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CHAPTER-5 BIRDS
AND BIRDS’ BEHAVIOUR
54
CHAPTER-5
BIRDS AND BIRDS’ BEHAVIOR
(1) Migration and Time Schedule of Migratory Waterbirds
Introduction
Migration phenology in long-distance avian migrant is assumed to be
controlled by endogenous rhythms (Berhold, 1996). In the Northern Hemisphere,
spring temperatures have increased during the past decades affecting, among others,
species physiology, breeding ranges and phenology. Timing of spring migration can
be affected by environmental conditions in two ways. The first occurs prior to
departure from wintering areas where ecological conditions can affect individual’s
physiology, e.g. body condition (Ottosson et al., 2005). Migratory waterfowl spend
around eight months in a year in their wintering grounds. Knowledge of the arrival,
departure of waterfowl overwintering, use pattern and sex ratio of the population is a
prerequisite for planning conservation strategy, especially for wintering grounds.
Information on the arrival and departure of waterfowl overwintering in India is scanty
(Mathew, 1971, Shah et al., 1983, Ambedkar and Daniel, 1990).India covered two
flyways of Migration pathways, Central Asian Flyway and East Asian Flyway. But
study area is related to the Central Asian Flyway only.
Central Asian Flyway and Migratory Birds
The Central Asian Flyway (Map-2) covers the areas used by species of
birds with the main migratory routes through Central Asia. The flyway area extends
through 21 countries from the Arctic Ocean in the North to the Indian Ocean in the
South. It overlaps with both the African-Eurasian Flyways in the West and East
Asian-Australasian Flyways in the East. This intra-continental flyway includes many
important wetlands, which are actively and often unsustainably exploited by man. The
region holds crucially important populations of some water bird species. Including a
number of those globally threatened such as Grus leucogeranus, Anser erythropus,
Marmaronetta angustrirostris, Aythya nyyoca, Oxyura leucocephala and others.
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Map-2--Central and South Asian Flyway of Migratory Birds
Many countries along this flyway have developing countries with
inadequate allocation of resources for research and conservation (Wetlands
International 2004). Migratory birds are found during October-March in large number
from countries of Middle, Central and Southern Asia. Countries of primary
importance for wintering are India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Iran in South Asian
Flyway of migration. The population of migratory birds has undergone significant and
rapid decline in the second half of the 20th century, and is considered ongoing. Many
species are qualifying for special attention in the list of Globally Threatened Bird
Species and in the IUCN Red Data List.
There is a need to create special framework for conservation with
measurable objectives and management options for migratory birds and their habitats.
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Implementation of conservation Action Plan requires effective International co-
operation for all countries.
The post-monsoon has abundance of insect life and vegetative shelter
provided by seasonal inundations afford rich feeding conditions which attract a host
of Palearctic winter visitors to the Indian subcontinent, not only from Central Asia,
but also from Western Europe and Eastern Siberia. Most of the subcontinent’s winter
visitors come through Pakistan. An analysis based upon the species composition of
India’s bird fauna indicates extend of these migratory patterns. Some species are
regular winter visitors, which breed extra-limitedly and mainly in Trans Himalayan
northern regions of Indian sub-continent.
The phenomenon of migration is by no means an attribute of a
particular species, applying to all its population. There are many species occurring in
India, part of whose population appears to be sedentary, as a part of extra-limital in
breeding and present as long distance migrants, and part locally migratory birds. It is
necessary to stress that the actual migratory movements of many bird species in India
are still hardly known or understood, particularly in those species relying upon crypsis
of plumage for daytime concealment, which normally cannot be identified unless
captured. Bird’s migration is full of paradoxes and the move information which
scientific experiments elucidate the more unanswered questions arises. It is clear that
birds do not follow rigidly defined paths and may travel over a very broad front
extending in some cases to hundreds of kilometers. The vary incompleteness of this
account indicates that a vast amount of information is still to be learned and surely
many surprising discoveries will be made when opportunities finally arise for detailed
studies of bird migration (Roberts, 1991).
Most of waterbird species are using wetlands for food, shelter, and (or)
breeding. Thus, widespread draining and altering of wetlands affects the waterbirds
population. Because most of these wetlands were drainaged and altered in last 50
years, before scientific estimation of bird population began, most estimates of
population declines are inferred. For most wetland dependent birds, habitat loss in
breeding areas translates directly into population losses .When wetlands are
destroyed, some birds may moves to other less suitable habitats, but reproduction
tends to be lower and mortality tends to be higher. Hence, the birds that visit or breed
in these poorer quality habitats will not contribute to a sustainable population through
the years (Pullium and Danielson, 1991).
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Migration is a natural process, whereby different birds fly over
distances of hundreds to thousands of kilometers in order to find the best ecological
conditions and habitats for feeding, breeding and raising their young ones. Migratory
birds therefore rarely fly non-stop to their destination but interrupt their flight
frequently to rest and feed or to sit out a spell of bad weather. Generally migratory
birds arrive, rest and depart in flock. Bird migration is the regular seasonal journeys
undertaken by many species of birds. Bird’s movement includes their response to
changes in food availability, habitat or weather. These movements are usually
irregular or in only one direction and are termed variously as nomadism, invasions or
irruptions. Migration is marked by its annual seasonality (Peter Berthold et al., 2001).
The state of Gujarat in western India is important for resident, wintering and passage
migrant waders (Summers et al.1987). As several studies have shown, there is both a
high species-diversities as well as a great abundance of waders in this region (AWC
report 1997).
Many waterbirds are migrating long distances. The most common
pattern involves flying north to breed in the temperate or Arctic summer and returning
to wintering groups in warmer regions to the south (Alerstam et al., 2003). The longer
days of the Northern summer provides greater opportunities for breeding birds to feed
their Young one. Some species are passage migrant for example; European Roller is a
passage migrant in north western India (Blantford, 1895; Grimmet et al.. 2000),
Whistler was mentioned that this species was plenty full during their fall migration in
the plains of north western region of India. They passes through Rajasthan, north and
north-west Gujarat during mid-August to September (Ali and Ripley, 2001).In some
species the population at higher latitudes tend to be migratory and will often past
winter at lower latitude, where as other population may be sedentary, with suitable
wintering habitats already occupies, termes as “leap-frog migration” (Boland, 1990).
The central Asian Flyway covers the areas used by species of
waterbirds with the main migratory route through central Asia. The flyway area
extends through 21 countries from the Arctic Ocean in south. Gujarat falls in central
flyway for migratory birds, which spans Iran-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India (Central
Asian Flyway Action Plan, 2005). The intra-continental flyway includes many
important wetlands, which are actively and often unsustainably exploited by human.
The Wetlands of Kheda district holds crucially important population of
some waterbird species, including a number of those globally threatened such as
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Dalmatian Pelican, Sarus Crane, Indian Skimmer (IBA, India 2005). The state is
strategically located between two avian migratory routes, one from central and North-
Asia to East-Africa and another from Middle East and Europe to peninsular India.
This has attributed to seasonal assemblage of the bird species in some wetlands
(Jathar and Hathi, 2009). This makes Gujarat a strategic bottleneck for migratory
birds. Compassionate attitude and non-violent culture of Gujarat are responsible for
the human wild-life coexistence.
Thus ‘Migration Ecology’ becomes a very interesting aspect to
Ornithologist, Ecologist and many Naturalists. Here some work is done for
consecutive two years to record migratory species, their time schedule and stay at
study area etc.
