BIP Analysis of Educational Policies in a Comparative

S. Kiefer, J. Michalak, A. Sabanci, K. Winter (Ed.)

BIP

Analysis of Educational Policies in a Comparative Educational Perspective

The production of this publication has received fi nancial support by the European Commision, DG XXII (Socrates, Erasmus) and the Socrates National Agency in Austria

State College of Teacher Education Linz, Austria

Institute of Comparative Education (IVE)

Editor: Dir. Dr. Josef FragnerAll rights reservedLinz 2005

TRAUNER VERLAG + BUCHSERVICE GmbH

ISBN: 3-85499-022-7ISBN: 978-3-85499-022-2 Production:Nucleus: Pädagogische Akademie des Bundes in Oberösterreich, A-4020 Linz, Kaplanhofstraße 40Cover: Rudolf Trauner TRAUNER DRUCK GmbH & Co KG, Köglstraße 14, 4020 Linz

Layout: T. Peterseil

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CONTENTS

Introduction 5

Teacher Education in Times of GlobalizationKlaus Winter (Carl-von-Ossietzky Universität, Oldenburg) 7

Primary School Teacher Training Programs in Terms of Gaining Consciousness of European CitizenshipAhmet Sahin (Akdeniz University, Antalya) 13

Teacher Education and Professional Development in Poland: Description, Analysis and PerspectivesJoanna Michalak (University of Lodz) 25

The New Era of Self-Evaluation in English Schools: Renewed Professionalism or More Managerialism?Niki Elliot (Sheffi eld Hallam University) 35

The In-Service Training Requirements for Primary School Teachers in Turkey in the Concept of Adaptation to Teacher Training Policies of EU CountriesHulya Ormancioglu (Akdeniz University, Antalya) 46

School Leadership in Highly Disadvantaged Communities: The Reality and What Next?Steve Jones (Sheffi eld Hallam University) 57

A Comparative Analysis of Duties of the Inspectors with Relation to their Organisational StructuresAli Sabanci (Akdeniz University, Antalya) 70

Local/school Level Inputs to National Policy Formation – an Example from SerbiaDejan Stankovic (University of Belgrade) 82

The Role of Globalization in Today’s School: Context and Experience of LatviaAnita Auzina (University of Latvia, Riga) 89

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The Quality of Online Learning – Teachers’ and Students’ Evaluations of Meaningful Learning Experiences in Web-based CoursesLöfström-Nevgi (University of Helsinki) 96

Education, Mobility and Reproduction of Social InequalitySlavko Gaber (University of Ljubljana) 105

Teachers’ Collegial Relations through Bourdieu’s Concepts Habitus, Capital and FieldInger Osterlund (Abo Akademi University, Helsinki) 116

University Teacher’s Professional Identity and its ConstructionKristiina Krabbi (Tallinn University) 124

Adventist Schools in the Finnish Educational SystemArniika Kuusisto (University of Helsinki) 130

Vodja School - Learning Environment as Milieu TherapyHele Aluste (Tallinn University) 138

Comparative Education Researches from a Social Pedagogue PerspectiveJulian Potrzebny (University of Lodz) 144

IntroductionIntroduction

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The structure of Higher Education is changing permanently in Europe. This process is based on the numerous conferences and agreements which were / and still are the propellants for innovations within Europe’s Higher Educational Institutions.In 1998 the Paris La-Sorbonne declaration on “Harmonisation of the Architecture of the European Higher Education System” facilitating the mobility of students and teachers, improving the international transparency of courses and the recognition of qualifi cations was a good basis. This declaration was only signed by four countries (Germany, France, Italy and the UK). A year later the Bologna Declaration on the European Higher Education Area was signed by representatives of 15 EU member states, 3 EFTA countries and 11 candidate countries (together 29 countries). The six principles are:- facilitating the readability and comparability of qualifi cations;- implementing a system based essentially on two cycles;- establishing a system of credits, such as ECTS;- developing arrangements to support the mobility of students, teachers and researchers;- promoting European cooperation in quality assurance;- promoting the European dimension in Higher Education (in terms of curricular development and inter-institutional cooperation)1 .

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Siegfried Kiefer (State College of Teacher Education in Linz),Joanna Michalak (University of Lodz),Ali Sabanci (Akdeniz University, Antalya),Klaus Winter (Carl-von-Ossietzky Universität, Oldenburg)

Other conferences in Prague and Berlin followed aiming at improving and tuning the structures of European’s Higher Education. The aspects of lifelong learning, the automatic provision of the Diploma Supplement as well as the enlargement to a three cycle system were on the agenda.

Looking at the six principles of the Bologna Declaration it can be seen that the European Curriculum Development Programme EUDORA (European Doctorate of Teaching and Teacher Education) considered all aspects and put them into practice. The development of a European study programme / curriculum at postgraduate level (third cycle) based on comparability, the implementation of a modularised curriculum and the provision of a European learning environment off ering jointly developed quality assured modules in an international se� ing.

During the last years the EUDORA consortium off ered the following modules:- e-learning in higher education;- active learning in higher education;- researching social inclusion and exclusion in education;- researching math education;- mother tongue education in a comparative perspective and- comparative education.

Approximately 500 students studying in the second or third cycles have participated in one or more EUDORA modules and many more are yet to do so. Taking into account that this number only refers to the participation during the intensive programmes we can very well estimate that all students involved in EUDORA modules is close to 1000.

The following presentations from students and staff members result from the summer school 2005 in Antalya, Turkey where the EUDORA module “Comparative Education” (Intensive Programme BIP) was held. 15 students and 9 staff members took part in it and most of their presentations can be found in this publication.

IntroductionIntroduction

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Part I deals with “Teacher Education Reform and Educational Development” and comprises a good insight of the various eff orts and developments in Germany, Poland, Turkey and the U.K.

Part II is focussing on pa� erns for improving school and education. The fi ve articles deal with the developmental work in Finland, Latvia, Serbia, Turkey and the U.K.

Part III fi nally discusses the “Theory and Practice”. It includes articles about Bordieu’s theories, the issue of the University Teacher’s identity, the meaning of the Social Pedagogue Perspective for researches and off ers two best practice examples of schools.

We hope that this volume will highlight the importance of comparative education by taking a look how other countries are dealing with their educational policies striving to develop, improve and tune their programmes within the Education Area in Europe.

We would like to thank all authors who submi� ed high quality presentations and the staff of the BIP consortium for their commitment and help.

Footnote:1 Eurydice: Focus on the Structure of Higher Education in Europe (2004/05)

Teacher Education in Times of GlobalizationTeacher Education in Times of Globalization

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Introductory RemarksI would like to portray my ideas on the importance of Comparative Education as a component of modern teacher training programs against the background of the German situation. In my country there is a variety of study programs to provide primary schools, diff erent types of secondary schools, vocational schools and special schools with appropriate teachers. Nearly all of these programmes are conducted at universities, but like only a very few other academic disciplines (e.g. law studies and medical studies) teacher education has strong links to a specifi c profession. The teacher education programmes serve both as an academic education and as a fi rst step of professional training.One indication of the academic basis of teacher training is its location at universities where it interlinks with other programmes. What makes teacher training a professional training is that students already decide on a profession on enrolment and that for these public posts their curricula have to be adapted to predetermined state examination regulations.

A German peculiarity is that you cannot complete teacher education within the institution university: a� er the fi rst state examination at university, the second phase of teacher training starts. About 18 months to two years later students will perform a second state examination under the supervision of the schools´ inspectorate and only then terminate their professional education.

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Klaus Winter, Carl von Ossietzky University, Oldenburg, Germany

Another introductory remark might help prevent irritations that could arise when we take a closer look at teacher training cases in Germany: the entire schooling system as well as teacher training are subject to federal state politics and hence federal diversity leads to a broad variance of teacher training programmes. Nevertheless, the basics of academic teacher training such as subject-oriented studies (that are studies of those subjects to be taught at school later), didactics, educational studies, social studies and classroom teaching modules or school explorations are alike. The respective credit systems and network structures of the programme components are again subject to federal state law as well as to the individual university arrangements. And right now most of the German universities are changing towards formal structures according to the Bologna process. So you will fi nd even more diversifi cation. At least it seems to be sure, that all future teachers will need a Master degree.

I considered it necessary to make these introductory remarks before I refl ect upon the part which role comparative education plays in teacher training. The organisation of teacher training I have sketched reveals much of how legislators defi ne the ratio between imperative professional theory and professional practice. With one exception, namely the ”mono-phase teacher training” experiment that was conducted at the University of Oldenburg over a period of 10 years (Busch 1978) it can be stated that in Germany teacher training is only punctuated by professional practice. As a teacher educator I need to look at the impact of this framework and beyond that, ask where Comparative Education can be ranked.

The Internationalisation of Education and Pedagogy In his wide-spread compendium “Pädagogisches Grundwissen” Gudjons (1995, p. 258) illustrated the ambiguous character of schools: state organised education and training, that is the domain of professional teachers, can very well trigger “education for all”, “freedom through education” and “social continuance”. But having all young people on school records runs the risk of “limiting personal freedom”, “of “functionalising” and of “meaning purely a ma� er of duty”. To join into a song of praise on schools (following the title of an essay in which Herrlitz submits evidence that complex societies are dependent on institutionalised learning: Lob der Institution


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Schule, Herrlitz 1994), professional pedagogues need to be able to act in response to theory and in harmony with refl ection. A teacher’s work at a democratic school, this essential component of a democratic society, cannot be merely of a reproductive nature. And since compulsory school constitutes the qualifying and socialising instance of all young people teachers need to be educated to approach their work as actively and creatively as possible.

Currently, the popular pedagogical concept of a changing childhood (Rolff & Zimmermann 1992) illustrates anew how the life worlds of young people are subject to rapid technological, economic and social change. It is the public school system where social upheavals become apparent at a very early stage and each and every teacher needs to respond to them professionally and guide the adolescents through them. Or in other words, a teacher’s practical work calls for a dialectical linking with theory to guarantee his or her enduring capacity to act.

So our questions will have to be: How can Comparative Education meet with a future school’s demands on our teacher students? How much theory can Comparative Education convey? How can Comparative Education contribute to building a professional and critical awareness?

To the extent that pedagogical practice or be� er the teacher’s fi eld of work (since we do not want to assume that it is restricted to classroom instruction) is comprehended as a socially and historically grown system, it will become clear that school can no longer be defi ned on a national basis. Indeed, “education for all” in the sense of elementary schooling for all was closely connected to the emergence of nation states in Europe. And it is as evident today how the legitimisation and necessity of national school systems are being weakened as supranational political entities are evolving. Faced with the European unifying processes, the building and cultivation of national awareness through public schooling needs to be complemented by a European identity. Moreover, syllabi qualifying for skilled work now need to adjust to international labour markets (Winter 1997, p. 7-9).

Internationalisation and globalisation are customary concepts except in educational discourses. Reducing refl ection on internationalisation to political or economic categories is neglectful and dangerous. This process needs to be extended to both social institutions of society and the actual life of people in modern industrial states. It is in this sense that Manuela du Bois-Reymond accuses educational science and calls upon it to surmount national boundedness. She postulates: “Modernisation means crossing borders per defi nitionem” (1996, p. 197).

Not only sociologically accentuated education policies conclude that educational science can no longer be defi ned nationally: In his book entitled “Bildung” Hartmut von Hentig made an a� empt to work out criteria to gauge what makes a person an educated person (von Hentig 1996). One criterion he himself calls “the most diffi cult task” is to gain „an awareness of one’s own existence in a historical se� ing“ (von Hentig 1996a). I conceive this criterion as the individual’s awareness of being part of grown and constantly changing socio-cultural groups, communities or varieties of social units. And an essential trait of the social structures young people grow up in today is their international context. This approach to a professional science for teachers inevitably leads to the conclusion that educational science needs to break out of the shells imposed by national state thinking (Hansen 1994). Today, fundamental diffi culties in education occur internationally: take questions of multicultural education, of gender education, of drug abuse, of violence in schools etc... Hence the revolts of some politicians against an internationalisation of problem solving strategies make an implausible and anachronistic impression. But like Wolfgang Mi� er stated, it is precisely when it comes to arranging the formal educational systems that the political nationalism seeks to demonstrate its strength (Mi� er 1998, p. 103). Educational science critical of ideologies will need to enquire in just this area which economic and political social environments aff ect the development of our educational system.

The considerations so far pertain to educational science and to entire teacher training. Or to quote Wolfgang Hörner, “Educational science in teacher training and pedagogics today cannot be imparted without an international dimension ... omi� ing international depth would


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always confi ne the empirical basis for educational studies” (Hörner 1996, p. 14) Brockmann and Bos’s latest empirical study is exemplary of illustrating the defi cits. In a particularly relevant fi eld of European integration and in response to the enquiry what students and especially students of educational science associate with “Europe” the study proved that “the student interviewees do not yet accept the complexity of Europeanisation adequately”. And the authors continue to ask “How then can awareness of European contexts be sharpened?” They appeal to educational science to embed European and international substance into both basic seminars and general lectures. (Brockmann/Bos 1998, p. 66)

For our framework we would now need to ask whether the separate discipline Comparative Education is slowly dissolving or what makes its specifi c contributions still valuable. Elder comparatists such as Hilker or Seidenfaden tended to take the view that comparison as a method justifi ed the existence of Comparative Education and was constitutive for the discipline (Hilker 1962, p. 138; Seidenfaden 1966, p. 67). However, the comparative method is neither the only relevant one for Comparative Education nor is it restricted merely to it (Busch 1978a, Busch 1974, p. 11-18). This methodological debate in Comparative Education will take us nowhere if we proceed from the aspect of a teacher’s area of work and teacher training rather than from actual discipline research.

A study group of comparative educationalists refl ected on comparative education in teacher training as early as the mid 1970s and, to me, their results are more topical than ever. They found that one approach had adequately picked up on internationalisation: it declared the subject-ma� er of a discipline as constitutive in as much as it denotes a part of reality (or an aspect of reality) that constitutes the basis of this discipline. The discipline develops along with the unfolding of reality (Arbeitsgruppe Oldenburg/Münster 1978, p. 32). The potential capacities of the sub-discipline Comparative Education could then be explained as follows: The internationalisation process aff ects education as a whole because it takes hold of its entire subject-ma� er. However, amongst educationalists we need some experts for this evolution. Hence what is becoming the subject-ma� er of

Comparative Education are educational systems and pedagogic in the international context.

The general goal is “that the teacher conceives him/herself as a part of educational policies and pedagogical maturing, and who, individually or in joint eff orts with co-teachers can and does act in a certain historically and socially grown environment.” And Comparative Education is in a position to move towards this goal:

1. Comparative Education can refl ect on educational policies and pedagogical trends arising from the international context to develop an area of future professional work and especially to realise the impact internationalisation has on teachership. (Arbeitsgruppe Oldenburg/Münster, p. 34-35). I shall be quoting a topical example of this later on.2. Comparative Education can provide insights into the fabric of conditions under which changes occur or are prevented within the educational system. This will help understand the bonds between the educational and the social systems to then develop educational strategies and reforms.3. Comparative Education is able to inquire into those kinds of problems that cannot be illuminated suffi ciently at a national level simply because cross-border research will produce a broader variety of signifi cant aspects (Thomas 1972, p. 297). Occasionally I exemplify this in lectures by describing the following situation: The extremely polarising educational debate pro and contra comprehensive schools gains in diff erentiation if I include those nations into contemplation in which comprehensive schools are the regular form of public education and in which they do not compete with other school types.4. Comparative Education can question nationalist a� itudes on the superiority of individual educational systems and5. provide sound knowledge of foreign examples that then again can trigger alternative action and innovative energy.

I trust that we participants of an international conference appreciate the inspiring eff ects of international comparison in the above sense. And we should encourage students from diff erent nations to join into a discourse to help them discuss and compare their own


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pedagogical ideas and “subjective theories” that have largely grown in a national context. Such encounters will defi nitely meet their needs for information, inspiration and intellectual communication. I do not think it would be presumptuous to claim that comparing international data and knowledge can lead to an increased awareness of educational queries. Comparative Education can – and with that I recur to my starting point – contribute to a teacher’s professional critical awareness, strengthen his/her a� ention to chances for increased action and prepare him for responsible decision-making in his professional environment.

An example of Comparative Educational contemplationI will make an a� empt to prove this assertion by an example.

At my university, the University of Oldenburg, an in-service teacher training week entitled “School Autonomy – An Illusion or a Realistic Outlook?” was inaugurated in 1995 (Tillmann 1995). Malign voices could say that the issue fi nally reached the backwoods. I look at it diff erently: for a fairly long time now, new positions towards schooling have been developing and reaching teachers in their everyday work. Even public opinion outside the schools has been aff ected. The idea of developing a school profi le and integrating reformist concepts into state schooling and of granting the individual school more liberty has become a key aspect of pedagogical eff orts for internal school reform.

To me it seems that the zealously discussing pedagogues noticed rather late that all refl ection on “school autonomy” is already part of far-reaching socio-political concepts. Decentralisation has been one of the most extensive political issues since the late 1980s. Neo-liberal criticism of superior state systems has been calling for a break with the „social all-round-support“-policy for citizens, and has been releasing the state from responsibility. So, it is no real surprise that the educational sector does not remain unaff ected by such ideas of social systems and in the meantime we are encountering the outcome almost every day.

At this point I feel it is essential to repeat the aspiration of Comparative Education for teachers - to develop an own area of professional

work by contemplating evolutionary trends that emerge from the international context. Or to put it in other words, it is crucial to gain insights into potential prospects of our national educational system by observing Europe. Comprehensive processes can help a pedagogue to develop an own position and an own scope of action.

To exemplify “school autonomy” - I think it is useful to present a few European models:Britain seems to be a good state to take a comparative look at. There and at a very early stage, the conservative government applied its political imperative to strengthen the private sector to the cost of the public sector very radically to the educational system. Observers like Ranin and Williams stated we could „learn quite a lot from the largest school-political experiment of the century“ (Ranin&Williams 1996, p.18) They are addressing the autonomy of schools against local or regional school authorities, the emergence of an „educational market“ and the public control of classroom instruction results. Since I am not able to include all steering interventions of the conservative party here, I shall concentrate on one particular aspect.

In the traditional English educational system, the Local Education Authorities (LEAs), regional and democratically elected institutions, once had decisive competence and largely worked independently from London. In an exact analysis Detlef Glowka proved that the educational reforms of the conservative government formed a coherent entity and moved into the one direction of drastically devaluating the LEAs. The usually le� wing „pedagogical establishment“ was defamed as a useless and parasitic bureaucracy and lost its grounds (Glowka 1996, p.77): Since 1988 the „opting-out-arrangement“ has made it possible for every school to opt for direct fi nancing by the government. With that, schools are no longer subject to the LEA control on the grounds of a parental vote and to the cost that they now need to survive on the educational market. In a kind of „payment on results“ regulation they receive funding and enter into a competition with other suppliers. Following free social market laws, a ranking list of schools with the best examination results are recorded and published to allow the consumers to make their school choice. I assume that under these circumstances there


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will not be much room le� for building a pedagogically motivated school profi le.

The “New Labour” government elected in 1997 was defi nitely not the one to set off an about-turn. Corporate managerialism remained the guideline of state initiatives. In so-called Education Action Zones private educational enterprises are expected to invest in schools and to manage them profi tably in the long run. Evidently, this prospect is held realistic since shares of potential school entrepreneurs are already recording stock price gains (Hatcher 1999).

On comparing the policies of the Conservative and the Labour Party in Great Britain I come to the conclusion that international trends develop rather independently from ideologies of political parties.

To provide evidence for the European-wide discussion about “school autonomy” in a neo-liberal sense I could quote relevant examples from the traditionally social-democratic Scandinavian countries as well as from the Netherlands with very diff erent school traditions.

Whether we approve it or not, the “commercialising” of education is currently an international phenomenon. It is a process that reveals how national European educational systems are subject to internationalisation.

To underline that we are focussing an acute problem, I would like to quote a paper which was published in summer 2005. A group of educational scientists sent out a fi rst edition by e-mail titled “Das Bildungswesen ist kein Wirtscha� sbetrieb” -The Educational System is not an Economic Enterprise. Pre� y fast this text found its way into several national newspapers (e.g. Gruschka u.a. 2005; Radtke/ Tenorth 2006; www.forum-kritische-paedagogik.de). The academic organization of German professors in the fi eld of education, the so called “Erziehungswissenscha� licher Fakultätentag”, had an expanded discussion on the topic (meeting: Berlin, Nov. 2005), the number of academics who signed a kind of open le� er of protest reached about two hundred. “We raise our voice today, so that nobody can argue academic observers had contributed to this process, or at least agreed by keeping silent”, the authors start their appeal against

the present modernisation of educational institutions in Germany. I just want to quote a few sentences, trying to give an idea of the proclamation by my translation:

- “We oppose the illusion of an educational policy that tries to adapt the educational system to economic pa� erns. This illusion is unfortunately popular amongst many political parties.”- “We oppose the mislead proclamation that the education reform will lead to more autonomy of schools and universities.”- “We believe it is an error with bad consequences that our purpose as academics is supposed to be restricted to deliver information, which are only and exclusively of interest to the state, the economy and a media-lead society.”- “We observe with great concern the weakening of autonomy of academic subjects.”

Since a couple of years it is the fi rst time now, that teachers in schools, academics in universities and a larger intellectual audience is ge� ing involved in a serious discussion about the input of globalization into the fi eld of education.Comparative Education is the discipline that can shed light upon academic refl ection on this context. And, coming back to the title of my paper: In a specifi c way, Comparative Education contributes to Teacher Education, to the above-mentioned goal to guide a teacher to conceiving him/herself as a part of political and social processes and to acquiring the ability to act professionally, intentionally and responsibly.

ReferencesArbeitsgruppe Oldenburg/Münster (1978): Die Vergleichende Erziehungswissenscha� in der Lehrerausbildung -curriculare Überlegungen und Konsequenzen. In: Busch, F.W. u.a. (Eds.): Vergleichende Erziehungswissenscha� in der Lehrerausbildung. Eine internationale Bestandsaufnahme. Oldenburg, pp. 31-51.

Bois-Reymond, Manuela du (1996): Das Schulwesen in Westeuropa - Entwicklungen oder Stagnation der Schulen? In: Helsper, Werner u.a. (Eds.): Schule und Gesellscha� im Umbruch. Band I: Theoretische und internationale Perspektiven. Weinheim, pp. 190-213.


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Brockmann, Jens & Bos, Wilfried (1998): Was Studierende der Erziehungswissenscha� en mit „Europa“ assoziieren. In: Tertium Comparationis. Journal für Internationale Bildungsforschung, Vol. 4, Nr. 1. Münster, New York, Berlin, pp. 54-67.Busch, Adelheid u.a. (Eds.)(1974): Vergleichende Erziehungswissenscha� . Texte zur Methodologie-Diskussion. Pullach.Busch, F.W. (1978): Between Tradition and Progress: Oldenburg University´s Model Plan for Comprehensive Teacher Training. In: ATEE-Journal, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 111-126.Busch, F.W. u.a. (Eds.) (1978a): Vergleichende Erziehungswissenscha� in der Lehrerausbildung. Eine internationale Bestandsaufnahme. OldenburgGlowka, Detlef (1996): England. In: Anweiler, Oskar u.a. (Eds.): Bildungssysteme in Europa. Entwicklung und Struktur in zehn Ländern. 4.Ed.., pp. 57-81.Gruschka, Andreas/ Herrmann, Ullrich u.a. (2005): Das Bildungswesen ist kein Wirtscha� sbetrieb. In Frankfurter Rundschau, 10. Okt. 2005, p. 7.Gudjons, Herbert (1995): Pädagogisches Grundwissen. Überblick -Kompendium -Studienbuch. 4.Ed. Bad Heilbrunn.Hansen, Georg (1994): Die nationalstaatlichen Eierschalen erziehungswissenscha� licher Theorien. In: Interkulturelle Pädagogik und Europäische Dimension. Herausforderungen für Bildungssystem und Erziehungswissenscha� . Münster, New York, pp. 189-198.Hatcher, Richard (1999): Schulen unter der neuen Labourregierung in England. Vortragsmanuskript. GEW Hessen, Frankfurt.Hentig, Hartmut von (1996): Bildung. München.Hentig, Hartmut von (1996a): Aber das schwierigste Pensum ist die Geschichtlichkeit. In: Frankfurter Rundschau Nr. 182, S. 16.Herrlitz, Hans-Georg (1994): Lob der Institution Schule. Oder: Gegen eine vorschnelle Organisationskritik. In: Friedrich Jahreshe� . S. 28-30.Hilker, Franz(1962): Vergleichende Pädagogik. Eine Einführung in ihre Geschichte, Theorie und Praxis. München.Hörner, Wolfgang (1996): Einführung: Bildungssysteme in Europa -Überlegungen zu einer vergleichenden Betrachtung. In: Anweiler, Oskar u.a. (Eds.): Bildungssysteme in Europa. Entwicklung und Struktur des Bildungswesens in zehn Ländern. 4. Ed., pp. 13-29.

