BIT ESS2.WPD DRAFT 19 November 1998 Jeff Quickrepository.icse.utah.edu/dspace/bitstream/123456789/5344...Native bitumens, especially those in developed commercial deposits, are often

BIT_ESS2.WPD DRAFT 19 November 1998

Classification, Petrographic Expression, and Reflectance of Native Bitumen

Jeff Quick Utah Geological Survey

Introduction

Native bitumen is naturally occurring, solid organic material that originates, with few

exceptions, from material expelled by sedimentary organic matter during catagenesis. Note that,

in this text, the word bitumen is used to mean "native bitumen" rather than the common meaning

of organic matter extracted from rocks with organic solvents.

Native bitumens, especially those in developed commercial deposits, are often named

after people or places. These names have subsequently been applied to bitumens found in other

localities. In other instances, otherwise similar occurrences have been given different names.

Accordingly, the names given to native bitumens vary; a glossary is appended. This text reviews

nomenclature and criteria used in bitumen classification systems, and also examines the

petrographic expression and optical properties of bitumens observed through he reflected light

microscope.

Classification of Bitumens

Historically, the classification of native bitumen developed for marketing purposes or for

technical reasons related to their use as fuels and paving materials, or in the manufacture of

preservatives, resins, lacquers and paints. The emergence of the petroleum and associated

BIT ESS2.WPD DRAFT 19 November 1998

petrochemical industry greatly diminished the economic significance of the bitumen industry.

Consequently, the classification of bitumens became largely academic. Ironically, renewed

interest in the recognition, genesis and classification of native bitumen has emerged to meet the

needs of the petroleum industry. This is not surprising since most bitumens are related to some

aspect of the origin, migration, entrapment or destruction of petroleum. Genetic relationships

between bitumens and metallic ores, the behavior of bitumens during ore processing, as well as

bitumen occurrences in geothermal systems has also contributed to the renewed interest in

bitumen classification.

An early classification system of native bitumen was begun by Herbert Abraham in 1918

with the publication of the first edition of Asphalts and Allied Substances. His system is fully

explained in the 5th (1945) edition of the text and remains largely unchanged in the 6th and final

(1960) edition of this monumental work. Abraham's classification uses a physicochemical

approach and is based on:

1. physical properties (consistency at room temperature, streak, fusibility),

2. empirical behavior (solubility in carbon disulfide, fixed carbon) and,

3. chemical properties (oxygen and wax content).

Hunt and others, (1954) graphically illustrated Abraham's classification in a simple chart (figure

1) that has been widely cited and modified. Nowhere in Abraham's text is his classification so

elegantly presented; this suggests that figure 1 implies a certainty of classification that Abraham

deliberately avoided. Although Abraham provides a table listing distinguishing characteristics of

"bituminous substances"(simplified in Table 1), examination of this table shows that these

J. Quick 2


characteristics correspond to analytical data on an as-received, rather than mineral-matter-free

basis. Ignoring the effect of mineral dilution on assay results precludes the precise thresholds

and diagnostic criteria of a rigorous classification.

Solubility in Carbon Disulfide

soluble insoluble

Bitumen

liquid

Non-Bitumen

solid

fusible

Petroleum

difficultly fusible fusible infusible

Mineral Wax Asphalt Asphaltite

1 Pyrobitumen

oxygen free oxygen

containing

Asphaltic Pyrobitumen

Non-Asphaltic Pyrobitumen

1. All Crudes

2. Oil Seeps

3. Ozocerite

4. Montan Wax

5. Hatchettite

6. Scheererite

7. Bermudez Pitch

8. Tabbyite

9. Liquid Gilsonite

10. Argulite

11. Gilsonite

12. Grahamite

13. Glance Pitch

14. Wurtzilite

15. Elaterite

16. Albertite

17. Impsonite

18. Ingramite

19. Peat

20. Lignite

21. Coal

Figure 1. Abraham's classification of naturally occurring hydrocarbons according to Hunt and

others (1954).

J. Quick 3


Table 1. Synoptic table of distinguishing characteristics of native bitumens (modified from

Abraham 1962, v. 4, p.40-41.).

GENUS Species

member

BITUMENS Natural Waxes

ozokerite Asphalts

low ash high ash

Asphaltites gilsonite glance pitch grahamite

PYROBITUMENS Asphaltic

elaterite wurtzilite albertite impsonite pyrobituminous shale

Specific Gravity at 77

op

0.85- 1.00

0.95- 1.12 0.95- 1.15

1.03- 1.10 1.10-1.15 1.15- 1.20

0.90- 1.05 1.05- 1.07 1.07-1.10 1.10-1.25 1.50- 1.75

Fusing Point op

140 - 200

60 - 325 60 - 400

250 - 350 250 - 350 350 - 600

infusible infusible infusible infusible infusible

Fixed Carbon

0.5 - 10

1-25 5-25

10-20 20-30 35-55

2 - 5 5-25

25-50 50-85

2 -25

Solubility in Carbon Disulfide

95 - 100

60- 98 trace- 90

98 - 100 95 - 100 45 - 100

10-20 5 - 10 2 -10 1- 6

trace - 3

The longevity of Abrahams work is a testament to its usefulness. However the

system is not satisfactory from a geological perspective. For example, based solely on

physicochemical parameters, recent algal sapropels might be classified as elaterite whereas

anthracite coal might be classified as impsonite. King and others (1963) commented on the then

current "chemical" classification system of native bitumens and argued for incorporation of

genetic criteria for a geologically useful classification system. Figure 2 shows their initial

genetic distinction of sedimented organic matter (syngenetic origin) and the natural derivatives of

sedimented organic matter (epigenetic origin).

J. Quick 4


ORGANIC MATTER IN

GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS

I

Sedimented Organic Matter (Syngenetic Origin)

r Coal

1. Sapropelic 2. Humic

Kerabitumen I

1. Organic matter of muds 2. Organic matter of source beds 3. Organic matter of oil shales (kerogen)

Natural Derivatives of Sedimented Organic Matter

(Epigenetic Origin)

(Division based on inherent physical and chemical properties)

1. Natural Gas 2. Petroleum

3. Ozokerite 4. Natural Asphalt 5. Wurtzilite and Elaterite 6. Gilsonite 7. Glance Pitch

8. Grahamite

9. Albertite

10. Impsonite 11. Thucholite 12. Antrhaxolite

13. Secondary Graphite

Figure 2. Classification of organic matter in geological formations advocated by King and others

(1963). Note the initial distinction of sedimented (syngenetic) and derived (epigenetic) organic

matter.

Following the ideas set out by King and his co-workers, Hunt (1979) revised his earlier

effort (figure 1) to recognize the importance of an initial genetic distinction; his revised

classification is shown in figure 3. Besides this initial genetic distinction, figure 3 differs from

his earlier effort (figure 1) by the use of the atomic H/C ratio to divide pyrobitumens into

metamorphosed pyrobitumens (low H/C) and polymerized, unmetamorphosed pyrobitumens

(high H/C). He also narrows the classification by omitting petroleum.

J. Quick 5


Natural Bitumens and Coal

I

Allochthonous

CS2 soluble X

CS9 insoluble

Bitumen

fusible • '

Mineral Wax -T-

Asphalt

ozocerite scheererite

athabasca trinidad tabbyite

difficultly fusible

Asphaltite

gilsonite grahamite glance pitch

(manjak)

1 Pyrobitumen

H/C> 1 H/C<1

elaterite ingramite wurtzilite albertite

impsonite anthraxolite

Autochthonous

Coal

Sapropelic

cannel coal boghead coal

(torbanite) (coorongite)

Humic

peat lignite bituminous anthracite

Figure 3. Classification of natural bitumens and coals after Hunt (1979). H/C is atomic

hydrogen to carbon ratio.

Arguably, differentiating sedimented and derived organic matter is not entirely objective.

For example, King and his co-workers note that the initial genetic distinction shown in figure 2 is

interpretive and is based on a knowledge of the mode of occurrence gained from hand specimens

and field relations. Although Hunt (1978) points out that elevated H/C and (N+S)/0 ratios can

be used to differentiate bitumens from coals (figure 4) he states this should be used together with

"other methods such as microscopic examination". Indeed, the necessity of using additional

diagnostic methods is evident in figure 4 where impsonite and anthraxolite are indistinguishable

from coal based solely on elemental analysis. In the present author's experience, microscopic

examinations should be augmented by etching of the specimen (Pontolillio and Stanton, 1994) to

reveal underlying botanic structure which is not always visible in high rank coals. Other useful

indicators of native bitumen include high vanadium or nickel contents ( ) as well as distinctive

optical textures observed using slightly crossed nicols and the polarized light microscope.

J. Quick 6


Figure 4. Differentiation of humic and sapropelic coals from native bitumen according to

atomic ratios (from Hunt, 1978). H/C is the atomic hydrogen to carbon ratio; (N+S)/0 is the

nitrogen plus sulfur to oxygen ratio. Elemental data are expressed on a mole percent

(presumably organic) basis where C+H+N+O+S=100.

The classification suggested by King and others (1963) is shown in figure 5. This

classification is noteworthy since it accounts for the effect of mineral dilution on assay results;

volatile matter is on a dry-ash-free basis (daf), and percent atomic carbon on a dry-ash-sulfur-

nitrogen-free basis (dasnf). Solubility in carbon disulfide is used to make the final determination

in instances where when an unknown sample plots on, or close to, the classification line.

Although solubility used in figure 6 is on a mineral containing basis, bitumens used to establish

the system were hand-picked, floated, or demineralized. Accordingly, expression of solubility on

a daf basis is justified where this system might be used. King and his co-workers note that a

J. Quick 7


certain amount of overlapping between the boundaries shown in figure 5 can be anticipated and

(p.53) "to eliminate indecision in such instances priority should be given to either the volatile

matter or the atomic percent carbon depending on which parameter is more sensitive for the area

of the curve being considered".