Methodology
Counts were carried out weekly. Arrival and departure time of local
migratory and winter migratory birds were noted. The day taken when individual of a
species was sighted for the first time, was consider as the arrival date of the particular
species (Oring and Lank 1982). Similarly the last date when an individual of a species
was sighted in a particular year was considered its departure date. Reappearance of
less than 10 individuals of a departed bird species was not taken into account. Counts
were done half an hour after sun-rise and half an hour prior to sunset.
Results and Discussion
Seasonal fluctuations in waterbird population through migration
Waterbirds population remains highly fluctuated throughout year
(Table-4.7). Monthly mean population increases after September and reach high peak
in December and February-March. Lowest peak was observed during May to
September. Highly fluctuation in aquatic bird was observed due to their winter
migratory pattern.
Aquatic resident migratory bird population remained high peak in
December and then they were gradually decline. Monthly mean population of resident
migrant bird increasing gradually after September.
Monthly mean population of aquatic migrant birds were marked with
two peaks of population, December and March with high peak and May to August
with absentee. Aquatic winter migrant birds arrives in flocks with 3 or 2 batches was
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the cause for two peak of population and they were completely left this area up to end
of the April.
It was pointed out that the dry season as being a time of limited food
and higher stress for bird community. Food limitation is thought to be the main driver
of migration in most of bird’s community (Alerstam et al., 2003).
Arrival and Departure Time
Arrival Time
Aquatic migratory birds arrived in September to October. Greater
White fronted Goose first time located in India in November 2008 (Jethwa 2009).
Huge flocks of waders arrive in Late September (Summer et al., 1987). Local people
say that waders arrive here in night and settle in their paddy fields. They stay here
only for a day or two and suddenly disappear. Later, huge flocks of teals, Shoveler,
pintail and Pochard arrive here followed by flocks of common Crane (Grus grus). By
the end of December, Greylag Geese (Anser anser) and other waterbird species arrive
here. The Demoiselle Cranes (Grus virgo) and common Cranes (Grus grus) arrive in
mid late August. Bakrol Lake (Mongolia) to India along the routes followed by the
cranes was 2200 km to 2800 km; from there they complete their migration to India in
seven days without sustainable rest (Yutaka et al., 2000).
The mid-September and early October is the time for arrival of
thousands of migratory birds to Gujarat. Aquatic migratory birds stay in Wetlands of
Kheda district from October to first fortnight of April. The research work started from
2010 so I have a data of migratory birds. The migratory waterfowl started arriving in
wetlands of Kheda district in middle late of September, approximately in three or four
batches (Table 5.1). Species that arrived in September, spent some days around
Wetland, using the shallow rain fed pools and fields in the year of normal rainfall.
Wetlands of Kheda district have varies water depth from different
sites. In the cases of aquatic partial migrant species or resident migrant species arrives
during late monsoon. After monsoon, emergent vegetation, harvesting season of rice,
decreased water level, abundant larvae and favorable climate conditions attract all
migratory birds, hence major part of migratory birds arrived in this month. Though
the importance of endogenous control and photoperiodic time, works as a trigger of
migratory restlessness is beyond doubt (Berthold, 1996; Gwinner, 1996), there is a
growing number of studies pointing at the importance of inter-annual variation in
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winter climate as a predictor of arrival time in the summer quarters (Cotton 2003,
Saino et al., 2004, 2007, Marra et al., 2005, Gordo, 2007). Hence, the timing of
migration may be quite flexible even in long distance migratory birds.
Departure Time
Mostly aquatic migratory birds left Wetlands of Kheda district in
second fortnight of March, while resident migratory birds left in second fortnight of
May. The return migration of migratory species started in mid-March and most of
them left Wetlands of Kheda district by the end of April. The first species to leave
Wetlands of Kheda district in 2010 was common Pochard and in 2011 was common
Shelduck. The Greylag Goose and Flamingo were the last one to leave and were seen
till the end of the April or early May (Table-5.1). The Ducks and Geese were
departing at the late April to first week of May. Increasing temperature, decreasing
water level, decreasing arthropod larvae, leaves foliation are main causes for the
departure of migratory birds. Weather strongly influences timing and intensity of
migration (Pettingill, 1985, Kerlinger, 1995).
The departure date can be affected by winter climate as its effects
habitat quality and thus, the time needed to prepare for migration (Marraet al., 1998;
Studds and Marra, 2007).
Summary
Migration is a unique and regular process in the life of birds. Migratory
birds are found during October-March in large range. The post monsoon abundance of
insect life and vegetative shelter provided by seasonal inundations afford rich feeding
conditions which attract them to Wetlands of Kheda district. The winter migration of
waterbirds starts with the onset of winter and .suddenly increase in number of species
and population counts was observed during November to February, with a maximum
individual also. Back migration starts during March with a gradual decrease in
number of birds and their species. Climate change affects the migratory patterns of
waterbirds. For example Greater White-fronted Goose, which normally is not a winter
migrant species for our country but it was first time located in Gujarat, India (Jethwa
2009). (Table-5.1)
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Table-5.1 Arrival and Departure time of waterbirds at WKD- 2010-11 and 2011-12.
Waterbird’s Species
Status
Arrival Departure
2010-11 1011-12 2010-11 2011-12
Glossy Ibis RM Oct.12 Oct.25 May 18 May 30
Greater Flamingo M Oct.5 Sept. 3 May 27 May 31
Eurasian Curlew M Oct.6 Oct.11 May 9 May 12
Greylag Goose M Dec 5 Dec.10 May 28 May 29
Ruddy Shelduck M Oct.6 Sept.10 May 15 May 20
Common Shelduck M Oct.7 Oct.31 May 12 May 14
Northern Pintail M Oct.10 Sept.7 Mar.20 Mar.25
Common Teal M Oct.20 Sept.19 Mar.22 Mar.23
Bar-headed Goose M Oct.10 Nov.10 Mar.15 Mar.20
Mallard M Oct.20 Sept.11 Apr.20 Apr.22
Gadwall M Oct.27 Aug.15 Mar.22 Mar.26
Eurasian Wigeon M Oct.27 Aug.28 Mar.30 Mar.28
Garganey M Oct.20 Aug/25 Mar.25 Mar.29
Northern Shoveler M Oct.8 Sept.9 Mar.22 Mar.26
Great White Pelican M Oct.6 Oct.20 Mar.25 Marc.29
Pied Avocet RM Oct.16 Sept.22 Mar.29 Mar.28
Demoiselle Crane M Oct.25 Sept.10 Mar.27 Mar.30
Common Crane M Oct.15 Sept.10 May 20 May 22
Common Moorhen RM Sept.25 Sept.29 Apr.20 Apr.28
Common Sandpiper M Oct.25 Aug.26 Apr.14 Apr.23
Green Sandpiper M Oct.26 Oct.28 Apr.30 Apr.28
Little ringed Plover M Oct.25 Sept.20 Mar.23 Mar.21
Common Redshank M Oct.5 Oct.31 May 15 May 12
River Tern M Oct.20 Oct.22 Apr.26 Apr.30
White Wagtail M Sept.20 Oct.30 May 19 May 25
*Total 25 waterbirds species were observed during study period.
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(2) Feeding Habits of Water Birds
Feeding is important necessity for all organisms. By this process they
get food for their biological activities of body system. Feeding habits of birds were
assessed on the basis of food items preferences, as recorded by Roberts (1991,
1992).Four different groups of birds preferring food items were recorded, depending
of the food habits, each bird species was placed in their respective group.
Feeding Category and Food pyramid
For a species preferring more than two groups of food items, due
weightage was given to each type and their percentage was divided (Kotenagle and
Ghosh, 1997; Mukharjee, A.1971). Four basic categories were recognized ie
Carnivorous, Insectivorous, Omnivorous and Herbivorous. Insectivorous were the
ones who were pure insect eaters and therefore have been classified as a separate
category (Beachly et al., 1995).