Mi� er, Wolfgang (1998): Globalisierung im Bildungswesen zwischen Realität und Utopie. In: Bildung und Erziehung, 51 (1998), H. 1, pp. 101-106.Radtke, Frank-Olaf/ Tenorth, Heinz-Elmar (2006): Pro und Kontra: Ökonomisierung des Bildungswesens. In: Erziehung und Wissenscha� . Zeitschri� der Bildungsgewerkscha� GEW, H. 1, pp. 18-19.Ranin, Udo & Williams, Sarah (1996): Das „national curriculum“ in England und Wales. In: Pädagogik 1996, H. 5, pp. 18-22.Rolff , Hans-Günther & Zimmermann, Peter (1992): Kindheit im Wandel. Weinheim, Basel.Seidenfaden, Fritz (1966): Der Vergleich in der Pädagogik. Braunschweig.Thomas, Helga (1972): Kriterien für die Auswahl von Fragestellungen interkulturell vergleichender Bildungsforschung. In: IZE, 18, H. 3, pp. 297-304.Tillmann, Klaus-Jürgen (1995): Autonomie der Schule – Illusion oder realistische Reformperspektive? Oldenburg.Winter, Klaus (1997): Die Entwicklung nationaler Bildungssysteme unter den Bedingungen der europäischen Vereinigung. Oldenburg.

Contact:Prof. Dr. Klaus Winter Faculty of EducationCarl-von-Ossietzky Universität D-26111 OldenburgGermany

Primary School Teacher Training Programs in Terms ...Primary School Teacher Training Programs in Terms ...

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ABSTRACTFor training European citizens having consciousness of the European citizenship, a necessity to the teachers who have this consciousness and share the common values of European Communities emerges. For training these teachers, the teacher training programs having the same curriculum and objectives are needed. That’s why, the teacher training programs play a pivotal role for the integration of Europe. In this context, the purpose of this study is fi rst to analyse the primary school teacher training programs of Turkey and some European Union Countries, second to discuss the role and importance of a common (joint) primary school teacher training program in terms of gaining consciousness of the European citizenship, third to draw conclusions and suggestions soon applicable. In consequence, the study aims to present the state of primary school teacher training in Turkey in terms of the state in Europe. In conclusion, it can be stated that there are similar courses which are aimed to increase the consciousness of European Citizenship in terms of content and objective in the curricula of the countries in the study. However, the educational basis, and teaching of European Citizenship in primary school teacher training can be thought as weak a� er all.

Key Words: The European Citizenship, Primary School Teacher Training , and Global Teacher.

PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHER TRAINING PROGRAMS IN TERMS OF GAINING CONSCIOUSNESS OF EUROPEAN CITIZENSHIP

Ahmet SAHIN, Akdeniz University Antalya, Turkey

ABSTRACT IN TURKISH Avrupalılık bilincine sahip Avrupa vatandaşları yetiştirmek için aynı bilincine sahip ve Avrupa Birliği’nin ortak değerlerini paylaşan öğretmenlere ihtiyaç vardır. Bu öğretmenleri yetiştirmek için de aynı hedef ve içeriğe sahip öğretmen yetiştirme programlarının gerekliliği gündeme gelmektedir. Bu açıdan, Avrupa Birliği’nin bütünleşme sürecinde öğretmen yetiştirme programlarının önemli bir rol oynadığı söylenebilir. Bu bağlamda, çalışmanın amacı, ilk olarak bazı Avrupa ülkelerinin ve Türkiye’nin sınıf öğretmeni yetiştirme programlarını karşılaştımalı çerçevede çözümlemek, daha sonra ortak bir sınıf öğretmeni yetiştirme programının Avrupalılık bilincini kazandırmadaki rolünü tartışmak, uygulanabilir sonuç ve öneriler geliştirmektir. Sonuç olarak, çalışma Avrupa Birliği’ne uyum sürecinde Türkiye’deki mevcut sınıf öğretmeni yetiştirme programının durumunu ortaya koymaya çalışmaktadır.Sonuç olarak, çalışmadaki ülkelerin müfredatlarında Avrupalılık bilincini geliştirmeye yönelik, içerik ve amaç yönünden benzerlik gösteren ortak derslerin bulunduğunu söylenebilir. Ancak, yine de sınıf öğretmeni yetiştirmede eğitsel dayanakların ve Avrupa Vatandaşlığı öğretiminin zayıf kaldığı söylenebilir.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Avrupa Vatandaşlığı, Sınıf Öğretmeni Yetiştirme ve Global Öğretmen.

1. INTRODUCTIONIn terms of healthy evolution of European integration it has crucial signifi cance that teachers, one of the key elements of education, should have universal values, and serve needs in rapidly changing world. If it is thought that teachers are the most eff ective variable on students, integration process of European Union (EU) in terms of sociological, economical, and cultural dimensions put teachers’ qualifi cation to the focus of the all problems. From this point of view, increasing teachers’ competencies, and training teachers as being respectful to the cultural diff erences, as individuals imbibed common values can supply signifi cant contribution to the integration of EU. Already, the importance of education has been reiterated in many reports and declarations with the emergence of the knowledge society in the twenty-fi rst century (Eurydice, 2002, p.ix). Education is a priority for modern societies because it is seen as a means to create a viable unifi ed society with common goals and a shared value system (Lindsay & Parro� , 1998, p.342). However, in the integration


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process of the EU, the main aim of the education can be stated as not to create a nation, on the contrary, to create European citizens sharing common values, and having respect for cultural, and economical diff erences. That’s why, young people must be able to meet and adapt to the demands of an economic and social context undergoing massive change. While they need to have knowledge of specifi c essential subjects such as new information and communication technology and foreign languages, they also need to be made aware of and become commi� ed to the human values of tolerance and sharing. Teachers play an essential part in this formative process, with the result that society as a whole nurtures great expectations vis-à-vis the teaching profession. Teachers make an important contribution by giving young people the tools to integrate into a constantly changing world (Eurydice, 2002, p.ix). It can be stated that, nations have given the duty of training creative, responsible, and successful young citizens of the future, to the teachers through their own educational philosophy and objectives. In other words, teacher training is accepted as dominant element of man training process (Ataünal, 1992, p.379; Erjem, 1998, p.152).

Nations have begun to expect more things from teachers day by day. Teachers have gained a variety of classroom activities by the rapid increase of diversity among students in culture and language, by increasing the standard of classes in terms of educational goals, and improving instructional methods using new technology and educational materials. In relation to these, both training and activities of teachers have also become diff erent and increased in variety. On the one hand, society expects teachers to protect and preserve cultural heritage; on the other hand, it also expects teachers to help individuals adapt themselves to social and economical change in an international magnitude. From the standpoint of Europe the opening of the borders to circulation in wide extend, and from the world perspective diff erent values that emerged with the globalization and rapidly changing situations made teachers necessary to evaluate teachers in quantitative and qualitative aspects. It is necessary that teachers must be also trained in the competence of global thinking as well as international specialization and training concepts for supporting teachers to be able to adopt themselves to the working conditions and life in rapidly changing social status.

All these contemporary changes, developments, and globalization have necessitated handling the teacher training in international dimension(Güven, 2001). In this respect, globalization has a close relation with education. As education has an important place in shaping a society, it has to be connected with globalization, and the global activities have a deep impact in education (Çelik & Gömleksiz, 2000, p.137). Indeed, as Welch (2001, p.478) points out, globalisation processes are having substantial eff ects on education and nations. Today, education is a major policy concern in all European countries. Changes in economic and social structures, most importantly the development of the knowledge economy, have created a demand for higher standards of education. So, teachers are a key element in the policy concerns of education and of teacher education, a major process through which the educational challenges of the twenty-fi rst century are mediated (Moon, 2003a, p.321).

The gradual and continuing evolution of European integration indicates a profound change in the role and the signifi cance of the nation state and creates new realities for the peoples of European countries (Preub, 1996, p.547; Ryba, 2000, p.244). If these realities are to be fully appreciated and fully integrated into the lives of future citizens of those countries, it is clear that the national educational systems concerned, and particularly the curricula of those systems, need to respond appropriately. Opportunities have to be created for the adaptation of such systems and their curricula to the new needs, opportunities, and responsibilities implied if the results of greater European integration are to be made fully meaningful to the populations involved. What is needed is the development and inclusion of a proper European dimension in the curriculum and the other activities of schools. Only when this is achieved education in European countries will be appropriately adapted to the new situation (Ryba, 2000, p.244). Therefore, in European countries many a� empts have been made to educate young people for citizenship education (Sutherland, 2002, p.77).

In the integration process of the EU, there are related topics and challenges such as a society that is adapted to information era, new service sectors, qualitative work force, high living standards, democratic improvements and competitiveness. For solving these


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challenges, it can be said that it is important to train individuals who are qualifi ed with various skills, can adapt themselves to changing situations and believe in importance of life long learning (Kısakürek, 2003, p.1). Also, having intellectual background, the capability of researching, and consciousness of the European citizenship in training individuals have been signifi cant. In the integration process of European countries, issues such as primary school teacher training, language learning, learning of cultures and implementations of the EU countries bilaterally can be thought as necessary. That’s why, it would be stated that, curriculum of primary school teacher training programs play an essential role in European Citizenship Education. And related special skills courses in the curriculum of the teacher training may be directed into gaining the consciousness of European Citizenship. For all these reasons, education has become one of the issues EU gives priority. In this context, it can be said that primary school teacher training has become one of the most decisive domains of change in EU and in European education (Novoa, 2000, p.61). Since primary school has signifi cant importance as being fi rst and eff ective level in teaching material, moral, sociological, and cultural values to the students.

That’s why the purpose of this study is fi rst to analyze the primary school teacher training programs of Turkey and EU Countries, second to discuss the role and importance of a common primary school teacher training program in terms of special skills courses for European citizenship education and gaining consciousness of the European citizenship, third to draw conclusions and suggestions soon applicable. In consequence, the study aims to present the state of primary school teacher training in Turkey in terms of the state in Europe.

1.1. Citizenship Education Debates in EuropeWith the signing of the Treaty of Maastricht in 1992, European integration reached a new level. The introduction of a European Citizenship in the treaty was one of the most remarkable steps in the restructuring of relations between member states, and the emerging policy of the EU. A large amount of a� ention has been paid to the meaning, purpose and desirability of citizenship (Borja, 2000, p.47; Delaney & Barani, 2003, p.95; Lemke, 1998, p.212; The Treaty of

Maastricht, 1992). However, it can be stated that there are several opposite opinions about Euorpean Citizenship since 1992. According to one of these opinions, European Citizenship is not something more than a dream (Borja, 2000, p.47). According to the others, it is a possible objective, and it refers to be active and responsible citizens capable of contributing to the development and well-being of the society in which they live, and it refers to have all rights and freedoms supported by EU in international context (Eurydice, 2005, p.10). Indeed, European Citizenship is more an amplifi ed bundle of options within a physically broadened and functionally more diff erentiated space than a defi nitive legal status (Preub, 1995, p.280). At the same time, European Citizenship is a complex and multilayered concept. It is neither the compilation of periviously existing rights, duties, and benefi ts granted by individual member states, nor is the political application of European community rights derived from a common European state and a common identity (Lemke, 1998, p.213). This newly created ‘citizenship’ has been critiqued by many as lacking substance, or for being merely a toothless symbolic concession to those pushing for an ‘ever closer union’, without concrete eff ects. Some scholars dispute the need for a European citizenship at all, instead calling for a total reformulation of the concept of citizenship (Delaney & Barani, 2003, p.95). According to Licita and Klein (2002, p.323), the EU is generally perceived as endorsing universalistic and multi-cultural values. However, social identity and self-categorization theories predict that, when certain conditions are met, a negative relation between in-group identifi cation and tolerance towards out-group members should be observed. The creation of the status of ‘Citizen of the Union’ in Maastricht may contribute to meeting those conditions and therefore to increase intolerance towards resident foreigners. That is to say, without education systems, teachers, and teacher training programs directed to gaining consciousness of European citizenship, it can be stated that European citizenship cannot be understood by future citizens of Europe. Since, there are willingness, being voluntary, good, and positive feelings in the centre of integration process. One of the key persons who will increase and teach these feelings to human beings is the teacher.

As mentioned above, there are not only positive opinions about European Citizenship and European Identity, but also there are


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negative opinions. However, EU is seen as stable through European Citizenship and European Identity politics in the context of increasing the consciousness of European Citizenship in spite of the negative opinions. In this context, it can be stated that teachers play a dominant and signifi cant role in combining and introducing diff erent cultures, in training future citizens of Europe, and in teaching the rights that they have. That’s why Primary School Teacher Training Programs can be seen as important in terms of training primary school teacher candidates through the objectives determined before. Today at the beginning of the twenty-fi rst century, Europe is also a� empting to achieve a new form of cultural homogenization related to the conscious promotion of a European identity in the curricula of schools education systems of the member slates of the EU, where implementation in curricula and teacher preparation still remain limited (Schriewer, Orivel, & Swing, 2000, p.17-18). Citizenship education has never been far from the top of the political and educational agenda in the European Countries.

Nowadays European citizenship can be seen as a reality in that there are political institutions such as the European Parliament, Commission and Court of Justice, and in that individual citizens have legal rights and duties associated with those institutions. There is also the strong possibility that European citizenship exists in other less tangible forms relating to a sense of what it means to be European (Arthur et al., 2001, p.114). In Magna Charta Universitatum (1988), and in Sorbonne Joint Declaration (1998), it is emphasised that future of mankind depends on cultural, scientifi c and technological improvements and also the Universities‘ central role in developing European cultural dimensions is obviously stressed. In Bologna declaration (1999), the Europe of knowledge has been widely recognised as an irreplaceable factor for social and human growth and as an indispensable component to consolidate and enrich the European citizenship, capable of giving its citizens the necessary competences to face the challenges of the new millennium, together with an awareness of shared values and belonging to a common social and cultural space.

In the integration of Europe, it is necessary to promote coordination and the precautions which can solve the challenges that can be

caused by diff erences among the member countries’ higher education systems. Therefore, for training individuals having the consciousness of the European Citizenship, it can be said that adaptation of primary school teacher training programs’ curriculum contents and policies are necessary. For training European citizens having consciousness of the European citizenship, a necessity to the teachers who have this consciousness and share the common values of European Communities emerges. In primary school teacher training programs, evaluating personnel, and cultural development, special skills, and specialization courses diff erent from subject knowledge and pedagogy courses may result in more eff ective and direct outcomes in terms of creating consciousness of the European citizenship. That’s why, for training these teachers, the teacher training programs having joint curriculum and objectives directed to personnel, and cultural development, special skills, and specialization courses in terms of European citizenship education are needed. That’s why, the teacher training programs play a pivotal role for the integration of Europe.

2. DISCUSSIONIn this part of the study comparative perspectives of primary school teacher training programs in The Netherlands, Germany, England, Austria, France, and Turkey are presented in terms of the criteria such as: Institutions, Level, Duration and Models of Training; Admission Requirements; Curriculum, Special Skills and Specialisation; Curriculum Provisions; Citizenship Education and Certifi cates. However, the need for a common (joint) primary school teacher training program, and European dimension of citizenship education in primary school teacher training programs are more stressed.In Table 1, Institutions, Levels, Durations and Models of Primary School Teacher Training Programs are compared.


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Table 1. Comparing Institutions, Levels, Durations and Models of Primary School Teacher Training Programs

Countries Teacher Training Institutions Level Duration Models of Training

Austria Teacher training colleges Non-university 3 years Concurrent program

England Higher education institutes (HEI), SCITTs, and universities

Undergraduate 4 years Concurrent program

Postgraduate + 1 year

France IUFMs (State higher education institutes) created one in each academyPrivate sector schoolteachers are trained in private teacher training centres (CFPP).

Non-university 2 years Consecutive program

Germany Courses are off ered at universities, colleges of education, and colleges of art and music. Practical pedagogic training (preparatory service) takes place in teacher training institutes and training schools

University 4 years Consecutive program

The Netherlands

HBO institutions and colleges providing primary teacher training

Non-university 4 years Concurrent program

Turkey Faculty of Education in University

Under-graduate 4 years Concurrent program

Sources: Deane, 2003, pp.120-124; Eurydice, 2001/2002; Eurydice, 2002/2003a; Eurydice, 2002/2003b; Eurydice, 2002/2003c; Eurydice, 2003/2004; Moon, 2003b, p.73; Schratz & Resinger, 2003, p.18; Terhart, 2003, p.142.

According to Table 1, primary school teacher training institutes, levels, duration and models of primary school teacher training programs diff er within each other. In The Netherlands, France and Austria, training of Primary School Teachers are off ered in the institutions or colleges that are non-university level. Germany, England, and Turkey off er university level programs. As there are diff erences among the programs analyzed above, there are also considerable diff erences in

the duration of the programs. In terms of the duration of the programs, a mean does not seem to have been established. The lengths of the programs changes between two and fi ve years. In terms of models of the programs, Turkey, Austria, The Netherlands, and England off er concurrent programmes in which studies in subjects and in education and didactics are carried out from the beginning. Whereas, primary school teacher training programs off ered in Germany, and France are consecutive programmes in which subject courses are fi rst taken, and pedagogical training begins a� erwards (Terhart, 2003, p.142). In Germany teacher training is basically divided into two stages, a course of higher education and practical pedagogic training. Teacher training courses are off ered at universities, colleges of education, and colleges of art and music. Practical pedagogic training in the form of a preparatory service takes place in teacher training institutes and training schools (Eurydice, 2002/2003b; Terhart, 2003, p.142). In England the main route into teaching is through a one-year postgraduate course provided by universities. An alternative is through a usual four-year, undergraduate Bachelor of Education course programme, again off ered by higher education institutions (HEIs) in universities. These courses have a lineage that goes back to the primary level courses of the teacher training colleges (Eurydice, 2003/2004; Moon, 2003b, p.73). In France State Higher Education Institutions (IUFMs) are responsible for primary school teacher training. In association with universities, the fi rst IUFM year is a preparation for the diff erent competitive exams for fi rst and second level teachers. Private sector schoolteachers are trained in private teacher training centres (CFPPs), the equivalent of IUFMs. The organisation of training is based on the combination of theoretical training and practical training throughout the course (Deane, 2003, pp.120-124; Eurydice, 2001/2002). In Austria students intending to teach in a compulsory school must go either to the federal teacher training colleges or to the colleges run by the Roman Catholic Church (Eurydice, 2002/2003a; Schratz, and Resinger, 2003, p.18).

Briefl y, in most countries analyzed in this study, primary school teacher training programs appear to be off ered by a variety of institutions that have diff erent structures.


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Table 2. Comparing Admission Requirements of Primary School Teacher Training Programs

Country Admission Requirements

Austria A matriculation examination completed at an academic secondary school or a matriculation and diploma examination taken at a secondary technical and vocational college or a special type of matriculation examination allowing unlimited access to university.

England Interview, supporting statement, etc. (school leaving qualifi cations)

France The IUFMs are free to develop their own recruitment policies. Either to submit a dossier and be called for an interview, or sit a multiple-choice type examination or an examination combining various formulas.

Germany The higher education entrance qualifi cation, which is acquired a� er a� ending school for 12 or 13 years and passing the Abitur (school leaving certifi cate) examination.

The Netherlands

A senior general secondary education, pre-university education or secondary vocational education certifi cate. In the la� er case completing middle-management or specialist training.

Turkey A secondary school leaving certifi cate plus a suffi cient score at the Student Selection Examination (ÖSS).

Source: Deane, 2003, pp.120-124; Eurydice, 2001/2002; Eurydice, 2002/2003a; Eurydice, 2002/2003b; Eurydice, 2002/2003c; Eurydice, 2003/2004; Moon, 2003b, p.73; Reichert & Tauch, 2003, p.128; Schratz & Resinger, 2003, p.18; Terhart, 2003, p.142.

According to Table 2, although certain criteria are required in admission to the Primary School Teacher Training Programs in all countries in the sample of study, it can be stated that admission requirements diff er from each other in dimensions of structure and process.

Table 3. Comparing Curricula, Special Skills and Specialisation of Primary School Teacher Training Programs

Country Curricula, Special Skills and Specialisation

Austria Students are trained within four areas: Humanities; Subjects and didactics; Additional courses and School practice. Teacher education programmes are giving increased a� ention to the growing importance of internationalization, comparative education, exchange programmes, and participation in European projects. The curricula in terms of the European dimension, modern communication and information technologies in teacher training colleges are being redesigned.

England The publication ‘Qualifying to Teach’ identifi es and exemplifi es the standards in order for Qualifi ed Teacher Status (QTS). The standards for the award of QTS are organised in three interrelated sections: Professional values and practice; knowledge and understanding; teaching.

France The fi rst year of primary school teacher training includes: 1. A common core: French, mathematics, and physical education; 2. Two options: First option: history/geography or biology or physics/ technology. Second option: musical education or art or modern languages; 3. General training in psychology, the educational sciences, philosophy, teaching strategies, and tools; 4. School practices. The second year includes: Teaching modules involving work on personal, pedagogical, and didactic subject knowledge. They also deal with life in schools, school and vocational guidance, laws on child protection, teenager psychology and sociology, information and communications technology (ICT); professional thesis and school experience.

Germany Subject-related didactics with the study of at least two subjects or subject areas; an educational science component with compulsory study of educational theory and psychology; plus a choice of additional study areas (e.g. philosophy, social sciences/ politics and theology) and teaching practice. An elective or specialised subject as well as primary school didactics. The preparatory service as the second stage of teacher training involves si� ing in on lessons, guided and independent teaching at training schools and studies in educational theory and subject-related didactics at teacher training colleges.

The Netherlands

Courses consist of a propaedeutic part and the main part. The propaedeutic part lasts one year and the main part three years. Teaching practice is an important component and is compulsory. HBO institutions off er tailor-made courses for various groups, integrate ICT into courses, work with schools to train teachers, and adapt courses in line with the standards of competence.

Turkey Students are trained within four areas: Subject Knowledge; Pedagogy, minor profession (additional to major branch, class teaching); elective courses devoted to special skills; and School practice. Basic Citizenship Wrights, World Geography, Basic Computer Skills, Environmental Science, History of Civilization, Foreign Language (mostly English) are some of the obligatory courses.

Source: Deane, 2003, pp.120-124; Eurydice, 2001/2002; Eurydice, 2002/2003a; Eurydice, 2002/2003b; Eurydice, 2002/2003c; Eurydice, 2003/2004; Moon, 2003b, p.73; Schratz & Resinger, 2003, p.19; Terhart, 2003, p.142; YÖK, 1998, s.20.


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Primary school teacher training programs’ curricula of the analyzed countries in Table 3 is generally composed of subject knowledge, common core subjects, pedagogy courses, additional or special skills courses and school practice. And it can be stated that curricula of the countries in the study have similarities in some aspects. In addition, it can be stated that re-scrutinizing of the curriculum in terms of European dimension, and adding new courses which aim to equip teachers for being able to teach in multicultural environments in terms of special skills are important. At the same time, a harmonized curriculum will enable to increase the student mobility. That’s why, a harmonized primary school teacher training model can supply more student mobility. Thus, student mobility in teacher training institutes will be able to create a chance for the harmonization of the member countries’ cultures, and will probably enable to create a common culture and identity in EU.

Many European countries perceive the term ‘responsible citizenship’ as relating to certain civic values such as democracy, equality, participation, solidarity, tolerance of diversity and social justice, as well as the knowledge and exercise of rights and responsibilities. All European countries generally agree on the need to include citizenship education in the formal primary school curriculum in one way or another. However, the way it is developed and provided varies considerably from one country to the next. It may be off ered as a separate subject; or may be integrated into one or more subjects of which the topic forms part; or be conceived as a cross-curricular theme so that the principles of citizenship education might be present in all subjects of the curriculum (Eurydice, 2005, pp.17,18,59). In this context, diff erent terminologies and approaches related to the European Citizenship education are presented in Table 4.

Table 4. Curriculum provisions in Primary Education in Terms of Citizenship Education (2004/05)

Country Terminology Approach

Austria Civics education Cross-curricular theme

England PSHE, citizenship Integrated

France Language teaching, geography, history and civic education

Cross-curricular theme

Germany Regional geography and basic scientifi c and technical instruction

Integrated

The Netherlands Geography, history, society, environment self-reliance and healthy behaviour

Integrated

Turkey Life Studies (Life Knowledge and Skills), Social Studies

Integrated (In global dimension)

Source: Eurydice, 2001/2002; Eurydice, 2005, pp.70-77; MEB, 2004, p.8.

As seen in Table 4, there are related courses about European Citizenship in Primary Education level in EU Countries in the study. These courses are included to the curriculum as cross-curricular theme in France, and Austria. In Turkey, citizenship, equality, and democracy education are expected from primary school teachers via Life Studies, and Social Studies subjects in primary schools in terms of global and international context. Already, these issues are stressed in Basic Principles of Turkish National Education (National Education Basic Act, 1973).

According to Table 4, it would appear that there is no single prevailing general approach adopted by most countries. In primary education, most countries tend to off er citizenship education as either integrated into other subjects or treated as a cross-curricular theme. In secondary education, nearly half of all European countries have established a separate subject for teaching pupils citizenship (Eurydice, 2005, p.19,59). That’s why for enabling to teach courses related with European Citizenship, primary school teachers must be educated in this context. As far as the inclusion of citizenship education in primary teacher education is concerned, three distinct approaches are apparent. The acquisition of competence or skills relevant to citizenship may be included in the initial education of all teachers, a special programme taken only by those intending to


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teach citizenship education, or included solely in in-service teacher education (Eurydice, 2005, p.48). As related with the subject in Table 5 teacher training in the European dimension of citizenship education for primary education is presented.

Table 5. Citizenship Education for Primary Teacher Training in terms of Special Skills and Specialisation in European Dimension

Country Austria England France Germany The Netherlands

Turkey

Initial Teacher Training R NR R R NR GDI

In-service Teacher Training

I I I I NI NI

R: Recommendation on the inclusion of the European dimension in offi cial guidelinesI: The European dimension is included in the existing provisionNR: No recommendation on the inclusion of the European dimension in offi cial guidelinesNI: The European dimension is not included in the existing provisionGDI: The global dimension is included in the existing provision

Source: Eurydice, 2005, p.55; YÖK, 1998, pp.22-27.