30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Carbon (mole percent)

Figure 5. Classification of native bitumens after King and others, 1963 (p.53). Examination of

King's data indicates: 1) volatile matter is on a daf basis; 2) Carbon is mole percent where

C+H+0= 100 mole percent, and oxygen is estimated by difference where weight percent O=100-

(C+H+N+S) all on an dry, ash-free basis, S refers to organic sulfur; and 3) solubility in carbon

disulfide corresponds to solubility of the organic fraction which can be approximate by

calculation to a daf basis.

J. Quick 8


Examination of figures 1 and 5 shows the classifications suggested by King and others

(1963) and by Hunt and others (1954) include petroleum whereas petroleum is omitted from

Hunt's later effort (figure 3). Although the inclusion of petroleum in a bitumen classification is

logical from a scientific basis, a means to clearly differentiate petroleum is required. Lacking

such criteria causes problems from an industrial or regulatory perspective given different uses

and production techniques. Accordingly, Meyer and De Witt (1990) modified the classifications

shown in figures 1 and 3 to both include and clearly differentiate petroleum (crude oil) from

natural bitumens and coals. This modified classification is shown in figure 6 where bitumens are

distinguished by a viscosity greater than 10,000 cP, and reservoir bitumens are shown to have

variable solubilities in carbon disulfide.

Natural Bitumens and Coal

r Allochthonous

Viscosity <10,000 cP »

Crude Oil

Viscosity >10,000 cP

Natural Bitumen

CS2 soluble X

CS2 insoluble

Soluble Natural Bitumen

fusible

Mineral Wax

ZLL

Natural Asphalt

ozocerite scheererite

:n

"L Pyrobitumen

Reservoir Bitumen

difficultly fusible H/C > 1

Asphaltite

athabasca trinidad lake tabbyite

gilsonite grahamite glance pitch

(manjak)

H/C<1

elaterite ingramite wurtzilite albertite

impsonite anthraxolite shungite

1 Autochthonous

Coal

Sapropelic (anaerobic)

i

cannel coal boghead coal

(torbanite) (coorongite)

Humic (aerobic)

_r peat lignite bituminous anthracite

J. Quick 9


Figure 6. Classification of natural bitumens crude oil and coals presented by Meyer and De Witt

(1990).

Examination of the classification systems shown in figures 1,3,5 and 6 shows that, with

the exception of King's classification (figure 5), bitumens can be classified into two main groups

according to solubility in carbon disulfide. Remarkably, none of these classification systems

provide unambiguous, solubility thresholds. Indeed, since nearly all bitumens exhibit some

solubility (Table 1) a solubility threshold is needed to make this distinction. The significance of

this omission is clearly demonstrated by the work of Orhun (1969) who tried to use Abrahams

system to classify some Turkish bitumens. Orhun's observations (figure 7) show that

Abraham's classification fails to classify substances of intermediate solubilities in carbon

disulfide. Orhun called these bitumens of intermediate solubility "substances between asphaltite

and asphaltic pyrobitumen".

King and others (1963) use 45 percent solubility1 to differentiate the pyrobitumen

albertite from the asphaltite grahamite in figure 5. They state (p.53): "Abraham also considered

the solubility of grahamite to be greater than 45 percent, and this distinction has been followed".

Apparently, they followed the Abrahams synoptical table of distinguishing characteristics, partly

summarized in Table 1, where the minimum solubility of grahamite on mineral containing basis

is 45 percent. As noted by Ohrun (1969), Abraham indicates that grahamite is characterized by

solubilities of 90 to 100 % on a mineral free basis. Thus, although the stated reason for the 45

1 Although not stated by King and his co-workers, examination of their data and methods suggests that their solubility thresholds are essentially on a dry, mineral free basis.

J. Quick 10


percent solubility limit might be questioned (and its reporting basis unclear), the use of such a

threshold does allow for a comprehensive classification of native bitumens.

GILSONTTE GLANCE PITCH

GRAHAMITE Sikeftikan

Gercus Harbol Kasrok

Avgamasyano.l Seguruk

Avgamasya trench 7 Herbis

Milli WURTZILITE

ALBERTTTE IMPSONTTE

Nivekara Kaluk-Sivit

Besiri Ceffane-Tahtadizgehi

Gundukiremo Seridahli

i 1 1 1 1 1 r 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Solubility in Carbon Disulfide (daf)

Figure 7. Solubility in carbon disulfide of native bitumens from Turkey (black bars) compared

to characteristics of bitumens according to Abraham (stippled bars) (from Ohrun, 1969). Note

the continuous range of solubilities from near 0 to near 100 percent.

The above discussion should make clear that the classification systems discussed so far

are more conceptual than practical. Besides the inherently subjective distinction required to

establish a syngenetic or epigenetic origin for an unknown specimen, these systems generally

J. Quick 11


lack the rigorous criteria required for a useful classification. Undoubtedly, analytical thresholds

might be established and standard methods specified such that the general categories and

nomenclature in shared by these systems might be preserved. However, it is worth considering

other criteria besides solubility and fusibility that could serve a classification system.

Furthermore, the use of carbon disulfide should be discouraged given the exceptionally toxic and

flammable nature of this solvent. Towards this end, Jacob's (1981) conceptual diagram showing

the origin and maturation paths native bitumens (figure 8) coupled with Jacob and Wehner's

diagnostic criteria for these materials (Table 2) is worthwhile.

J. Quick 12

BIT ESS2.WPD

asphalt rich in asphaltene

gilsonite

glance pitch

grahamite

DRAFT

crude oils

19 November 1998

V heavy liquid

paraffin

\ * ozokerite

light

epi-impsonite

meso-impsonite

kata-impsonite

hs of the various native bitumens (from Jacob, 1980, p.215)

napthene-rich asphalt

V wurtzilite

V albertite

Fig

ure

8.

Illu

stra

tion

of

the

orig

ins

and

mat

urat

ion

pat

J. Quick 13


Table 2. Microscopic criteria useful to classify dispersed native bitumen (modified from Jacob

andWhehner, 1981, p.21)

Mineral Wax ozokerite

Pyrobitumens wurtzilite albertite impsonite

epi-impsonite meso-impsonite kata impsonite

Asphalts

Asphaltites gilsonite glance pitch grahamite

reflectance a

< 0.02

< 0.10 0.10- 0.70

-0.70- 2.00 2.00 3.50

> 3.50

0.07- 0.11 0.11-0.30 0.30- 0.70

fluorescence b

9.00-

0.10-<

< < <

0.40-

0.05-0.05-

<

50.00

2.00 0.10

0.02 0.01 0.01

4.00

0.40 0.20 0.05

solubilityc

soluble

insoluble insoluble

insoluble insoluble insoluble

soluble

soluble soluble

soluble or insoluble

softening temperatured

30 - 90

no flow no flow

no flow no flow no flow

< 104

104--164 104 - 164 164 287

notes: a. mean random reflectance oil immersion, may be calculated from values obtained using water immersion. b. fluorescence intensity at 546 nm where a masked uranyl glass standard (10 um diameter, Wild Leitz Co.)

equals 1.00 intensity units. c. observed solubility in immersion oil (or when cleaning specimen with petroleum ether). d. observed hot-stage softening temperature (degree Celcius).

Geochemical classification systems

more.

J. Quick 14


Petrographic Expression of Bitumens

We should keep clear the difference between petrographic nomenclature (descriptive) and

petrologic nomenclature (interpretive). Furthermore, like current ICCP maceral nomenclature, a

useful petrographic classification of bitumens should be largely independent of thermal maturity.

Granular bitumen, (protobitumen, prebitumen)

Granular bitumen is the most common kind of bitumen in samples that are within the oil

window. It has a granular texture comparatively low reflectance. This material is called

"prebitumen" by Jacob and Hiltmen, "protobitumen" by Bertrand and "granular bitumen" by

Landis and Castano. None of these authors observed a consistent relationship between the

reflectance of this granular form of bitumen and that of vitrinite. However, since granular

bitumen is not present in immature or post mature rocks, it's presence indicates that the host rock

is mature.

Bertrand observed that protobitumen is intimately associated with hydrogen rich kerogen

from which it is thought to be derived. In some instances, a direct transformation of amorphous

type II kerogen into granular bitumen, appears possible.

Homogeneous bitumen (migrabitumen)

Granular bitumen often grades, either gradually or abruptly, into a higher reflecting

bitumen with a homogeneous texture. Bertrand (1993) and Jacob and Hiltman (1985) measure

J. Quick 15


the reflectance of this homogeneous material which they call "migrabitumen". Importantly,

Bertrand notes that the designation "migrabitumen" does not imply an allochthounous origin,

whereas Jacob's (1990) use of the term is less restrictive and includes solid hydrocarbons that

may have migrated for several kilometers. Landis and Castano measured the reflectance of

material they call "homogeneous bitumen" which is similar to the petrographic description of

migrabitumen used by both Bertrand (1993), and Jacob and Hiltman (1985). Landis and Castano

specifically exclude reflectance measurements on solid hydrocarbons that fill voids (moldic

bitumen) reasoning that this material may have been deposited from a migrated liquid phase and

it's reflectance may not correlate with the thermal maturity of the host rock.

Bertrand notes that broad, sometimes bimodal, bitumen reflectance histograms commonly

result where both granular bitumen (protobitumen) and homogeneous bitumen (migrabitumen)

are measured. Landis and Castano clearly document this phenomena by presenting stacked

histograms for granular and homogeneous bitumen. Bertrand notes that "when a change of

thermal alteration produces a confusion between the protobitumen and the migrabitumen the

resulting solid bitumen continues to be identified as migrabitumen." Multiple generations of

homogeneous hydrocarbon may also occur. In these instances Jacob (1990) observed that only

the lowest reflecting bitumen population shows a consistent relationship with vitrinite

reflectance.