Table-5.2 Feeding categories of waterbirds.
Graph-4 Food Pyramid of feeding categories shows deferent tropical levels
Feeding Category No. of Species Percentage of Species
Herbivorous 34 40%
Omnivorous 30 35%
Insectivorous 15 17%
Carnivorous 07 8%
Total 86 100%
08%
Carnivorous
17%
Insectivorous
35%
Omnivorous
40%
Herbivorous
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Based on the above data, a food pyramid is showing different tropical
levels within the ecosystem of Wetlands of Kheda district were developed.
The result shows that majority of the waterbirds in study area were
Herbivorous (40%) followed by Omnivorous (35%) preferring micro planktons,
emergent vegetation, plants, grasses, seeds, roots in their food. These were followed
by pure Insectivorous (17%) which eat insects, larvae worm etc. Carnivorous lying at
the top of the tropical pyramid, were in good number, 08% of the total recorded
species.
Insects, planktons (phytoplankton, zooplankton) and fishes were an
important parts of water bird’s food material. Through some birds were strictly
Herbivorous in habit, they also prefer animal food which is vital and energetic for
their migration, breeding and egg laying.
(3) Breeding Biology of Selected Waterbirds Species
Introduction
Any healthy ecosystem depends on its fertile biodiversity. The progeny
and population are maintained in a habitat only when it breeds. Breeding is the most
important task for a bird undertake in its life. It is not possible that all the different
species habituating at one place to do breed and it is also not possible that all the
species do not breed. If it breeds, it also happens that the fledging success does not
succeed 100 percent. For example, Columbia livia breeds throughout the year except
one or two weeks of July, though it’s nesting success is 32.93% only (Patel, 1986).
For breeding, birds need cover in which to hide the nest, nest building materials, a
plentiful supply of food for young ones and lastly they need long day light hours in
which to search for the food materials.
At the global level, ornithologist studied breeding ecology of terrestrial
and wetlands birds in different regions. Brown and Britton (1980) worked on breeding
season of east African birds. Same type of research work was done by Gatson (1981)
on north Indian deciduous woodland birds. In Gujarat, some work has been carried
out on breeding ecology by Mathew and Naik (1986) on Passer domesticus, Patel
(1986) on Columbia livia and Nail and Razack (1967) on House swift Apus affinis.
Balen (1973) worked on Parus major, Immelmann (1971) on ecological aspects of
periodic reproduction, Jones (1972) on food as proximate factors regulating the
breeding season. Particularly few works in urban area of north Gujarat has carried out
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by different researchers at various time related to breeding biology for selected bird
species, Acharya (2003), Vyas (2005) and Parmar (2012).
Methodology
Fieldwork was carried out from Jan 2010 to Dec, 2012 as a part of
wide study on biodiversity and ecology of 86 waterbird species. During this study,
breeding patterns and performance of 11 species of waterbirds (Cattle Egret, Red-
Wattled Lapwing, Yellow-Wattled Lapwing, Sarus Crane, Black Winged Stilt, Pond
Heron, Painted Stork, White Ibis, Black Ibis, White-breasted Water-hen and Eurasian
Thicknee) were selected to study with their individual’s entire nesting cycle.
The Wetlands of Kheda district falls in semi-arid zone and contains
two types of habitat, the aim was to study effects of climate and habitat on breeding
performance on aquatic bird species. Breeding activities and checking of nest contents
were observed directly and using a 22 X 50 Nikon binoculars. Weekly 12 or 15 hours
were spent for study purpose. In order to determine the nest lodging sites, all 11
waterbird species were visually examined with the help of binoculars. In order to
study nest site selection, pattern of nesting, nest material used, nesting height, nest
construction period, clutch size, egg (laying period, color, size, incubation period,
hatching period, mortality, hatching failure, hatching success), nesting period, nesting
mortality, fledging success and nesting success were studied for two years. All nests
were noted on different heights and different canopies of various trees. When bird
started to build nest, it was given a number. This number was maintained till the end
of its nesting cycle, and it was considered as a nest code. During visits, it was
intensively observed and information was noted in nest wise sheets. After nesting and
egg laying observations of nest were difficult so sometimes, I have to climbing on
trees or in a case of tall and risky heighten nesting, set the mirror on long pole and
observed nest activities. Whenever possible, nest content was checked by using
binocular instead of physical check-up. This technique was not appropriate until eggs
hatched. Egg’s shape Index was measured by Vernier calipers.
Breeding study is used to access output by bird in a nature and to
evaluate nesting habit and habitat. Here, total 72 nests of selected 11waterbird species
were kept under observation during study period. All stages of a breeding cycle of
each bird where noted at regular interval.
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Results and Discussion
Nesting Season
The starting of a first clutch of eggs is referred to as breeding and the
period during which fresh clutches are usually started in a population, is referred to as
a breeding season. The avian breeding season present a wide spectrum ranging from
continuous to restricted span.
The span of breeding period is mentioned in Table-5.3. According to
that all selected species were took average four month for breeding. Red wattled
Lapwing breeds throughout the year except September to February. Black-winged
Stilt took minimum period for breeding exercise. View of the different authority
regarding to breeding season are listed in Table-5.3, which shows that there are little
variation in breeding season in different parts of the country. It was seen that there
was not any drastic change in their breeding strategy. In Wetlands of Kheda District
all avifaunal diversity mostly breeds during May to September because nesting
materials and food are easily available. The peak nesting was during June and July.
A previous study found water depth to be an important determinant of
nest predation rates in wetland (Stewart 1999). In case of waterfowl population the
depth level of water is more important for bird nesting. At each locality the breeding
conditions vary seasonally and annually, as also the survival rates of juveniles and
adults. Breeding season in birds is controlled by several environmental factors such as
temperature, rainfall, relative humidity and photoperiod, availability of food,
vegetation and predators. Food availability is one of the most important factors to
determine the breeding season of birds as reported by Lack (1950) and Thomson
(1950).
Interesting behaviors in individual species were also noted in Sarus
Crane, dancing has been observed during both winter and during the breeding season.
Indian Pond Herons, Cattle Egret, Black-headed Ibis species show color change in
their body parts or undergo bare part color changes during breeding season. This
behavior is associated with courtship, relief of tension and to strengthen pair bonds.
Although many bird species have different bare part coloration during breeding as
compared to non-breeding season, within breeding season color changes are rarely
described (Rodgers, 1980; Burley et al., 1992).
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Nesting Pattern
Observations were taken from 72 nests of 11waterbird species during
study period. Out of it 44 nests were recorded on various plants (see Table 5.4) at
pond’s surrounding, 25 nests were recorded at wetland edge or grassland area and 03
nests were in a skirt area of a pond where cropping takes place (Table-5.4). Mostly
heronries bird species prefer to build nests on vegetation. They prefer mainly different
type of trees, bushy or thorny shrub or tree. In case vegetation is not favorable, they
built a nest on building, trees, shrubs, grounds etc. Eurasian white Ibis mainly builds
vegetation like Acacia sp., Prosopis cineraria (Khijado) and Black Ibis built their nest
on Neem plant (Plate-5) or Eucalyptus. Sometime Red-wattled Lapwing prefers to
build its nest terrace of the building. Generally aquatic or waders bird species prefer
to build a nest near water body. Red-wattled Lapwing, Yellow-wattled Lapwing,
Eurasian Thick-knee, and Black-winged Stilt prefer to build their nests on ground.