In Germany, France, Austria and England, the European dimension of citizenship education is taken into account in the provision of in-service teacher training. In Germany, France, and Austria, the offi cial guidelines for initial teacher education also recommend that the institutions providing citizenship education should take account of the European dimension of education (Eurydice, 2005, p.55). In Turkey, the global dimension of citizenship education is included in the existing Primary Teacher Training program. In this context Basic Citizenship Rights, World Geography, Environmental Science, History of Civilization and Foreign Language (mostly English) courses are compulsory in Turkey (YÖK, 1998, s.22-27). Inclusion of the European dimension is mandatory in the initial training of all teachers in France (primary level) and Austria (compulsory education). In France initial teacher education for work at primary level includes civics, which takes account of the European dimension. In Austria citizenship education is included in teacher training for compulsory education and aspects of the European dimension are included in it (Eurydice, 2005, pp. 55-56). Most of the analyzed countries tend to train primary school teachers in in-service training. Whereas training primary school teachers in initial training in terms of European Citizenship Education may be more eff ective and productive. That’s why it would be advantageous that bringing joint

subjects in terms of European Citizenship Education into force in all European countries.

Briefl y it can be stated that there are similar courses which are aimed to increase the consciousness of European Citizenship in terms of content and objective in the curricula of the countries in the study. In this context, it is understood that teaching the courses which will adopt young citizens to the changing conditions of future, which will create a chance for the harmonization of the member countries’ cultures, and will probably enable to create a common culture and identity in terms of EU must be handled fi rstly. Therefore, adding such courses to primary school teacher training curriculum and forming a common or a harmonious primary school teacher training model can be seen as important.

Table 6. Comparing Certifi cates of Primary School Teacher Training Programs

Country Certifi cates

Austria Teaching diploma

England Students following a concurrent course receive the award of Qualifi ed Teacher Status and a Bachelor’s Degree. The Postgraduate Certifi cate in Education (PGCE) and QTS is awarded to those who have successfully completed courses of postgraduate initial teacher training; or a School-Centred Initial Teacher Training (SCITT) course.

France The fi rst level schoolteachers‘ vocational diploma (licence) is awarded a� er the successful completion of a course in the ‚‘IUFM‘‘ ‚‘ or CFPP. The second year curriculum is evaluated for the award of the certifi cate.

Germany A consecutive and modular structure of study: a three-year Bachelor’s study plus a one/two year Master’s study

The Netherlands

A certifi cate of higher professional education.

Turkey Diploma in Bachelor’s degree

Source: Deane, 2003, pp.120-124; Eurydice, 2001/2002; Eurydice, 2002/2003a; Eurydice, 2002/2003b; Eurydice, 2002/2003c; Eurydice, 2003/2004; Moon, 2003b, p.73; Reichert & Tauch, 2003, p.128; Schratz & Resinger, 2003, p.20; Terhart, 2003, pp.135-156.

According to Table 4, there are signifi cant diff erences in the evaluation and certifi cates criteria. So, it can be stated that diff erences


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in the evaluation and certifi cates criteria set handicaps for teaching profession and diploma approval in EU by the members. Therefore teacher mobility which means being able to work in all member countries will not be executed enough. Thus harmonization of the cultures, and development of cultural diversity consciousness in teacher candidates will be low. In addition, pu� ing European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) into practice eff ectively can be diffi cult because of the diff erences in evaluation and certifi cates criteria. Learning about diff erent cultures and the harmonization of cultures are seen as more possible with a common primary school teacher training program and primary school teacher candidates’ mobility.

While individual countries struggle to fi nd the best way of educating their future citizens and make diverse choices of methods, a new factor has recently been added to their planning. Member countries of the EU introduced the “European dimension” into the curriculum of their schools, an important decision since the Maastricht Treaty of 1992 conferred European citizenship on all citizens of the member states. Thus EU nations fi nd themselves with the task of guiding their young people to be European citizens and to think of themselves as having a European identity (Sutherland, 2002, p.87-92). In this context, teacher training, especially, primary school teacher training has become much more signifi cant.

Teacher education in Europe has a high degree of complexity and variation as refl ection of Europe, a continent with great disparities in language, culture and history (Garm & Karlsen, 2004, p.732). According to the analyzed primary school teacher training programs in this study, it is possible to say that the structures of teacher trainings for primary school take a variety of forms. That’s why, the redefi nition. of the goals of teacher education in terms of integrated competencies and European Dimension would appear an important change agent (Snoek & Wielenga, 2003, p.244).

3. CONCLUSION In conclusion, although EU countries in the study have diff erences in structure, process and special skills that are aimed to make them gain, it can be stated that these countries included courses related with European Citizenship to primary education, and make an

eff ort for training primary school teacher candidates. But it is seen that these eff orts are more focused in in-service training instead of initial teacher training. Including European Citizenship courses to the curricula, and harmonizing primary school teacher training programs with these additions for creating a common model can be stated as so important. When teacher training programs are harmonized or when a new common primary school teacher training program is created, teacher candidates will be trained more easily in order to shape young citizens of Europe. At the same time, a common or harmonious program will be able to increase the mobility of the teacher candidates, thus it will be easy that teacher candidates will be able to recognize and imbibe diff erent cultures, will be respectful to the cultures, and also it will be easy imbibing European dimension of citizenship. Like this, these teachers will be able to contribute to the sociological development of European identity. In other words, mobility of teacher candidates and exchange of academic staff of primary school teacher training institutes are so important in creating a common culture and European consciousness. At the same time, it can be stated that these exchange and mobility practices play a role as a signifi cant element for harmonizing the diff erent teacher training programs in terms of structure, purpose, content, ECTS and curriculum. However, it is restrictive for the mobility that primary school teacher training programs of the member countries are diff erent. Since primary education has an important role for introducing and adopting social and cultural values to the primary education age children.

Primary School Teacher Training Programs in Turkey have similarities with the programs in the EU in terms of structure, curriculum and courses. Courses in Turkish Primary School Teacher Training curriculum such as Basic Citizenship Rights, World Geography, Basic Computer Skills, Environmental Science, History of Civilization, and Foreign Language (mostly English) show that Turkey, aiming to train modern teacher citizens in teacher training, has already been trying to catch the globalizing world since the fi rst years of Turkish Republic. It can be stated that although Turkey, in the integration process of EU, has some defi ciencies like some of the member countries, it can easily adopt itself to the Europe teacher training system in case of a common primary school teacher training program is executed.


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Finally, it can be stated that there are similar courses which are aimed to increase the consciousness of European Citizenship in terms of content and objective in the curricula of the countries in the study. However, the educational basis, and teaching of European Citizenship in primary school teacher training can be thought as weak a� er all. That is to say, without a common primary school teacher training programs and without education systems directed to gaining consciousness of the European citizenship education, European citizenship will stay more a wish than a reality.

4. REFERENCESAtaünal, A. (1992). İlköğretim Okullarına Öğretmen Yetiştirme [Teacher Training for Primary Education]. Hace� epe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi Türkiye’de İlköğretim Sempozyumu, 8, 379-386.Baskan G. A. (2001). Öğretmenlik Mesleği ve Öğretmen Yetiştirmede Yeniden Yapılanma [Teaching Profession and Redesign in Teacher Training]. Ankara: Denge Matbaacılık.Borja, J. (2000). The Citizenship Question and the Challenge of Globalization The European Context. City, 4(1), 43-52.Çelik, V., &Gömleksiz, M. N. (2000). A Critical Examination of Globalization and Its Eff ects on Education. Fırat Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 10(2), 133-144.Deane, M. (2003). Teacher Education in France: Evolution or Revolution? In B. Moon., L. Vlasceanu. & L. C. Barrows (Eds.). Studies on Higher Education: Institutional Approaches to Teacher Education within Higher Education in Europe: Current Models and New Developments (pp. 109-134). Bucrahest: UNESCO.Delaney, E., & Barani, L. (2003). The Promotion of ‘Symmetrıcal’ European Citizenship: A Federal Perspective the Role of the European Court of Justice Considered. European Integration, 2003, 25 (2), 95–114Erjem, Y. (1998). Bir Öğretmen Yetiştirme Modeli Olarak Pedagojik Formasyon Programı Üzerine Sosyolojik Bir Araştırma [A Sociological Research in Pedagogical Formation Program as A Teacher Training Model]. Ç.Ü. Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 2(17), 151-164.Eurydice. (2002). Key Topics in Education in Europe Volume 3 The Teaching Profession in Europe: Profıle, Trends and Concerns

Report II Supply and Demand General Lower Secondary Education. Brussels: Eurydice European Unit.Eurydice. (2001/2002).The Education System in France. Retrieved May 15, 2005, from The Information Network on Education in Europe Web site: h� p://www.eurydice.org/ Eurybase/frameset_eurybase.htmlEurydice. (2002/2003a). The Education System in Austria. Retrieved May 15, 2005, from The Information Network on Education in Europe Web site: h� p://www.eurydice.org/ Eurybase/Application/ frameset.asp? country=AT&language=ENEurydice. (2002/2003b).The Education System in Germany. Retrieved August 18, 2005, from The Information Network on Education in Europe Web site: h� p://www.eurydice.org/ Eurybase/Application/frameset.asp?country=DE&language=ENEurydice. (2002/2003c).The Education System in the Netherlands. Retrieved May 15, 2005, from The Information Network on Education in Europe Web site: h� p://www.eurydice.org /Eurybase/Application/frameset.asp?country=NL&language=ENEurydice. (2003/2004).The Education System in the United Kingdom (England, Wales and Northern Ireland). Retrieved May 15, 2005, from The Information Network on Education in Europe Web site: h� p://www.eurydice.org/Eurybase/Application/frameset.asp?country= UK&language=VOEurydice. (2005). Citizenship Education at School in Europe. Belgium: The Eurydice European UnitGarm, N.& Karlsen, G. E. (2004). Teacher Education Reform in Europe: The Case of Norway; Trends and Tensions in a Global Perspective. Teaching and Teacher Education, 20, 731-744.Güven, İ. (2001). Öğretmen Yetiştirmenin Uluslararası Boyutu (UNESCO 45. Uluslararası Eğitim Kongresi) [International Dimension of Teacher Training (UNESCO 45th International Education Congress)]. Milli Eğitim Dergisi, 150.Kısakürek, M. A. (2003). AB Eğitim Programları ve ECTS Uygulamaları [EU Education Programs and ECTS Practices]. Retrieved May 15, 2005, from Ankara University Web site: h� p://www.ankara.edu.tr/sonEcts/ abegitimects.docLemke, C. (1998). Citizenship and European Integration. World Aff airs. 64(4), 212-217.


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Licita, L. & Klein, O. (2002). Does European Citizenship Breed Xenophobia? European Identifi cation as a Predictor of Intolerance Towards Immigrants. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology. 12, 323–337.Lindsay, B. & Parro� , J. (1998). New Challenges for Educational and Social Policies in International Se� ings:A Review Essay. Comparative Education, 3(3), 341-347. MEB, (2004). İlköğretim 1, 2, 3. Sınıfl ar Hayat Bilgisi Dersi Programı ve Kılavuzu [Life Studies Subject Program and Prospectus for 1st-3rd Grades in Primary Education]. Ankara: Devlet Kitapları Müdürlüğü Basım Evi.Moon, B. (2003a). A Retrospective View of the National Case Studies on Institutional Approaches to Teacher Education. In B. Moon., L. Vlasceanu. & L. C. Barrows (Eds.). Studies on Higher Education: Institutional Approaches to Teacher Education within Higher Education in Europe: Current Models and New Developments (pp. 321-335). Bucrahest: UNESCO. Moon, B. (2003b). Teacher Education in England: Current Models and New Developments. In B. Moon., L. Vlasceanu. & L. C. Barrows (Eds.). Studies on Higher Education: Institutional Approaches to Teacher Education within Higher Education in Europe: Current Models and New Developments (pp.67-84). Bucrahest: UNESCO. National Education Basic Act. (1973). TR Offi cial Gaze� e. 24.6.1973 / 14574. No.1739. Novoa, A. (2000). The Teaching Profession in Europea: Historical and Sociological Analysis. In J. Schriewer., F. Orivel & E. S. Swing (Eds.). Problems and Prospects in European Education (pp.45-71). USA:Praeger Publishers. Preub, U. K. (1995). Problems of a Concept of European Citizenship. European Law Journal, 1(3), 267-281.Preub, U. K. (1996). Two Challenges to European Citizenship. Political Studies. XLIV, pp.534-552. Reichert, S. & Tauch, C. (2003). Trends 2003 Progress Towards the European Higher Education Area. EUA Genève.Ryba, R. (2000). Developing the European Dimension in Education: The Roles of the European Union and the Council of Europe. In J. Schriewer. F. Orivel& E. S. Swing (Eds.). Problems and Prospects in European Education (pp.244-261). USA:Praeger Publishers.

Schratz, M. & Resinger, P. J. (2003). Current Models and New Developments in Teacher Education in Austria. In B. Moon., L. Vlasceanu. & L. C. Barrows (Eds.). Studies on Higher Education: Institutional Approaches to Teacher Education within Higher Education in Europe: Current Models and New Developments (pp.17-34). Bucrahest: UNESCO. Schriewer, J., Orivel, F., & Swing, E. S. (2000). European Educational Systems: The Framework of Tradition, Systematic Expansion, and Challenges for Restructuring. In J. Schriewer., F. Orivel& E. S. Swing (Eds.). Problems and Prospects in European Education (pp.1-20). USA: Praeger Publishers. Snoek, M. & Wielenga, D. (2003). Teacher Education in the Netherlands: Changing Gears. In B. Moon., L. Vlasceanu. & L. C. Barrows (Eds.). Studies on Higher Education: Institutional Approaches to Teacher Education within Higher Education in Europe: Current Models and New Developments (pp.245-262). Bucrahest: UNESCO. Sorbonne Joint Declaration. (1998). Retrieved May 15, 2004, from web site:http://www.bolognaberlin2003.de/pdf/Sorbonne_declaration.pdfSutherland, M. (2002). Educating Citizens in Europe. European Education, 34(3), 77-94.Terhart, E. (2003). Teacher Education in Germany: The Current State and New Perspectives. In B. Moon., L. Vlasceanu. & L. C. Barrows (Eds.). Studies on Higher Education: Institutional Approaches to Teacher Education within Higher Education in Europe: Current Models and New Developments (pp.135-156). Bucrahest: UNESCO. The Bologna Declaration. (1999). Retrieved May 15, 2004, from web site: h� p://www.bolognaberlin2003.de/pdf/bologna_ declaration.pdfThe Magna Charta Universitatum (1988). Retrieved May 15, 2004, from web site: h� p://www.esib.org/BPC/docs/Archives /BPC001-Magna_Charta.pdfThe Treaty of Maastricht. (1992). Retrieved June 15, 2005, from Historiasiglo20 web site:h� p://www.historiasiglo20.org/europe/ciudadeuropea.htmWelch, A. R. (2001). Globalisation, Post-modernity and the State: Comparative Education Facing the Third Millennium. Comparative Education. 7(4), 475-492.


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YÖK. (1998). Eğitim Fakültesi Öğretmen Yetiştirme Lisans Programları [Undergraduate Teacher Training Programs in Facuty of Education]. Ankara:T.C. Yükseköğretim Kurulu Başkanlığı.

Correspondence: Ahmet Sahin, Research Assistant, Department of Educational Administration, Supervision, Planning and Economy, Akdeniz University Institute of Social Sciences.Address: Akdeniz Universitesi Egitim Fakultesi Dumlupinar Bulvari Kampus 07058 Antalya/TURKEYWeb:h� p://www.geocities.com/egitimdenetimiE-mails: [[email protected]] [[email protected]]

Teacher Education and Professional Development in Poland: Description, ...Teacher Education and Professional Development in Poland: Description, ...

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AbstractThe purpose of the paper is to outline and analyse the teacher education reforms in Poland. It is based on the studies conducted by author, as well as information, fi ndings derived from literature and reports dra� ed by national experts, which show changes to the profession that are considered to be reasonably representative by the national experts. This overview should be read as a short description of the most important changes aff ecting teacher education and the teaching profession and as an investigation into their aims and context in Poland. In conclusion, which is a commentary on the present situation of the Polish teachers, a few postulates and recommendations concerning their education and professional development are put forward.

Keywords: teacher education, teacher professional development, higher education reform, Bologna process, school improvement, educational change IntroductionThe paper examines initial and in-service teacher education in Poland from 1990 onwards. Having become a member of the European Union in 2004 problem defi nitions and education policies of the European Union have strongly begun to impact on the education discourse and on education policy in Poland. Against this background it seems to be challenging to analyse (i) which problems of teacher education and

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Joanna M. Michalak, University of Lodz, Poland

professional development emerged in the fi rst half of the nineties and what solutions they found until 2005, (ii) which new needs have emerged in the meanwhile, and (iii) which solutions are discussed recently to meet these adequately.The inspiration for the analysis of the problem discussed here rooted in the debates on the present and future shape of teacher education which are held among the theoreticians and practitioners in education. This paper refers to the assumption that the role of teachers and their lifelong learning and career development should be perceived as key priorities by policies at a national or regional level because teachers are key players in how education systems evolve and in the implementation of the reforms.

1. Preliminary remarks on the Polish school system There was and still is a close link between measures aiming at school improvement and those aiming at a reform of teacher education, where teacher education is mainly a successor of the school improvement. That is why teacher education shares both the strong points and the shortcomings of the school improvement. The latest changes in Polish education system merit closer examination. The period of political transformation, started in 1989, has brought about new legislation, which has become the basis for changes in education. The old education system was characterised by the primacy of information (understood as a set of facts) over skills, teaching by academic areas, the reduced educational role of the school and its lack of partnership with the pupils’ home, the narrow-specialisation and long-duration vocational training, the primacy of collective education over individual education. The most important reasons underlying the necessity to carry out a comprehensive reform of the education system in Poland were, as follow:

the lack of capacity within the education system to adapt to the pace and scope of economic, social and cultural change,

the crisis of the educational role of the school resulting from the predominance of the transmission of information over the development of skills and the shaping of personality,

the lack of equal opportunities in the access to education at all its levels and the low percentage of young people completing secondary and higher education,


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the necessity to adapt the education system to the provisions of the Constitution and the system reform of the State, the necessity to adapt vocational education to the changing needs of the market economy, the need to establish closer links between schools at all levels and the family, as well as the local community.

The new legislation permi� ed the development of non-state schools and changes in the structure of enrolment at the post-primary level (a higher percentage of youth a� ending general secondary schools), as well as the triplicate the number of students a� ending institutions of higher education. The reform of the State administration system and the education reform assume that only the nation educational policy will be developed and carried out centrally, while the administration of education and the running of schools, pre-school institutions and other educational establishments will be decentralised. The responsibility for the administration of public nursery and primary schools (and since 1999/2000 also gymnasium) has been delegated to local authorities (at the lowest fi rst-level administration). It has become the statutory responsibility of the middle, second level administration to administer secondary, artistic, and special schools.

The preliminary evaluation of the introduced schooling system education reveals that among the problems in need of quick and eff ective solution are:- providing equal educational opportunities;- accurate shaping of key skills;- improving the system of students’ appraisal inside and outside

schools;- modifi cation of the professional development system;- introduction of the system of the professional qualifi cation

standards;- improving the way of the education system fi nancing;- introduction of new strategies of educating and training of

teachers.

2. Description of teacher education and professional development in Poland This part of the paper will present a description of system of pre-service and in-service teacher education in Poland and discuss the

following issues: degree of autonomy and management of higher teacher education institutions, profi le of qualifi cation and content of teacher training, changes in the structure of initial teacher education, and continuous professional development of teachers.

2.1. Pre-service training of Polish teachersIn Poland pedagogical education at university level is characterised by an exceptional variety of features as well as ways in which it functions. At the present teachers for diff erent types of schools are undergoing diff erent forms of education in diff erent institutions with variations in the duration of courses and an implied diff erence in status later on. There exist (i) diff erent types of ITE bound to diff erent types of schools, (ii) organised at separate institutions, (iii) organised in diff erent forms of education (which can have the form of one-specialisation or two-specialisation studies and fi ve-year unifi ed graduate studies: the graduates are awarded the master’s degree or fi ve-year two-stage graduate studies consisting of three-year undergraduate studies followed by two-year graduate studies: a� er the former the graduate is granted the “licencjat” degree, while the la� er end with the master’s degree), and diff erent systems of education (which may be stationary, extramural or evening ones).

Within the educational institutions which prepare future teachers we can distinguish:a) Pedagogical Academies and Higher Schools of Education,

whose goal is to prepare prospective teachers for primary and secondary schools and also other educational institutions. Their internal structure is similar to the University one with the focus on educational specialisations, but in the last few years many of them have started other departments not directly connected with teaching (because they want to increase their funds).

b) Teacher Training Colleges train candidates (including in-service teaches) who intend to work as teachers in nursery schools, primary schools and other educational establishments. A teacher training college may only be established and function on the basis of an agreement with a higher education institution which off ers teacher training; this agreement covers issues such as scientifi c and educational supervision, requirements for graduates to be awarded the title of licencjat (corresponding to bachelor) and


2727

the possibility of their undertaking complementary magister (corresponding to master) level courses in the partner higher education institution. Applicants are enrolled on the basis of their maturity certifi cate and the result obtained in an entrance examination, with the contents of this examination defi ned by the college. Teacher training colleges off er 3-year day-, evening- and extramural courses. Education is organized within specialisations which correspond to the subjects to be taught by future teachers or the types of activities for which future teachers will be responsible in schools and educational establishments. Courses end with a diploma examination. Graduates are awarded the diploma of completion of education in the teacher training college (dyplom ukończenia kolegium nauczycielskiego) and the professional title of licencjat, the la� er conferred by the higher education institution which supervises a given college. The diploma a� ests to qualifi cations which entitle its holder to teach in a given type of school or establishment. The title of licencjat opens the way for continuation of study in a higher education institution.which prepares primary school teachers.

c) Universities, which either off er pedagogical specialisations by the university departments of teacher education or make it possible for students of non-pedagogical specialisations to obtain teacher’s qualifi cations at subject department of university (prospective teachers are educated at university graduate studies combined with a pedagogical course and training periods in primary and/or secondary schools).

d) Higher School of Special Pedagogy, which prepares teachers for work with pupils having various (especially mental) impairments.

e) Non-state Institutions of Higher Education educating teachers, which are authorised to grant both the undergraduate professional degree of “licencjat” and the graduate professional degree of “magister”.

f) Technical Universities, Polytechnics and Higher Schools of Engineering, which educate above-all cra� s teachers. However, there are some that off er pedagogical specialisations where the future teachers of mathematics, physics, chemistry and similar subjects are trained.

g) Physical Education Academies, which instruct teachers of physical education.

h) Other Institutions of Higher Education such as Higher Schools of Economy, Arts Academies, Musical Academies, Agricultural Academies and Medical Academies, which off er pedagogical courses similar to the University ones. These courses make it possible for the students willing to pursue teaching careers to obtain pedagogical qualifi cations.

2.2. Profi le of qualifi cation and content of trainingThe process of improving the eff ectiveness of teacher training started in 1989 continues. In 1998 the Ministry of National Education set up a Teacher Training Council (Banach, 2001) which advocated the creation of a uniform regulatory system for the training and professional development of teachers, together with a single system of accreditation, and also proposed the defi nition of the requirements for the basic components of teacher training and of the curricula for each level of training. Recently the standard requirements for teachers – as university graduates were created.

In the Act of 27th June, 2003 amending the Act on the Educational System and some other acts (Dziennik Ustaw issue 137 section 1304), the regulations in articles 4 and 4a of the Act on Higher Education and article 5 of the Act on Professional Schools of Higher Education were changed. The introduction of these regulations on 1st October 2004 made it necessary to change the manner and scope of teacher education.

In the addendum to the Minister of National Education‘s regulation of 7th September 2004 concerning the teacher education standards, the preparation requirements for practicing his profession a graduate of the teacher education specialisation should possess. According to the regulations issued by the Ministry of National Education, the graduate from the Master‘s and doctoral studies with teaching specialisation should be prepared to carry out comprehensively teaching and educational school tasks. With reference to that he should have preparation in:


2828

1) chosen teacher specialisations in such a way that it enables the teacher to convey acquired knowledge competently as well as to deepen and update it on his own and to integrate it with other fi elds of knowledge;

2) psychology and pedagogy in order to be able to perform educational role, support extensive student development, idividualise teaching process, meet particular student‘s educational needs, organise community life on the classroom, school and local environment levels, cooperate with other teachers, parents and local community;

3) subject didactics in order to eff ectively conduct classes, arouse cognitive interests and support students‘ intellectual development by means of skillful choice of stimulating methods, teaching techniques and didactic means, as well as to examine and assess students‘ achievements and their own practice;

4) the use of information technology, including its application to subject teaching (conducting classes);

5) advanced command of a foreign language.

The graduate from Master‘s and doctoral studies with teaching specialization should also be prepared for:

1) cooperation with pupils and teachers, pupil‘s parental environment and community environment outside the school in order to carry out educational tasks;

2) undertaking educational tasks exceeding the curriculum content of the subject taught in the classes and tasks concerning extra-school education;

3) independent creation and verifi cation of his own actions and undertaking actions promoting models of good pedagogical practice;

4) managing his own professional and personal development and undertaking in-service training, also in cooperation with other teachers;

5) using legal regulations concerning the educational system and the teachers‘ professional status.