Optical Properties of Native Bitumens

J. Quick 16


The relationship between vitrinite reflectance and native bitumen reflectance is of

significance where an estimate of thermal maturity is desired. Optical anisotropy of bitumens is

of less immediate practical significance but may relate to the origin and genesis of different

bitumens. The following discussion examines some published reports on these topics.

Jacob and Hiltman (1985) observed:

Rvil=0.618*Rbit. + 0.40.

whereas inspection of the data presented by Landis and Castano (1995) shows:

RV1I = 0.897* Rbit +0.415

where; Rvil = mean random reflectance of vitrinite, and,

Rbit = mean random reflectance of native bitumen.

These relationships are compared in Figure 9. Jacob and Fliltmans correlation shows that

native bitumen has a lower reflectance than associated vitrinite below 1% Rvit. and a higher

reflectance than associated vitrinite above 1.0% Rvit. Their equation was based on about 30 data

points distributed between 0.35 and 2.0%R(vit). Landis and Castano observed that the

reflectance of native bitumen is less than the reflectance of vitrinite below about 4.0 %Rvit and is

greater than vitrinite above 4.0 %Rvit. The reason for the significant difference between the two

correlation scales shown in Figure 9 is uncertain. Nonetheless, results presented by Bertrand

(1993) and Riediger (1993) suggest a possible explanation.

J. Quick 17


1=1

o O

O

<D

0

-

-

-

-

-

1 1

/ y /y 'y

1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 —

Landis and Castano (1995)

lacob and Hiltman (1985)

/ y

y

— i — i — i — i —

y y

y

— i — , — , — T — , , | ,

0 1 2 3 4 5 Mean Reflectance of Bitumen

Figure 9. Comparison of the

relationship between mean random bitumen reflectance and mean random vitrinite reflectance

suggested by Jacob and Hiltman (1985) and Landis and Castano (1995).

Bertrand (1993) examined the relationship between bitumen reflectance and vitrinite

reflectance using about 600 samples from 4 geologic provinces in Canada. In those samples that

lack vitrinite an equivalent vitrinite reflectance was calculated from measured zooclast

reflectance. Bertrands results show small differences between the basins but significantly

different bitumen - vitrinite correlations for different host rock lithologies. Examination of their

equations and figures show the following general relationships for:

Limestone Rvit = 1.15 * Rbit +0.114

Shale Rvil = 0.858 * Rbl, + 0.452

and, Sandstone Rvit = 0.949 * Rbit + 0.315

J. Quick 18

BJTJESS2.WPD DRAFT 19 November 1998

where Rvit. = mean random reflectance of vitrinite, and Rbit = mean random reflectance of native

bitumen. These relationships are illustrated in Figure 10. Bertrand shows that bitumens

occurring in sandstones exhibit the greatest variation between different geologic provinces and

suggests that they are the least reliable indicators of maturity. However, bitumens occurring in

shales and especially limestones show more consistent relationships with vitrinite reflectance and

can be used to estimate thermal maturity.

J

'B 'G A "5 " > o ti

3 3

Pi B l

o -a

a 1 o

o-

/

/

— i — i — i — i —

p

/ / ^

/J/

/

7 ^

— — — limestone

1 ' ' • '

Shal

- Sand stone

• • • •

0 1 2 3 4 5

Mean Random Reflectance of Migrabitumen

Figure 10. Comparison of the relationship between mean vitrinite reflectance and bitumen

reflectance in limestones, shales and sandstones. Constructed from data presented by Bertrand

(1993).

Riediger (1993) measured the reflectance of homogeneous bitumen occurring in the

Lower Jurassic Nordegg member of the western Canadian basin. Samples from 22 wells

J. Quick 19


distributed throughout the basin were examined. Equivalent vitrinite reflectance values were

extrapolated from know vitrinite reflectance gradients according to sample location and depth.

Examination of Reidiger's data shows that:

R _ i A (-0.1571) * R (0.2815) r v vi t . — lyJ ^ b i t .

where Rvit. = mean random reflectance of vitrinite, and Rbit = mean random reflectance of native

bitumen. Thus, native bitumen in the Nordegg member shows a lower reflectance than

associated vitrinite below 0.6% reflectance and a higher reflectance than associated vitrinite

above 0.6% reflectance. Figure 11 compares the relationship between bitumen reflectance and

vitrinite reflectance observed by Riediger with both Jacob and Hiltman's (1985) correlation and

Landis and Castano's (1995) correlation.

'c

>

o

o

-

.

-

-

-

-

/

— 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 —

1 1 I

Landis and Castano (1995)

Jacob and Hiltman (1985)

Riediger (1993)

•

— i — i — i — i —

s

/

*

•

/

/

/ /

0 1 2 3 4 5

Reflectance of Bitumen

Figure 11. Comparison of the relationship between mean random bitumen reflectance and mean

random vitrinite reflectance suggested by Riediger (1993), Jacob and Hiltman (1985), and Landis and Castano (1995).

J. Quick 20


Riediger notes that the Nordeg member is rich in sulfur and sources high-sulfur, low API

oils. The distinctive relationship between bitumen and vitrinite reflectance in the Nordegg

member is probably related to the thermally labile type IIS kerogen which from which it is

derived. Hence the maturation path of bitumen reflectance appears to varies according to the

composition of the bitumen which is determined by the composition of the organic material from

which it is derived. This explanation is also consistent with the Betrtand's observation the

bitumen/vitrinite reflectance relationship varies according to the lithology of the host rock.

Discussion

It appears that a single, universally applicable, relationship between bitumen reflectance

and vitrinite reflectance does not exist. If differences between the various bitumen - vitrinite

reflectance scales are due to different types of bitumen, then any correlation between bitumen

and vitrinite reflectance must account for the type of bitumen. Ideally, bitumen type should be

established using petrographic criteria.

Data presented by Potter et al., (1993) further attests to the significance of the type of

bitumen where bitumen is used to establish thermal maturity. Figure 12 shows the increase of

bitumen reflectance with depth in samples taken from a single drillhole. The reflectance of four

types of bitumen, designated A, B, C, and D, are shown to increase with increasing depth of

burial. Potter and her co-workers note that the two lower reflecting types of bitumen (A and B)

are isotropic and that type A shows visible fluorescence. Types C and D were observed to be

J. Quick 21


visibly anisotropic. Although these bitumen types were distinguished according to morphology,

their observations suggest that both optical anisotropy and fluorescence intensity could be used

to establish bitumen type. Importantly, both of these parameters can be objectively measured

and quantified.

1000

2000-

oo

. 4—>

Q

3000

4000-

• o A O

D n O

. • O • o

0 ° A A

A

O

• O A O • O A

• OA no • O A

o

A

O

bitumen types

•

o

A

O

A

B

C

D

DO • • • O A O • O A

• O A

DO A

0.5 1 % Reflectance

Figure 12. Variation of bitumen reflectance with depth for 4 different kinds of bitumen observed

in a single well. Data from Potter and others, 1993.

J. Quick 22


Anisotropy of bitumens

The optical anisotropy of bitumen has special importance for bitumens occurring in

hydrothermal systems. Elevated optical anisotropy of bitumen in hydrothermal systems has been

attributed to the high heating rates associated with hydrothermal mineralization. This idea is

based on comparison of bitumen anisotropy with the anisotropy of vitrinite artificially matured at

different heating rates as well as evaluation of published reflectance data for various bitumen

occurrences (Goodarzi et al., 1993, Goodarzi, 1984). Figure 13 shows the relationship between

bireflectance (max - min reflectance in polarized light) and percent mean maximum reflectance

for both native bitumen, (normal burial heat flow), and heat-affected bitumen, (anomalously high

heat flow).

o

-*—> o

B | 4 -

6 3

S 2

native bitumens matured under a normal burial

gradient V

heat affected

bitumens

r T- ' 2

r T - ' 5 6

Bireflectance

Figure 13. Cross plot showing the reflectance - bireflectance relationship for natural bitumens

and heat affected bitumens. (Constructed from relationships presented by Goodarzi, 1984)

J. Quick 23


According to Khorsani and Michelsen, 1993 bitumens that occur in hydrothermal veins

shows enhanced bireflectance. They suggest that a cross-plot (figure 14) can be used to

distinguish bitumen matured under regional geothermal gradients (low anisotropy) and bitumen

developed in hydrothermal systems (high anisotropy). As with most generalization, exceptions

can occur (two of which are plotted on figure 14).

Normal Response of Bitumen,

7 \v <a 6 o c a

u

§4 P

E 3 c a

% 2 Native Bitumen in Hydrothermal Systems

Isotropic Bitumen Associated with

0 Hydrothermal Gold

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Bireflectance

Figure 14. Cross plot showing high bireflectance for typical bitumens in hydrothermal systems

(Khorsani and Michelsen, 1993) annotated with some unusual data for bitumen in gold deposits.

J. Quick 24


In some instances, bitumen in hydrothermal systems shows remarkably low anisotropy

(figure 14). These uncommon (?) occurrences might be explained by the composition of the

bitumen. During pyrolysis of coal and petroleum pitch abundant sulfur and/or oxygen can inhibit

the development of optical anisotropy (Marsh 1989). These elements scavenge hydrogen that

would otherwise be used to stabilize free radicals formed during thermal bond breakage.