Sarus Crane selects rice field. Pond Heron and Cattle Egret prefers Acacia sp. (Plate-
5) whereas Black-headed Ibis prefers Acacia sp and Azrdirachta indica.
Specialization in placement of the nest is not uncommon for tropical
birds. Ricklefs (1969) states: “In tropics, numerous species construct domed or
pensile nest, choose special localities, as over water, and have evolved nesting
relationship with termites and wasps. Thus, nest construction and placement of some
species is more specialized than in temperate regions.”
Cattle Egrets built their nests near water body, mostly in and outside
canopy of Acacia sp. at the range of 4.5-6.5m high. A nest site selection is a joint
effort by both male and female in Pond Heron. Courtship takes place for 10-12 second
only, thereafter female remains in the vicinity of the nest site and male flies off to
collect nest materials. Pond Herons have solitary as well as colonial nest. Nests were
seen on Acacia sp. Its height range was 6.5-7.5m on vertical branches, both inside and
at periphery of the tree crown.
Nest
Black-headed Ibis preferred high canopy of tall trees (7.8-10m) like
Eucalyptus Sp (Nilgiri), Azrdirachta indica (Neem), Acacia nilotica (Dahsi Baval).
Generally observed that terrestrial bird build their nests with 0.5 – 4.2m heights and in
aquatic birds ground to 10m heights (Table-5.5) which is variable.
67
Sarus Crane mostly preferred dominated marshes; ponds and fallow
lands and also use cultivated lands that have wet crops like rice paddies alongside a
well-developed irrigation system (Gopisunder et al., 2000). Breeding pairs used larger
wetlands where available but were typically scattered across the landscape, nesting in
fields, along canals and irrigation ditches, beside village ponds and in sallow marshes.
Red-wattled Lapwings and Black-winged stilts were preferred ground level nearby
water or on waterbed edge. Some species like Sarus Crane, Herons were observed re-
nesting but Black Ibis observed reusing same nest using twice or thrice for same
season or for next breeding season (Plate-5).
Some supportive observations in past are quoted here. Some bird’s
breeds besides open cultivations and in shrub jungles (Mathew, 1972) and isolated
trees but they avoid heavy forest and prefer open cultivation (Whistler, 1928).Baya
Weaver Birds prefer to build nest on top of a branch usually on thorny tree i.e. Acacia
species (Joshi et al., 2004). Nest site selection is important parameter for breeding.
The majority of birds, however, built a new nest during the same and later breeding
season. During nesting, birds are instinctively impelled to choose trees, shrub, herbs
or other sites that offer them some security from disturbance and predators. For
nesting purpose, some birds prefer grassy area interspersed with trees. The patches of
grass provide arthropods and worms in rich amount, which is serving as a best food
for juvenile (Shukkkur and Joseph, 1975).Some birds were preferred colonial nesting.
Different species of herons are varying in their habitat preferences, diet and behavior
which are fundamental requirements for nesting (Hafner, 2000).
Selection of nest site is important task in solitary as well as colonial
breeders. Solitary breeders have different strategies for avoiding risk of predation and
thus the selection of safe nesting site is important for successful breeding (Frederik
and Collpy, 1989). Birds were nesting at different location and height for protective
and feeding purpose. A good nesting site generally provides protecting against
predators, offer adequate feeding areas within foraging range (Thompson, 1977;
Beaver et al., 1980; Hafner and Brittin, 1983; Hafner and Fasola, 1992; Hafner,
2000).Largest bird species are nesting at high level and smaller bird species nesting at
lowest side (Burger, 1982).
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Nest Construction Period
Table-5.6 shows nesting construction period of selected bird species.
Generally 3-17 days were taken for it by various species in Wetlands of Kheda
District. Black-headed Ibis, Cattle Egrets, Pond Heron expense long time (8-17days)
in nest building process, while Red-wattled Lapwing, Yellow Wattled Lapwing wind
up the process of nest building in short term (4-8 days). Normal duration for
completing a nest was 5-6 days for pond herons. Generally, aquatic bird species
required 5-17 days (Parmar, 2012). Many birds are reused their previous or other
birds blank nest for nesting purpose e.g. Sarus Cranes and in some cases of Cattle
Egrets and Black Ibis. Re-nesting is known to occur in most Crane species (Mein and
Archibald, 1996) and in Sarus Cranes in Gujarat (Mukherjee, 2006).
Many birds devote less time to nest building as the season progresses.
Stokes (1950) found that the American Golden finch built its nest during the first two
week of July required an average of 13 days, but if it builds during the last two weeks
of August required only 5-6 days. The nest construction period is depending upon
availability of nesting materials and searching time for safe nesting site.
Nesting Materials
Nesting birds did not bring nesting materials from far off distance. All
leaves and twigs found in the nests belonged to the nest tree itself or the adjacent
trees. The usual nesting materials consisted of root fibres, twigs, leaves of plants,
feathers and sometimes plastic fibres. In case of Black-winged Stilts and Red-wattled
Lapwings, they used sandy gravels; grass roots for nest materials. Cattle Egret and
Black-headed Ibis constructed nest with hard twigs (Plate-11). In Pond Herons,
addition of nest materials continued through the incubation period but not during
hatching. Some birds collect pieces from different plant species were used for nest
building. Sarus Crane selects for nest materials of wetland vegetation and other
available materials, and is made entirely of rice stalks when they nest in crop fields.
Paddy fields are only selective sites for them for egg laying, that I observed during
field study.
Commonly birds use nesting materials included twigs, roots fibres,
feathers, plastics, hairs and paper etc. The House Sparrow and Black Ibis were using
Neem leaves as nesting materials in preference to other available vegetation, probably
to repel nest from arthropods (Sengupta, 1981). Some species use nesting materials as
69
anti-pathogenic and insecticides agents (Wimberger, 1984). Thakor, L. (2011) has
noted such tendency in Bank Myna. The relative proportion of other of nest materials
probably depended upon their availability in the vicinity of the nest. Quantitative and
qualitative use of nesting materials helps in keeping nest well insulated (Panicker,
1980).Patel (1986) noted in Columbia livia that it collect nest materials whatever is
available in its surrounding areas.
The use of nest material variety, in a sense reflects the adaptability
range of the species. Some species use a wide variety of materials of different areas
and hence are likely to be wide distributed e.g. Passer domesticus. On the other hand
some species using a narrow range of materials for nest building are likely to be
restricted in certain localities and should be guarded against possible exploitation of
habitat, as is the current trend of degradation of animal habitat (Deca and
Battacherjee, 1990). Some birds use pieces of snake slough in their nest. It has been
suggested that these may determine some nest predators such as Squirrels (Strecker,
John, 1926).
Nest Shape
A bird nest is the spot in which a bird lays and incubates its eggs and
raises its young ones. Although the term is popular in reference to a specific structure
of nest made up by bird itself. Different bird’s having different types of nests. Cattle
Egret and Black-headed Ibis were having platform type nests (Plate-11) where as
Black-winged Stilt and Yellow-wattled Lapwing had platform like nest but with
muddy gravels (Plate-5). The nest of Sarus Crane was platform type with leaves of
rice plant and mud (Mukherjee et al., 1999). Nests are primarily used for breeding
they may also be reused for next season or in non-breeding season for roosting. Some
species builds special dormitory nests or roost nests (or winter nest) that are using
only for roosting purpose (Skutch, 1960).
Egg laying
Total 218 eggs were recorded in 72 nests of above selected bird species
during study period. The egg laying period was recorded in days (see Table 5.7).