In the view of such demands it is assumed that the preparation for the teaching profession should lead to acquiring the following competencies:

1) didactic;2) educational and social – connected with the ability to recognize

pupils‘ needs and ability to interpersonal cooperation;3) creative – i.e. ability to self-educate, innovativeness and originality

of actions in connection with adaptational skills, mobility and fl exibility;

4) praxeological – i.e. eff ectiveness of planning, carrying out, organizing and monitoring of educational processes;

5) communicative – i.e. eff ectiveness of verbal and non-verbal actions in educational situations;

6) media and information ones – i.e. skillfulness in information technology, especially its aplication in teaching (conducting classes);

7) linguistic – i.e. the command of at least one foreign language at an advanced lvel;

To sum up, as a result of the introduced changes, during their studies students preparing for work in primary and lower secondary schools are to obtain qualifi cations for teaching two subjects (conducting two types of classes), one of which is a main subject and the other a supplementary one. Extramural graduate studies cover one or two specialisations. During the studies language classes are provided in such a number of teaching units which allows achieving the advanced command of a foreign language as well as information technology classes preparing for its application in the didacticts of the subject.

The State Accreditation Commission educational standards stem from the assumption that all teachers should be graduates from higher education institutions or their equivalents and every teacher should have the opportunity to continue his/her education to the highest level in order to develop teaching competences and to increase opportunities for progression within the profession. Teacher education should have an emphasis on practical skills and an academic and scientifi c basis and provide teachers with the competence and confi dence to be refl ective practitioners and discerning in managing information and knowledge. Teaching profession should be placed within the context of lifelong learning. Therefore, teachers’ professional development should continue throughout their careers. Teachers need to be commi� ed to the


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process of lifelong learning. These principles of education policy ensure the status of the teaching profession and recognise the role of teachers as key factors in educational change.

2.3. Changes in the structure of initial teacher education The ministers of higher education in the signatory countries to the Bologna Declaration agreed on the need to establish a form of higher education structured into two cycles (Bacherlor/Master) to consolidate the European Higher Education Area by 2010. At the beginning of the 2004/05 academic year, the two-cycle structure was established in almost all Bologna Declaration signatory countries (Focus on the Structure …Eurydice 2005, p. 13). In Poland, the structure did not correspond exactly to the Bologna requirements. The adaptations or extensions required have been made since 2000. Polish higher education institutions, and among them teacher higher education institutions, still provide for long studies alongside those structured in two cycles. These long programmes will be permanently replaced by the two-cycle structure by 2010 at the latest. According to the standards of education at pedagogical specialisations in professional students of undergraduate study have to take bachelors programme of a minimum duration of 180 ECTS (which equals three years of full-time study). A� er completion the programme of undergraduate study students can apply for two-year graduate studies of a minimum duration of 120 ECTS (which equals two years of full-time study; graduates obtain the title of magister).

Although adoption of ECTS is not mandatory, it is gradually being introduced within teacher higher education institutions. Its implementation began under the Tempus (Phare) programme and is being continued under the Socrates programme. There is a Presidential Project for a law which foresees the obligatory introduction of ECTS in all establishments. From 1 January 2005, it is compulsory for all higher education institutions to issue the Diploma Supplement. The Supplement is available free of charge and issued automatically in Polish and on request in one of the fi ve languages: English, French, German, Spanish or Russian.

3. Link between initial training and professional development. CPD Framework One element of the new arrangement for teachers in Poland is a set of changes in the experience of probation for those embarking on their career, in the form of a new Induction Scheme which began in August 2000. Following Initial Teacher Education, beginning teachers are expected to prepare at beginning of their teaching each individual’s own development plan, which should be a part of the school’s development strategy. Support became an entitlement, with an experienced member of staff designated as a mentor. Probationers have to produce a portfolio of evidence by the end of their fi rst year of teaching to show that they have met the goals of their developmental plans. The head teacher makes the assessment of the professional teacher’s performance during his training period, in which the degree of the realisation of the professional development plan is taken into consideration. The positive assessment of the professional performance enables the commencement of the qualifi cation procedure for the title of the contract teacher. Having been awarded the title of the contract teacher they can work towards the Chartered Teacher Standard. Similarly as in the case of the probationer, the head teacher assigns a mentor, whose task is to support a contract teacher in preparation and realisation of the professional development plan. The mentor also prepares the dra� assessment of the contract teacher’s performance during his training period (in this case it doesn’t last longer than 2 years and 9 months).

The function of the new teacher’s induction into their fi rst school is to help the beginning teachers to construct their professional identity and professional practices suited for the realities of school and integrated into their conceptions of good teaching. The induction period encourage and motivate beginning teachers to be active agents instead of passively applying ideas or practices suggested by other people. Within schools the most important procedures include peer coaching, quality evaluation, appraisal, portfolio evaluation and collaboration on practical tasks.

Continual professional development of teachers is at the same time a right and a duty for teachers. Teachers and schools have responsibility for targets and contents. According to school plans and school


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developmental needs school themselves may decide who shall be the providers of continual professional development activities. Prominent providers of in-service teacher training are local and regional teacher training institutions. Local and regional training institutions off ering in-service training have engaged themselves in educating teachers, however, only in temporary schemes. One-day training courses in schools and so-called cascade ones were organised. Within the la� er system the graduates from previous courses went on to conduct the ones that followed. Substantial as there have been funds provided for teacher training by the Ministry of National Education, no coherent or consistent programmes as well as no permanent infrastructure for the professional development of teachers have existed. Thus Polish teachers must devote a great amount of time in order to become independent organisers of their own work, to be able to analyse their own results and to modify their own actions accordingly. At present it may be useful to implement gradual changes (Salitra, 2003, p. 106). There is a need to develop new ways of in-service teacher education and to examine the nature of the university – school partnership in school development in Poland. In-service teacher education needs to be based on a long-term commitment to work together, moving from traditional teacher isolation towards a new, collaborative school culture. The process can be facilitated by university researchers in a relationship that is based on equal status of the participants and mutual trust.

Apart from participation in in-service training, teachers need to involve themselves in other responsibilities to enhance their learning. They could involve themselves in the creation of websites, conferences, magazines and so forth. Creating more time and opportunities through funding and other services is essential. For instance, schools can organise the time-table in such a way as to give teachers (for instance a new teacher and an experienced teacher) opportunity to work together or observe other teachers (Earley, 2001). Raising the expectations from schools and teachers is another step towards professional development. School leaders have a major role to play to promote and build the school’s capacity for eff ective professional development. Various initiatives need to be encouraged so that staff can have access to the best possible CPD (e.g. Bell, 2004; Gowing, 2004). In order to implement link between initial training

and professional development on the one hand teachers need to be encouraged to grow in their career, and on the other hand new and fl exible and diverse approaches to professional development are required.

Changes were introduced to meet new demands required of teachers. Several factors such as merit, quality of teaching, further qualifi cations and in-service training, and/or additional responsibilities were among the new criteria for calculating salaries in Poland. The logic underlying it was that teachers should be provided with incentives to boost effi ciency. In practice, this has resulted in a substantial eff ort to make teaching more fl exible and enhance its quality by a� aching greater importance to individual merit or performance. More personalised salary policies have developed as a result. Therefore, the reforms that have been introduced in Poland since 2000 constitute a good example of the trend towards basing salaries on individual considerations. The aim of such reforms is indeed to create diff erences in the salaries of teachers so that they will be encouraged to undertake training and improve the quality of their activity. Formerly, the careers of Polish teachers could be regarded as predictably uniform with no promotion prospects. These reforms are thus introducing a competitive element among teachers, the ultimate purpose of which is to boost the eff ectiveness and quality of their work.

4. Reforms in teacher education - main trendsThe situation in Poland merits closer examination, given the scale of their reforms compared to those in other countries. From 1990 onwards, in Poland, like in other countries, teacher education has unquestionably been subject to major changes, focused above all on initial teacher education. Changes in initial teacher education have aff ected several fi elds, including admission requirements, structure, length and level of education, course content, institutional autonomy, professional training and quality standards, etc.

The very big rise in the reforms in Poland is partly a� ributable to a ‘transition eff ect’ corresponding to the impact on reform of radical changes in its former socialist system and partly to the policy of the European Union. With eff ect from 1990, the situation in initial teacher


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training changed radically. Initial teacher education institutions became autonomous, centrally prescribed curricula were abandoned and changes in methodology and content occurred, especially in subjects such as history, Polish language and literature, philosophy instruction and civics, pedagogy and psychology. Similarly, new subjects including information and communication technology, institutional management and communications, were introduced. The system thereby adjusted to the principles of pluralist democracy and a market economy. Institutions of initial teacher education gained greater freedom to defi ne the curriculum. This increased autonomy was accompanied or followed by regulations to establish or ensure compliance with national and international quality standards. However, these positive changes in the pre-service teachers training curriculum are not suffi cient. Modernisation of teacher training should meet the needs of teacher, that is why the number of lectures should be decreased, and the amount of workshops, practice sessions and discussion-based sessions increased, which would not only enable teachers to refer acquired knowledge to their school practice, but also lead to the shaping of a more cooperative a� itude between pupils and teachers as a feature of the teaching process (Salitra, 2003, p. 105).

Polish reforms generally refl ect an ongoing tension between several aims. The traditional dividing line between centralisation and decentralisation is of considerable signifi cance in this respect. From 1990 onwards decentralisation measures were the more widespread. For some years, the overriding trend in Poland has been to bring teachers closer to their employers and the authorities responsible for teacher education. Schools have taken on the responsibility of recruiting their own teaching staff . This decentralisation has occurred down to the level of schools and teacher education institutions. Thus the la� er have o� en acquired considerable autonomy as far as freedom to determine the curriculum and content of training are concerned.

It is worth stressing that while increasing demands were being placed on initial teacher education, special a� ention was also paid to in-service training. However, trends in the reform of initial teacher education were not always fully refl ected in changes to in-service

provision. Thus while reforms had a greater impact on the content of pre-service teacher training than on any other aspect, the content of in-service training was not altered to the same extent. This may be a� ributable to the fact that in-service training is generally less regulated and more decentralised than initial teacher education. In-service training – just like initial teacher education – has demonstrated a tendency to decentralize responsibilities down to the level of education institutions. At the same time, the central authorities have o� en issued guidelines in order to safeguard compliance with minimum quality standards and improve consistency between initial teacher education and in-service training. The important measures adopted to make in-service training compulsory or a precondition for promotion, as well as those seeking to fi x the scale of its provision should certainly be viewed in conjunction with the extension of the period of initial teacher education and the higher level of qualifi cation required by new teachers. In-service training was strongly advocated. The importance a� ached to in-service teacher training seems to indicate that the concepts of lifelong learning and continuing skills development are becoming increasingly common currency within the teaching profession in Poland.

ConclusionsThe issues teacher education and teacher‘s professional development are the key theme dominating the debate on the directions of educational policies which is conducted in the European Union. In the debate on teacher education in Europe it is stressed that the quality and eff ectiveness of education is to a great extent dependent on the degree of teacher‘s professionalism, at the basis of which lies the idea of lifelong learning. A proper realisation of this idea leads to the increase in the quality of teacher‘s qualifi cations and skills by means of adjusting their professional profi le to the demands of a learning society. Teachers are perceived as people who play a crucial role in introducing educational reforms and in raising the quality of education. That is why the a� ention is drawn to the fact that teachers should respond to the emerging challenges posed by the ‚society of knowledge‘, should refl ect on the process of learning and teaching and should be engaged in creating teaching curricula, in introducing pedagogical innovations and in conducting research. While ascribing such important tasks to teachers, it is stressed that they cannot be


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carried out in isolation. Their activity should be supported by coherent national and regional policies, which in their core part should refer to teacher education and their professional development. Thus special a� ention is paid to the necessity of intensifying the work on the introduction of Bologna Process, creating partnerships between universities and schools and establishing learning networks, which may be composed of groups of schools with the aim of decreasing teachers‘ isolation and exchanging experiences which in turn leads to greater learning and increasing the probability of introducing fundamental systemic changes in a schooling system.

Initiatives which may be undertaken by the institutions educating teachers within a lifelong learning system seem to be a life-giving source of progress for most of them. Traditionally, these institutions dealt only with the preparation of students for work in the teacher‘s profession. Nowadays they can organise various forms of education for all these who wish to obtain pedagogical qualifi cations and have a basic education in other subjects. The concept of ‚the society of knowledge‘ which is also a ‚learning society‘ leads to the situation in which education is placed in a wider context and the signifi cance of lifelong learning is stressed – lifelong learning which assumes that a human being should know how to use and update knowledge, how to make choices suiting contexts, how to learn constantly and understand what to learn in such a way as to adjust to new, quickly changing reality. The development of various forms of education, including establishing educational programmes together with foreign partners, issuing together scientifi c degrees, e-learning, intensifi cation of research programmes in cooperation with foreign partners, creating improvement centers, extending the range of educational forms off ered, which could be fi nanced from external sources, and changing learning context – all these factors infl uence the way in which individual can partake in educational process. They aff ect not only the structure and form of studies, but also the approach towards organisation of the process of teacher education, for example, in such a way which introduces more specialised programmes, shorter educational cycles, more fl exible structure of educational cycles and more fl exible way of conducting didactical classes. In the context of lifelong learning, it is assumed that the curricular programs aimed at extending general competencies assist

most in developing skills determining the possibilities of fi nding a job in the teacher‘s profession.

Since Poland has become a member of the European Union in 2004 education policies and education policy documents of the European Commission have had a major infl uence on Polish education policies. Adopting issues and criteria defi ned in education policy document of the European Commission (e. g. “Teaching and learning: towards the learning society”, 1996) new approaches in Polish teacher education might lead to the following results:

lifelong learning by means of continuous education and training of teachers restructuring the curricula and programs of teacher education by strengthening the orientation towards dynamic qualifi cations,

solving the problems of academic as well as professional recognition of (teacher) diplomas in order to increase the opportunity for advancement and mobility within the profession,

development and off er of additional open distance learning programs,

improvement of vocational education and teacher training in this fi eld,

improved implementation of multimedia, development of partnerships between institutions where

teachers are employed, training providers and higher education institutions.

European institutions of higher education educating teachers face new challenges, the realisation of which gives hope for achieving the goal of creating the European Zone of Higher Education by 2010. However, in order to cope with the role they are to play, which will be noticeable in such various and important areas as educating teachers and future scientists, their mobility within the European Union, the introduction of classes concerning societies and concentrating on a citizen into curricula, it is necessary to undertake long-term strategic actions which could focus on improving quality of education and research in institutions of higher education, increasing their international a� ractiveness and securing adequate stable fi nancial


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resources for their didactic and scientifi c activities, and a� empts at eff ective use of these funds.

ReferencesAct of 2003 on Academic Degrees and Titles and on Degrees and Titles in the fi eld of art, 14 March 2003.Darling-Hammond, L. (1998) Teachers and Teaching: testing policy hypotheses from a National Commission Report. Educational Researcher, 27 (1), 5-15.European Commission (1996) Teaching and Learning: Towards the Learning Society (Luxembourg, Offi ce for Offi cial Publication).Focus on the structure of higher education in Europe – 2004/05. National Trends in the Bologna Process, Eurydice, 2005. Available online at: h� p://www.eurydice.org/Documents/FocHE2005/en/FSHE05EN.pdf (accessed 15 August 2004).Karta Nauczyciela [Teacher’s Chart], Act of 26 January 1982, Journal of Law 1997, No 56, item 357 with further amendments.Lieberman, A. (1995) Practices that Support Teacher Development: Transforming Conceptions of Teacher Learning, Phi Delta Kappan, 76 (8), 591-596.Michalak J. M., Bezzina, C., (2004) Exploring Beginning Teachers’ Perceptions of their Preparation and Professional Development in Malta and Poland. Paper presented at the „European Conference on Educational Research” (ECER), Crete, Greece, 22-25 September 2004. Michalak J. M., Bezzina, C., (2005) Teachers’ Induction and Ongoing Professional Development. Beginning Teachers’ Perceptions of their Preparation and Professional Development in Malta and Poland, Edukacja. Studia. Badania. Innowacje, 89 (1), 87-106. Michalak, J. M. (2004) The priorities of Polish educational policy. Fostering Teacher Professionalism in Schools. Paper presented at ERASMUS Intensive Programme “Education Policy Analysis in a Comparative Perspective” (EPAC), Tolimn, Slovenia, 16th August 2004.Ministerstwo Edukacji Narodowej (1999) O doskonaleniu nauczycieli [On Teachers’ Professional Development] (Warsaw, MEN).Ministerstwo Edukacji Narodowej (2000) Reforma systemu edukacji. Projekt [The reform of education system. Project] (Warsaw, MEN).Ministerstwo Edukacji Narodowej (2002) Przygotowanie nauczycieli dla zreformowanej szkoly [Preparing teachers for the reformed school system] (Warsaw, MEN).

Salitra, K. (2003) Education of Teachers for Polish Schools at the Beginning of the Twenty-fi rst Century, European Journal of Teacher Education, 26 (1), 101-108. Report I: Initial training and transition to working life. General lower secondary education. Brussels: Eurydice, 2002. Available online at h� p://www.eurydice.org/Documents/KeyTopics3/fr/FrameSet1.htm (accessed 2 December 2004).Report II: Supply and demand. General lower secondary education. Brussels: Eurydice, 2002. Available online at: h� p://www.eurydice.org/Documents/KeyTopics3/fr/FrameSet2.htm (accessed 2 December 2004).Report III: Working conditions and pay, General lower secondary education. Brussels: Eurydice, 2003 Available online at: h� p://www.eurydice.org/Documents/KeyTopics3/fr/FrameSet3.htm (accessed 2 December 2004).Report IV: Keeping teaching a� ractive for the 21st century. General lower secondary education. Brussels: Eurydice, 2004. Available online at h� p://www.eurydice.org/Documents/KeyTopics3/fr/FrameSet4.htm (accessed 2 December 2004).Rozporządzenie Ministra Edukacji Narodowej i Sportu z dnia 7 września 2004 r. w sprawie standardów kształcenia nauczycieli, Dz. U. Nr 65, poz. 385, z późn. zm. [Regulation of the Ministry of National Education and Sport of 7 September 2004 on standards of teachers training, Journal of Law No 65, item 385 with further amendments].Rozporządzenie Ministra Edukacji Narodowej i Sportu z 3 sierpnia 2000r. w sprawie uzyskiwania awansu zawodowego przez nauczycieli [Regulation of the Ministry of National Education and Sport of 3rd August 2000, concerning the acquisition of teachers’ Professional titiles, Journal of Law 2000 No 70, item. 825].Rozwój oświaty w Polsce w latach 1990-1991 [Development of School Education in Poland, 1990-1991], (1992), (Warsaw, Ministry of National Education). Rozwój edukacji w Polsce w latach 1992-1993 [Development of School Education in Poland, 1992-1993] (1994), (Warsaw, Ministry of National Education,). Rozwój edukacji w Polsce [Development of School Education in Poland], (1996) (Warsaw, Ministry of National Education).Ustawa z dnia 15 lipca 1961 r. o rozwoju systemu oświaty i wychowania [The Act on Development of School Education of 15 July 1961], Journal of Law, 1961, No 32 item 160.


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Ustawa z dnia 12 września 1990 r. o szkolnictwie wyższym, [The Act of 12 September 1990 on Schools of Higher Education], Journal of Law 1990 No 65 item 385. Ustawa z dnia 7 września 1991 r. o systemie oświaty [The School Education Act of 7 September 1991], Journal of Law 1996 No 106 item 496.Ustawa z dnia 25 lipca 1998 r. o zmianie ustawy o systemie oświaty [The Act of 25 July 1998 amending the School Education Act].Ustawa z dnia 21 listopada 2001 o zmianie ustawy – Karta nauczyciela, Ustawy o systemie oświaty oraz Ustawy Przepisy wprowadzające reformę systemu szkolnego. [The Act of 21 November 2001 amending the Act – Teacher’s Charter, and the Act on Educational System as well as the Act – The Provisions Implementing the Reform of School System].

Notes on author Dr Joanna Maria Michalak, Assistant Professor, University of Lodz, PolandShe has been working at the University of Lodz since 1996. She obtained a wide research and consulting experience in the fi eld of teacher’s professional development, leadership and change, education policy as well as school-university partnership. In addition to Poczucie odpowiedzialności zawodowej nauczycieli. [The Sense of Teacher’s Professional Responsibility], 2003; and Dziecko jako obiekt badań pedagogicznych. Konteksty teoretyczne i empiryczne [A Child as an Object of Pedagogical Research. Theoretical and Empirical Contexts], (co-editor and contributor), 2000, recent publications include Przywództwo w szkole [Educational Leadership], (co-editor and contributor), 2005. Ms Michalak is a member of the Continuing Professional Development in Schools, and Teacher and Teacher Education research groups of the European Educational Research Association (EERA) and member of International Study Association of Teachers and Teaching (ISATT).

CorrespondenceJoanna M. MichalakUniversity of LodzFaculty of Educational StudiesKopernika 55 90-553 Lodz, Poland email: [email protected]

The New Era of Self-evaluation in English Schools: Renewed Professionalism ...The New Era of Self-evaluation in English Schools: Renewed Professionalism ...

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AbstractThis paper concentrates on the potential of the new policy of school self-evaluation in England to redress the balance from managerialism to professionalism. It examines the literature to analyse the prevailing managerialistic culture in the English education system. It goes on to explore three precursors of professionalism: status, role and infl uence, to locate teachers’ current position relating to each of these and to consider how the process of school self-evaluation might infl uence or be infl uenced by that position. The paper concludes that the school self-evaluation policy is infl uenced by managerialistic government targets and inspection protocols, and that there is a danger of reproducing some of the weaknesses inherent in these. However, schools retain control over their self-evaluation processes, providing an opportunity for them to develop their own culture of refl ective self-evaluation. If this becomes the day-to-day concern of the whole school community, it has the potential to promote dialogue within and beyond the school and enhance teachers’ infl uence and professionalism.

Key words: self-evaluation, accountability, quality, professionalism, managerialism, inspection

IntroductionSchools have always been subject to some public scrutiny and have been required to varying degrees to give an account of themselves,

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Niki Elliot, Sheffi eld Hallam University, UK

but the nature of that account, and who is involved in creating it has changed with the increasingly interventionist actions of government in the last three decades. The adoption of a managerialist agenda with the accompanying shi� from partnership to accountability, from co-operation and public service to competition and enterprise, has undermined professional autonomy and has centralised decision-making in education (Chi� y, 2004; Bush, 2003; Hargreaves, 2000; Polli� , 1993). However, in the new ‘market forces climate’, teacher shortages have exerted an infl uence, and government has performed an about-turn in its a� acks on the quality and status of teaching as a profession. Against a background of decreasing autonomy for teachers in relation to the curriculum and to the measures by which they are judged, a number of apparently re-professionalising measures have been introduced (Hargreaves, 2000). Amongst these is the move towards school self-evaluation as an increasingly important feature of school’s external accountability.

Introducing this policy in his speech to the North of England Education Conference David Miliband (2004), Minister for Education asserts that: “The time is right to embed honest, hard-edged self-evaluation across the whole system.” He describes the purpose of this evaluation as pivotal to how a school will be judged on inspection and to the targeting of support and resources at national and local levels: “A critical test of the strong school will be the quality of its self-evaluation and how it is used to raise standards.” The managerialist agenda seems not to have been abandoned here. ‘Standards’ in the current climate remains shorthand for test and examination based targets. The quality of the leadership in schools will be judged on the quality of their self-evaluation. Presumably if they fail to reach ‘the standard’ then the voracity and ‘hard-edgedness’ of their self-evaluation will be questioned.

Miliband (2004) describes the process of self-evaluation as needing to be ‘data rich and workload light’, ‘continuous, searching and objective’. His tone is collaborative: “we will work with the profession to create a suite of materials that will help schools evaluate themselves honestly.” He seeks to avoid being ’over prescriptive’. But the echoes of an inspection protocol persist with the predominance of ‘data’


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over the more time consuming and searching process of professional refl ection and dialogue.

The history of self-evaluation in schools and the infl uence of inspection on this are important factors in how this policy will be implemented in schools. While other models of self-evaluation are available and used, the origin of much current practice is the Ofsted inspection framework. It makes sense for schools to use the criteria by which they will be externally judged and publicly held accountable as the basis for their evaluation. Schools and LEAs were encouraged to use the framework for review purposes, indeed Ofsted (1988) were critical of other styles of self- evaluation because they asserted that these were insuffi ciently rigorous and did not focus on hard outcomes such as raising educational standards. Rudd and Davies (2000) in their review of school self-evaluation identify some tensions, not least of which is that inspection is something that is done to you, while self-evaluation sounds like a developmental process in which everyone can participate. If school self -evaluation is based on an inspection model it can be perceived as, and become, an internal inspection. As John Bangs (2004) head of education at the National Union of Teachers observes:

There is one thing we have all learned about school self-evaluation; it must be „owned“ by teachers and school communities. There are very real dangers that external inspection could be reproduced internally within schools with the head teacher being expected to act as a quasi- inspector, armed with Ofsted‘s inspection framework. The increased emphasis on school self-evaluation in determining the focus and the judgements of leadership and management in the new inspections and in the 2003 Ofsted Framework (Ofsted, 2003a) has been widely welcomed. The National Union of Teachers commissioned research advocating greater involvement of teachers in self-evaluation (MacBeath, 1999). Both SHA and the NAHT have responded positively to self-evaluation within schools (Secondary Head teachers Association, 2004; National Association of Head Teachers, 2004). But there are doubts and concerns. Head teachers have expressed fears that their staff lack the skills to ‘make a success of self-evaluation’ as revealed in a TES survey. More than half of secondary schools and two in fi ve primary schools felt that their

teachers require more training and guidance to make self–evaluation eff ective (Slater, 2004). The survey concluded that while most head teachers were complimentary about self-evaluation within the new Ofsted framework, others are less sanguine, seeing this as another tier of evaluation to add to what they already do and questioning its cost-eff ectiveness.

