer, a community, or a region.

PERSONALI SED ACCESS TO MOBILITYEnabling behaviour change is one way that Smart Grids can

improve the energy and greenhouse gas emissions profile

of towns and cities. In the realm of transportation, a similar

paradigm shift toward personalised access to mobility could also

have a profound impact. In cities around the world, a number of approaches

and technologies have demonstrated success in supporting sustainable urban

transportation that exploit a broad range of models moving away from strict

private ownership to sharing and leasing.

The key opportunity is to foster a comprehensive set of solutions to

amplify the positive impacts of specific components. A transportation

system that integrates public and self-powered transportation, information

9 Waterloo Institute for Sustainable Energy 2011. 10 Journal of Physical Activity and Health 2008: Bassett, D. et al. “Walking, cycling, and obesity rates in Europe, North America, and Australia”.

House DestinationInformation

throughmobile phone

Masstransport

Onesubscription

Personal vehicles

Electric bus,trains

Electric carsand bicycles

MODE SPLIT VERSUS NATIONAL OBESITY RATES

Walk

Bike

Transit

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

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Sweden

German

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Finlan

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Franc

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Figure 4: Personalised access tomobility means not having to own transport vehicles.

Figure 5: A graph showing the correlation between sustainable urban transport and obesity.10

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and communication technology, and

transportation electrification could

provide essential speed, convenience,

cost-effectiveness, and reliability while

reducing energy use, limiting fossil fuel

burning and improving health.

Other benefits include local economic

growth. Money saved by not purchasing

vehicles can be spent on other goods and

services within the city. Mass transport

also exposes passengers to stores that they

may not notice when originally focused

on operating a vehicle. There has been

evidence of increased sales in areas where

public transit routes are established.

Decreased physical and mental stress

from reduced congestion and increased

biking and walking leads to healthier lifestyles. Obesity rates tend to be

lower in countries where usage of mass transit, bicycles and walking are

higher. (See Figure 5 on p94)

Greater use of public and self-powered transport can also make a significant

impact on reducing minimi sing traffic congestion as can be illustrated above.

Megacities such as Tokyo, Japan, London and New York City have excellent

public transportation systems that are quick, reliable and cost-effective,

encouraging high ridership. These cities have a combination of trains, buses,

sidewalks and bike lanes that help residents transport themselves where they

want to go in an accessible and convenient manner.

ADVANCED INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES FOR TRANSPORTAdvances in information and communication technologies (ICT) offer great

opportunities to encourage a shift toward greater use of mass transport or

vehicle-sharing schemes and away from private ownership.

The digitisation of information such as reservations and payment is already

being used for car share and bike share businesses internationally. These

businesses use ICT, smartphones, wireless and mobile access to the Internet,

global positioning systems, and other technologies to conduct transactions

and manage accounts.

The success of these businesses is a reflection of a generational shift

towards increased access through sharing and less ownership. Elements

of this shift are visible in other sectors such as computing and digital

entertainment, where services such as cloud computing allow access to

services without requiring ownership.

Tracking of public transportation with ICT has also been a new application

that is being adopted in many cities. Having knowledge of schedules, routes,

and real-time status updates for traffic and accidents will make the use

of public transportation much more efficient and convenient. Increased

convenience helps increase ridership, amplifying the benefits associated with

the public transport model of sustainable urban transport.

Figure 6: Comparison of space required for different modes of transport

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96 PAGE

11 Waterloo Institute for Sustainable Energy 2011. Adapted from Heckerooth S. at http://renewables.com/ 12 See also the role of flow batteries for large-scale storage and as an enabler of renewable energy generation (Chapter 6, Equinox Blueprint: Energy 2030).

ELECTRIFICATION OF TRANSPORTRecent efforts to reduce dependence

on liquid fossil fuels for transportation

have resulted in a significant push

toward electrification. While other

approaches such as biofuels, hydrogen,

natural gas, light-weighting and next-

generation internal-combustion engines

have been pursued with limited success,

electrification has presented itself as

the option with the highest potential

for impact on reduced greenhouse gas

emissions and fossil fuel usage.