Cattle Egret, Pond Heron and Black-headed Ibis were taking more than 4 days for egg
laying while Red-wattled Lapwing and Black-winged Stilt required 7 days. No data
recorded of egg laying period of Sarus Crane due to heavy rain. It was observed that
some birds begin to lay egg following completion of the nest; other waits two or three
70
days and few wait a week or more before egg laying begin. It was observed that egg
laying system differ in individual species. Some bird species laid more than one eggs
in a day, some laid single egg in a day while other species laid egg after two or more
day’s interval. Generally aquatic bird species took 4-8 days depending on species.
Clutch Size
Clutch size is an important parameter to determine reproductive rate in
birds. The clutch size of selected bird species were counted 2-4 eggs (Plate-4),
particularly it was in Black-headed Ibis, Cattle Egret, Red-wattled Lapwing and
Yellow-wattled Lapwing. Sarus Crane and Eurasian Thee-knee observed with two
eggs in all three clutches.12 clutches of Pond Herons were noted with 5-6 eggs.
The clutch of Red-wattled varied from 2-5 but clutches of 3 and 4 eggs
were most frequent observed by me (Table-5.8). The clutch of Common Myna varied
from 3-7 but clutches of 4 and 5 eggs were most frequent (Dhanda and Dhindsa,
1998). The variation of clutch size is correlated with the availability of food; the
larger clutch is laid when the food for young is most abundant (Lack, 1954; Vijayan,
1980). According to Lack’s hypothesis (Lack, 1954) the clutch is a hereditary
characteristic of each species and has evolved through natural selection of correspond
with larger number of young for which the parent can, on the average, provide enough
food. High risk of clutch size reduction by nest predators has been hypothesized to be
adaptive for at least two reasons (Roff, 1992). First, when nest predator increases with
clutch size (Safriel, 1975), smaller broods will shorten the period when the nest is
susceptible to nest predators and reduce the number of nest visits that could attracts
the attention of predators (Skutch, 1949;Martin et al., 2000). Second, if parental
survival declines with clutch size, then a reduction in clutch size will improve parental
survival prospects and future reproduction, thereby spreading the risk of nest
predation between broods and ultimately increasing lifetime reproductive success
(Slagsvold, 1984; Roff, 1992; Martin, 1995). Hesse (1922) gave opinion that clutch
size at any time is determined by heredity and that environmental influences are of
only subordinate significance. It can be modified to a limited extend by environment.
It is generally accepted that the clutch size of any species is the product of natural
selection and so adjusted to maximize the parental contribution to the next generation.
Patel (1986) observed clutch size in Columbia livia for constant five years and
71
concluded that it is with two eggs and not influenced by any external factors i.e.
climatic or food availability or predation.
Shape Index
Egg shape is conveniently expressed as a shape index (ESI). The
formula to calculate shape index (ESI) of an egg is as; (Sarica and Erensayin, 2004).
Width of egg
Egg Shape Index (ESI) = ------------------ x 100
Length of egg
Table 5.9 shows egg shape index for selected species. Field
observation showed that pond heron had rounded eggs and cattle egret consist sharp
shaped eggs while red wattled lapwing had normal shaped eggs. There is natural
variability in egg shape and this variability can be characterized using a shape index
(ESI). Eggs are characterized by the SI as Sharpe, Normal (standard) and Round if
they have an ESI value of <72, between 72 and 76, and >76, respectively (Sarica and
Erensayin, 2004). The main egg shape does not differ significantly in Columbia livia
in different month (Patel, 1986).Table-5.9 shows eggs shape index. It was generally
varied in various species. The highest egg shape index 100 was seen in Red-wattled
Lapwing; Cattle Egret had 83 and was lowest 70 in Eurasian Thicknee.
Shape index is depended on weight. Reddy et al., (1979) observed that
there was an adverse relation between decreased shape index and increasing egg
weight. The result indicates that the rupture force is highly depended on ESI value at
all three compression speeds. Greater force was required to rupture eggs with high
ESI values while being listed using the lowest compression speed. A positive
correlation between egg size (weight and/or an index of volume derives from the
length and breadth of eggs) and nesting survival, or growth, has been found for most
bird species studied by Schiff ferli, 1973; Williams, 1994; Christians, 2002. Natural
selection should favour females that produce larger eggs (Takagi, 2003). However,
high investment into egg size might be in conflict with energetic demands of female
and her willingness to produce more offspring (Horak et al., 1995).
72
Egg Colour
Eggs of selected waterbird species were marked with different colours.
The colour of egg of is different in different species. Cattle Egret had white with dark
spots. Red-wattled Lapwing, Yellow-wattled Lapwing, Eurasian Thicknee and Black-
winged Stilt had grey brown blotched with blackish eggs (Plate-5 & 11). Sarus Crane
had white coloured eggs. Pond Heron had green colour with no marking eggs. Eggs
had seen more variable in colour than describe in the literature, Steyn (1982) reported
that these variations almost between pure white to dark, blotched, rusty rufous.
It is presumed that egg colour and markings help camouflage and
protect eggs from predators. For example, birds that nest on ground tend to have eggs
that are brown with black markings to blend with rocks and soil around them.
Traditionally inter-specific and intra-specific variation in avian egg colouration has
been interpreted with respect to selective pressures imposed by nest predators and/or
brood parasites (Underwood and Sealy, 2002).
The eggshell pigments deposited on shell by shell gland Derive from
certain products in blood which deposited in the eggshell may be harmful for laying
females. For instance, bilirubin and biliverdin are formed intracellular during the
degradation of haem in the liver the blue green biliverdin is used by birds to colour
their eggshells with green and blue tints (Kennedy and Vevers, 1976; Miksik et al.,
1996). Both bile pigments have been shown to possess strong antioxidant activities
towards peroxyl and hydroxyl radicals, hydrogen peroxide and nitric oxide (Mc
Donagh, 2001; Kaur et al., 2003). Deposition of biliverdin in the eggshell by laying
females may signal their capacity to control free radicals despite the handicap of
removing this antioxidant from the system. Thus, biliverdin could be advertising
antioxidant capabilities during a particularly stressful phase, a good example of
handicap. Protoporphyrine is responsible for brown egg colour (Kennedy and Vevers,
1973; Miksik et al., 1994, 1996) and is a natural metabolite intermediate in the
biosynthesis of haem. Haem functions in numerous metabolic pathways because of its
ability to bind and release oxygen.
Incubation Period
It is the period from laying of last egg of clutch to hatching of last
nestling. Some birds were required less than 15 days for incubation. In Red wattled
Lapwing observed with 24 to 26 incubations days while it was followed by Cattle
73
Egret with 21 to 23 days (n=25) of incubation period. Sarus Crane took 27 to 30 days
(n=1) for incubation. In several bird species e.g. Pond Heron observed with 18-24
days (n=12) (Table 5.10). Aquatic birds were observed with long incubations period.
Aquatic bird species had 16-37 days (n=72) of incubation period. Temperature plays
vital role in incubations. Environmental temperature has influence on length of
incubation period in Columbia livia in tropical zone (Patel, 1986). Patel (1986)
observed that in pigeon (Columbia livia) during dry season there was an inverse
correlation between the ambient temperature and incubation period. Compare to
terrestrial species, aquatic species require more time for incubation.
Incubation is the process where heat is necessary for embryonic
development. Such heat is derived from the body of the parents. The heat transfer is
affected by close application of the brood patch to the eggs. Parents keep the eggs at a
uniform temperature (34o to 39oC) by incubation behaviour.
Nice (1954) discussed several theories (body temperature and
longevity of adults, size of eggs and birds, condition of young at hatching ) which
have been postulated to explain differences in length of incubation time throughout
the order of the birds. She concluded that “the critical factor determining length of
incubation is dependent on a rate of development of the embryo”.