The context in which this policy change is taking place is complex and fraught with tensions between a beleaguered profession and an interventionist and centralising government responding to an increasingly globalized economy (Chi� y, 2004; Whi� y, 2002). In these circumstances it is diffi cult to see the: „hard-edged … data rich... self-evaluation used by government to inform decisions about targeting support“ (Miliband, 2004) as a benign addition to the toolkit of re-professionalisation. To achieve the goal of ‘making a success of self- evaluation’ schools need to develop processes that go beyond compliance with the series of accountability initiatives, of which self- evaluation is only one. If self- evaluation is to contribute to the re-professionalisation of teachers and revitalisation of education in England then it has to get to grips with the complexities of the values, purposes and practices of education within diff erent communities, not just accounting for the numerical outcomes.

Larson (1977: introduction pp. xii) observed in her exploration of professionalism that: „If professions obtain extended powers of self-evaluation and self-control they can become almost immune to external regulation“. This is startling when viewed from within the target and accountability driven culture of the public service professions today. While immunity from external regulation seems unlikely, could self-evaluation be a route back from the managerialist culture in which teaching in England is immersed? This paper will pursue three lines of exploration; the nature of the managerialistic culture, the professional precursors of self-evaluation and the pitfalls and potentials for self-evaluation as it is currently being introduced to schools.

Managerialism in English SchoolsSmyth et al (2000: 3) identify the impact of globalization on government as: “unprecedented levels of volatility, uncertainty and


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unpredictability.” Hargreaves (1994: 53) describes the ‘immense implications’ for the preservation and protection of increasingly fragile national and cultural identities. It is not surprising that in such uncertain times neo-liberal policies that seek to control and monitor the work of individuals and to create a compliant and effi cient rather than a free thinking, let alone policy challenging, educational workforce seem seductive to government.

Smyth et al (2000: 3) see the impact of globalisation as characterized by:1. Flexible post Fordist forms of production and restructured

workplace organization;2. A greater reliance on market forces as a mode of regulation,

rather than rules, regulations and centralised bureaucratic modes of organisation;

3. More emphasis on image and impression management as a way of shaping customers;

4. A re-centralization of control in contexts where responsibility for meeting production targets is devolved;

5. Resorting to increasingly technicist ways of responding to uncertainty and,

6. A greater reliance on technology as the preferred means for resolving complex and intractable social, moral and political problems.

One impact of the restructured workplace on the teaching profession is a shi� from overt and bureaucratic forms of surveillance to more covert forms of self-regulation exemplifi ed in peer monitoring strategies and built upon an intensifi cation of work practices (Smyth et al, 2000; Anderson, 1987; Fergusson, 2000). At this moment it seems that both overt and covert systems are in ‘full swing’ for teachers in England with the continuation of SATs, monitored targets and a rigorous inspection framework (DFEE 1998; Wright, 2001; Ofsted, 2003a). The ‚New Relationship with Schools‘ (DFES, 2004) signals a further shi� in the direction that Smyth describes with the focus on school self-evaluation, still based upon externally determined data sets, as the starting point for the external scrutiny of a school’s activities.

The marketization of education through parental choice, and the publishing of inspection reports and ‘league tables’ of school’s results is evidently present. There is also increased involvement of the commercial sector in funding and infl uencing school practice through specialist college status and more recently and directly in the City Academies (DFES 2005a). Downie (1990: 158) identifi es market forces as a threat to the relationship between professionals and clients as they search for the ‘best deal’ shi� ing the relationship from one focussed on the clients educational needs to that of a commercial transaction: „It will lead to a search for commercially led funding, to cost cu� ing and subservience to non-educational values.“ The challenge for the profession of teaching is to accommodate this change in context while maintaining a professional identity.

Both managerialism and professionalism claim particular sets of expertise with which they justify their claims for infl uence over how organizations are run (Clarke et al 2000). Up until the 1970s it was the professionals who held sway in the public services as demonstrated by Polli� (1993). However, in the uncertain global context competing educational ideologies described by Lawton below were vying for supremacy (Lawton in Chi� y, 2004:101),

Beliefs Values Tastes

Politicos (ministers and political advisers)

Market Freedom of choice

Independent schools fees

Bureaucrats(DES offi cials and civil servants)

Good adminis-tration

Effi ciency Central control examinations stan-dard tests

(Professionals HMI) Professionalism Quality education Impressionistic evaluation of schools

Professionals were open to criticism that their self-regulation was not suffi ciently rigorous to justify their levels of autonomy (Hargreaves, 2000). The need to ‘deliver’ educational outcomes that would ensure a clear national identity and secure economic growth became a political imperative (Hargreaves, 1994). Diff erent beliefs, values and tastes prevailed and managerialism became the solution: “with which ministers felt most comfortable.” (Polli� , 1993: 81).


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The central thrust of managerialist policies from the mid 1970s were neo-Taylorist: set clear targets, develop performance indicators to measure the achievement of those targets, single out and reward those individuals who get results, strengthen and incentivise line management and tighten fi nancial controls. Polli� (1993: pp111-146) identifi es several areas of weakness in this approach. The innate discontinuities between policy formation and implementation: the inherent diffi culty in trying to describe policy objectives to others not involved in the policy formation who have to interpret as well as apply the objectives. The ‘scantiness of a� ention’ applied to personnel development and encouragement and fi nally the emphasis on economy and effi ciency to the exclusion of other values. The disconnectedness of policy and implementation also manifests itself in the received wisdom on school leadership. Transformational leadership places great emphasis on the role of the leader as the main agent of change through orchestrating and coaching (Hay Group, 2000; Wright, 2001). This tends to promote a hierarchical structure in which strategic and policy-forming functions are located within the ‘leadership team’ and sanctioned by governors with operational roles assigned to middle managers and teaching and support staff . The continuing frustration with the ability of middle managers to convert the strategies and policies into improved performance is evidenced by the perceived need for a national training programme (Ofsted, 2003c). Whether addressing an apparent skills defi cit in middle management is the solution or whether the inherent discontinuities in these managerialistic structures are equally, if not more pertinent, is a moot point. Olssen et al (2004: 191) describe managerialism in its contemporary form as: „preoccupied, if not obsessed with the notion of ‘quality’.“ They see quality as: “a powerful metaphor for new forms of managerial control,” reducing it to “key performance indicators, each of which can be measured and reported.” Visscher and Coe (2002: 35 ) argue: Indicator systems may be used in very damaging fashions. By publishing a small number of indicators, a� ention is focused just on those indicators, and eff orts are o� en directed not at real change but at ge� ing the indicator in the right direction.

Schools are required to respond to the centrally determined data about themselves and the comparisons made between their performance and that of all schools and similar schools (the PANDA). The PANDA is built around government indicators. Olssen (2004) describes a range of performance measures that schools already use to provide more a more detailed picture of their circumstances achievements and issues. In conducting a school’s self –evaluation it is the teacher’s ability to carry out sensitive and detailed analyses of such measures in the light of broader consultation with colleagues, pupils and parents which will enable them to direct their a� ention to the real issues of the school rather than being confi ned by the potentially damaging indicators Olsen describes.

The problem with a managerialistic notion of quality is its narrow focus, driven by political targets rather than the client-professional dynamic (Hartley, 1997). The challenge for school leaders and teacher organisations in this ‚new era of self-evaluation‘ is to be aware and wary of the limitations of this managerialistic model and to create their own model of self-evaluation in a way that enhances the professionalism of teachers, broadens their involvement in strategy development and decision making and engages pupils and parents in a constructive dialogue about teaching and learning rather than the superfi cial exercising of customer choice.

The precursors of professionalism and school self-evaluationFreidson (in Larson 1977: xii) describes professions as occupations with ‘special power and prestige’ and distinct from other occupations because they have been ‘given the right to control their own work’. They have achieved this status because their role places them in the domain of public service, contributing to the development of social systems and requiring expertise and specialist knowledge. This section will explore three precursors to professionalism embedded in Larson’s analysis: status, role and infl uence. It will begin to describe how the teachers in England are currently positioned in relation to each precursor and outline the potential contribution of school self-evaluation, drawing on Downie’s paper (1990: 147), which describes professionals in terms that lend themselves to the: “evaluative question of what enables professions to perform a unique and socially valuable function, distinct from business and commerce”


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and Hargreaves’ (2000) analysis of teachers’ progress through ‘four ages of professionalism’.

There has been considerable debate around what professionalism means in relation to teaching and criticism of the usefulness of normative criteria in understanding this (Hanlon, 1998; Whi� y, 2000; Stronach et al, 2002). There is an alternative argument: if professionalism has ‘good things’ to off er such that teachers want to regain it, then new defi nitions and interpretations of what it has become need to be judged against its origins and core principles to determine what has been gained and what has been lost. Teachers can then decide whether old ground should be recovered or conceded and which new ground they might want to inhabit. This is not about ruling teaching in or out of the professional club, it is about understanding the ways in which the teachers’ work has changed, how context and policy infl uence this, and the impact of shi� ing power relationships on people’s perceptions of role, status and infl uence. Much of this is beyond the scope of this paper. Rather this is an exercise in sketching out some of landscape in which school self-evaluation fi nds itself and, in doing so, trying to identify some features to enable us to navigate through it.

Status: education and independenceEducation Downie (1990: 154) makes a powerful case for the nature of education and training for the professions and hence for the growth and fl exibility of the knowledge base that they must possess:

If a professional is to have integrity and independence, if he or she is to have the confi dence to deal honestly and fearlessly with clients and be able to speak with authority on ma� ers of public policy he or she must be educated as distinct from merely trained in a narrow sense.

He suggests three components of this education, that it should have a wide cognitive perspective that places the skills of the professional within that perspective, that knowledge and skills are developed within a framework of values and that the development of the knowledge and skills base is continuous.

Hargreaves (2000: 153-155) identifi es a pre-professional age which he maintains continues to infl uence thinking about teachers. He characterises teaching in this pre professional age as ‘transmission teaching’ technically straightforward requiring no further training once mastered, concerned: “not with the learning experiences of individual students, but with the overall instructional ‘fl ow’ of the lesson”. This reduces teachers to: “(at best) enthusiastic people, who know their subject ma� er, know how to ‘get it across’, and can keep order in their classes.” The consequences of this view are potentially far reaching: teachers are not people that you consult, their views on education have no more legitimacy than anyone else’s. Teachers are people who are told what to do, trained in how to do it and expected to get results – a sort of educational production line.

This is refl ected in the changed pa� ern of teacher education and the introduction of competency based standards, determined by the TTA, not a representative body of teachers, as a measure of suitability for diff erent teaching and leadership roles (Teacher Training Agency, 1998). The emphasis is on school-based practice akin to apprenticing, marginalizing the more theoretical and more critical views of university teacher trainers (Patrick et al, 2003). Potentially this reduces the training of teachers to a set of classroom skills rather than the ‘wide cognitive perspective’ developed within a ‘framework of values’ advocated by Downie (1990: 154). Hargreaves (2000: 168) also raises concern about the process of: “shi� ing ITT (initial teacher training) from higher education to the already overburdened world of schools” and the danger of: “reproducing not refl ecting on and improving practice”. A response to this would seem to rest in the continuous nature of professional education described by Downie (ibid). Self-evaluation implies professional dialogue, learning and informed refl ection on practice within and beyond the school. Such refl ection should help schools to identify when they need external support whether that is from researching relevant literature themselves or bringing in colleagues with diff erent fi elds of expertise. It is then incumbent on those colleagues not just to present the current fashion, but also to place that in a wider perspective that explores the values that underpin practice. It also suggests that, just as teaching pupils how to learn a subject is a more powerful tool than teaching them a series of facts about that subject, then helping teachers to


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develop the skills and practice of refl ection and evaluation is a more potent input in restoring their credibility, autonomy and enhancing their eff ectiveness than telling them what to teach and how to teach it.

IndependenceThe purposeful independence of professions rests in two areas; that a profession should be to some degree self- regulating, determining its own goals, values and standards, and that professionals should be in a position to off er unfe� ered comment and advice on ma� ers of public policy development and implementation (Larson, 1977; Downie, 1990). Downie (ibid:153) adds two caveats to his view that a profession cannot fulfi l its responsibilities to individual clients, or to society unless it is seen as independent. He suggests that: “it is not unreasonable that the state should take an interest in how the taxpayers’ money is spent” and that: “weight… should be given to the views of the consumers of the services provided”. So the ‘independence’ is not the immunity from regulation described by Larson but more a delicate equilibrium balancing political accountability, the perceptions of clients, and the need for the profession to be able to ‘say things as it sees them’ and act accordingly.

Hargreaves’ (2000: 158-162) age of the autonomous professional, that of the 1960s and 1970s could be seen as a ‘golden age’ for professionalism in teaching, a time during which curriculum innovation fl ourished, salaries went up and teaching moved to being an all graduate profession. Sadly it was at this point that fundamental clashes between traditionalism and progressivism, and lack of rigour in self-regulation le� the profession vulnerable. Without adequate self-regulation the ‘licensed autonomy’ served to isolate teachers from each other and their communities: pupils and parents views were not seriously engaged, and the quality and broad implementation of innovation were not secured: “The age of professional autonomy provided teachers with poor preparation for coping with the dramatic changes that were headed their way and against which their classroom doors would off er li� le protection.” (ibid : 162). It was at this point that managerialism wedged its foot in those classroom doors and has brought us to the radically altered landscape of education that teachers now inhabit.

As decisions about curriculum were centralised in the national curriculum, (Chi� y, 2004) tighter external scrutiny of schools was imposed through SATs. These allowed a nationwide comparison between schools not only on test results but also on the schools’ ability to ’add value’ between key stages, heralding target se� ing as a national phenomenon (Fergusson, 2000). The hallowed ground of pedagogy was also invaded with national strategies that prescribed lesson structures and teaching approaches (DFEE, 1999). The teaching profession relinquished control of the agenda to government and became subject to vilifi cation under the Chris Woodhead’s leadership of Ofsted, where unsatisfactory lessons became unsatisfactory teachers and schools were publicly described as failing (Ofsted, 1997; 2003b). Local management of schools off ered the crumb of fi nancial independence to head teachers and governing bodies, loosening the relationship between schools and local government, but at the expense of greater central government control on the core activity of teaching (Hargreaves, 2000). Further, a� er years in which unions discussed but never achieved a unifi ed organisation to represent the profession, teachers now have the GTC as a professional body whose remit, representation and membership were imposed by government (General Teaching Council, 1998). This is hardly a picture of an autonomous profession, regulating its own activities. As Hargreaves (2000: 169) observes: “they have… subjected teachers to the micro-management of ever tightening regulations and controls that are the very antithesis of any kind of professionalism”. Alongside the disaff ection felt by teachers in circumstances over which they exercised li� le control there has also been a positive outcome. This Hargreaves (2000: 165) describes as the emerging age of the collegial professional:

There are increasing eff orts to build strong professional cultures of collaboration to develop common purpose, to cope with uncertainty and complexity, to respond eff ectively to rapid change and reform, to create a climate which values risk-taking and continuous improvement, to develop stronger senses of teacher effi cacy, and to create ongoing professional learning cultures for teachers that replace pa� erns of staff development, which are individualized, episodic and weakly connected to the priorities of the school.


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Such a culture would seem to provide fertile ground for genuine self-evaluation driven by teachers’ professional debate and dialogue and desire to achieve positive educational outcomes for their pupils, rather than narrow, target driven quality measures.

Role Downie (1990:150-151) describes the role of the professional as providing ‘service through relationships’. The service orientation, founded on the values, rights and duties of the profession serves to balance the relationship of unequal power between the teacher and the child and his or her parents. He characterises this relationship as one of benefi cence but notes within it the potential for paternalism which he argues is counteracted by a sense of honesty and justice which he terms ‘integrity’.

Teachers have an important and potentially powerful social role because of the nature of this relationship, the amount of time spent with their clients, children, and because state education is a mass phenomenon. It is, therefore, important that teachers can speak credibly about education policy and practice. Downie (1990:158) identifi es a problem here: It is less plausible that teachers can expect to pronounce on ma� ers of education without becoming involved in controversy… (because) education is a subject ma� er on which many people have…a view... the public involvement in education... has grown as part of a more general ‘rights movement’ of which consumerism is one form.

If the public’s level of contact with education contributes to undermining the power of teachers’ voices then it would seem important to bring pupils and their parents on board in a dialogue that explores educational dilemmas from the direct viewpoint of clients and providers rather than the distanced viewpoint of policy makers. The relationship with the client has to be part of any evaluation process. This intimate understanding of what is happening goes well beyond blunt quality measures such as examination outputs.

Teachers have a unique role in relation to their clients, and they therefore retain the responsibility to speak out on ma� ers of education, but to do this they have to reaffi rm their professional

status and their ability to challenge the educational agenda through regaining a credible voice. Self- evaluation can be a mechanism to achieve this, but it must be a self-evaluation process that engages the wider school community that was marginalized in the 1960s and 1970s, that counteracts some of the potentially damaging eff ects of marketisation and that generates real dialogue with parents, pupils and the community over educational and community priorities and dilemmas. Teachers need to be: “opening up schools and teaching in all their complexity to the community, making what educators do more visible” (Hargreaves, 2000: 158; Carr and Hartne� , 1996).

Infl uenceTeachers have direct contact with pupils and therefore hold, formally or informally, a unique evidence base of the benefi ts, defi cits and discontinuities arising from the implementation of diff erent policies. Government makes use of education professionals as advisers and expert witnesses in policy-making and enquiries, but they also present a challenge to the policy makers when pragmatic political decisions clash with the complexities of social policy making and its implications. Downie (1990:153) describes the professional’s role here as a: “broader social function involv(ing) the duty to speak out with authority on ma� ers of social justice and social utility.” The temptation for government is to try to silence the professions when their views are inconvenient by using the power of patronage: the temptation for the professions is to acquiesce or to adopt a ‘bunker mentality’ and talk only to themselves. It is these very temptations that make the issue of the independence of the professions so important.

There are signifi cant signs that teachers are being encouraged to exert some infl uence but the response to such initiatives needs to be hedged with caution. Collaboration, internal monitoring processes and the creation of advanced skills teachers, beacon schools and leading departments carry with them a sense of returning status, that the solutions are not all thought to be ‘out there’ with government policy makers and national strategy designers, that they can be found in schools (Warren Li� le, 1990). The need for caution arises from the potential misuse of self-regulation discussed earlier (Bangs, 2004; Smyth et al, 2000). Hargreaves (2000: 166) also recognises this:


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Fla� ened management structures, that are sometimes represented as empowerment, can easily turn into using collaboration as a form of exploitation and enslavement… a device to overload teachers, or to steer unpalatable policies through them. The diff erence between intensifi cation and collaboration would seem to lie in a fundamental diff erence between managerialism and professionalism and that rests in agency. Professionals choose to collaborate within an ethical framework for the benefi t of their clients, managerialists - at least in the neo-Taylorist model - require others to collaborate to achieve a predetermined outcome. This is not to say that every outcome that has been proposed by managerialists in education is in some way fl awed or will not be of benefi t. Possessing determination and being able to describe the process by which an end can be achieved both have very obvious merits. But, in the very human and complex world of a school, determining the right ends to pursue and steering your way round dilemmas, perverse incentives and unintended consequences of actions is a far from linear process, it requires more than a select few to formulate and hence to understand policy, strategy and intentions and how these might be implemented, and more than that select few to decide what has been achieved and who has benefi ted.

Smyth et al (2000: 184-188) identify fi ve features that distinguish those schools who challenge educational practice; they are schools that adopt a socially critical vision that acknowledges and works with the: “tensions between individuality and community”; that sustain a ‘culture of debate’ in which teachers refl ect on their understanding and practice; that engage in dialogue with the local community; that: “promote a student voice capable of integrating their personal concerns and the larger issues facing our world” and that encourage: “debate about the content of the curriculum that is responsive to concern for social injustice and encourages the development of critical literacies”.

Hargreaves (2000: 166) poses a puzzle and a challenge: “How to build strong professional communities in teaching that are authentic, well supported, include fundamental purposes, and benefi t teachers and students alike without (misusing) collaboration”. He also proposes a solution, a fourth age, that goes some way to addressing the agency or

autonomy that has been lost: “...a new, post-modern professionalism that is broader, more fl exible and more democratically inclusive of groups outside teaching and their concerns than its predecessors.”School self-evaluation off ers an opportunity to recapture both moral legitimacy and credibility in the eyes of the public because by the very nature of the word ‘self’ there is an inherent independence in this process. Given all the policies and practices imposed on teachers, how they understand their practice and how they involve parents and pupils in this process has not been prescribed, but capitalising on this iota of independence from central government and its agents means relinquishing some control in sharing a voice with their clients. Hargreaves’ (2000) view is echoed by Downie (1990: 158):

This challenge to teachers does not undermine their authority unless they allow it to do so. What the challenge should do is to revitalise the profession because it threatens the complacency and conservatism which affl ict any profession, and it compels teachers to communicate more eff ectively. True authority emerges when paternalistic authoritarianism is challenged.

ConclusionThe ‘new era of self-evaluation’ discussed in this paper has already arrived. Schools are preparing to fi ll in their self- evaluation forms (SEFs) for the fi rst time and to account for data about their performance. The forms mirror the inspection framework, but the DFES and Ofsted (Ofsted, DFES, 2004: 19) do not: “seek to prescribe the processes whereby the school arrives at the detailed knowledge of itself”. They see self-evaluation as: “intelligent accountability founded on the school’s own views of how well it is serving its pupils and its priorities for improvement” (ibid: 7). The contribution self-evaluation can make to the education agenda, channelled as it is through the conduits of the new ‘school improvement partners’ and Ofsted, is to some degree back in the control of schools. The be� er the self-evaluation process the be� er basis schools have for infl uencing that agenda. However the dangers remain: evaluate away and still not be believed - unless targets are met, only evaluate to the external agenda and miss the opportunity to tell the full story, evaluate within a managerialist top down model and replicate the role of the external inspector.


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Two messages emerge from the work of Rudd and Davies (2000) and from MacBeath’s study (1999): that self-evaluation and school inspection are not the same thing and that ownership of the self-evaluation process is central to its success. In MacBeath’s words: “those who live day to day in classrooms and schools should play the major role in evaluating their experiences, their successes and priorities for future development.” (ibid: 152). Teachers need to be equipped to evaluate the quality of learning themselves, to give account of their achievements and to engage in dialogue with the wider community so they are not dependant on an external view. Ofsted (1999) congratulated themselves on having established a ‘common language’ about the work of schools based on inspection criteria (Ma� hews and Sammons, 2004). The concern is that that language, distorted by the culture of inspection, gets in the way of promoting ownership of self-evaluation among teachers and constricts the multiplicity of purposes that it could fulfi l (MacBeath, 1999).

While there has been consultation and trialing of the SEF, and guidance associated with it asks schools to address questions that go well beyond a superfi cial annual summary of how the school has done, the time between publishing the guidance and implementing the process has been less than a year. The danger is that in trying to respond quickly schools will establish a process of SEF completion rather than self-evaluation and will fail to take up the challenges and opportunities outlined in this paper. Rudd and Davies (2000: 6) found that:

The degree to which schools have ownership over their self-evaluation activity varies considerably. It is clear that much of what happens in schools relating to self-evaluation has not, to date at least, followed the bo� om up model as outlined by MacBeath. There is a history, and for some schools and local authorities recognising and overcoming that history, with its restricted focus and target orientated drivers, will be paramount if they are to capitalise on the opportunity to reoccupy professional ground that self-evaluation off ers and regain some control of the educational agenda. Similarly those head teachers who were uncertain about the skills of their staff to self-evaluate also need to consider what priority they are going

to give to this opportunity and how they can move from a situation where evaluation has been the intermi� ent prerogative of leadership teams, to a very diff erent model where it becomes the day to day concern of the whole school community.

The reality for schools is that they have no alternative but to provide the information that is determined by the external agenda of government and inspection and this remains a managerialist agenda. The opportunity is their control over the process that provides this information, over determining their own professional priorities for development and over the messages to staff , parents, pupils and the local community that their evaluation process will send.