It is also an option that can effectively

make use of existing infrastructure.

The advent of several commercial

vehicle models demonstrates the

readiness of electric vehicles. Electric

transport in the form of trains, subways, trams and streetcars is also

already in use, with widespread acceptance and success.

Advances in battery technologies have helped improve the performance

and lowered the cost of other forms of electric mobility such as electric

bicycles. Electric bicycles have a significant role to play in emerging

economies in Asia, Latin America, and Africa, allowing the reduction

of air emissions and vehicles occupying road space.

Another interesting battery development is the application of flow

batteries to transport.12 Flow batteries are unique in that a flowing-

electrolyte battery stores the chemical energy in an external electrolyte

tank, sized in accordance with application requirements. Recharging this

battery can be accomplished by simply swapping over the depleted liquid

electrolyte with charged electrolyte, thereby allowing ‘instant’ refuelling.

This concept is under development with an initial demonstration of a bus

powered by a Vanadium Redox Battery.

SUPERCONDUCTORS FOR DENSE URBAN REQUIREMENTSThe stresses on existing electricity distribution and supply infrastructure will

be exacerbated by the growth of the electrification of transportation, and the

information and communication technology expansion to meet broadband

applications such as video conferencing, telepresence, and telecommuting.

The existing transmission and distribution system is ageing and its

replacement along traditional technologies will not be adequate to meet the

needs of a growing urban population and a much higher level of demand

for electricity services. The electricity supply infrastructure will need to be

expanded by some magnitude if electricity becomes a primary source of power

for transportation in addition to the demand requirements of a dense urban

population for high-quality energy. (See Figure 9)

Conventional infrastructure for existing transmission lines such as poles,

towers and cross-arms are limited in their ability to support the weight of the

extra wires required to increase capacity. Although Smart Grids can alleviate

the need for increased demand to some degree, superconductors offer an

Figure 7: Solar charging stations of different scales for electric vehicles:11

Flow battery

ICT(smart phones, GPS)

Cars, bicycles

Bus, fleets

Integratinginformation

access

Advanced lithium ion

Figure 8: How different technologies can assist in creating a Smart Energy Network.

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13 Energy 2006: LaCommare, K. et al. “Cost of power interruptions to electricity consumers in the United States”.

opportunity to dramatically increase

both the capacity and efficiency of

power transmission. They achieve this

by allowing much more current to pass

through much narrower wires and this

feature would be a premium in a highly

dense urban environment with severe

geographic limitations.

To overcome the challenges of

transmitting electricity on a large scale

from distant resources, the development

of a continent-wide ‘SuperGrid’ has

merit. The vision is consistent with

the Equinox Blueprint of a Low-carbon

Electricity Ecosystem predicated on

baseload generation from renewables

coupled with large-scale storage,

Enhanced Geothermal and Advanced

Nuclear Technologies.

Super cables that would transmit

extraordinarily high electricity

current nearly resistance-free through

superconductivity are capable of

delivering the energy for the urban

population in emerging megacities.

Distant generators in different climatic

regions can be integrated to optimi se

management of peak demand and it

allows construction of facilities away

from population centres.

Study conducted by the Electric Power

Research Institute (EPRI) has shown that

CAPACITY RELIABILITY POWER QUALITY RENEWABLE GENERATION

US $79 BILLION

ECONOMIC LOSS

Electric power concentratedin cities and suburbs33% of power used

in top 22 metro areasurban power bottleneck

203050% demand growth (US)

100% demand growth (world)

Average powerloss/customer (min/year)