Without hydrogen, the radicals readily form cross-links which prevent the aromatic fragments

moving into their preferred, aligned orientation. The result is an optically isotropic, condensed

macromolecule where the aromatic units are randomly oriented. Although this mechanism is

well-cited in literature dealing with the manufacture of carbon materials, I have found no

publication that shows it also occurs in natural systems. Nonetheless, the lack of preferred

orientation of the aromatic units is suggested for an optically isotropic bitumen observed in some

hydrodrothermal gold deposits (figure 14). In one of these deposits, petrographic examination

has shown an unusual instance where dendritic gold appears to have nucleated on the bitumen

surface ( ).

References

Abraham, H., 1960, Asphalts and Allied Substances, sixth edition, volume 1, Van Nostrand,

Princeton, 370p.

Bell, G., and Hunt J. M., 1963, Native bitumens associated with oil shales: in, Organic

Geochemistry, I.A. Breger ed., Pergamon Press, p.333-366.

Bertrand R., (1993) Standardization of solid bitumen reflectance to vitrinite in some Paleozoic

sequences of Canada. Energy Sources, v.15, p.296-287.

J. Quick 25


Castor and Huelen, (in press) Electrum and organic matter at the Gold Point Mine, Currant

Mining District, Nevada, In: Geology and Ore Deposits of the American Cordillera.

Chapman, E. J., 1888, The Minerals and Geology of Central Canada. Copp Clark Co., Toronto,

p.143-144.

Durand, B., 1980, Kerogen, Editions technip, Paris, 519p.

Gentzis T., and Goodarzi F. 1990, A review of the use of bitumen reflectance in hydrocarbon

exploration with examples from Melville Island, Arctic Canada: in, Applications of Thermal

Maturation Studies to Energy Exploration. V.F. Nuccio and C.E. Barker eds., SEPM, Rocky

Mountain Section, p.23-36.

Goodarzi F., (1984) Organic petrology of graptolite fragments from Turkey. Marine and

Petroleum Geology, v.l, p.202-210.

Goodarzi, F., and Macqueen, R.W., Optical/compositional character of six bitumen species

from Middle Devonian rocks of the Pine Point Pb-Zn Property, Northwest Territories, Canada:

International Journal of Coal Geology, v. 14, p. 197-216.

Goodarzi F., Gentzis T., Jackson G., MacQueen R. W., (1993) Optical characteristics of heat

affected bitumens from the Nanisivik Mine, N. W., Baffin Island, Artie Canada. Energy

Sources, v. 15, p.359-376

Hunt, J. M., Stewart, F. and Dickey, P. A., 1954, Origin of hydrocarbons in the Uinta basin,

Utah: Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., v. 38, p.1671-1698.

Hunt, J. M., 1978, Characterization of bitumens and coals: Bull Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., v.62,

p.301-303.

Hunt, J. M., 1979, Petroleum Geochemistry and Geology. W.H. Freeman Co., San Francisco,

617p.

Jacob, H., 1976, Optische analyse disperser bitumina: Erdol und Kohle, bd.29, heft 6, p.257

J. Quick 26


Jacob H., (1989) Classification, structure, genesis and practical importance of natural solid oil

bitumen. International Journal of Coal Geology, v. 11, p. 65-79.

Jacob H., and Hiltman W., (1985) Disperse bitumen solids as an indicator for migration and

maturity within the scope of prospecting for petroleum and natural gas: a model for NW

Germany. Final Report, Deutsche Gesellschaft Fur Mineralolwissenschaft und Kohlecheme,

project 267, Hamburg, 54p.

Khorasani G. K., and Michelsen J. K., (1993) The thermal evolution of solid bitumens, bitumen

reflectance and kinetic modeling of reflectance: application in petroleum and ore prospecting.

Energy Sources, v.15, p.181-204.

King, L. H., 1963a, Origin of the Albert Mine oil shale (New Brunswick) and its associated

albertite: Mines Branch Research Report Rl 15, Department of Mines and Technical Surveys,

Ottawa, Canada, 9p.

King, L. H., 1963b, On the origin of anthraxolite and impsonite: Mines Branch Research Report

Rl 16, Department of Mines and Technical Surveys, Ottawa, Canada, 9p.

King, L. H., Goodspeed, F. E. and Montgomery, D. S., 1963, A study of sedimented organic

matter and its natural derivatives: Mines Branch Research Report Rl 14, Department of Mines

and Technical Surveys, Ottawa, Canada, 68p.

Ladoo, R. B. and Meyers, W. W., 1951, Nonmetallic Minerals, second edition, McGraw-Hill

Book Co., New York, 603p.

Landis C. R., and Castano J. R., (1995) Maturation and bulk chemical properties of a suite of

solid hydrocarbons. Organic Geochemistry, v.22, p.137-149.

Mancuso J. J., and Seavoy, R. E., 1981, Precambrian coal or anthraxolite: a source for graphite in

high grade schists and gneisses. Economic Geology, v.76, p.951-954.

Mancuso, J. J., Kneller, W. A., and Quick, J. A., 1989, Precambrian vein pyrobitumen: evidence

for petroleum generation and migration 2 Ga ago: Precambrian Research, v. 44, p. 137-146.

J. Quick 27


Marsh, H., (1989) Introduction to Carbon Science. Butterworth and Co. Ltd., Kent England,

321p.

Meyer, R. F. and De Witt, W. Jr., 1990, Definition and world resources of natural bitumens: U.S.

Geological Survey Bulletin 1944, 14p.

Mueller, G., 1966, Indication of high temperature processes in organic geochemistry, in,

Advances in Organic Geochemistry 1966, G.D. Hobson and G.C. Spears, eds., Pergamon Press,

p.951-954.

Muller, G., 1972, Organic Mineraloids. in, The Encyclopedia of geochemistry and

Environmental Sciences, volume IVA, R.W. Fairbridge, ed., Van Norstrand Reinhold Co., New

York, p.823-830.

Pemberton, H. E., 1983, Minerals of California. Van Norstrand Reinhold Co., New York, 519p.

Potter J., Richards B. C, and Goodarzi F., (1993) The organic petrology and thermal maturity of

lower Carboniferous and upper Devonian source rocks in the Laird Basin, at Jackfish Gap-Yohin

Ridge and North Beaver River, northern Canada: Implications for hydrocarbon exploration.

Energy Sources, v. 15, p.289-314.

Riediger C. L., (1993) Solid bitumen reflectance and Rock-Eval Tmax as maturation indices: an

example from the "Nordegg Member", Western Canada Sedimentary Basin. Int. J. Coal Geol.,

v.22,p.295-315.

Stach E., Mackowsky M.Th., Teichmuller M., Talyor G.H., Chandra D., and Teichmuller R.,

1982, Stach's Textbook of Coal Petrology. Gebruder Borntraeger, Stuttgart, 536p.

Wells, L.F., 1958, Petroleum occurrence in the Uinta Basin, in, Habitat of Oil. L.G. Weeks ed.,

Collegiate Press, Wisconsin, p.344-365.

Wen, C.S., Chilingarian, G.V., and Yen, T.F., 1978, Properties and structure of bitumens: in,

Bitumens Asphalts and Tar Sands. G.V. Chilingarian and T.F. Yen eds., Elsevier, Amsterdam,

p.155-190.

J. Quick 28

November 13, 1998 Bitumen Glossary BIT_ESS2.WPD

Glossary

AEGERITE

A commercial term used to market wurtzilite (Abraham, 1960, p.266).

AEONITE

A commercial term used to market wurtzilite (Abraham, 1960, p.266).

ALBERTITE

A generic term applied to a member of the pyrobitumen series. Albertites are distinguished by

fixed carbon content (25% to 50% ash free), insolubility in carbon disulfide, and non-fusible

behavior on heating. The type deposit for albertite was described in 1850 in the vicinity of

Hillsborough and Albert Mines, Albert County, New Brunswick Canada. Thousands of tons of

this albertite were mined until about 1880. Originally called "albert coal" the albertite was used

to manufacture town gas. The albertite occurs in veins; one of the veins was several feet in

width, nearly vertical, and was mined to a depth of 1,300 feet for a distance of about 3,000 feet

along the strike of an anticline (Abraham, 1960, p.49, 259). King (1963) suggested that the

albertite veins originated in the surrounding Mississippian age, laminated dolomitic shale. Based

on a chemical, physical and optical comparison of the possible source rock and the albertite, he

suggests a chemical fractionation of the shale, followed by differential migration of a water

soluble organic fraction and pH induced precipitation of the organics in contemporaneous tension

fractures.

29

November 13, 1998 Bitumen Glossary BITESS2.WPD

Besides the type deposit in New Brunswick there, are other occurrences of native bitumen that

have also been called Albertite. Near Soldier Summit Utah, albertite occurs in lacustrine beds

about 600 feet above the base of the Green River Fm. (Bell and Hunt, 1963, p.341,352). Ladoo

and Myers (1951, p.63) report little or no "present" production of albertite at this location.

Albertite has also been reported in a "granitized" Triassic shale in the Sta. Juana district of

central Chile (Mueller, 1972, p.828).

Albertite has also been described in Pictou County, Nova Scotia where it is known as stellarite.

Because stellarite occurs as a conformable bed below the McGregor seam, this occurrence is

probably boghead coal (although it meets Abraham's criteria for albertite). Other occurrences of

albertite have been reported in the Falkland Islands, Hanover Province of Germany (gagat-kohle),

"tasmanite" (according to Abraham) from Australia (better named a boghead), and at Calucala,

Angola (libollite) (Abraham, 1960, p.259-263). Albertite has also been called nigrite.

ANTHRAXOLITE

Anthraxolite is a black combustible coal-like solid that resembles anthracite coal but occurs in

veins and fissures in Precambrian rocks. The term anthraxolite was used by Chapman in 1888 to

describe some extensive vein filling material in the Sudbury district near Chelmsford, Ontario

(the type deposit).