ReferencesAnderson, L. (1987) ‘The decline of teacher autonomy: tears or cheers?’, International Review of Education, Vol. 33: 357-353Bangs, J. (2004) ‘Mind Your Language, Ofsted’ The Guardian, Tuesday February 3Carr, W. Hartne� , A. (1996) Education and the Struggle for Democracy, Buckingham: OUPChi� y, C. (2004) Education Policy in Britain, Basingstoke: Palgrave MacmillanClarke, J. Gewirtz, S. and McLaughlin, E. Eds. (2000) New Managerialism, New Welfare, London: Sage DFEE (1998) Circular 11/98 Target Se� ing, London: DFEEDFEE (1999) The National Literacy Strategy, London: DFEEDFES (2005a) Academies, h� p://www.teachernet.gov.uk/management/atoz/a/academies/ Downie, R.S. (1990) ‘Professions and Professionalism’, Journal of Philosophy of Education, Vol. 24, No. 2: 147-159Fergusson, R. (2000) ‘Modernizing Managerialism in Education’, in Clarke, J. Gewirtz, S. and McLaughlin, E. Eds. New Managerialism, New Welfare, London: SageGeneral Teaching Council (1998) The Teaching and Higher Education Act, London: HMSOHargreaves, A. (1994) Changing Teachers, Changing Times: Teachers Work and Culture in the Post-modern Age, London: Cassell


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Hargreaves, A. (2000) ‘Four ages of professionalism and professional learning’, Teachers and Teaching: History and Practice, Vol. 6, No. 2: 151-181Hartley, D (1997) ‘The new managerialism in education: a mission impossible’, Cambridge Journal of Education Vol. 27, No.1:47-57Hanlon, G. (1998) ‘Professionalism as Enterprise: service class politics and the redefi nition of professionalism’, Sociology, Vol. 32 No. 1: 43-63HayGroup (2000) ‘Raising Achievement in Our Schools: models of excellence for head teachers in diff erent se� ings’ in Teacher Training Agency, Leadership Programme for Serving Head Teachers, London: TTALarson, M. (1977) The Rise of Professionalism a Sociological Analysis, London: University of California PressMacBeath, J. (1999) Schools Must Speak for Themselves: the case for school self-evaluation, London: RoutledgeMa� hews, P. Sammons, P. (2004) Improvement Through Inspection: an evaluation of the impact of Ofsted’s work, London: OfstedMiliband, D. (2004) ‘Personalised Learning: building a new relationship with schools’, North Of England Education Conference, Belfast h� p://www.dfes.gov.uk/speeches/search_detail.cfm?ID=95 National Association of Head Teachers (2004) Response to ‘The Future of Inspection’, h� p://www.naht.org.uk/themes/campaign-item-view.asp?ID=1007&sid=28 National Union Of Teachers (2004) The Response of The National Union of Teachers to the Ofsted Consultation: ‘The Future of Inspection’, h� p://www.teachers.org.uk/resources/word/NUT_Rspns-Futue_of_Inspection.doc Olssen, M. Codd, J. O’Neill, A. (2004) Education Policy Globalization, Citizenship and Democracy, London: SageOfsted (1997) The Annual Report of Her Majesty’s Chief Inspector of Schools, London: The Stationery Offi ceOfsted (1998) School Evaluation Ma� ers, London: OfstedOfsted (1999) Handbook for Inspecting Secondary Schools with Guidance on Self-evaluation, London: The Stationery Offi ceOfsted (2003a) Inspecting Schools: Framework for Inspecting Schools, London: Ofsted Ofsted (2003b) Handbook for Inspecting Secondary Schools, London: Ofsted

Ofsted (2003c) Leadership and management: what inspection tells us, London: Ofsted Ofsted DFES (2004) A New Relationship with Schools, London: OfstedPatrick, F. Forde, C. McPhee, A (2003) ‘Challenging the ’New Professionalism’ from Managerialism to Pedagogy’, Journal of In-Service Education Vol. 29, No. 2: 237-253Polli� , C, (1993) Managerialism and the Public Services: cuts or cultural change in the 1990s, Oxford: BlackwellRudd, P. Davies, D. (2000) Evaluating School Self-Evaluation, British Educational Research Association Annual ConferenceSecondary Heads Association (2004) Response Of The Secondary Heads Association To The Future Of Inspection: A Consultation Paper, h� p://www.sha.org.uk/cm/newsStory.asp?cmnID=3283&cmnRef=468&cmnTopic=2 Slater, J. (2004) ‘Doubts on Self-Evaluation’, Times Educational Supplement April 30th no 4581Smyth, J. Dow, A. Ha� am, R. Reid, A. and Shacklock, G. (2000) Teachers’ Work in a Globalizing Economy, London: Falmer PressStronach, I. Corbin, B. McNamara, O. Stark, S and Warne, T. (2002) ‘Towards an Uncertain Politics of Professionalism: teacher and nurse identities in fl ux’, Journal of Education Policy Vol. 17, No. 1: 109-138Teacher Training Agency (1998) National Standards for Qualifi ed Teacher Status, Subject Leaders, Special Educational Needs Coordinators Head teachers, London: TTAVisscher, J. Coe, R. Eds. (2002) School Improvement Through Performance Feedback, Lisse: Swets and ZetlingerWarren Li� le, J. (1990) ‘The Persistence of Privacy: autonomy and initiative in teacher’s professional relations’, Teachers College Record, Vol. 91 No. 4: 509-532Whi� y, G. (2002) Making Sense of Education Policy, London: Paul ChapmanWright, N. (2001) ‘Leadership, ’Bastard Leadership’ and Managerialism’, Educational Management and Administration, Vol. 29 No. 3: 275-290


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Notes on AuthorNiki Elliot is a senior lecturer in education leadership and management at Sheffi eld Hallam University. She has particular interests in the areas of educational inclusion and school self-evaluation.

CorrespondanceNiki Elliot Senior Lecturer Education Leadership and Management Faculty of Development and Society 51-53 Broomgrove RoadCollegiate Crescent Campus Sheffi eld Hallam University Sheffi eld S10 2BP [email protected]

The In-Service Training Requirements for Primary School...The In-Service Training Requirements for Primary School...

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ABSTRACTEducation plays a vital role during any changing period. In Turkey, there are many discussions regarding education policies in the process of integration to European Union. Teachers are a crucial part in the integration process to European Union. For this reason, it is necessary that teachers in Turkey adopt the teacher training policies in European Union. The purpose of this study is to examine the shortcomings and proposals for improving in-service training for teachers in Turkey. This work focuses on teachers of primary education, analyzing requirements for in-service teacher training for Turkish teachers.

Key Words: In-service teacher training, life-long learning, professional development for teachers.

ABSTRACT IN TURKISH Değişim döneminde eğitim hayati bir rol oynamaktadir. Avrupa Birliği ile bütünleşme sürecinde olan Türkiye’de eğitim politikalari ile ilgili pek çok tartışma bulunmaktadır. Avrupa Birliği ile bütünleşme sürecinde öğretmenler önemli bir yer tutmaktadır. Bu nedenle, Türkiye’de öğretmenlerin Avrupa Birliğindeki öğretmen yetiştirme politikalarına uyum sağlamaları gereklidir. Bu çalışmanın amacı Türkiye’deki hizmet içi öğretmen yetiştirme çabalarını geliştirmek amacıyla mevcut uygulamaları incelemek varsa eksiklikleri ortaya koyarak önerilerde bulunmaktır. Bu

THE IN-SERVICE TRAINING REQUIREMENTS FOR PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN TURKEY IN THE CONTEXT OF ADAPTATION TO TEACHER TRAINING POLICIES OF EU COUNTRIES

Hülya ORMANCIOĞLU, Akdeniz University Antalya, Turkey

çalışmada Avrupa Birliği sürecindeki Türkiye’de öğretmenler için gereken hizmet içi eğitim ihtiyacını incelemek amacıyla ilköğretim okullarındaki sınıf öğretmenlerine odaklanılmıştır. Key Words: In- service teacher training, lifelong learning, professional development of teachers.

INTRODUCTION Change, and particularly the unpredictability of change, is o� en held to be a central characteristic of the contemporary world ( Edwards, 1997, p.22). While technology of our era changes rapidly, today’s organizations and consequently the individuals who form them are aff ected in many aspects; therefore entire changes in forms and functions of social institutions are required. On an individual level, it is the human being who is both the creator and director of these developments, and it is he who must overcome the challenges that arise as a result (Aytaç, 2000, p.66; Sunay, Sunay & Çılga, 1997, p.69; Gürsoy, 1997, p.35; Taymaz, 1975, p.86; Özdemir & Yalın, 1998, p.503; Antınışık, 1996, p.329; Yıldırım, 1997, p.549). It is therefore necessary not only to be able to adapt to change, but also to be able to engage in the processes shaping that change. Learning to learn therefore becomes central to active engagement with the contested processes of change. Change is not restricted to individuals. Organizations are also subject to change. On an organizational level, they are o� en held to become more effi cient and competitive. It is argued that their ability to cope with and shape such processes depends upon them becoming ‘learning organizations’ (Edwards, 1997, p.22). Senge has stated that in the 21st century organizations are called ‘learning organizations’ (Senge, 2001, p.13). Deming proposed that organizations ought to evolve as learning organizations by developing intrinsic motivators for knowledge and creativity (Sheehan, 2004, 179). According to Drucker, the world has become a place saturated with knowledge, where learning is vital (Edwards, 1997, p.22). In this knowledge era, it is the role of education to realize these challenges. Education is a dynamic process that is not only aff ected by changes in society, but is also an instrument to aid the individuals aff ected by this change and help them to implement it. The miracle is only accomplished through education (Aytaç, 2000, p.66; Sunay, Sunay & Çılga, 1997, p.69; Gürsoy, 1997, p.35; Taymaz, 1975, p.86;


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Özdemir&Yalın, 1998, p.503; Antınışık, 1996, p.320; Yıldırım, 1997, p.549). Education and training play a crucial role in helping individuals and societies to adapt to profound social, economic and cultural change, and foster the development of the human capital needed for economic growth (Eurydice, 2002, p.11-12). Increased competition between, and integration of, the world‘s economies put pressure on countries to raise skills through education and training institutions (Walshe, 1998, p.31). European countries have recognised knowledge as their most valuable resource for fuelling economic growth as it is the driving force behind personal and occupational development (Eurydice, 2002, p.11). Developments during the second half of the 20th century have brought radical, social and economic change to Europe. Globalization and its manifestation in the cultural, political, economic and environmental fi elds have been the major force behind this transformation. Scientifi c and technological progress, especially in the communications industry, have promoted international integration and cooperation but also intensifi ed international competition ( Eurydice, 2002, p.11). One of these international formations is the European Union (EU). A main objective of EU countries, who are in the process of integration, is that Europe should become ‘the most competitive and dynamic knowledge- based economy in the world, capable of sustainable economic growth with more and be� er jobs and greater social cohesion’ (Council of European Union, 2001, p.4). In order to be fi t for this integration several organizations must fulfi l certain roles. Of all these organizations education comes fi rst. Each organization has a theory that the integration of EU countries can be accomplished by economy, trade or technology. But The Lisbon Council in March 2000 recognised the important role of education as an integral part of economic and social policies, as an instrument for strengthening Europe’s competitive power worldwide, and as a guarantee for ensuring the cohesion of these societies and the full development of its citizens (The Copenhagen Declaration, 2002, p.1).

All these developments have ignited a ‘rethinking’ of general education (Edefelt, 2003, p.164). Educators now have a common view that education does not take place solely in the fi rst years of an individual’s life, and is not confi ned within the walls of educational institutions. Education is a perpetual process which can occur in

diff erent places and circumstances (Aytaç, 2000, p. 66; Sunay, Sunay & Çılga, 1997, p. 69; Gürsoy, 1997, p.35; Taymaz, 1975, p.87; Özdemir & Yalın, 1998, p.503; Antınışık, 1996, p. 320; Yıldırım, 1997, p.549). In a rapidly changing society, learning must be continuous. The education acquired in schools and colleges during childhood and youth will never again be adequate for a lifetime. Margaret Mead, a famous 20th century writer and leader, remarked that ‘the world in which we are born is not the world in which we will live, nor is that the world in which we will die.” People constantly need to make useful additions to their knowledge, to renew and broaden their perspective, to revitalize their thinking. They need additional education to continue their personal growth and to keep abreast of new developments and discoveries (Edefelt, 2003, p.163).

The ability of education and the eff ectiveness of training systems to fulfi l these demands depend on whether educational institutions themselves respond to change, depend on whether teachers improve and develop to be qualifi ed throughout their lives. Teachers must continually update their expertise and knowledge to provide tomorrow’s world with the knowledge and skills on which economic and social progress so critically depends, educational institutions and teachers need to respond by developing and delivering appropriate educational content (Edwards, 1997, p.22). It is important for teachers to continually improve their quality of education. The role of teachers cannot be neglected because the quality of teachers can aff ect not only the quality of an educational institution but also the general educational policy of a country. Educational quality is heavily dependent on the performance and quality of teachers (Ho Ng, 2003, p.657). There is an increasing recognition that teachers play the central role in eff orts aimed at improving the functioning of educational systems and raising learning outcomes. A be� er trained teaching force is an important factor in educational quality and effi ciency (OECD & UNESCO, 2001, p.3). Many countries have realized that teachers are at the centre of the educational process and without good teachers, all other innovations are doomed to failure (Güçlü, 1996, p.231). The qualifi cations of teachers in the EU are also very important in the light of the EU goal to become the world leader in terms of the quality of education and training systems. Teachers are key players in how education systems evolve and in the


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implementation of the reforms which can make the European Union the highest performing knowledge-driven economy in the world by 2010. To achieve its ambitious objective, the European Union needs to view the role of teachers and their lifelong learning and career development as key priorities (European Commission, 2005, pp.1-2). In order to improve quality the Joint Interim Report (JIR) emphasised that teachers and trainers must be prepared ‘for their changing roles in the knowledge based society. To enable teachers to meet these challenges, member states should consolidate the education of teachers in a lifelong learning perspective. Continuing professional development provides the cornerstone for the development of a high quality education and training systems (European Commission, 2004, p.5). The main objective of educational reforms within EU countries should be to raise the quality of teaching. However, this cannot be achieved overnight. Nor can we dismiss all teachers from the current system. This problem can be solved by in-service teacher training (INSET), by creating a common standard of quality. Improving the quality of teaching in the classroom is a major goal of in-service teacher education (Ediger, 2003, p.321).

The initial education of teachers cannot provide them with all the knowledge and skills they will need when handling various aspects of their future profession. Appropriate in- service training enables them to build constructively on this foundation throughout their subsequent career. Procedures for accrediting initial education may be more complicated than in the case of single in- service courses or modules. By contrast, the provision of in- service training is o� en more fl exible and demand- oriented and thus be� er able to adapt its content swi� ly to emerging new requirements. Initial education, induction and in-service teacher education are articulated stages in the continuum of professional development (Eurydice, 2004. p.19). Pre-service training no longer provides the tools and skills necessary to meet rising expectations. It has to be supplemented with in-service training ( Walshe, 1998, p.31). In-service training is considered to be an important component in the education of a teacher, helping to assure a high quality of performance in the classroom, from kindergarten to university level ( Mathelitsch & Oblak, 2004, p.190).

What is INSET ? What is the Goal ?In education, teacher in-service training is the process that provides the necessary knowledge, talents, a� itudes and habits prescribed in the philosophy of education in the light of scientifi c and social-economic truths for the teachers. (Budak, 1998, p.35). Wade identifi ed in-service education as systematic eff orts to create behavioural change in teachers and, eventually, students (Sexton, Synder, Wolfe, Lobman, et al., 1996, p. 485).

The basic objective of in-service training must be to enable an organization to reach its goal. For this reason, in-service training has several objectives, namely : to provide necessary conditions for new employees to adapt to work; to provide necessary knowledge, talents, a� itudes and habits for the personnel to adapt new developments and technology; to motivate and boost the morale of the personnel; to encourage personnel to remain with the institution; to increase the quality, quantity and eff ectiveness; to improve the reputation of the institution. These ideas will help an organization realize its objectives (Aytaç, 2000, p.66; Hizmet İçi Eğitimi Dairesi Başkanlığı Raporu, 1994; Koçak, 1997, p.24; Altınışık, 1996, p.332; Deniz, 1999, p.10; Çalık, 1988, pp.36-37; Kurt, 2000, p.76; Aksu, 1996, p.183; Erişen, 1998, p.39).

Briefl y, no ma� er how varied and diff erent the style of in-service training is, the training tries to form necessary changes in the knowledge, skills and behaviours of individual in the training. This change will be done in a suitable direction and area of the needs of the service. Thus; the new information will replace with the old and the skills will be improved and positive changes will occur (Kurt, 2000, p.76).

The EU, which strives to be unifi ed around common values, is a phenomenon which Turkey accepts as a benefi cial change. Turkey has desired to join the EU since 1959 and acknowledges that being a part of it will bring national and international benefi ts. At the same time Turkey aims to achieve the educational goals of the EU. For this reason, Turkey has been included in the EU’s educational programmes and activities since 2002. The goals of these programmes are equal opportunities in education, a common standard for the


4949

profession and agreement on quality. It is in these areas that Turkey is a� empting to make improvements and changes. Central to the EU goals is the teaching profession and quality of teaching and subsequently in-service training. Therefore, it is of initial importance that Turkey improves in these aspects. The main gaol of studying in-service training is to help Turkey adapt to this change, namely to ensure Turkey’s integration to the EU. For this reason, in this study, the steps that are necessary for Turkey’s integration into the EU regarding in-service training will be analyzed with respect to the identifi ed training needs for primary school teachers. In the light of this defi nition, the diff erences approach will be used in this study to analyze the educational needs of primary school teachers employed by the Turkish Ministry of National Education. In order to eff ectively utilize this approach the competences necessary in the teaching profession will fi rst be analyzed. As the competences necessary in teaching profession, the common European principals for teacher competences and qualifi cations will be analyzed in this study. Subsequently, the competences that teachers currently possess will be discussed and subtracted from the previously defi ned competency set required. The resulting needs will be looked at in terms of in-service training implementations for Turkey.

DISCUSSION In this part of the study Turkish in-service teacher training system will be revealed and compared with those of some EU countries in aspects of structures, responsible bodies and type of organizations. Subsequently, common European principles for teacher competences and qualifi cations will be presented and in order to identify the current competences that the Turkish primary school teachers have the in-service training undertaken in the 2002- 2005 time period will be analyzed in terms of the EU criteria. Finally, in the light of this analysis, the in-service training needs that are necessary for primary school teachers in Turkey will be tried to expose. Similar to other countries, continual education of teachers in Turkey is not le� to individual enterprises. This point of view is valid not only for the teachers but also for all state personnel. The responsibility of the continual in-service training of the whole personnel is given, by law, to the employing state department. In 214th paragraph of Law of Civil Servant numbered 657, it is stated that in- service training activities

are carried out for civil servants who work in public institutions in order to train them, to increase their eff ectiveness and to prepare them for further responsibilities. It is stated in the 215th paragraph that there must be a training unit in every institution to deliver these activities (Devlet Memurları Kanunu, 1965). The foundation and the running of training units and centres is organised according to the regulations prepared by the state departments considering the policies of Başbakanlık Devlet Personel Dairesi. The main unit for education in Turkey is The Ministry of National Education (Aytaç, 2000, p.68; Sunay, Sunay & Çılga, 1997, p.69; Altınışık, 1996, p.344; Özdemir, 1988, p.132). The historical background of the in-service training system in Turkey goes back to 1940s. However, the offi cial implementation of in-service training in Turkey was 1976 (Bağcı & Şimşek, 2000, p.9; Bedük, 1997, p.7; Açıkalın, 1997, p. 9; Pehlivan, 1997, p.131; Yalın, 1997, p.29; Saban, 2000, p. 27 ). This part of the comparative perspective study of in-service training systems for primary school teachers in France, The Netherlands, Austria and England are presented in terms of such criteria such as: structures and responsible bodies, type of organizations, main training establishments and compulsory and voluntary nature of in- service trainings.

Table : Main features of in- service trainings

Country Structures and responsible bodies

Type of organizations

Main training establishments

Compulsory and voluntary nature

France 1. Ministry of education2. Education offi ces3. MAPFEN for secondary level4. Academic inspection service at primary level5. Inspection services

Centralized at department level for primary , at academies for secondary.

1. MAPFEN2. IUFM

Compulsory for programmes organized by the inspectorates. They are voluntary within and outside school time


5050

The Netherlands

HBO 1. Colleges2. Universities

Decentralized 1. HBO colleges2. Universities3. Other establishments

Voluntary

Austria 1. Federal ministry2. Regional school authorities

Decentralized at provincial level

Teacher training establishments in each province

Compulsory for major innovations, during school time. Voluntary outside school time.

England 1. Department for education2. Local education authorities (LEAs)3. Schools

Decentralized at local level

1. Higher education institutions2. Universities3. Centres run by LEA4. Schools

Not compulsory but the department for education expects teachers in England to undertake NSET on at least three of the fi ve non- teaching days each year. Generally voluntary.

Turkey Ministry of education1. Chairmanship of in-service training offi ce2. Local In-service training offi ce of provincial directorate of national education

Centralized at both level

1. In-service training institutes,2. Higher education institute3. Universities.

Enrolment is normally on a voluntary basis. When important innovations are introduced, however, in-service training can be compulsory.

Source: Eurydice, 2001/2002; Eurydice, 2002/2003a; Eurydice, 2002/2003b; Eurydice, 2003/2004, MEB, 2005; Sağlam, 1999; Öğüt, 1997, p.34).

Arrangements for in-service training vary widely between countries depending on factors such as current institutional arrangements, the character and status of the teaching profession views on curriculum and pedagogy and the relationship between government agencies and schools. When the bodies responsible for INSET are compared, Turkey’s structures resemble those of France; only these two countries have a centralized system. However, throughout Europe, several trends in INSET are occurring, one of which is decentralization. Since in-service training is an essential channel for communicating national education policies, the Ministries generally defi ne its conceptual framework. Decentralization is the strongest trend, but

the degree and level of decentralization - at regional, provincial, local authority or school level -varies considerably.

In several European countries, money for in-service education is no longer given to agencies; it goes directly to the schools. This means a moving from centrally-fi nanced to school-fi nanced in-service education. The schools then may choose their in-service education providers. They „buy“ the services they need. In the United Kingdom and the Netherlands for example many schools make their own spending decisions. Thus, to a large extent in-service education has become a free market system. Providers compete and schools make their choices. Providers provide estimates and schools negotiate the content, format, and cost. If they fail to reach an agreement, schools choose another agency. Not all in-service education policies for teachers point in the direction of school-based programs. In Austria and France for example, most in-service education is still off ered by the province, of the universities or special in-service training colleges that provide what they believe to be best for schools. In the Scandinavian countries, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom, however, the schools develop the plans and choose the agencies that provide the services they need (Lakerveld, Jaap & Nentwig, 1996, p.68).

In terms of decentralisation, Turkey, since 1993, has had local in-service education offi ces (06.01.1993 Gün, 1993/2 sayılı genelge). By the help of this implementation, the participation rate to INSET has been raised (Bağcı & Şimşek, 2000, p.9; Bedük, 1997, p.7; Açıkalın, 1997, p.9; Pehlivan, 1997, p.26; Yalın, 1997, p.29; Saban, 2000, p.27). However, they do not function independently of the central system. Another trend has been observed within in-service teacher education is a shi� ing from in-service education courses to in-service education activities. For years, in-service education meant courses aimed at individual participants. The theory was that the needs of the school were served by raising the knowledge and skill levels of the teachers. Today, many in-service eff orts target school teams or departments, and they include a variety of activities. A change from „externally-ready“ to „tailor-made“ models is a third trend. Traditionally, outside agencies developed training courses and brought them to the schools. Today, many schools defi ne what they need and take the initiative to


5151

develop it. This shi� requires that in-service education agencies are increasingly responsive to the needs of their clients (Lakerveld, Jaap, Nentwig, 1996, p.68). All of these are valuable ideas for Turkey to research and implement as the current system relies on ‘externally ready’ programmes.

When the voluntary or compulsory nature of INSET programmes are compared, it can be stated that some Member States allow training to take place during school time, some Member States take a more fl exible approach, with compulsory training only when needed (Austria, Turkey). All provide opportunities for voluntary in-service training during free time. When we consider that the compulsory or voluntary nature of training varies according to the organizers of the training courses, the level of education in question, the statutory category to which the teachers involved belong, the type of training (duration and subject), we begin to understand why it is diffi cult to form a clear and complete picture of the organization of in-service training (Eurydice, 1995). In Turkey, as in the other countries, INSET, is legally required but not compulsory on an individual basis. The reason that INSET should be voluntary is because individuals are most successful when they enjoy their profession and compete the training of their choice. If Turkish teachers are to adapt EU INSET policies, the adaptation period will be shorter if the training is voluntary.

In this part of the study the common European principals for teacher competences and qualifi cations will be presented. The changing role of teachers and trainers in the knowledge society provides a compelling reason for the development of a common framework for teachers’ competences and qualifi cations. The Common European Principles should provide an impetus for developing policies that respond to the level and scope of the challenges faced by the European Union and which will enhance the quality and effi ciency of education across the Union. The common European principles are: teaching must be a graduate profession which should be mobile, placed within the context of lifelong learning and based on partnerships. When creating a common framework for teachers, it needs to address the following competences and principles: Teachers should have a tertiary level, university or equivalent- based initial

education and should have the opportunity to continue their studies to the highest level in order to develop their teaching competences and to increase their opportunities for progression within the profession. Teacher and trainer education should be seen in a lifelong learning perspective in order to improve skills for present jobs and to acquire further competences. Teachers should recognise the importance of acquiring new knowledge, and have the ability to evolve and adapt throughout their whole career; Mobility should be seen as an integral part of professional development. Teachers should, therefore, be encouraged to undertake mobility in other European countries for professional development purposes; The process of professional development should be the responsibility of both individuals and institutions in a context of partnership between teachers, their constituent organizations and education authorities; The European dimension should have much stronger presence in initial teacher education curricula and programmes and should be promoted in professional development. Teachers should work with and in society. Professional development programmes should ensure that teachers have the knowledge and experience of European co-operation to enable them to value and respect cultural diversity and to educate learners to become EU citizens; Teachers should be able to work with knowledge, technology and information. Their education should equip them to access, analyse, validate, refl ect on and transmit knowledge, making eff ective use of technology and ICT where this is appropriate; Teachers should prepare and develop collaborative activities which increase the collective intelligence of learners and co-operate and collaborate with colleagues to enhance their own learning and teaching (European Commission, 2004). In table 2, according to the common framework for teachers in EU, the in-service training activities undertaken in the 2002- 2005 time period in Turkey are presented.