Hatching Success
Hatching success is the proportion of eggs in a clutch that produce
young ones. Hatching success depends mainly on two factors: egg mortality and
hatching failure. The egg mortality is the proportion of eggs in a clutch that failed to
chicks. Hatching failure refers to eggs that remain in the nest throughout the
incubation period but failed to hatch, because eggs may be infertile or their embryos
failed to develop in to chick.
During study period total 218 eggs counted within 72 nests. It was
observed that out of laid eggs 76 (34.86%) were lost during incubation and
41(18.84%) found an un-hatched within the nests. The higher egg mortality (100%)
was found in Sarus Crane and Black-winged Stilt. Egg of Sarus Crane was lost due to
flooding while in the case of Black-winged stilt eggs were lost due to water level. In
Cattle Egret (34.39%) and White-breasted waterhen (36.41%) egg mortality were
recorded (Table-5.13). The major cause found for egg mortality for aquatic birds was
flooding. Major causes for hatching failure are predators, flooding and water level.
74
Overall hatching success was 46.33% in above selected species.
Generally aquatic bird species shows low (HS-43.93%, n=99) compare to Terrestrial
birds, highest hatching success showed in Pond Heron, while lowest in Sarus Crane
and black winged Stilt. From all these species Pond Heron achieved 65.6% hatching
success while, Cattle Egret, Red-wattled Lapwing, Yellow-wattled Lapwing and
Black Ibis achieved 44.2%, 51.0%, 52.2% and 44.3% respectively, Eurasian
Thicknee55.3% and White-breasted waterhen50.3% rate which has high hatching
success respectively (Table 5.13). Only two species Sarus Crane and Black-winged
Stilt were observed with 100% hatching failure due to 100% egg mortality but we
cannot say that it is always 100% in such species.
The cause of hatching failure may be due to inefficient incubation
during this period, caused by the parent having to spend much time in search of food.
Vijayan (1980) relates the low hatching success in Eurasian collared Dove whereas
Murton (1966) suggested in Wood Pigeon to the same reason. More than 60%
hatching success showed in passerines. Some passerines that do not hatch are infected
with pathogens (Pinowski et al., 1991). Nest site, comparatively long period of
incubation and large egg size of Red wattled Lapwing, Sarus Crane and Black winged
Stilt suffered high mortality, because the nests were easily possible to disturbed
during agricultural practices, cattle and predators like cats, snakes, rodents and other
carnivore birds.
In Pond Herons and Cattle Egrets, one of major cause for egg loss was
falling of the nest in the study area. During heavy monsoon at times, strong wind and
rain upset the nest, some of the nest built on comparatively week branches at the
periphery of the tree shake violently, and eggs fall off. Sometimes parent bird spurts
out of the nest causing the eggs to roll out of the nest. In cases heavy egg weight,
interference of researchers and predators like House Crow were responsible for egg
mortality (Parasharya and Naik, 1988).
Young and fledging
Nestling period
“A young bird while still in the nest is a nestling”. First hatching to last
fledgling in a nest is the nestling period. Table 5.11 shows nestling period of selected
species. It is generally varied from 11-47 days observed in various species. More
nestling period was recorded in aquatic birds compare to others. Aquatic bird species
75
required 13-47 days (n=46) for nestling. The highest nestling period in Cattle Egret
44.2 + 0.32, n=15 followed by White-breasted Waterhen 38.58 + 0.94, n=2. Black-
headed Ibis 36.25+ 40, n=4, Black Ibis 25.16 + 0.72, n=4.
Nestling period probably depended upon the number of young in
brood, productively of the habitat, nest height and age of parents (Dhanda and
Dhindsa, 1998). In Common Myna, Lamba (1963) reported it to be 12-18 days, while
it was 18 days span in same species (Dhanda and Dhindsa, 1998). Best food sources
to parents is one of the reasons for less required period than other places. The length
of incubation period is dependent upon the ambient air temperature and the nestling
period upon the light hours in Columbia livia (Patel, 1986).
Fledgling Success
Fledgling is a young bird just fledges from the nest’. Here counted 89
fledgling become overtake from 112 broods of selected waterbird species. Fledgling
success for aquatic bird species was overall 52%. Cattle Egrets lead with 76.96%
fledging success and it was followed by Pond Heron 73%. Eight species were carried
out 50-60% fledges while two species had not succeeded (Table 5.14).
Dogs, Crows, Crow Pheasants and Snakes are main predators for eggs
and young ones of birds. In case of Pond Herons and Cattle Egrets the wind velocity
interferes in fledgling success, at the high speed wind velocity, the chicks fall down
and become victim of predators or injured and afterward died. Starvation is the chief
cause of death in nestling of Common Swifts and probably also in raptorial birds,
Storks and other species. Lack (1954), Parasharya and Naik (1988) reported in Cattle
Egret that starvation, chick fall from the nesting tree by himself or by human
interference, House Crows and other predators were the causes of nestling mortality.
Nest destruction, loss of body weight, diseases, injury, nest dissertation, predation and
human interference are the reasons (even for individual bird) for chick mortality
(Patel, 1986).
Nice (1957-n) stated that the success rate of open nests of altricial birds
in the North Temperate zone ranged from 38-77%. Mathew and Naik (1988-n)
recorded breeding success in House Sparrow were 33-36%. The presence of
predators, the quality of parental protection and unequal distribution of food effects
on nesting success (Panicker, 1980). Dense vegetation may provide shrub-nesting
species excellent protection against predators and non-random nest size selection has
76
been found in other such species (e.g. Black throated Blue Warbler, Holway, (1991);
Hooded Warbler, Kilgo et al.,(1996); Wood Thrush, Hoover and Brittingham, (1998).
Multiple broods were usually underfeed and these died in the nest. In
bird’s asynchronous hatching, brood size is adjusted according to the availability of
food (Ricklefts, 1965). Parents feed the most active members of the brood at priority.
But when it is limited, only the largest or the first hatched survive. This behaviour,
known as brood reduction, may minimize the amount of effort wasted in feeding extra
young and enhance the survival and long-term fitness of parents (Ignatiuk and Clark,
1991). Brood reduction has been reported in three species of Weaver Birds in Punjab
(Dhindsa, 1990).
By these all observations, it is decided that Wetlands of Kheda district
has a unique ecosystem complex. Due to abundance water resources and irrigation
canal system wetlands of Kheda district favourable for waterbirds for breeding
purpose. Some research shows that terrestrial birds are more successful than aquatic
birds in their breeding activities. Nesting success is considered an output of any
ecosystem which is also more in terrestrial birds than aquatic birds. Species count is
also more in terrestrial birds compare to aquatic birds (Parmar, 2012)
Water level, Plankton source, other aquatic food source are play as
ultimate factors which attracts aquatic bird species. Table-5.16 and 5.17. Overall it
seems that if more protection is provided to breeders, their population can be
increased. Visitor should not disturb the birds; farmer should protect the ground
nesters in their farms so the total numbers of species can be increased in study area as
well as Gujarat state.
Summary
Field work was done for two years and within this period 86 waterbird
species were recorded. Out of it breeding patterns and performance of 11 species were
selected to study breeding biology in Wetlands of Kheda district. Nests were given
number for observation during study period up to two years. Birds mostly breed
during May to September. The peak nesting was during June to July. Some specific
breeding behaviour was seen in some waterbirds like Sarus Crane, Cattle Egret, and
Black-headed Ibis etc. Vegetation selection was varied from species to species. Birds
commonly uses nesting materials like twigs, root fibres, feathers, plastics, hairs paper
etc. Nests were primarily used for nesting but they may also be reused in non-
77
breeding season for roosting. Egg laying time required more in aquatic bird species
than others. Clutch size was observed as individual pattern, not group pattern. Shape
index of egg has no relation with body size of a species. Birds which lay eggs on
ground, egg colour shows camouflage. Aquatic birds were required long incubation
period compared to terrestrial birds. The major cause for egg mortality in waterbirds
was flooding due to ground nesting. Nestling period was varied in species to species.