30


King, and others, (1963) and King, (1963) note that anthraxolite is distinguished by volatile

matter yields of <10 %, and insolubility in carbon disulfide. Thus, anthraxolite is a very "high

rank" form of impsonite and is probably synonymous with Jacob's (1978) kata-impsonite. The

geologic occurrences of anthraxolite are discussed by Mancuso and Seavoy (1981).

Hunt, (1978, p.302) observed that both impsonite and anthraxolite are indistinguishable from

coal on the basis of his (N+S)/0 vs H/C diagram. Hunt reports that, although impsonite from

Oklahoma and Peru have been shown to have a petroleum precursor, no association with a

petroleum precursor has been shown for anthraxolite. However, XRF analyses on the low

temperature ash obtained from a variety of anthraxolites revealed significant amounts of

vanadium and nickel. This strongly suggests a petroleum origin.

Anthraxolites have been reported in Precambrian sediments such as the Onwatin Slate, Sudbury

district, and the Gunflint Fm., near Thunder Bay. In these two deposits the anthraxolite is

present as a vein filling (Bell and Hunt, 1963).

ARGULTTE

A term used to describe an asphalt impregnated sandstone found in the Argyle Creek Canyon,

south of Ouray, Uinta basin, Utah (Wen, and others (1978) p.158).

ARKOSITE

31

November 13, 1998 Bitumen Glossary BIT ESS2.WPD

A term used to describe a deposit of impsonite found in Scott Co., Arkansas, one mile east of

Eagle Gap and two miles east of Harris (Abraham, 1960, p.252). Note that the term arkosite is

commonly used to describe arkosic sandstone or quartzite with high feldspar contents.

ASPHALT

Asphalt is defined by Abraham (1960, p.56) as;

"A term applied to a species of bitumen, also to certain pyrogenous substances of

dark color, variable hardness, comparatively non-volatile; composed principally of

hydrocarbons, substantially free from oxygenated bodies; containing relatively

little to no crystallizable paraffins; sometimes associated with mineral matter, the

non-mineral constituents being fusible and largely soluble in carbon disulfide,

yielding water-insoluble sulfonation products. This definition is applied to native

asphalts and pyrogenous asphalts. Native asphalts include asphalts occurring

naturally in a pure or fairly pure state, also asphalts associated naturally with a

substantial proportion of mineral matter. Pyrogenous asphalts include residues

obtained from the distillation, blowing, etc., of petroleum (e.g., residual oil, blown

asphalts, residual asphalts, sludge asphalts, etc.), also from the pyrogenous

treatment of wurtzilite (e.g., wurtzilite asphalt)."

Note that the term asphalt is applied to both native and manufactured substances. This is because

it is practically impossible to distinguish certain native and pyrogenous asphalts by either

physical or chemical means (Abraham, 1960, p.59). Indeed, asphalt is defined by the American

Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM method D 1079-83a) as: "A dark brown to black

cementitious material in which the predominating constituents are bitumens which occur in

nature or are obtained in petroleum processing".

32


Some other terms that have been used to describe the softer varieties of native asphalt are; maltha

(Greek origin), brea and chapapote (Spanish/Mexican), goudron minerale (French), bergteer

(German), kir (Russian), and mineral tar (English).

ASPHALTE

A European term used to describe unconsolidated asphalt impregnated limestone which softens

and crumbles at temperatures of 125 to 160 °F. (Abraham, 1960, p.57)

ASPHALTIC PYROBITUMEN

Defined by Abraham (1960, p.57) as;

"A species of pyrobitumen, including dark colored, comparatively hard and

non-volatile solids; composed of hydrocarbons, substantially free from

oxygenated bodies; sometimes associated with mineral matter, the non-mineral

constituents being infusible and largely insoluble in carbon disulfide. This

definition includes elaterite, wurtzilite, albertite, impsonite, and asphaltic

pyrobituminous shales."

Abraham groups the asphaltic pyrobitumens into five members based on physical characteristics

shown below.

pyrobitumen streak specific gravity fixed carbon

member (77 F)

Elaterite Light Brown 0.90 - 1.05 2 - 5

Wurtzilite Light Brown 1.05 - 1.07 5 - 2 5

Albertite Brown to Black 1 . 0 7 - 1 . 1 0 25 - 50

33


Impsonite Black 1.10 - 1.25 50 - 90

Asphaltic Pyrobituminous Shale may contain any of the above mixed with

appreciable mineral matter

Note that the modifier "asphaltic" is applied to as used by Abraham serves to differentiate the

above bitumens from Abraham's "non-asphaltic pyrobitumens" a group that includes peat, coal,

cannels, torbanites and other sedimented organic rich rocks. Because more recent classifications

recognize genetic criteria for bitumens, the unmodified term "pryobitumen" is often used and is

synonymous with Abraham's term, asphaltic pyrobitumen. Abraham (1960, p.263) considers the

asphaltic pyrobitumens to form through the "metamorphosis" of petroleum, with impsonite the

end product. Hunt, (1979, p.403) recognized three genetic groups of pyrobitumen

ASPHALTITE


"A species of bitumen including dark-colored, comparatively hard and

non-volatile solids; composed principally of hydrocarbons, substantially free from

oxygenated bodies and crystallizable paraffins; sometimes associated with mineral

matter, the non-mineral constituents being difficultly fusible and largely soluble in

carbon disulfide yielding water insoluble sulfonation products. This definition

includes Gilsonite, Glance Pitch, and Grahamite."

Abraham (1960, p.227) further groups the asphaltites into three members based on

physical properties shown below.

34


asphaltite streak specific gravity softening fixed carbon

member (77 F) temperature (F)

gilsonite Brown 1.05 - 1.10 230 - 350 10 - 20

glance pitch3 Black 1.10 - 1.15 250 - 350 20 - 30

impsonite Black 1.15 - 1.20 350 - 600 30 - 55

a also called Manjak when substantially free of mineral matter.

BERNALITE

A dark red, green to yellow, fluorescent resin of olenfinic (also known as olefinite) composition

that occurs associated with Lower Paleozoic shales near North Derbyshire England. In contrast to

associated bitumenoids, (ozocerite, elaterite and foxite) the bernalite appears to have had a

"plastic" injection into the country rock. All of the other associated bitumenoids appear to have

had a "liquid" injection into the vein system because they occupy all of the available space

between adjacent rock crystals. (Mueller, 1972, p.828)

BITUMEN

Defined by Abraham (1960, p.54) as:

"A generic term applied to native substances of variable color, hardness and volatility;

composed principally of hydrocarbons, substantially free of oxygenated bodies;

sometimes associated with mineral matter, the non-mineral constituents being fusible and

largely soluble in carbon disulfide, yielding water-insoluble sulfonation products. This

definition includes petroleum, native asphalts, native mineral waxes, and asphaltites

(gilsonite, glance pitch and grahamite)."

35


Wen and others (1978, p.157) point out that the term "bitumen" as usually defined applies to both

naturally occurring substances (i.e. petroleum, asphalt, ozocerite, etc..) and the soluble extracts of

coals, shales, soils etc.. Thus the writer should take care to clarify the sense in which the term is

used. Durand (1980, p.17) also comments on the use of the term bitumen. He recognizes a

chemical and a petrographic sense of the word. Chemically bitumen is defined as the organic

material extracted from rocks with organic solvents at moderate temperatures ( < 80 °C).

Petrographically, bitumen is defined as organic substances filling rock pores that appear

homogeneous. These petrographic bitumens may or may not be soluble in organic solvents.

BITUMINOUS ROCK

A European term used to describe asphalt impregnated limestone which does not crumble at high

temperatures (1000 F) (Abraham, 1960, p.57).

BORISLAVITE

See Ozocerite.

BROGGITE

A variety of asphalt from Peru (Tomkeieff, 1954, p.32).

CAOUTCHOUC

A natural rubber, composed of polyterpenes (Hunt 1979, p.90). "Australian caoutchouc", also

known as coorongite, was deposited on the ground after floods in 1865 and 1920. Thought to

36


have an algal source this material is considered to be a variety of elaterite by Abraham (1960,

p.256).

CARBENE

A name applied to the chemical fraction of bitumens that is soluble in carbon disulfide. (Yen

1984).

CARBOID

A name applied to the chemical fraction of bitumens insoluble in carbon disulfide. (Tomkeieff

1954, p.34; Yen 1984).

CERESINE

A white substance refined from ozocerite by heating to 120 - 200 °C with 20 to 30 weight

percent sulfuric acid, or by treatment with alkali followed by hot filtration. It differs from raw

ozocerite in color and possesses a higher fusing point. (Abraham, 1960, p.56, 129)

CHAPAPOTE

An old term used to designate viscous, semi-liquid asphalts similar to the asphalt found in the

Chapapote district of Mexico. (Abraham, 1960, p.143)

CHEMOASPHALTE

A German term used to describe manufactured (not native) asphalt. (Abraham, 1960, p.58)

37


CHRISMATITE

A native mineral wax, with a greasy luster, pale yellow to greenish yellow in color, and a low

melting temperature. Chrismatite is found in a Carboniferous argillaceous sandstone near Wettin

Saxony, and is associated with calcite and quartz filled vugs. (Dana, 1903, p.997)

CURTISITE

An anthracen-like hydrocarbon, thought to be a sublimate, found near Skaggs Springs, Sonora

Co., California. (Mueller, 1972, p.828)

DOPPLERITE

A soft gelatinous humic substance found in cracks and fissures in peat (Mueller, 1972, p. 829). It

also occurs in soft brown coal, sometimes in masses or nests, and is reportedly be composed of

humic acids or humates (ICCP, 1963). Once dried, it does not adsorb water, and is insoluble in

organic solvents, but soluble in alkalis (Tomkeiff, 1954, p.43).