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Table 2: The in-service training activities undertaken in the 2002- 2005 time period

Central Local

Programmes in 2005 - Computer courses for teachers by distance learning methods- Recognition of EU seminars- English, German languages courses

- Computer and internet courses (compulsory for the teachers who are not certifi cated), courses on Microso� offi ce programmes (PowerPoint, Word, Excel, Access), courses on designing web pages, Photoshop, autherhware, Microso� offi ce publisher, CAD. - course for Intel future- course on using technology in education- English language courses- Human rights seminars - Seminar on learning to learn

Programmes in 2004 - Human rights seminars - Seminar on learning to learn - Basic English language courses

- Course on teaching English- Computer operation courses

Central Local

Programmes in 2003 - Basic English Language course

- English Language courses- Basic Computer Skills, courses on designing web page, courses on Microso� offi ce programmes (Access, Photoshop, and Author ware (compulsory), CAD.- ICT in education

Programmes in 2002 - Basic English Language courses - Seminar on adaptation of books for EU standards- Democratic Civics seminars- Seminar on change and innovation

- computer skills courses- ICT courses- English language courses- Web design

Source: MEB Hizmet İçi Eğitim Dairesi Başkanlığı Hizmet İçi Eğitim Planı 2005, 2004, 2003, 2002; HİEP, 2002; HİEP, 2003; HİEP, 2004; HİEP, 2005.

In table 3, The In-service training needs for primary school teachers in Turkey in the context of the common European principles for teacher competences and qualifi cations are identifi ed.

Table 3: The in-service training needs for primary school teachers in Turkey in the context of the common European principles for teacher competences and qualifi cations.

The competences that are necessary for teachers.

The current in- service training programmes for primary school teachers in Turkey.

Graduate Profession All the teachers have to graduate from universities.

Lifelong Learning Perspective Available.

Mobility Available.

EU Dimension In EU Dimension: Recognition of EU seminars.In global dimension: Human rights seminars, Democratic Civics seminars, Seminars on change and renovation

ICT / Technology Usage Available.

Knowledge of Foreign Language Available.

When evaluating INSET for primary school teachers in Turkey, it is understood that there are current programmes which fulfi l the EU criteria previously referred to in this study. Some of these programmes include language courses, computer courses and seminars about adapting teachers to EU. It can be said that Turkey has certain positive implementations, but they are not suffi cient. The reason for the insuffi ciency of these programmes in quantity is both the low rate of the general education budget and the budget spent on INSET. In 2001, the proportion of GDP allocated to education was 3.7% and in 2002 it was 4.8%, comparable to the level in the EU countries studied here (France- 5.5%, 1990; The Netherlands- 6.5%, 1993; Austria- 5.4%, 1991; England- 4.7%, 1988), but still well below the EU average of 5%. In Turkey it was 7.3% with private expenditure. A suggestion is to encourage private expenditure (Eurydice, 1995; DİE, 2004, p.108). When the approximate share of budgets allocated to in-service training is compared, Turkey still has the lowest education budget for INSET. In the Netherlands 1% of funds for primary and secondary level staff are available for INSET. In Austria it is 0.5 %. There is no available information on France and in England. It is not relevant due to decentralization to local authorities (Eurydice, 1995). In Turkey the budget for INSET is 0.035%. It must be taken into account that the content of the budgets may be very diff erent, depending on the organizational structure. However, in Turkey the budget for INSET is exceptionally low, but it is widely accepted that


5353

this should be remedied in order to make progress towards joining to EU.

When the INSET requirements for primary school teachers are discussed the INSET needs of teachers reveal the issue that INSET programmes in Turkey have both some shortcomings and good implementations.

According to the European Commission (2004) the European dimension of education should mean that students and teachers are conscious of their common cultural base and the rich national and regional diversity they share. The European dimension must embrace the whole of Europe, not only the EU member states and not only include the indigenous cultures, but also those of migrant communities in Europe. It should be an inclusive concept, which does not deny or suppress the distinctive characteristics of individual identities or cultures represented throughout Europe, nor exclude a wider international perspective. Teachers, as well as students, need to have their horizons widened to be aware of this broader European concept. The European dimension may be used as a model of diversity, which can provide both fruitful exchanges and lessons for other regions of the world, while Europe also has much to learn from other countries and regions. In Turkey, some courses for teachers were arranged in 2004 about the European Union but it should be widespread. On lifelong learning there are some seminars such as a learning to learn seminar among Turkish in-service training activities but they are insuffi cient. There must be more concentration on this subject.

Mobility of teachers during the continuum of their professional development (pre- and in-service) should be a central tenet of the framework. Institutions off ering initial and continuous professional development should be encouraged to integrate mobility projects into their mainstream programmes and recognise them as essential components of such programmes. Mobility also means that teachers have the opportunity to see how diff erent educational issues can be dealt with in various contexts. It may also mean that individual teachers have the opportunity of participating in in-service education programmes in a country other than their own.

Mobility for the professional development of teachers requires the support of considerable resources in the EU programmes to enable a signifi cantly greater number of teachers to participate in mobility programmes in other countries. Apart from the increase of funds for EU programmes, supporting mobility also needs to be prioritised in public policies at national level (European Commission, 2004). In Turkey, teachers have the opportunity to a� end in-service training in the EU. Internal in-service training is also provided but it must become more widespread.

The lack of language knowledge and diffi culties in recognition of the learning acquired during mobility periods, including for career development purposes, are most frequent obstacles to mobility linked to the competences and qualifi cations of teachers. National strategies and measures are also needed in order to ensure that European objective of mother tongue plus two European languages is reached. The study of European languages in every initial teacher education programme as well as in teachers’ continuous education should also be promoted (European Commission, 2004). When the 2003- 2005 in-service programmes are analyzed, there are some language courses in Turkey. This shows that Turkey understands the value of language skills and their necessity for integration into the EU.With regards to technological competencies, Turkey has a positive and eff ective example in the computer courses provided in 2003- 2005...

Following the examples of the other countries the responsibility for INSET should be shared between the ministry, universities and other educational institutions. The content of in-service programmes in Turkey is still decided by the educational experts and authorities at the Ministry of National Education, so they can be called ‘externally ready’. Through decentralisation, the needs of INSET will be decided by schools, teachers and the individuals and institutions that will benefi t most from the training. Programmes designed in this way can be called ‘tailor made’. Turkey should explore ‘tailor made’ programmes because the centralized courses, which are created without the input of the participants, are less eff ective than courses whose content takes into account the needs and desires of educators. By implementing tailor made programmes, teachers take part in the


5454

decision making process and also results in motivated teachers who become the leaders in quality education.

CONCLUSION The change of the needed competencies in accordance with the changing technology necessitates the staff involvement into the education until they leave work. Learning must be continuous. Due to the changing roles of teachers, pre- service teacher training is necessary but never satisfactory. The education commissions of the European Union have come to an agreement about the renovations of the teachers and stated that the competencies of the teachers can be collected under the heading of common European principles for teacher competencies and qualifi cations. It is necessary for Turkey to train teachers according to the conditions of information age, the idea of lifelong learning and the standards of the EU. Teachers who are currently working in Turkey must have the necessary competencies to adapt to the changing society and to meet the rising expectations in the process of integration to the European Union. For this reason in this study the current in-service teacher training activities in Turkey were analyzed according to the common European principals for teacher competencies and qualifi cations. When the Turkish in-service teacher training activities undertaken in the 2002- 2005 time period were analyzed, it can be stated that there are several courses, seminars and activities which are appropriate to the EU standards. Particularly, the recognition of EU seminar, local and compulsory computer courses, centrally arranged language courses can be given as examples to these activities. These courses must be more widespread. The in-service teacher training activities should be used as criteria for career development of teachers. It can be stated that the most important handicap in front of the in-service teacher training activities in Turkey is the low educational budget. It should be remedied in order to adapt to EU.

Whether or not they are eff ective or suffi cient, the developments of in-service training are an indicator that Turkey has had European educational objectives since the founding of the Turkish Republic. Turkey has been in the integration process for a long time. With a signifi cant history of a republic and democracy, Turkey is aware that education is the key for improvement and development. It

cannot be denied that there are shortcomings. These shortcomings can be rectifi ed by a well- educated young generation. The way to accomplish this begins by training teachers, and to have a smooth integration into the EU, this training should be formulated around EU criteria.

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Walshe, J. (1998). The professional development of teachers. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. The OECD Observer, 211, 31-35.Yalın, H. İ. (1997). Hizmet İçi Eğitim Var Olan Ya Da İleride Çözülmesi Gerekecek Bir Problemi Çözmek İçin Yapılır. Milli Eğitim Dergisi,133, pp. 29-30.Yıldırım, A. (1997). Son Beş Yılda Hizmet İçi Eğitim Dairesi Başkanlığında Düzenlenen Eğitim Yönetimi Kurs ve Seminerlerinin Değerlendirilmesi. Eğitim Yönetimi Dergisi, 4, p. 549-571.

Correspondence: Hülya Ormancıoğlu M.A. Student, Akdeniz University, Institution of Social SciencesGraduate Program of Educational Administration, Supervision, Planning and EconomyE- mail: hulya_07@ yahoo.com

School Leadership in Highly Disadvantaged Communities...School Leadership in Highly Disadvantaged Communities...

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AbstractThis was a qualitative study of schools in two highly disadvantaged communities in the north of England carried out in 2003. The research employed an essentially interpretive/phenomenological methodological approach, aiming to make a contribution to theory through the use of grounded techniques: open-ended interviews with key individuals at regular intervals, semi-structured interviews and a small number of observation studies over a period of eight months. The central research question was: „what is perceived to be successful school leadership in highly disadvantaged communities?“ Underpinning „areas of inquiry“ were:1. Where is leadership located?2. How do those in leadership positions carry out their roles and how are

they infl uenced by their values?3. What is perceived to be successful leadership and why?4. What actually happens in initiatives and what are the consequences?

The research outcomes encompass both dilemmas and extremely problematic practical issues concerning leadership practice in these schools/communities. Diff erences between the approaches to and experience of the education process in these two similarly deprived communities were noteworthy, including:• The diff erent way they approached the behaviour issue;• The diff ering perceived degrees of fragility;

SCHOOL LEADERSHIP IN HIGHLY DISADVANTAGED COMMUNITIES: THE REALITY AND WHAT NEXT�

Steve Jones, Sheffi eld Hallam University, U.K.

• The perceived diff erence in approach between both communities’ schools: one being arguably more “pragmatic”;

• The diff erential impact of parental choice; and, • The perceived diff erences concerning community engagement between

the two sets of schools.

The paper fi nally explores issues arising from the study: particularly the nature of leadership as networked and subversive in these challenging contexts.

Key WordsSchool leadership, highly disadvantaged communities, subversive, networked

IntroductionThe task facing schools and their leaders in highly disadvantaged contexts today is considerable, if not daunting. These communities, by defi nition, remain extremely poor and stark in terms of their social conditions, with their schools being expected to perform a central and transforming role. This paper outlines emerging themes from two recent case studies conducted in similar yet contrasting areas in the north of England. Both groups of schools were viewed as broadly successful in tackling the range of issues impacting locally, and in providing positive outcomes for their young people. They were both located in the top fi ve percent of most deprived areas nationally, with one community being „multi-cultural“ (Thurlby) and the other predominantly „white working class“ (Burntake). The work is still „in progress“, nevertheless the leadership and school improvement outcomes from the data in this paper are powerful, and the implications for practice and policy for these and other similar communities potentially great.

The methodological approach used in the studies was essentially interpretive/phenomenological, employing grounded methods in two families of schools (a secondary school and its feeder primary schools). The studies employed three main qualitative techniques: open-ended interviews with key individuals at regular intervals (Graham Cummings the head teacher at Thurlby secondary school, Julie Brier the head of Chatsworth primary in Burntake and Richard


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Johnson head teacher of Burntake secondary school), semi-structured interviews with a wider cross-section of actors in those schools, and a small number of observation studies. Fieldwork centred around two key projects: a Behaviour Improvement Project (B.I.P.) in the Burntake family of schools, and planning activity around a Pathway scheme for disaff ected fourteen to sixteen year-olds in danger of exclusion from school at Thurlby secondary. The research aimed to capture the nature of perceived successful school leadership in these situations, the values of people involved, and the day-to-day reality of these contexts. A further aim of the work was to establish potential applications of perceived eff ective practice from these studies for other similar situations in the areas of leadership, school improvement and community transformation.

This paper concentrates on emerging outcomes from the work, following the se� ing-out of some key points from the literature in this area of study. Firstly, dilemmas and practical issues impacting on leadership and practice in these schools/communities are outlined. Secondly, major diff erences between the two families of schools in approach and experience of the education process are explored. Thirdly, a summary overview is given of some main eff ective practice examples from the studies. Finally, the conclusion briefl y outlines the four main theoretical outcomes from the study.

1. Relevant Literature About School Leadership, Improvement and Community Regeneration: Some Key PointsClearly, the nature of leadership required in these highly disadvantaged situations is a critical issue for schools and their communities. Referring to the process of leadership, Hampden-Turner (1990:14) says „if you duck the dilemma you also miss the resolution. There is no such thing as cheap grace“. At the same time, according to Heifetz and Laurie (1997:125) „rather than protect people from outside threats, leaders should allow them to feel the pinch of reality in order to stimulate them to adapt“. Similarly, Kathryn Bailey (p.23) believes that leaders should „encourage all concerned to take responsibility“. Bennis and Nanus (1997:82) point out the essential quality that „the leader must be a superb listener“. Nevertheless, Bolman and Deal (1991:157) make the telling observation about the practice of leadership that „managers may believe in sharing power but may

also fear that subordinates will misuse it“, and this is arguably likely to be especially so in tough situations where fragility and stress can easily undermine hard-won gains. Sergiovanni, quoting Diana Lam (1990), stresses the values core of the leadership task in saying „I believe leadership is an a� itude which informs behaviour rather than a set of discrete skills or qualities, whether innate or required“. Finally, Ribbins and Marland (1994) view strong, positive leadership as the necessary foundation for a successful school.

Concerning the micro-political task of leadership in these contexts: Bennis and Nanus (1997:143) point out that „the leader‘s vision for the organisation must be clear, a� ractive and a� ainable“. In the messy environment of modern partnership working for school leaders in highly disadvantaged communities, this clear vision linked to a� ainable goals is likely to be hard to achieve. As Grint (paragraph 29) says „a further element of negotiating skill that may prove critical for public sector leaders [including school leaders] is the ability to negotiate their way through multiple accountabilities and responsibilities“. For schools to see themselves as part of a wider network and to take advantage of the fl exibilities and gains off ered by that partnership environment, then, is not only diffi cult in its own right, but also organisationally problematic.

The process of school improvement in these situations is equally complex. Eff ective schools are arguably ones which have achieved a high level of consistency in practice and coherence in values. Also „improvement in professional practice entails fundamental professional learning which, according to David Hargreaves and others, relies on collaborative relationships“ (ibid. p.4). As far as mobilising staff is concerned, Grint (paragraph 27) points out that „people may do what you want, not because they think you are right, but because their self-interest persuades them to comply“. When writing about school recovery, Gray and Hopkins (1999) believe that „jolting the system“ gets results. However, it is also possible that „calmer“ organisational approaches work be� er, even when drastic change is required. Fullan (1991) stresses the need for cultural change and Stoll and Fink (1996) believe that schools need to gain control of events to move forward.


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Literature about the nature of disadvantaged communities and the challenges they face (e.g. Whi� y, 2001; Mortimore and Whi� y, 1997; and Robinson, 1997), particularly highlights not only the physical deprivation that characterises people‘s everyday lives but the a� itudinal blocks to progress that exist. Other authors such as Ball (1990, 2000) and Schoon (2001), write about the huge struggle facing young people in disadvantaged communities. They are also highly critical of current U.K. government assumptions (and of writers such as Barber and Dann, 1995) about prospects for eff ecting school improvement in these situations.

As far as the issue of school reputation is concerned, Ribbins and Marland (1994:33) believe that „part of the head teacher‘s task is enabling pride and, indeed, pleasure in the school“. They quote one of their head teacher respondents as saying about this „I think it‘s necessary to feel good about the school and to enable staff to feel good about the school“ (ibid. p.33). However, this task of raising aspiration, and ultimately school reputation in highly disadvantaged communities is, almost by defi nition, likely to be extremely problematic. The potential for schools to transform the life chances of young people in tough circumstances may require measures beyond the school improvement agenda. Schoon (2001) calls for the se� ing up of socially balanced neighbourhoods throughout the land to enable children everywhere to have access to the same quality of education and an equal chance to fulfi l their potential. At the same time, he believes that only truly comprehensive schools in poorer neighbourhoods [i.e. with a broad ability range and social balance] can deliver for disadvantaged young people.

As far as the nature of these highly disadvantaged communities is concerned, transforming the prospects for their young people is seen by authors such as Putnam (2000), Coleman and Bourdieu (1991) to involve the building of „social capital“ in those communities in a way that achieves genuine „bo� om-up“ transformation. This transformation is seen as necessarily relating to a broad range of issues in the inner-city, wider than simply educational inputs and outcomes. Linked to this process is the area of parental links for schools. Barber and Dann (1995) stress the importance of parental involvement in schools and of special programmes for progress to

be made, whilst other writers argue for schools to see themselves as part of a wider network to maximise the educational gain for their pupils and the local population generally.

2. Case Studies: Major OutcomesThe seven broad areas referred to in this section are issues which were common to the two case study communities of „multi-cultural“ Thurlby and „white working class“ Burntake. They encapsulate common areas of concern and pressing practice issues, shedding light on the process of school leadership in these circumstances, as well as pointing to major issues concerning the impact of context. An illustrative example from the case studies is given in each area.

2.1. The Nature of Leadership Required in These SituationsCertainly, the three head teachers in the studies,: Graham Cummings (Thurlby secondary), Julie Brier (Chatsworth primary, Burntake) and Richard Johnson (Burntake secondary) were perceived to be “strong” leaders. For example, Graham was viewed to be the main driving-force behind not only the Pathway scheme for disaff ected youngsters in danger of being excluded from school, but across much of what went on in the school generally. His beliefs embraced a collaborative approach, but this was never easy to achieve, he felt. In spite of wishing to be “bo� om-up”, o� en ways of working in school were more “top-down” to ensure things happened. Nevertheless, his very eff ective people skills helped gain colleagues’ commitment to initiatives in school and a shared ideological underpinning for their work, albeit o� en because of the relative strength of Graham’s ideas and character. Certainly his strong and decisive leadership had been crucial when unruly behaviour by a substantial number of children at school during the start of the Iraq war had threatened to derail much of what had been achieved to move the school forward in recent years. He had metaphorically grasped this particular tough dilemma with both hands and been determined to make sure the crisis wouldn’t undermine recent school progress, rather using it as an opportunity to restate the school’s ethos and sense of purpose.

Leadership strength was a highly-prized asset in these two very deprived communities. It had taken personal strength on a day-to-day basis to provide eff ective leadership to move these schools


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forward, and the responsibility was considerable, o� en without let-up, in these and other similar situations. The strength required lay partly in being able to engender a vision which others could commit themselves to, but also in developing the skills of others in the team. This had been problematic at times for leaders in the studies. Not only had various leaders had to jolt their schools into more eff ective delivery from a low base, but the imperative to improve standards was remorseless, requiring leaders to encourage a relentless focus on curriculum development and delivery.

At times, leadership had to be provided through being role models for others and providing encouragement in diffi cult circumstances. In these contexts, leaders were likely to have to deal with situations of extreme diffi culty, of a “make-or-break” nature, where failure to fi nd immediate, eff ective solutions could easily result in schools sliding backwards as organisations. So, where leaders are able to promote a co-operative vision across a community to benefi t young people in innovatory ways, arguably the outcomes for schools in highly disadvantaged circumstances can be positive and productive. But such initiatives are likely to prove diffi cult to bring about and sustain.

2.2. The Political Leadership Task Involved in Local Partnership WorkingSchool practitioners in Thurlby had developed a vision to aim for greater coherence between statutory service providers over a period of years previous to the study. This approach of local joining-up wherever possible, linked to levering-in of external funding sources, with schools potentially at the centre of this network had helped to form the Education Action Zone (E.A.Z.), a U.K. government initiative designed to increase coo-ordination between schools at a local level. Schools had been able to demonstrate at the time of the bid that they had the beginnings of a common approach within the local area and a co-operative approach between themselves. They agreed with Graham Cummings‘ (secondary head) view that this co-operative approach stood the best chance of schools starting to make headway in transforming young people‘s life-chances.

Clearly, disadvantaged communities need all the help they can get in terms of regeneration and li� ing of people‘s horizons. The stark nature of the challenge being faced makes it imperative that all agencies work together to maximise resources available to build up the community, with schools having a crucial part to play in the joining-up process. In both case study communities, the local E.A.Z.s co-ordinated projects devised by all schools jointly in a „bo� om-up“ way, using extra government funding. It had not only been perceived to increase local school co-operation but also made possible a certain amount of school engagement with other agencies and organisations.

However, this process of joining-up was extremely diffi cult, particularly given the challenging nature of school delivery in these types of communities. Also, so numerous were the local initiatives, that making sense of the totality of local regeneration projects, to the benefi t of the local population, was extremely patchy. Where the needs are so enormous, this lack of co-ordination is a very serious concern, as families require the maximisation of any available resources to improve their situation. Schools, too, tend to fi nd outside engagement a major diffi culty, given their need to concentrate on the core educational task. However, whatever the blocks, ways do need to be found to increase co-ordination between initiatives in such circumstances, and schools arguably should be at the heart of a community‘s regeneration eff orts, not at the margins.

2.3. The Fragility of Leadership and School Progress, Yet the Extreme Need for Hope

Highly disadvantaged contexts represent a massive challenge for school leaders and their colleagues when it comes to meeting current U.K. government policy and standards imperatives. Achieving higher practice standards based on shared values, ge� ing colleagues to work eff ectively as a team , and achieving change in a calm manner are all the harder in a tough and challenging context. At the secondary school in „white working class“ Burntake, there was a strong desire amongst staff to enable young people to make good progress educationally, but this progress was seen as always hard-won and fragile. High commitment and resilience, coupled with


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a vision of progress continuing into the future helped to keep the despair at bay. However, there was a management capacity issue at the school, given all the initiatives and challenges they faced, as well as an ongoing need to be seen to take decisive action to put ma� ers right when problems from school spilled out into the surrounding community at times. Examination performance, too, was diffi cult to improve to levels regarded as acceptable to all concerned.

Schools in disadvantaged communities like these are likely always to be fragile and remain vulnerable. One of the reasons is the „overload“ experienced by teachers and those in leadership positions, because of the nature of the job. This is a daily struggle, with no days being easy from the working point of view. In this situation, individuals can become overwhelmed very easily, even if they are highly competent and resilient professionals. If something goes wrong in school, the reserves of energy and expertise available to deal with the situation are likely to be scarce and depleted, adding to the diffi culties.

The situation is compounded either by the shortage of high quality staff applying for jobs in these schools, or by a high staff turnover, which can be especially serious when outstanding leaders leave. So these features are particularly concerning for pupils, because the children being taught in such schools are very much in need of consistency and se� led relationships with staff , to give them maximum support and encouragement. Also, the constant fallout from o� en low a� ainment levels, compared to other schools in more advantaged areas, (published in league tables and offi cial statistics) adds to the pressure on these schools to perform and also to the associated fear of failure.

2.4. The Dilemmas and Diffi culties Associated with Adopting Child-Centred Approaches in these SchoolsGiven the diffi culties they faced, it is not at all surprising that school staff in the case studies with inclusive beliefs were facing dilemmas and diffi culties about turning an inclusive educational vision into reality in their work situation, given the diffi culties they faced. For instance, in the „white working class“ Burntake study at primary level, the diffi culties involving the inclusion agenda involved the perceived mismatch between intention/philosophy and the practicalities of the

situation. Staff were keen to „include“ rather than merely „integrate“ and felt that extra specialist assistance would be required off -site to assist some challenging youngsters with their learning, away from their peers. This view was not one that was shared by relevant L.E.A. advisers and therefore led to an ongoing disagreement about how best to achieve „inclusion“ in practice for this age group.

Making sure all pupils are eff ectively included in mainstream schools is a huge issue in these disadvantaged areas. For some staff , there is an idealistic belief that this should happen so that youngsters are taught in mainstream classes for the majority of the time, with withdrawal being minimised, almost regardless of the knock-on eff ects. For others, they feel that some „sharp-edged kids“ are too disruptive to be taught unless they can receive special support, either in a small group or in a unit catering for their needs, away from other pupils.

This situation is arguably best resolved through pragmatic strategies, where a balance is struck between the needs of the majority and making sure the needy majority get help to enable them to progress. Certainly, there is a strong view that having challenging young people in mainstream classes without the support they need is merely „integration“ rather than „inclusion“. The growing use of mentors and support units within schools in the U.K., together with specifi c targeted help for individual children, but within the context of curriculum innovation and a buoyant and diverse pupil population, appears to off er the most promising way forward.