Fledgling success was overall 57% in waterbird species. It was observed that out of
selected bird species many species achieved more than 46% nesting success, which
proves that Wetlands of Kheda district are best and unique ecosystem composed with
aquatic zones, irrigation canal system, wetland patches and agro-ecosystem etc. which
attracts and provides food, shelter and breeding ground to waterbirds.
Table:-5.3 Breeding seasons of some selected waterbird species at Wetlands of Kheda
district (2010-2012) and recorded at other parts of India.
Name of Bird Breeding season breeding season records by others
Cattle Egret Apr-Aug Jul-Sept. (Ali & Repley 1997-n),
All year (Grimmet et al..1998-n)
Red-wattled Lapwing Apr-Aug Mar-Sept. (Ali &Repley 1997),
Mar-Sept. (Grimmet et al..1998)
Pond Heron May-Sept May- Sept. (Ali & Repley 1997)
Sarus Crane July-Nov. Jul-Dec. (Ali &Repley 1997,
Parasharya et al..1998, Goe1987, 1989)
Black-winged Stilt May-Jul. Apr-Aug. (Ali &Repley 1997)
Jan- Sept. (Grimmet et al..1998)
Black-headed Ibis Apr-Jul Mar-Oct. (Ali &Repley 1997)
Black Ibis Mar-Jul Mar-Oct. (Ali &Repley 1997)
Y.wattled Lapwing Mar-Sept Mar- Sept. (Ali &Repley 1997),
Mar-Sept. (Grimmet et al..1998)
Painted stork Apr-Jul Mar-Oct. (Ali &Repley 1997)
White breasted waterhen May-July Apr-Aug. (Ali &Repley 1997)
Eurasian Thicknee May-Sept May- Sept. (Ali &Repley 1997)
78
Table-5.4 Nesting of different Birds species observed on various trees/locations.
Tree species / Nesting locations No of Bird Sp. Bird species nesting.
Acacia nilotica (Deshi baval) 03 Pond Heron, Cattle Egret,
Black-headed Ibis.
Azrdirachta indica (Limdo) 02 Black-headed Ibis, Black Ibis.
Prosopis cineraria (Khijado) 02 Painted Stork, Darter.
Eucalyptus sp. (Nilgiri) 02 Black-headed Ibis, Black Ibis.
Prosopis juliflora (J. baval) 03 Cattle Egret, Black-headed Ibis,
Openbill Stork.
House terrace 01 Red-wattled Lapwing.
Ground Nesting 04 Red-wattled Lapwing, Y.wattled
Lapwing, Black-winged Stilt,
Eurasian Thicknee.
Cropland, Marshes, 01 Sarus Crane.
Ground Nesting
Table-5.5 Nest height selected by some selected Waterbirds in WKD (2010-12).
Name of Bird Range (m) Mean (m)+ SD Nests
Red-wattled Lapwing 0.00 0.00 20
Y.wattled Lapwing 0.00 0.00 05
Black-winged Stilt 0.00 0.00 03
Sarus Crane 0.00 0.00 01
Eurasian Thicknee 0.00 0.00 02
Cattle Egret 4.5 - 6.5 5.36 + 0.84 25
Pond Heron 6.0 - 7.5 6.65 + 0.42 02
Black-headed Ibis 7.8 – 10.0 8.9 + 0.97 05
Black Ibis 7.5 – 10.0 8.9 + 0.97 04
Painted Stork 8 .0 – 11 9.5 + 0.50 03
W.breasted waterhen 1.5 - 2.5 2.0 + 0.42 02
79
Table-5.6 Nest construction periods of some selected birds in WKD (2010-12)
Name of Bird Range (Days) Mean (Days) Nests (n)
Red-wattled Lapwing 6-8 7.0+ 1.00 20
Y.wattled Lapwing 5-7 6.0+ 1.00 05
Black-winged Stilt 7-9 8.0+ 1.00 03
Sarus Crane 6-8 7.0+ 1.00 01
Eurasian Thicknee 3-5 4.0+ 1.00 02
Cattle Egret 8 - 12 10.2 + 1.39 25
Pond Heron 5 - 6 5.66 + 0.49 02
Black-headed Ibis 14- 17 15.5 + 1.29 05
Black Ibis 14-16 15.0 + 1.00 04
Painted Stork 12 - 16 14.0 + 1.00 03
W.breasted waterhen 5 - 9 7.0 + 1.00 02
72 Nests
Table-5.7 Egg Laying periods of some selected Waterbirds in WKD (2010-12).
Name of Bird Range (Days) Mean (Days) Nests (n)
Red-wattled Lapwing 4-6 5.0+ 1.00 20
Y.wattled Lapwing 4-6 5.2+ 0.83 05
Black-winged Stilt --- 3.6+ 0.89 03
Sarus Crane --- 3.6+ 0.89 01
Eurasian Thicknee 4-5 4.5+ 1.20 02
Cattle Egret 4- 6 5.0 + 1.49 25
Pond Heron 5 - 6 5.06 + 0.39 02
Black-headed Ibis 7- 8 7.5 + 0.49 05
Black Ibis 7-8 7.5 + 0.52 04
Painted Stork 6 -9 7.5 + 0.46 03
W.breasted waterhen 5 -6 5.06 + 0.39 02
72 Nests
80
Table-5.8 Clutch size of some selected Waterbirds in WKD (2010-12).
Name of Bird Range (Eggs) Mean + SD Total Layed Eggs
Red-wattled Lapwing 3-4(20) 3.6+ 0.54 75
Y.wattled Lapwing 3-4(5) 3.6+ 0.33 16
Black-winged Stilt 3-4(2) 3.5+ 0.29 07
Sarus Crane 2(1) 2.0+ 0.00 02
Eurasian Thicknee 2-3(2) 2.5+ 0.40 05
Cattle Egret 2-4(25) 3.40 + 0.39 68
Pond Heron 5- 6(2) 5.06 + 0.32 11
Black-headed Ibis 2-3(5) 2.5 + 0.47 11
Black Ibis 2-3(4) 2.5+ 0.57 09
Painted Stork 2(3) 2.0 + 0.00 06
W.breasted waterhen 4-5(2) 4.56 + 0.39 08
Total Eggs 218
Table-5.9 Egg volume & shape index of selected W.birds in WKD (2010-12)
Name of Bird Volume in mm Shape index (SI)
Red-wattled Lapwing 1325.94(n=5) 72
Y.wattled Lapwing 1326.54(n=5) 72
Black-winged Stilt 0.00(n=2) 00
Sarus Crane 0.00(n=2) 00
Eurasian Thicknee 1462.32(n=2) 68
Cattle Egret 1613.45(n=25) 63
Pond Heron 1161.86(n=2) 76
Black-headed Ibis 1469.46(n=5) 68
Black Ibis 1470-33(n=4) 68
Painted Stork 1726.12(n=3) 62
W.breasted waterhen 1326.59(n=2) 72
Eggs are characterized by the SI as sharp, normal (standard) and round.(<72, 72-
76,>76) respectively.(Sarica and Erensayin, 2004).
81
Table-5.10 Incubation periods of some selected Waterbirds in WKD (2010-12).