ELATERITE

A dark brown, low molecular weight, slightly oxygenated olifin that occurs as a vein filling in a

Lower Carboniferous shale near North Derbyshire England, as part of a fractionation series that

includes bernalite, ozocerite and foxite (Mueller, 1972, p.828). Abraham (1960, p.60) classifies

elaterite as an asphaltic pyrobitumen. It has not been found in commercial quantities. According

to Abraham's classification, the recent algal sapropels; coorongite and balkashite, are classified

as varieties of elaterite.

38


ELKERITE

A variety of bitumen found in the Elk Hills of California, thought to be formed through the slow

oxidation of petroleum (Tomkeieff, 1954, p.48).

EU-BITUMEN

A collective name applied to any fluid, viscous or solid, natural bitumen that is easily soluble in

organic solvents (Tomkieff, 1954, p.46)

GAGAT

A German name for jet (Tomkieff, 1954, p.46).

GAR (Garg: German sp)

A Russian term used to describe asphalt impregnated sandstone (Tomkeieff, 1954, p.50).

GILSONITE

An asphaltite soluble in carbon disulfide, gilsonite forms one of the worlds largest deposits of

solid bitumen in Utah. Also called uintaite, gilsonite was reported in 1862 by early settlers in

Utah, and has since been extensively mined.

In the Eocene Green River Formation, Uinta basin, Utah, gilsonite occurs in swarms of straight

veins from several inches to 18 feet in width, with outcrop lengths up to 7 miles. The gilsonite

frequently exhibits a columnar or pencillated fracture adjacent to the side of the vein, merging

into a hackley to conchoidal fracture in the center. The veins range in depth from 100 feet near

the Colorado - Utah border to 2,000 feet farther west in the Castle Peak area. Estimated reserves

39

November 13, 1998 Bitumen Glossary BIT ESS2.WPD

of gilsonite have been reported in excess of 30,000,000 tons. (Wells, 1958, p.359, Miller, 1938,

p.2723). The source for this bitumen is thought to be the algal, lacustrine, Green River kerogen.

A liquid form of gilsonite was found in veins that terminate directly in the source bed. The

composition of this oil shows a high aromaticity and NSO content typical of immature oils and

attributable, in part, to the algal source (Hunt, 1979, p.398). The geologic setting of Utah

gilsonite is discussed by Bell and Hunt, 1963. Gilsonite has also been reported in Wheeler and

Crook Counties, Oregon where it is associated with a ryolite dike thought to have cut an oil

bearing stratum. Other gilsonite deposits have been reported in the Archangle Province, Ukhta

district, on the Izhama river, USSR. (Abraham, 1960, p.220-229)

GLANCE PITCH

An asphaltite, glance pitch is probably an intermediate between native asphalt and grahamite.

Although it outwardly resembles gilsonite, glance pitch gives a black streak, whereas gilsonite's

streak is brown. Abraham, (1960, p.230) speculated that both glance pitch and gilsonite have

"reached a parallel stage in metamorphosis" but that they were derived from different kinds of

petroleum. A number of varieties have been reported. Manjak is a glance pitch discovered in

1750 in the Barbados, West Indies. Originally the term manjak was applied to the Barbados

product but later was associated with a variety of Grahamite mined in Trinidad. Glance Pitch has

also been mined in the Chapapote and Papantla districts of Mexico; Emery County Utah

(enriched in vanadium and uranium); Chontales district Nicaragua; Department of Tolima

Columbia (aboutlOO miles SW of Bogota at Chaparral on the Saldana river); Hasbaya Syria, in

the Dead Sea, and near Abu Gir, Iraq. Near Bethiem Germany, an asphaltite thought to be glance

40


pitch has been mined since 1732. At depth the material resembles glance pitch, whereas near the

surface it is more highly metamorphosed and resembles albertite. Other deposits of glance pitch

have been reported in: Santo Domingo, Haiti; Quebrada Granda, El Salvador; Neuquen Province,

Argentina (raphaelite); Department of Bolivar, Columbia (near Simiti on the western side of the

Magdalina river); and near Sadi (southern Ural mountains) and Kairov (on the Ufa river) USSR.

On the Magallanes coast, Territorio Magallanes, Chile, lumps of glance pitch (magellanite) have

been "thrown upfrom the sea from submarine deposits". Abraham, 1960, p.230-238, Miller,

1938, p.2726)

GRAHAMITE

An asphaltite first described as "rock asphalt" when it was discovered in 1863 as a vein filling in

Ritchie County, West Virginia (the type deposit for grahamite). Grahamite varies considerably in

composition and physical properties, with mineral contents as high as 50%. Besides its fairly

high fixed carbon content (30-55%) grahamite differs from the other asphaltites (gilsonite and

glance pitch) by its sometimes low solubility in carbon disulfide (as low as 53.6 percent for

grahamite from the Neuquen province Argentina (Miller,1938, p.2725).

Occurrences of grahamite have been reported in a large number of localities worldwide. The

largest known deposit occurs in the Jackfork valley, Pushmataha County, Oklahoma. The vein is

about 1 mile long and up to 25 feet thick. Other deposits in Oklahoma include the Impson Valley

deposit (Atoka Co.) and the McGee Creek deposit (Stephens Co.). Grahamite Has also been

found in; Middle Park, Grand Co. Colorado; Fayette and Webb County, Texas; the Papnthla and

41


Tamazunchale districts of Mexico; Pinar del Rio, Cuba; Trinidad (Trinidad manjak);Mendoza

province Argentina (up to 40% vanadium in the ash); Peru, and in Ordovician sediments,

Bathurst island district of Franklin Canada. (Abraham, 1960, p.238-254, King and others (1963,

p.3), Miller, (1938 p.2725).

HARBOLITE

A commercial term used to market an impsonite-like material from Turkey. (Abraham, 1960,

p.263)

HARTITE

A colorless to yellow, crystalline organic substance found in pyritic veins that traverse a brown

coal near Oberhart, Glognitz Austria. It is associated with psartite and ixolite and has a

elemental composition similar to asphalt. (Mueller, 1972, p.829)

HATCHETTITE (Hatchetitine, Hatchetine)

A soft, yellow to greenish yellow variety of ozocerite, with a specific gravity of 0.9 to 0.98 at 77

.F. It is found in a bog near Argyllshire Scotland close to the border of Loch Fyne; in iron stone

septaria and in geodes present in the coal measures near Merthyr-Tydvilin Glamorganshire

Wales. Hatchettite was named after the British chemist °C. Hatchett. It has also been called

adipocerite and adipocire. (Abraham, 1960, p.47, 134, Dana, 1903, p.997, Tomkeieff, 1954,

p.21)

HELENITE

42


A yellow to dirty yellow, slightly elastic, native mineral wax found in the Helena shaft of the

petroleum region near Ropa Galacia. (Dana, 1903, p. 1000)

HUMIMTE

A brown earthy substance found in pegmatitic veins, possibly of abiogenic origin. Described in

the pegmatites of the Ermlan and Grythytte districts of Sweden (Mueller, 1972, p.825). Not to be

confused with the coal maceral group of the same name.

IDRIALITE

An organic rich sublimate from Idria Yugoslavia. Thought to be composed of substituted

phenanthrenes (Mueller, 1972, p.828). Idrialite has also been reported associated with cinnabar,

realgar, etc., in numerous mercury mines in California. (See Pemberton, 1983, p.324-343 for

locations).

rMPSONITE

The metamorphic end product of the elaterite, wurtzilite, albertite series as well as the gilsonite,

glance-pitch, grahamite series. Impsonite is classified by Abraham as an asphaltic pyrobitumen.

Impsonite is may be distinguished by several characteristics when compared to high rank humic

coals. Petrographically, impsonite often occurs as vein fillings or filling pores as impregnations.

It also exhibits a very high anisotropy (Robert, 1980). Like most bitumens impsonite also

contains high amounts of vanadium and nickel compared to humic materials, and is reported to

"devolatize at lower temperatures than coals of corresponding rank" (Hunt, 1979, p.400). Jacob

and Hiltmann (1985, p.8) recognize three species of impsonite based on random reflectance of

43


light (non-pol), they are: epi-impsonite Ro 0.8 to 2.0; meso-impsonite, Ro 2.0 to 3.5; and

kata-impsonite Ro 3.5 to 10. Impsonite has been found in Laflore and Murray Co. Oklahoma;

Scott Co., Arkansas (arkosite); Eureka Co., Nevada; Keweenaw Co., Michigan; Argentina

(General San Martin Mine); Turkey (harbolite); Peru, Brazil, and Western Australia. (Abraham,

1960, p.263-267, King,, 1963, p.3)

INGRAMITE

A pryobitumen that is found in the Soldier Summit locality of the Uinta basin. It occurs about

300 feet from the base of the Eocene Green River Fm, and is similar to the albertite that is

stratigraphically above it. (Bell and Hunt, 1963, p.339).

JAYET

A French term for jet (Tomkeieff, 1954, p.58).

JET

A hard, dense, bitumen-impregnated lignite that is usually found as isolated masses in shale.