US 214France 53Japan 6

Long distanceelectricity transmissionstoring electrical energy

$26.3 billionSustainedinterruptions 33%

$52.3 billionMomentary

interruptions 66%

Figure 9: Set of challenges in electricity transmission and distribution.13

+

–

75 cm

40 cm

3.8 cm

3 cm

High-voltageinsulation

Thermalinsulation

Superconductor

Hydrogen

Voltage/temperature Flow rate Power delivered

DC circuit

Liquid hydrogen

+50 000 volts and–50 000 volts 50 000 amperes 5 000 megawatts

electric

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10 000 megawattsthermal

+

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75 cm

40 cm

3.8 cm

3 cm

High-voltageinsulation

Thermalinsulation

Superconductor

Hydrogen

SUPERCABLESSupercables could transport energy in both electrical and chemical form. Electricity would travel nearly resistance-free through pipes (dark blue) made of a superconducting material. Chilled hydrogen flowing as liquid (light blue) inside the conductors would keep their temperature near absolute zero. A Supercable with two conduits, each about a meter in diameter, could simultaneously transmit five gigawatts of electricity and 10 gigawatts of thermal power (table).

75 cm

40 cm

3.8 cm

3 cm

Figure 10: The special chracteristics of supercables.

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14 Scientific American, July 2006: Grant, P.M. et al. “A Power Grid for the Hydrogen Economy: Cryogenic, superconducting conduits could be connected into a ‘SuperGrid’ that would simultaneously deliver electrical power and hydrogen fuel”. 15 MIT Technology Review, February 2011: Patel, Prachi. “Super-thin superconducting cables: New compact cables show promise for power transmission and high-field magnets”. 16 Nature, 8 October 2010: Milton, J. “Superconductors come of age”. 17 The Centre for Emergent Superconductivity 2008 (an Energy Frontier Research Centre under the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Basic Energy Sciences). 18 Stanford Institute for Materials and Energy Science, a joint institute of SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory and Stanford University: Lee, M. 2011. “High-temperature superconductor spills secret: a new phase of matter”. 19 The Industrial Physicist, October-November 2004: Ausubel, Jesse H. “Big green energy machines: How are we going to generate more power and decrease its impact on the environment”. .

Inner cryostat wall

Liquid nitrogen coolant

Copper shield wire

HTS shield tape

High voltage dielectric

HTS tape

Copper core

Thermal superinsulationOuter cryostat wall

Outer protective covering

SuperGrid connections to these new power plants would provide both a source

of hydrogen and a way to distribute it widely, through pipes that surround and

cool the superconducting wires. A hydrogen-filled SuperGrid would serve not

only as a conduit but also as a vast repository of energy, establishing the buffer

needed to enable much more extensive use of wind, solar and other renewable

power sources. Figure 10 on the page 97 illustrates this concept.14

High-temperature superconducting cables have been touted as a promising

alternative to copper cables for electric power transmission in urban

settings and compact spaces. That’s because just one superconducting cable

could replace more than 10 copper cables, cutting weight by over 95% and

eliminating heating loss.15 Superconductive wiring carries about 10 times as

much power as the same volume of conventional copper wiring. Although

some of that power is lost and liquid nitrogen must be used to keep the

superconducting cables cool, such cables are still more efficient than copper

wiring, which loses 7-10% of the power it carries as heat. South Korean

demonstration projects currently

under development for their

electricity networks indicates the

potential for a more efficient and

robust Smart Grids.16

Superconductors are also

promising solutions for reliability

and quality in urban electricity

provision, due to the characteristics

of smart, self-healing power control.

Superconductivity offers fast

limiting of fault current, avoiding

damage to grid and equipment and

power interruptions. This feature is

illustrated at left.17

Superconductivity is the

ability for certain materials to exhibit very low resistance against the flow

of electricity. The efficiency of superconductivity can be as low as zero

resistance in superconducting DC current and 100 times lower than copper in

superconducting AC current. However, to obtain such low levels of electrical

resistance, superconducting materials must be kept extremely cold.

The fundamental design of superconducting electricity cables involves

wrapping the cable around a pipe filled with liquid

hydrogen to provide the cold temperature needed to

maintain superconductivity (See Figure 13 at left).

These wrapping ‘tapes’ are thin strips of metal coated

with a micrometer-thick layer of superconductor and

films of ceramic insulators.