Name of Bird Range (Days) Average (Days) Nests (n)
Red-wattled Lapwing 26-30 27.8+ 0.44 20
Y.wattled Lapwing 25-30 27.2+ 0.63 05
Black-winged Stilt ------ ------ 03
Sarus Crane 27-31 29.0+ 2.0 01
Eurasian Thicknee 24-26 25+ 1.00 02
Cattle Egret 22-25 17.9 + 1.45 25
Pond Heron 18-24 21.08 + 0.94 02
Black-headed Ibis 16-22 18 + 2.49 05
Black Ibis 16-22 18 + 2.52 04
Painted Stork 26-30 28 + 1.00 03
W.breasted waterhen 18-24 21.08 + 0.94 02
Total Nests 72
Table-5.11 Nestling periods of some selected Waterbirds in WKD (2010-12).
Name of Bird Range (Days) Average (Days) Nests (n)
Red-wattled Lapwing 17-20 18.2+ 0.44 10
Y.wattled Lapwing 16-20 18.0+ 0.43 05
Black-winged Stilt ------ ------ 00
Sarus Crane ----- ------ 00
Eurasian Thicknee 18-22 25+ 1.32 02
Cattle Egret 42-47 44.2 + 0.32 15
Pond Heron 13-15 14.33 + 0.64 02
Black-headed Ibis 36-38 36.25 + 1.49 04
Black Ibis 36-38 36.20 + 1.52 04
Painted Stork 26-30 28.0 + 1.00 02
W.breasted waterhen 36-40 38.58 + 0.94 02
Overall Nests 46
82
Table-5.12 Nesting periods of some selected Waterbirds in WKD (2010-12)
Name of bird Range (Days) Average (Days) Nests (n)
Red-wattled Lapwing 50-55 52.4+ 2.07 10
Y.wattled Lapwing 50-55 52.5+ 0.32 05
Black-winged Stilt ------ ------ 00
Sarus Crane ------ ------ 00
Eurasian Thicknee 48-52 50.0+ 1.00 02
Cattle Egret 70-76 73.7 + 1.49 15
Pond Heron 73-80 75.75 + 1.86 02
Black-headed Ibis 76-78 76.75 + 0.95 04
Black Ibis 76-79 77.35 + 1.43 04
Painted Stork 74-78 76.0 + 1.00 02
W.breasted waterhen 72-74 73.23 + 0.95 02
Overall 48-80 Nests 46
Table-5.13 Hutching successes of some selected Waterbirds in WKD (2010-12).
Name of bird Nests (n) TLE* E Mo%** HF%@ HS%@@
Red-wattled Lapwing 20 63 27.8(20) 23.2(10) 51.0(33)
Y.wattled Lapwing 2 11 22.4(3) 24.4(2) 52.2(6)
Black-winged Stilt 0 11 100.0(11) 0.00 .0(0)
Sarus Crane 0 6 100.0(6) 0.00 0.0(0)
Eurasian Thicknee 2 5 22.2(1) 22.5(1) 55.3(3)
Cattle Egret 25 68 35.3(20) 21.0(16) 44.2(32)
Pond Heron 2 11 23.2(2) 11.2(1) 65.6(8)
Black-headed Ibis 4 11 34.6(3) 23.2(2) 43.2(6)
Black Ibis 4 9 33.4(3) 22.3(2) 44.3(4)
Painted Stork 2 6 36.2(2) 16.3(1) 48.5(3)
W.breasted waterhen 2 8 37.6(3) 12.1(1) 50.3(4)
Legend: TLE*: Total layed eggs, EMo%**: Egg mortality (percentage),
HF%@:Hatching failure (percentage), HS%@@: Hatching success (percentage).
83
Table-5.14 Fledgling successes of some selected Waterbirds in WKD (2010-12).
Name of Bird TLE* HS%** NsMo%@ FS%@@
Red-wattled Lapwing 63 51.0(33) 27.8(20) 72.2(10)
Y.wattled Lapwing 11 52.2(6) 22.4(3) 77.6(2)
Black-winged Stilt 11 0.0(0) 100.0(11) 0.00(11)
Sarus Crane 6 0.0(0) 100.0(6) 0.00(6)
Eurasian Thicknee 5 55.3(3) 22.2(1) 77.8(1)
Cattle Egret 68 44.2(32) 35.3(20) 64.7(16)
Pond Heron 11 65.6(8) 23.2(2) 76.8(1)
Black-headed Ibis 11 43.2(6) 34.6(3) 65.4(2)
Black Ibis 9 44.3(4) 33.4(3) 66.6(2)
Painted Stork 6 48.5(3) 36.2(2) 63.8(1)
W.breasted waterhen 8 50.3(4) 37.6(3) 62.4(1)
Legend: TLE*: Total layed eggs, HS**: Hatching success (percentage), NsMo%@:
Nestling mortality (%), FS%@@: Fledgling success (%).
Table-5.15 Nestling successes of some selected Waterbirds in WKD (2010-12).
Name of Bird Nests (n) TLE* FS** NS%***
Red-wattled Lapwing 20 63 10 47.62
Y.wattled Lapwing 2 11 2 36.37
Black-winged Stilt 0 11 0 0.00
Sarus Crane 0 6 0 0.00
Eurasian Thicknee 2 5 1 60.00
Cattle Egret 25 68 16 60.29
Pond Heron 4 11 1 45.45
Black-headed Ibis 4 11 2 54.55
Black Ibis 4 9 2 66.67
Painted Stork 2 6 1 50.00
W.breasted waterhen 2 8 1 37.50
Legend: TLE*: Total layed eggs, FS**: Fledging success, HS%***: Hatching success
(percentage).
84
Table-5.16 Overall Breeding performances of waterbirds in WKD (2010-12).
Legend: 1. Red-wattled Lapwing 2. Yellow-wattled Lapwing 3. Black-winged Stilt 4. Sarus Crane 5. Eurasian Thicknee 6. Cattle Egret 7. Pond
Heron 8. Black-headed Ibis 9. Black Ibis 10. Painted Stork 11. White-breasted waterhen.
Bird Sp. Parameter ↓
1
2 3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Nest-height (m) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.5-6.5 6-7.5 7.8-10 7.8-10 8.5-12 2.5-3.5
Nest const. Period days 6-8 5-7 7.9 6.8 3.5 8-12 5-6 14-17 14-16 12-16 5.9
Clutch size 3-4 3-4 3-4 2 3-4 2-4 4-5 2-3 2-3 2 2-6
Egg laid 75 16 7 2 5 68 11 11 9 6 8
Egg mortality 20 3 11 6 1 20 2 3 3 2 3
Egg failed 10 2 0.00 0.00 1 16 1 2 2 1 1
Egg hatched 33 6 0 0 3 32 8 6 4 3 4
E. mortality (%) 27.8 22.4 100 100 22.2 35.3 23.2 34.6 33.4 36.2 37.6
Hatching success (%) 51.0 52.2 0.00 00.0 55.3 44.2 65.6 43.2 44.3 48.5 50.3
Fledgling success (%) 72.2 77.6
0.00 0.00 77.8 64.7 76.8 65.4 66.6 63.8 62.4
85
Table-5.17 Comparison of waterbirds breeding performance to Terrestrial birds.
Status breeding performance Waterbirds Terrestrial birds
Breeding season April to November February to October
Nest height 0.0 - 10m 0.5 – 4.2m
Nest construction period 5 – 17 days 4 – 11 days
Egg laying period 4 -8 days 2 – 6 days
Clutch size 3 – 4 3 – 4
Incubation period High Low
Nestling period High Low
Hatching success Low High
Fledgling success Low High
Nesting success Low High
*(Parmar R. V. 2012)