Because it has been impregnated by bitumen, jet exhibits a low reflectance and strong

fluorescence. Also called Azabashe, it has been used to make jewelry and ornaments

(Tomkeieff, 1954, p.24,58; Stach and others, 1982, p.227)

KABAJTE

A variety of ozocerite found in meteorites. (Abraham, 1960, p. 136)

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KARPATITE

A yellow, prismatic hydrocarbon, associated with idrialite found at the Picacho Mercury mine,

San Benito Co. California. Possibly a sublimate. (Pemberton, 1983, p.343)

KERITE

A bitumen with properties between grahamite and impsonite. It is found at San Rafael, south of

Mendoza, Argentinia. Up to 38 % vanadium pentoxide has been found in it's ash. The terms

kerites and kerotenes have been used to designate those hydrocarbons insoluble in carbon

disulfide. (Abraham, 1960, p.252, 259)

KONLITE

A soft reddish brown to yellow native mineral wax found in a brown coal near Uznach

Switzerland (associated with scheererite) and in a peat bog near Redwitz Barvaria (associated

with fichtelite). It has a high melting point near 110 ° C. Konlite decomposes when distilled and

yields a soft material called pyroscheererite. (Dana, 1903, p. 1001)

KUNDAIT

A term used to describe a deposit of grahamite that occurs near Port Kunda on the Gulf of

Finland, Estonia (Abraham, 1960, p.236). It is distinguished by the brown color of it's powder

and it's high solubility in turpentine and chloroform (Tomkeieff, 1954, p.61).

LEYTEITE

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A commercial term used to market an unusual variety of brown asphalt similar to ozocerite but

more friable, produced on the island of Leyte, Philippines. (Abraham, 1960, p.152)

LBOLLITE

An asphaltic pyrobitumen thought to be albertite found at Calucala 14 miles north of the railroad

station Zenza do Itombe, Angola. (Abraham, 1960, p.263)

LIVERITE

See Wurtzilite.

MAGELLANITE

A term used to describe a glance pitch "thrown up from the sea from submarine deposits" on the

Magellanes coast, Territorio Magallanes, Chile. (Abraham, 1960, p.236)

MANJACK

A commercial term applied to glance pitch mined principally in the Conset district, Barbados

islands, West Indies. The term has also been used to market a variety of grahamite from Trinidad.

(Abraham, 1960, p.23)

METABITUMrrE

A hard insoluble, nonfusible substance with a low H/C and high (0.294) O/C ratio. Metabitumite

occurs as globules up to 5 mm in diameter in a Lower Carboniferous Limestone within 20 yards

46


of a basalt vent near the Speedwell mine, Castleton, Derbyshire England. The unusually high

O/C ratio of Metabitumite resulted from the carboxylation of a tar-like distillate due to C02

release from the limestone during the thermal event.(Mueller, 1972, p.828, Mueller, 1966, p.452)

MINERAL WAX


"A term applied to a species of bitumen, also to certain pyrogenous substances; of

variable color, viscous to solid consistency; having a characteristic lustre and

unctuous feel; comparatively non-volatile; composed principally of saturated

hydrocarbons, substantially free from oxygenated bodies; containing considerable

crystallizable paraffins; sometimes associated with mineral matter, the

non-mineral constituents being easily fusible and soluble in carbon disulfide,

yielding water insoluble sulfonation products. This definition is applied to crude

and refined native mineral waxes and also to pyrogenous waxes. Crude native

mineral waxes include ozokerite. Refined native mineral waxes include ceresine

(refined ozokerite) and montan wax (extracted from lignite or pyropissite by

means of solvents). Pyrogenous waxes include the solid paraffins separated from

non-asphaltic and semi-asphaltic petroleum, peat tar, lignite tar, and shale tar."

47


The term mineral wax is applied to both native and manufactured waxes because it is not

possible to differentiate the two. (Abraham, 1960, p.59)

MONT AN WAX

A term used to describe processed resins and waxes extracted from brown coal or pyropissite on

a commercial scale. The reserves of pyropissite have been largely exhausted. In contrast to the

paraffinic native mineral waxes, (ozocerite), montan wax is primarily an ester (alcohol wax).

(Wen and others, 1978, p.158; Stach, and others, 1982, p.119; Abraham, 1960, p.134-138)

NAPALITE

A brittle, yellow, waxy substance that breaks with a conchoidal fracture and softens when held in

the hand. It is found in the Phoenix Mercury mine, Napa Co., California. (Dana, 1903, p.1001)

NEFT-GIL

A chocolate brown native mineral wax, found on Cheleken Island in the Caspian Sea. Similar to

zietriskite, it contains about 13% resin, has a melting point of 75 °C and is largely insoluble.

(Dana, 1903, p.999)

NEPALITE

A light green resin that yields aromatic oils on distillation, thought to be a sublimate. Nepalite is

found near the Phoenix Mercury Mine, Napa Co. California. (Mueller, 1972, p.828)

48


NIGRITE

See Albertite.

NON-ASPHALTIC PYROBITUMEN


"A species of pyrobitumen, including dark-colored comparatively hard and non-volatile

solids; composed of hydrocarbons containing oxygenated bodies; sometimes associated

OLEFINyGIEmineral matter, the non-mineral constituents being infusible, and largely insoluble in

<, R carbon disulfide. This definition includes peat, lignite, cannel coal, bituminous coal,

anthracite coal, and the non-asphaltic pyrobituminous shales."

OZOCERITE (Ozokerite)

A native mineral wax, first found 1833 near Slanic in Moldavia close to a lignite seam.

Composed mainly of paraffin hydrocarbons, ozocerite is usually associated with high wax

petroleum, the softer varieties contain more petroleum. Usually fairly hard, with a fusing point

of 50 to 80 °F, it breaks with a conchoidal fracture, and typically is present as a vein filling.

When found impregnating associated country rock, it is known as "wax stone".

Galacian Ozocerite is found in the Drohobycz (Boryslaw, Wolanka and Truskawiec) and

Stanislau (Dwiniacz, Straunia, Wolotkow and Niebylow) districts of Poland. Some local

varieties and synonyms include ozokerit, fossil wax, miner fat, zietriszit (Moldau region),

nephtgil neftgil naphatil (all three occur near the Saspian sea). The ozocerite deposit in

Truskawiec is unusual in that it contains a comparatively high amount of sulfur, It is associated

49


with native sulfur, lead sulfide, gypsum, and petroleum. The largest deposit of Galacian

ozocerite is found near the town of Boryslaw, where over 1500 small mine shafts have been

sunk to exploit this resource. The ozocerite produced in this area is known under a variety of

names;

Marble Wax: hard, pale yellow with green to brown to black markings, and a fusing point of 85 to 100 °C.

Hardwax or Crackwax : dark granular fracture filling, with a fusing point of 75 to

90 °C.

Fibrous-wax orFibrewax: fibrous structure.

Bagga: dark, containing clay, with a low fusing point (40 to 60 °C).

Kindelbal or Kinderball: soft, with a low fusing point (30 to 50 °C), black color, contains petroleum and abundant mineral matter.

Blower Wax, Blister Wax or Matka: pale yellow, soft.

Lep: very rich in mineral matter. (This term is also locally applied to a variety of ozocerite found near Neftedag, Turkey.)

Some other varieties of Ozocerite include:

Hatchettite (Scotland and Wales) Scheerrite (Switzerland) Borislavite (Borislavisk USSR) *Pietrickite (correct spelling of Zietriskite) *Evenkite (Lower Tungska, Siberia) *Moldovite (high grade marble wax, Moldavia, Rumania) *Aladzha (lep or wax stone, near the Caspian sea) (*Tomkeieff 1954, p.76, 46, 67, 21)

Ozocerite found in the Eocene (upper Wasatch and basal Green river) sediments of Utah is

sometimes called "Utah wax" to distinguish it from galacian ozocerite (Austria). (Wells, 1958,

p.360) The ozocerite occurrence in Wasatch and Utah counties, the Uinta Basin,(Bell and Hunt,

50


1963).occurs as narrow veins in a brecciated zone, associated with fibrous gypsum and typically

contains a large amount of mineral matter. (Ladoo and Myers, 1951, p.63, Dana, 1903, p.998)

The Utah ozocerite was derived from the lacustrine upper Wasatch group sediments that are rich

with herbaceous and woody organic matter, high in wax. These sediments have been buried to

depths of 3,000 m and more sufficient to produce a waxy crude produced in the nearby Duchesne

oil field. (Hunt, 1979, p.398)

Ozocerite has also been reported as a vein filling a Lower Carboniferous black shale near

Derbyshire England. (Mueller, 1972, p.828) Ozocerite also occurs in Rumania (near Slanik),

USSR (many occurrences), Isle of Cheleken in the Caspian Sea, (Neft-gil); Philippines (Leyete

Island); Jordan; Wales, (hatchettite); Switzerland,(scheererite); and near the Thrall oil field,

Texas. (Abraham, 1960, p.47 ,128-134, Hunt, 1979, p.401)

PARAFFIN DIRT

A yellow elastic material similar to art gum in color. It is associated with gas seeps in Louisiana,

Texas and along the Gulf of Mexico. Containing almost no hydrocarbons paraffin dirt is rich in

polysaccharides thought to be the metabolic by-product of methane thru butane consuming

bacteria. (Hunt, 1979, p.410)

PARIANTTE

A term used to describe refined Trinidad asphalt subjected to heat (160 °C) which drives off the

water and a small amount of volatile matter (Abraham, 1960, p. 175).

51


PIAUZITE

A little altered resin found near a porphyry intrusion in a lignite near Trifail Austria. Piauzite is

similar to the asphaltites in chemical composition. (Mueller, 1972, p.827)

PIETRICKITE

The correct spelling of zietrisikite, a variety of ozocerite found near mount Pietricica, Moldavia

(Tomkeieff, 1954, p.76).

PITCH COAL

An unusual hard, brittle asphalt occurring in beds of coal in the Coos Bay coal field, Coos Co.,

Oregon. (Abraham, 1960, p. 152)

PENDLETONITE

A sublimate consisting of pale yellow monoclinic crystals similar to the hydrocarbon coronene.