Due to their higher transmission capacity

relative to standard conductors such as copper and

aluminum, superconductors could be particularly

useful for dense urban settings where they can

replace cables running over space-intensive

transmission towers. For safety, security and

aesthetics, superconducting pipes are generally

located underground. Although costly, building

Cur

rent

(kA

)

Time (ms)

Voltage across H

TS

(V)

155 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95

7006005004003002001000–100

403020100

–10–20–30–40

Fast, smart,self-healing

switch

Res

ista

nce

Current

0

Ic

Fast limiting of fault currents avoid damage to grid and equipment avoid power interruptions

Superconductors: smart, self-healing control

Figure 12: Characteristics of superconductivity that offer quality and reliability in urban electricity provision.

Figure 13: Cryogenic superconducting cable.19

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20 Alternative Energy Magazine, August/September 2009: McCall, Jack. “Superconductor electricity pipelines: an optimal long-haul transmission solution”. 21 See19. 22 See 17. 23 See 6.

underground reduces vulnerability to sabotage or natural disaster, accidents,

right of-way disputes, and surface congestion.

It has been argued that by 2030, there could be many commercialised

applications of superconductors, including power electronics, and especially

in dense urban centres.

Today cables are seen as the most promising high-temperature

superconducting application with their commercialisation already underway.

Current developers and manufacturers include GE, InnoPower, Furukawa

Electric, LS Cable, Changtong, Sumitomo, Ultera, Nexans, Condumex, VNKIP,

Southwire, American Superconductor, SuperPower and Metox.

An additional example of emerging application of superconductivity is

small motors wound with high-temperature superconducting wire are also

already on the market, which are half the size and weight of a conventional

motor built with copper coils and with half the electrical losses. Tokyo Electric

Power has also calculated that a zero-emissions power plant using such

technology could reach efficiencies close to 70%, well above the 55% peak of

gas turbines today.21

Another example is wind turbines based on superconducting technology

enabled direct-drive generators. Because superconducting wires have

essentially zero electrical resistance, they allows for greater electricity flow,

and thus reduce the weight, eliminate moving parts

and decrease maintenance costs of generators.

See Figure 15 at right.22

CHALLENGESSmart Grid technologies

While new grid infrastructure will be necessary

to connect generation resources, replace ageing

assets and address growth, simply adding wires and

equipment without intelligence is not a viable option.

Although promising, Smart Grid technologies are

not risk-free. Many of these technologies are in

the early stages of development. Not all of them

will advance to commercialisation and, for some,

the cost of implementation on a commercial scale

may prove prohibitive. Finally, the challenge

of interoperability, enabling new and existing

technologies to exchange information for effective

functionality, is substantial. Overcoming these

challenges will require innovation, investment,

creativity and clearly defining the roles and

opportunities for all the potential stakeholders.23

Promotion of public and self-powered transport

Behaviour change will be vital, both for reducing

demand overall and in particular for vehicle use.

Currently ownership is a status symbol in many

societies, meaning the shift to different models

will require changing attitudes.

In addition to the mindset that vehicle ownership

is a sign of status, the main reason for high levels of

CONVENTIONALGEARBOX

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6 MW~500 tons

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Figure 14: Superconducting wire in application.20

Figure 15: Wind turbines based on superconding technology enabled direct-drive generators. .

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personal ownership is the convenience factor. If mass transport is overcrowded,

unreliable, and not easily accessible, passengers will opt out of using it.

The promotion of public and self-powered transport in dense urban

centres also requires substantial infrastructure such as bus lanes, bike lanes,

sidewalks, underground subways, or above ground rail. Investment in this

transportation system will take a large amount of financial capital so it is

critical to ensure that ridership and utilisation is maximised to recover costs.

Advanced ICT for transport

Appropriate communications choices need to be made in light of available

options, geography, customer mix and equipment being served. These

choices will rely on a variety of technologies including cellular spectrum, fibre

optics, power line carrier (including broadband over power line), WiMax,

WiFi and others. Thus, open standards are critical to the employment of

the widest possible range of devices; translation between proprietary and

open standards in also necessary. By the same token, the communications

protocols will also need to be standardised. Given the uncertain pace at which

transport infrastructure would be reinvented, communications systems will

also need to be scalable to allow for the addition of new devices. It is worth

noting, too, that the similar concerns of standardisation, bandwidth and

security in ICT integration are also barriers to Smart Grid development.

Electrification of transport

The electrification of light duty vehicles currently faces challenges. The main

barriers are:

(1) higher capital costs

(2) range anxiety

(3) integration issues.

These three issues stem from the storage technology needed to hold the

energy to fuel the vehicle. Lithium-ion batteries are currently the preferred

storage option due to high energy densities and the relative maturity of the

technology, building on experience from consumer electronics powered by

lithium-ion batteries.

The electric vehicle battery significantly increases the capital cost of a

vehicle, due to the advanced materials and technologies required. The limited

energy capacity of the battery results in the ‘range anxiety’ phenomenon

for drivers who fear they will become stranded during their commute.

Charging infrastructure may help mitigate some fears but requires significant

investment and also may not be compatible with frequent usage such as

car-sharing. Fast charging infrastructure face integration issues as the

local grid may not be able to support this feature. Plug-in hybrid options or

alternative fuel options are the likely suitable stop-gap measures.

Technological barriers to be addressed by research and development include

driving down the cost of batteries through new materials, new chemistries,

and new designs. For example, advanced lithium battery technology such

as lithium sulfur has great potential. Substantial research dollars are

also used to improve the performance of current batteries such as higher

energy capacities, faster charge and discharge rates, and wider operating

temperatures. Attention is also given to developing grid technologies and

power electronics to facilitate the deployment and integration of the charging

infrastructure needed to support electric cars.iSTO

CK

Traffic jam in Beijing’s Central Business District at night.


101PAGE

24 Better Place is a venture-backed American-Israeli company based in Palo Alto, California that aims to develop and sell transportation infrastructure that supports electric vehicles. For an overview of their business model, see http://www.betterplace.com/the-solution 25 See 16.

The electricity supply infrastructure will also need to be expanded by some

magnitude if electricity becomes a primary source of power for transportation.

Other than technology R&D, there are also innovative financing and

business models that can be used to address some of the challenges of electric

vehicle adoption. Some auto-dealers have decided to lease the car batteries

to consumers, deferring the initial up-front capital costs associated with

ownership. An unconventional business model is to decouple the battery from

the vehicle and generates revenue from the distance travelled. This would

include provision of a supply of batteries and a network of swap stations

where depleted batteries can be swapped for fresh ones.24 Such a model has

the potential to lower the capital costs to consumers, address range anxiety,

and limit the location of necessary grid upgrades.

Superconductor for dense urban requirements

Some of the barriers to superconductor deployment include:

Superconductors lose their remarkable properties when current above

a critical value is passed through them, so the search for a commercially

viable superconductor has focussed on materials that operate at a high

temperature relative to low temperature superconductors and can carry

large currents. At the moment, the ceramic compound yttrium barium

copper oxide (YBCO) is the most promising material available.25

Capital costs remaining high for some time, while infrastructure spending

is at an all-time low.

Deployment is limited to developed countries with advanced electrical

grid infrastructure, since the cost of building a centralised grid energy

system from the ground up is exorbitantly high.

It takes at least 10 years (mainly for permit reasons) to build a transmission

line within a country.

Room temperature superconductors will be developed, but will have

significant challenges.

CONCLUDING REMARKSWe have described promising technologies to support strategies for

Smart Urbanisation that also includes electrification of transport.

The convergence of Smart Grid technologies as part of an integrated

energy network with superconductors, ICT and electrification of

transport leads to a promising set of solutions of delivering electricity

and enabling electric mobility in dense urban environment.

Whereas Smart Grids, ICT and electric mobility are well-established

concepts, superconducting technologies fill the niche of providing reliable

transmission in dense urban environment with a small physical footprint.

The challenges of reinventing an urban space along these lines critically

depends on replacing ageing infrastructure and old paradigms associated

SMART URBANISATIONSS

iSTO

CK

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