Pendletonite is found in a small mercury deposit near the New Idria Mine, San Bonito Co.,

California.(Mueller, 1972, p.828)

PLUMBAGO

An old term used to describe graphite or graphitic rocks (Tomkeieff, 1954, p.76).

PYROBITUMEN


52

November 13, 1998 Bitumen Glossary BITJESS2.WPD

" A generic term, applied to native substances of dark color; comparatively hard

and non-volatile composed of hydrocarbons which may or may not contain

oxygenated bodies, sometimes associated with mineral matter the non-mineral

constituents being infusible and relatively insoluble in carbon disulfide. This

definition includes the asphaltic pyrobitumens (elaterite, wurtzilite, albertite and

impsonite) and also the non-asphaltic bitumens (peat, lignite, bituminous coal, and

anthracite coal) and their respective shales."

Using a classification system modified from Abraham's, Hunt (1979, p.403) characterized

pyrobitumen as allochthonous, relatively insoluble bitumens that are infusible. Hunt's

classification avoids the circumstance where certain boghead sapropels are classified as

pyrobitumens such as albertite. Recent usage of the term pyrobitumen, almost always refers to

the insoluble asphaltic pyrobitumens and excludes the sedimented (autochthonous) non-asphaltic

bitumen such as peat, coal, and boghead. Hunt recognizes three groups of pyrobitumens; 1)

Bitumen polymers, (elaterite and wurtzilite) 2) Metamorphosed bitumens, (impsonite and

anthraxolite) and 3) indurated asphalts, (ingramite and albertite). The bitumen polymers (1) form

from unsaturated unstable organic matter. These unstable olifins polymerize and lose their

double bonds. They may often be distinguished by high sulfur contents. In addition, their

unusual elastic properties may be explained as the result of a "natural vulcanization" of resin by

elemental sulfur.

PYRORETINE

A brown, brittle resin from which waxes may be extracted. Found in crevices in a lignite that

was intruded by a basaltic dike near Ausig Czechoslovakia. (Mueller, 1972, p.827)

53


QUISQUEITE

A black, lustrous, brittle bitumen found in the Quisque district of Peru. It contains high amounts

of sulfur, little hydrogen, and up to 60 % vanadium pentoxide in it's ash. (Tomkeieff, 1954,

P-78)

RAPHAELITE (Rafaelite)

An asphaltite that has been mined in the Neuquen Province of Argentina on the eastern slopes of

the Andes. The deposit is present as vein fillings (the Aucu-Mahuida veins) located 120 miles

north of the Contra Almirante Cordero station on the Buenos Aires-Great Southern Railway. It

has been classified as glance pitch by Abraham (1960, p.234). It was also reported to have

properties similar to grahamite, gilsonite and impsonite. (Ladoo and Myers, 1951, p.57)

RESERVOIR BITUMENS

A genetic classification term that has been used to describe native bitumens formed from

reservoired oil. Reservoir bitumens are found in reservoir porosity and thus are distinguished by

their mode of occurrence. Other epigenetic bitumens (ozocerite, elaterite, wurtzilite, albertite,

impsonite) are found in near source rocks and have experienced "nearly insitu formation and very

limited migration" (Rogers and others 1974, p.1810).

Rogers and others (1974, p.1819) proposed the definition for reservoir bitumens: "any insoluble

(in carbon disulfide) fraction of a solid hydrocarbon with greater than 6% sulfur should be

considered to be oil-derived i.e., a true reservoir bitumen". The sulfur is thought to cross link

soluble asphaltene-like precursors to yield a sulfur enriched, insoluble reservoir bitumen.

54


Using the data from Rogers and others (1974), Hunt, (1978, p.302) showed that reservoir

bitumens may be differentiated from coals by higher atomic (N+S)/0 ratios and from other

bitumens (except anthraxolite and impsonite) by lower atomic H/C ratios It is not clear if Hunt

considered just organic sulfur or total sulfur for his calculations.

SCHARIZITE (Scharizerite)

A black colloidal substance found in the Drachen-cave, Mixnitz, Steirermark Austria. A high

nitrogen content (2-33%) and traces of phosphorous suggest a faunal origin. (Mueller, 1972,

p.829)

SCHEERRITE

A mineral wax first discovered in a lignite at Uznach, (near St. Gallen) Switzerland by Captain

Scheerer in 1823. It occurs as pale monoclinic crystals, ranging in color from white, yellow, gray

green, and pale red, with a fusing point of 110 to 115 °F. Fichtelite and konlite are found in the

same seam. (Abraham, 1960, p.47, 134)

SCHERERITE

A camphor-like substance, similar to asphaltite in elemental composition, that is found near

basaltic dikes which cut a lignite in the Wilhemszeche Mine near Bach Village, Germany.

(Mueller, 1972, p.828)

SHUNGITE

55


A highly carbonized substance (~ 98% C), with low H/C and "high" O/C ratios. Shungite forms

major deposits where Paleozoic shales have been been cut by intrusions near Shunga, Karelia

USSR. The unusually high O/C ratio of shungite suggests that it might have been carboxylated

in a manner similar to metabituminite. (Mueller, 1972, p.828, Mueller, 1966, p.458, Tomkeieff

1954, p.85) Kaluzhskii, and others., (1981) state that shungites are a group of precambrian rocks

that contain highly carbonized hydrocarbons. Firsova and Yakimenko (1985) give a

comprehensive review of the term shungite and present some new data regarding the optical

characteristics of shungite. Five types of shungite rock have been recognized based on carbon

content.

Shungite PERCENT CARBON Variety (ref. 1) (ref. 2)

Shungite I 75-100 98-99 (the mineral proper, non-stratified) Shungite H 35-75 > 60 Shungite m 20-35 20 - 60 Shungite IV 10-20 5-20 Shungite V < 10 < 5

reference 1; Firsova and Yakimenko, 1985. reference 2; Kaluzhskii and others., 1981.

The reflectance values reported by Firsova and Yakimenko for a few varieties of shungite suggest

that this material may also be named as a variety of impsonite or similarly, anthraxolite.

TABBYTTE

56


A pure solid asphalt found in veins along Tabby Canyon, (a branch of the Ducheshe river), Uinta

basin, Utah. The occurrence is located between the gilsonite and wurtzilite areas. The veins

occur in lacustrine beds (presumed to be the organic source) near the top of the Eocene Green

River Fm. (Bell and Hunt, 1963, p.345, Abraham, 1960, p. 140)

TfflOELATERITE

A term used to describe an olefinic differentiate that contained 2.94% S. Essentially a naturally

vulcanized asphalt. (Mueller, 1972, p.829)

THUCHOLITE

Thought to have an abiogenic origin, thucholites are black 'bituminous' substances associated

with pegmatite veins and contain high amounts of thorium and uranium. (Mueller, 1972, p.825,

King, and others, 1963, p.3; Tomkeieff, 1954, p.91)

UINTArTE

Later named gilsonite, it was first described by W. Blake in 1885. (see Gilsonite) (Abraham,

1960, p.50)

URPETHTTE

A sticky mineral wax associated with coals and sandstones in the Urpeth colliery (near Slanik?).

Readily soluble in cold ether, it comprises about 80% of the crude wax present in cavities near a

fault that cuts the coal measures. It melts at a low temperature (39 °C). (Dana, 1903, p.999)

57


VELIKHOVITE

A pyrobitumen found in the Guberlin Mnts., near Velikhovka (S. Urals, USSR). It is thought to

be a weathering product of albertite and is similar to grahamite. (Tomkeieff, 1954, p.94).

WAX STONE

Country rock impregnated with ozocerite associated with veins of ozocerite. (See Ozocerite)

WURTZILITE

A asphaltic pyrobitumen (insoluble in carbon disulfide), wurtzilite occurs in just one locality as

vein fillings in a lacustrine facies of the Eocene, Uinta Fm. Discovered in 1889, the wurtzilite

deposit is restricted to a 50 foot stratigraphic interval on the western side of the Uinta basin,

Utah. The wurtzilite veins outcrop in a radial pattern in Avintaquin canyon for about one mile

and are up to two feet thick. Although extensively mined, the deposit has reserves of less than

10,000 tons. (Wells, 1958, p.360) The pliable nature of wurtzilite is no doubt responsible for the

(incorrect) use of the term "elaterite" to market this material.(this elastic property may reflect a

natural vulcanization. Hunt, 1979, p.403, suggests that wurtzilite consists of multiple napthene

rings cross linked by sulfur). The it is the end member of a series: elaterite -thioelaterite

-wurtzilite, which is analogous to the artificial series: raw rubber-vulcanized rubber-ebonite. It

has also been marketed under the names aegerite and aeonite. When heated under pressure to

500 - 580 °F, it is depolymerized and becomes soft, soluble and fusible. The product is marketed

under the name "kapak". (Ladoo and Myers, 1951, p.57)

58


Near the wurtzilite deposit a semi-plastic bitumen named liverite seeps from the same strata.

This bitumen has similar chemical properties as the wurtzilite and is thought to be a fluid phase

of it. The liverite veins terminate directly in the presumed source beds. (Bell and Hunt 1963,

p.346, Abraham, 1960, p.50, 257)

ZETRISKITE

A variety of ozocerite found near Zietriska Moldavia (Galacia). It is distinguished by its

insolubility in ether, and high melting point (90 °C). Also called "brown ozocerite" it is dark in

color, foliated with a conchoidal fracture, pearly luster, and a hardness similar to beeswax (Dana,

1903, p.999). Tomkeieff (1954, p.76), states that the correct spelling should be "pietricikite" after

Mount Pietricica (not Zietrisica), Moldavia.

59

Documents

BIT ESS2.WPD DRAFT 19 November 1998 Jeff Quickrepository.icse.utah.edu/dspace/bitstream/123456789/5344...Native bitumens, especially those in developed commercial deposits, are often