In the demanding environment of a school in a disadvantaged community, the temptation for staff to concentrate on their own survival day-to-day, rather than to put children‘s needs fi rst, can be overwhelming. School leaders and their colleagues, therefore, have constantly to put children‘s needs at the forefront of their work to counteract this, whilst having regard to the internal health of the school. Unless children are truly at the heart of everything a school does, the chance of positive outcomes being achieved in these circumstances are likely to be remote indeed.


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Certainly, disaff ected young people are perceived to respond positively to certain adults in school in spite of their negativity. At the same time, when specifi c needs of young people are addressed and the curriculum is delivered in ways which inspire them, disaff ection can be contained more eff ectively. Also, where young people are treated with respect as a ma� er of school policy this can foster positive a� itudes within school, encouraging a sense of belonging and ownership rather than alienation.

2.5. The Leadership Imperative of Raising and Then Maintaining a School‘s Reputation, O� en From a Low BaseIn „white working class“ Burntake, the secondary school had struggled to shake off an inherited negative local reputation from the past. The head teacher, Richard Johnson, had judged that achieving academy status was a vehicle for repairing this diffi culty for his school, and increasing its reputation. However, there was no guarantee that this was a panacea in itself, given the tough context for the school and the constant need to build on the real improvements made in the school since it had been in „special measures“ (a U.K. government designation of poor performance) a number of years previously.

Where school reputation is absolutely vital to schools in these situations, the positive relationship with the community on a whole range of levels is extremely important and o� en revolves around issues of trust. In times of diffi culty, the school may need to fall back on its local reservoir of goodwill to survive the shock and move on.

In these highly disadvantaged communities the tendency is for negative school reputations from the past to depress demand for places at local secondary schools, with many parents opting to send their children elsewhere. If these parents tend to be more middle class, as was true in Burntake, this reduces the social mix of young people at secondary level, making it more diffi cult to establish a genuine comprehensive school population (i.e. with a wide range of abilities and social backgrounds). Tackling this trend is arguably an absolute imperative if these types of communities are to receive an education for their children of equal worth to those in more affl uent areas. Making progress with this issue of reputation was a major one

in the two case study communities, with some success being achieved in turning this around across both areas.

2.6. The Transformational Potential of School Investment in Highly Disadvantaged CommunitiesIn „multi-cultural“ Thurlby, new secondary school buildings were agreed to be built during the following two years and were perceived by staff both as an opportunity and a potential stumbling-block, in fact new school buildings were also planned at „white working class“ Burntake primary and secondary school levels. Maintaining a positive momentum during the changeover was likely to be a major leadership, pedagogical and organisational task. Graham Cummings, the head teacher, recognised the importance of keeping the local community aligned to a very important local resource for the population as a whole at the heart of their deprived community. The planned sport and arts specialism was designed to build on existing work with young people but also to provide a potential vehicle for raising aspiration locally and a source of community pride. The message that this scale of public investment could potentially send out in this poor context was a very important one: that the community‘s education was highly to be valued and that unprecedented levels of capital funding was being provided to enhance local young people‘s life chances.

Schools in disadvantaged communities have the potential to be a major resource and focus of pride for their communities. Both these aspects of what schools can provide tend to be much-needed in poor areas, and where they are in evidence, can have very positive spin-off s for the school and its pupils. There is a general sense in which community groups and their leaders can have an important role in helping schools to do their job eff ectively, and this goes beyond just parental involvement. The links of a school with its surrounding community touch, too, on the micro-politics of a disadvantaged community, with its networks and associations.

In these situations, initiatives to involve the community in sport and expressive arts work featuring local children can be extremely eff ective. Also, if schools are celebrating success of pupils, or where plans are being made substantially to improve a school‘s facilities,


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great strides can be made in moving a school closer to its community and build faith in the local area‘s future. Equally, missing opportunities to engage with the community in these types of ventures can be a massive missed opportunity.

2.7. The Diffi culty Yet Leadership Necessity of Working with Parents and the Surrounding CommunityIn „multi-cultural“ Thurlby, Graham Cummings, the head teacher, was perceived as having made important strides in linking the school with its local population. His leadership was regarded as very important to this process, as in other ma� ers. However, there was still a problematic environment of school/community links in the family of schools as a whole. Nevertheless, role models from the community, mainly in the form of support staff such as mentors at the secondary school, were seen by respondents as being a key to be� er school/pupil and school/community relationships in the future, based on positive results already. The meeting of local people in community se� ings by the secondary head teacher and other staff , added to local people‘s feelings of the school being part of their community and something that they could feel part of in return. Pre-school links across the family of schools were a shared focus of activity, aiming to embed good connections between local people and schools from when their children were still at a very young age. The growing practice of community placement of young people and links with employers at a local level, were all initiatives designed to link schools be� er to their surrounding community.

Making parents partners in the work of a school in a disadvantaged community is particularly diffi cult but nevertheless vital. There is a thin dividing line between success and failure in this aspect of what a school does, with progress made being easily undone in a short space of time. Clearly, unless parents can be encouraged to help their children and show an interest in their progress, the school‘s task is all the harder. And in poor communities there is likely to be a negative history as far as schooling is concerned for many individual parents, that tends to take a great deal of eff ort to overcome.

However, where parents are encouraged top engage with schools when their children are young and to develop their parenting

skills, where school projects encourage children to receive parental support with home-working, and where parents have their lifelong learning needs catered for, a great deal of progress can be made. These positive links can arguably help schools to create a positive a� itude to education in the community as whole that impacts back on children‘s achievement. Unless inroads can be made into a� itudes in this way in disadvantaged communities, prospects for educational advance is likely to be bleak.

Highly disadvantaged communities are o� en extremely low on trust - in: local people, outside agencies, service deliverers and local schools. The tendency may be to believe that the situation cannot improve and for widespread cynicism to hold sway. At the same time, local skills and networks may be limited and the ability to improve this, extremely diffi cult to do. In these circumstances, raising people‘s horizons and driving up educational performance locally is a colossal undertaking. Arguably, li� le can be achieved without the surrounding community sharing a school‘s enthusiasm and optimism for positive change.

3. Case Studies: Major Diff erences

3. 1. The Behaviour IssueIn „multi-cultural“ Thurlby, in spite of ongoing fragility in this highly disadvantaged community, staff were keen to avoid focusing purely on the behaviour issue in their day-to-day practice. They aimed to treat behaviour diffi culties as a symptom rather than a cause of wider diffi culties in schools. For instance, the E.A.Z. head teachers had decided not to pursue a behaviour strand to their work, unlike at „white working class“ Burntake. Although the socio-economic indicators for Burntake were similarly low compared to Thurlby, the context presented as more challenging across the age range. At the same time, the E.A.Z. had decided to major on behaviour as a specifi c area for improvement across the zone.

At Burntake secondary school, leadership policy was fi rmly in favour of maximising inclusion in the mainstream situation, but in a challenging context. This arguably resulted in some „integration“ rather than „inclusion“ of pupils if the support for individual pupils


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was inadequate to the task, and if class teachers did not possess the necessary skills in dealing with challenging behaviour. Where the learning support was not always available to provide help for pupils requiring special educational input due to pressure of needs and where the mentor team were used to assist what was termed „the middle group“ rather than the most challenging youngsters, the situation was likely to have been at times problematic in individual classroom situations day-by-day.

So, it is likely that in Thurlby, a combination of a perceived less challenging context, a more unifi ed and se� led approach to behaviour across the family of schools, and a philosophical view that causes of behaviour needed focusing on rather than the behaviour itself, was having a positive impact on the conduct of pupils. In „white working class“ Burntake, the philosophical diff erences of those involved, the more challenging context, the complication of having to cope with a „top-down“ U.K. government-funded Behaviour Improvement Programme, and the greater focus on behaviour as an issue, were arguably delivering a less positive result overall.

3.2. Diff ering Degrees of FragilityAt „multi-cultural“ Thurlby secondary school, the critical incident at the school at the start of the Iraq war had had the potential to undermine much of the hard-won gains of recent years. The fact that the school and its leadership came through this dangerous crisis was much to their credit, showing that they possessed the organisational and leadership strength to cope. The added element of operating in a multi-cultural context meant that still greater eff orts had to be made to build trust, given cultural diff erences and perceptions. Arguably, however, this diversity had become a source of strength for the school, given the progress they had made in building trust across the range of cultures locally.

Certainly, too, Thurlby secondary school had established its reputation with its surrounding community to the extent that it was now over-subscribed, a� racting the full range of available pupils and therefore having a largely „comprehensive“ intake (with a wide range of abilities and social backgrounds). This had been achieved over a period of time from a fairly low base, but nevertheless prior to

the school receiving its new specialist status and preparing to move into new buildings.

In „white working class“ Burntake, a small group of very disaff ected and disruptive pupils across the age range, o� en referred to as „sharp-edged kids“ were a particular challenge and concern for staff . The issue was at the forefront of participants‘ thinking in a way that did not appear to be the case in Thurlby to the same extent. At Chatsworth primary school in Burntake, the head teacher Julie Brier was constantly concerned about the behaviour issue due to its potential impact on the ability of her school to make progress and transform pupils‘ educational outcomes. The fragility of the situation in this family of schools was added to by the potential looming leadership crisis during the study, due to a high proportion of head teachers moving on to other work. Some of the incidents she reported during interviews were extremely concerning and serious, such that she confessed that they were a new experience for her and her staff .

Burntake secondary school was viewed by inspectors as providing insuffi cient leadership on the behaviour issue during the study. The head teacher, Richard Johnson characterised the school as being vulnerable on the discipline issue, due to its context. Of particular concern was the constant arrival at the school of outside pupils in need of a school place. These pupils were generally in this situation following exclusion or expulsion from their previous school and therefore further skewed Burntake‘s intake towards the challenging end of the spectrum, and away from being truly „comprehensive“. So, prior to moving to specialist status (for sport and performing arts) and to new buildings, Burntake secondary still had surplus places, diffi culties of reputation from the past and a critical mass of disaff ected pupils to contend with.

Comparing the two sets of circumstances in Thurlby and Burntake, superfi cially they were similar, but the degree of fragility built into the Burntake situation appeared to be greater than in Thurlby. Certainly, a contributory factor to this diff erence may lie beyond issues of leadership and school improvement. It may be that the longer experience of developing holistic inter-school and inter-agency


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solutions in Thurlby led to these changes being more embedded, with a positive eff ect on the schools as a result.

3.3. The History of Fragility„Multi-cultural“ Thurlby‘s head teacher, Graham Cummings, had identifi ed that local initiatives that drew on external funding to aid the regeneration of the community were an important part of what needed to happen to enable schools to improve pupil outcomes. This had been an aim of hid dating back to the start of his headship, some eight years previously. Even though these initiatives had begun to make a diff erence locally, he felt that the joining-up process was o� en le� to busy professionals like himself and that this was an inadequate model. Nevertheless, progress had been made to join-up eff orts in Thurlby, partly due to the existence of an E.A.Z. that was perceived to have been operating successfully. Local schools had not been in any form of special measures for some years, and the secondary had never had any U.K. government designation of weakness or failure.

In „white working-class“ Burntake, two primary schools and the secondary school had all been in special measures in the past, but not in the last three years. The two schools, including Chatsworth, which had recently come out of „special measures“, had made a great deal of progress in terms of pupil outcomes, arguably more than other schools in the area during the past three years prior to the study. The secondary school set itself an extremely ambitious task, given its context, by operating a very inclusive policy which required teachers to cope with some extremely challenging young people in their mainstream classes. School reputation was also a major issue in Burntake, particularly for the secondary school.

So, whilst both case study communities had had schools in the U.K. government „failure“ category at various times in the past, the schools in Burntake had had more of them and more recently. As this process is so traumatic for the schools concerned, it may be that the more se� led experience in Thurlby, together with the longer time in post of key leadership fi gures there (including the very infl uential head teacher of the secondary school) helped this community to build strength incrementally over a period of time. Also, it may be that the relatively embedded regeneration project work in Thurlby had begun

to impact back positively on the schools and their performance in a way not happening to the same extent and for the same length of time in Burntake.

3.4. Perceived Diff erences in ApproachThe approach at „multi-cultural“ Thurlby secondary school as far as challenging pupils was concerned, involved a child-centred and inclusive approach, as in the planned Pathway scheme, but one that was fi rmly rooted around practicalities of implementation. Graham Cummings, the head teacher, was personally commi� ed to pragmatic approaches but these were informed by a child-centred and caring philosophy of teaching. So, he very much believed in „sharp-edged kids“ receiving as much assistance as the school could provide, but in such a way that other pupils did not become disadvantaged. As far as he was concerned, the outcomes for the individual child were the drivers of school practice and policy.

In „white working class“ Burntake, the particularly challenging context across the age range meant that ge� ing the balance right between inclusion beliefs and practice was a pressing leadership and pedagogical issue, arguably even more than at Thurlby. The impact on school reputation of ge� ing the mix wrong was potentially damaging both short- and long-term, with potential for further skewing the intake towards the challenging end of the pupil spectrum, particularly at the secondary level.

As has previously been noted, primary head teachers in Burntake were of the opinion that „sharp-edged kids“ were such a potential challenge to their schools‘ integrity as organisations and posed such a risk to the continued improvement of pupil outcomes generally, that they believed that off -site, „step-off “ provision for these young people was the most advantageous way of ensuring maximum inclusion in their schools. This pragmatic view was not shared either by relevant L.E.A. advisers or by the secondary school. In turn, whilst the secondary school‘s highly inclusive philosophy was applauded by advisory colleagues in theory, its application raised some ongoing concerns as to its practicality and its potential impact on school outcomes and reputation, given the challenging context they were operating in.


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Comparing the approaches adopted between the two studies, certainly the Thurlby situation appeared to off er a relatively se� led, calm and pragmatic way forward, but nevertheless within a volatile context. They believed in concentrating on what was believed to work best, both short- and long-term, coming up with innovative and practical solutions to complex problems. They arguably applied their child-centred and high-quality curriculum delivery in a way that linked it coherently to practice. Burntake secondary school, meanwhile, had such a challenging context that the high commitment and ideals of leading staff were likely to have been tested in practice terms on a daily basis in all classroom situations. The challenging context at primary level in Burntake led head teachers to take a radical view of the best way to deal with their most challenging pupils which at the time of the study had failed to impress the L.E.A. administrators.

3. 5. The Impact of Parental ChoiceAs has already been pointed out, „multi-cultural“ Thurlby secondary school had made progress in recent years to address the diffi cult yet vital issue of reputation. The steady progress in delivering improved pupil outcomes in public examinations had resulted in there being competition for places at the school. This was a remarkable achievement, given the problem schools in similar highly deprived situations tend to have with the reputation issue. In spite of recent „added-value“ measurements being applied to U.K. government league table scores for schools, with the consequent improvement in some inner-city schools‘ positions in the tables, this is possibly only likely to have minimal eff ect on surrounding community perceptions of their local school‘s reputation, unless it is linked to other major signals of a school‘s progress and performance.

At „white working class“ Burntake, the reputation issue at Chatsworth primary had been tackled in recent times through engaging parents in a variety of ways in the work of the school, as well as aiming for improved pupil outcomes. Success in these areas had generally been positive at the time of the study, prior to the school moving into new buildings and therefore possibly improving its reputation still further, based on existing embedded improvements. At the secondary school, the market system was operating so that pa� erns of opting-away skewed the nature of the intake in a highly negative way. The

ongoing poor reputation issue inherited from the past was hard to shi� in a positive direction, and this worked with market forces to the school‘s disadvantage. To break out of this situation, the head teacher, Richard Johnson, had calculated that improvements made in the school under his leadership required a further change-agent to truly repair and transform the school‘s reputation, and encourage local parents to support the school so that their children transferred there at age eleven. The preferred vehicle for this transformational change he identifi ed as academy status, with sixth form provision adding to the school‘s existing age range.

So, comparing the two situations, Thurlby secondary was eff ectively at a stage further on in its development compared to Burntake secondary school, having improved its reputation and results to a level where they had an over-subscribed situation. All this had happened prior to a planned move to new buildings and the achievement of specialist status. Eff ectively, Burntake was reliant on the new buildings and specialism/academy status to move up to a further level of reputation and a� ainment, even though progress under their head teacher from U.K. government „special measures“ designation in the past few years had been positive.

3. 6. Community Engagement As has been pointed out already, „multi-cultural“ Thurlby secondary school saw its role not only in relation to its pupils, but also its surrounding community. This was a philosophical belief of its head teacher, also shared by other key staff members that community engagement led to added value back in the school as far as pupil learning was concerned. Graham Cummings, the secondary head teacher, possessed leadership and micro-political skills that enabled him to cross boundaries out into the community in ways that were perceived to be eff ective. This also had the potential to impact back positively on the school‘s reputation with its surrounding community. The secondary school had a policy of aiming for local people to be employed in school as support workers wherever possible, believing that this also aided the process of engaging young people in learning. However, the most signifi cant aspect of Thurlby‘s drive for greater community engagement, according to its head teacher, was the synergy between community development and school progress


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across the board. This view was shared by colleague head teachers and wider in the rest of the family of schools, and particularly through the work and aims of the E.A.Z.

In the „white working class“ Burntake community, the situation was mixed between stages (as in Thurlby), but more so. At Chatsworth primary school, the adopted community engagement approach went hand in hand with school improvement measures. Julie Brier, the head teacher, had a vision of the community being an important resource for the school and genuine partners in the learning process, as far as pupils were concerned. The Burntake E.A.Z. co-ordinator also articulated similar views about the potential role of community engagement for schools working in highly disadvantaged contexts, such as hers. To this end, the E.A.Z. had a community engagement strand to their work. Generally, however, schools had not been centrally involved at all in regeneration activities in Burntake and this had applied the other way, so that in community groups in the area did not necessarily feel closely engaged with school activities, particularly as far as the secondary school was concerned. This was a diff erence of approach in practice between the Thurlby and Burntake situations.

4. Examples of Perceived Eff ective PracticeIn outlining some emerging examples of perceived eff ective practice in context from the case studies, this is done in the sense of studying singularities with a view to asserting that similar fi ndings may possibly occur elsewhere in similar circumstances (Bassey, 1999:12). So, it is likely that these examples can provide a basis for wider application in similar contexts. From the data, it is clear that the secondary school in „white working class“ Burntake was facing considerable ongoing challenges that required, according to Richard Johnson its head teacher, a major contextual change radically to alter in future years. Nevertheless, respondents felt that a lot of progress in very diffi cult circumstances had been made by the school in the recent past. Chatsworth primary school in Burntake had the same contextual issues and in a similar way had made substantial strides across the board in the years immediately prior to the study. Nevertheless, there was an area of practice where the school arguably demonstrated particular eff ectiveness, referred to below. „Multi-

cultural“ Thurlby, however, was perceived to have arrived at a point in its development where eff ective practice was being exhibited in a number of crucial areas, with possible wider application. For this reason, Thurlby secondary school provides most of the examples referred to in summary below.

4.1. Outstanding LeadershipGraham Cummings, the head teacher at Thurlby secondary school is perceived to have exhibited outstanding leadership in his school‘s tough context. The main elements of his approach were: commitment and determination; a sharing of responsibility in an eff ective way; micro-political skills based upon personal strength of belief; a child-centred approach; focusing upon identifi ed important issues; recognition of practical diffi culties in the planning process; enthusiasm and credibility; having the ability to persuade colleagues about a course of action, based upon underpinning values; adoption of an open approach; and strength of resolve in tough situations.

4.2. The Fostering of Positive Parental/Community EngagementAt Chatsworth primary school in Burntake, school reputation and relationships with parents were believed to be strongly interlinked by the head teacher, Julie Brier, and her staff . Success needed to be demonstrated locally, she believed, so that aspiration could be raised generally. A Family-Friendly Homework Project had helped the school not only to sell itself to local parents but also to engage them much more positively in the life of the school and of their own children. The school also encouraged as much lifelong learning on site as possible, believing that children‘s learning required the interest and a� ention of parents to receive proper focus, and for that to happen, parents themselves needed energising and where necessary an upli� in their skills needed to take place.

4.3. Schools Being Agents of Local RegenerationFor Graham Cummings, head of Thurlby secondary school, the task of school reputation-building was linked to the process of capacity-building of the community, as he believed the one could not prosper without the other. He felt that if the school‘s pupils were to overcome barriers to learning they were likely to require more than high-quality learning opportunities, important though he believed those


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to be. The perception locally had been that the secondary school‘s initiatives in encouraging local partnership working and in a� racting external funding to the community over a period of years had helped to create a local sense of purpose that aided the education process and sense of community pride, aspiration and feeling of progress locally.

4.4. Overcoming Pupil Disaff ectionAt Thurlby secondary school, the child-centred approach was believed to be the best basis for achieving a steady upli� in the school‘s reputation over a period of time. This approach also rested upon an avoidance of focusing on the behaviour issue alone, but rather to tackle a range of issues contributing to poor behaviour. So a range of work was in place not only at the secondary school, but across the E.A.Z. to deal practically with the needs of pupils with challenging behaviour. During the study, too, there was optimism among the staff at Thurlby that the Pathway scheme could become a highly successful, innovatory way of tackling the needs of highly disadvantaged and challenging young people who might otherwise drop out of the education system altogether. 4.5. Creating „Genuinely Comprehensive“, Community Schools in Poor AreasAt Thurlby secondary school, the achievement of being oversubscribed at the time of the study, based on enhanced local reputation, improving examination results and a purposeful way of working on a range of fronts, was a major achievement for the school and its staff . The retention of its local young people, even in a highly deprived context and in a marketised U.K. education system with parental choice meant that the school retained a social mix of pupils with a wide range of abilities. This arguably helped to maintain an increasingly purposeful forward trajectory within a more se� led and sustainable environment, in spite of the ongoing fragility of its surrounding community. Plans for the school to move into new buildings provided a further opportunity for promotion of the vision of the school and what it could provide, fi rmly within the context of a community-based asset. This was set to build on existing work carried out by the school to: continually improve examination results, promote links with parents and the surrounding community,

continually address issues of ethos within the school, have a child-centred approach, and develop ever-closer links with feeder primary schools to ease transition at age eleven.

ConclusionThis paper has considered the major school leadership dilemmas, challenges and opportunities which formed the outcomes from the case studies. The leadership role at school level in an increasingly complex multi-agency and partnership context was essentially a networked one. At the same time, the driver for change and the basis for collective staff action on behalf of the disadvantaged children served by these schools were deeply-held values. Emerging theoretical outcomes which not only pull together the outcomes from the research relating to highly disadvantaged communities, but also point to policy and practice possibilities for schools in similar circumstances, impact in four crucial areas:

1. The scale and reality of the school leadership task;2. “Subversive” school improvement approaches at local level;3. The centrality of values to school leadership in these

communities; and 4. Recognising the political nature of successful school leadership in

these contexts.

The term networked leadership refers specifi cally to the nature of the leadership task in a complex inner city context, where boundary-crossing for school leaders is a required activity, and therefore developing networks are the order of the day. It is also used to encapsulate what I term a necessarily “subversive” leadership approach to sense-making at local level, in an o� en tangled organisational se� ing and, at times, unhelpful policy context. In such contexts, an active construction and fostering of support and other networks within a partnership se� ing is absolutely essential. But this needs to be a network that operates on the terms of the networkers and for the benefi t of local people, especially children a� ending school. The networked leadership model also has values at its core and these are child-centred and collective leadership values. Not only do leadership values invite a networked response from colleagues, but also shared leadership in a networked way between colleagues.


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Finally it refl ects the essentially networked political nature of the school leadership task, as well as the crucial wider linkages for schools in the context of their surrounding communities, which need to be fostered and exploited to the full in order to maximise educational outcomes and opportunities for local young people.

These issues, I believe, lie at the heart of not only everyday concerns of school leaders and their colleagues in highly disadvantaged communities but also possibly provide the basis for advancing the process of educational leadership for the future in some of our most challenging local areas, not only in the U.K. but internationally.

ReferencesBall, S.J. (1990) Politics and Policy Making in Education. Routledge.Ball, S.J., Maguire, M. and Macrae, S. (2000) Choice, Pathways and Transitions Post-16. New Youth, New Economics in the Global City. RoutledgeBailey, Kathryn School – the Best Days of Your Life?. Education Journal Issue 67.Barber, M. and Dann, R. eds. (1995) Raising Educational Standards in Inner Cities: Practical Initiatives in Action. CassellBassey, M. (1999) Case Study Research in Educational Se� ings. Open University Press.Bennis, W. and Nanus, B. (1997) Leaders: the Strategies for Taking Charge. Harper RowBolman, L. and Deal, T. (1991) Reframing Organisations: Artistry, Choice and Leadership. Jossey BassColeman, J.S. and Bourdieu, P. eds. (1991) Social Theory for a Changing Society. Westview PressFullan, M. G. (1991) Successful School Improvement: the Implementation Perspective and Beyond. Open University PressGray, J. and Hopkins, D. et al. (1999) Improving Schools: Performance and Potential. Open University PressGrint, Keith Literature Review in Leadership Commissioned by the Performance and Innovation Unit of the Cabinet Offi ce, U.K.Hampden-Turner, Charles (1990) Charting the Corporate Mind. Blackwell

Mortimore, P. and Whi� y, G. (1997) Can School Improvement Overcome the Eff ects of Disadvantage? Institute of Education, University of LondonPutnam, R. (2000) Bowling Alone: the Collapse and revival of American Community. New York: Simon and SchusterRibbins, P. and Marland, M. (1994) Headship Ma� ers, LongmanRobinson (1997) in Mortimore, P. and Whi� y, G. (1997) Can School Improvement Overcome the Eff ects of Disadvantage? Institute of Education, University of LondonSchoon, N. (2001) The Chosen City. London: Spac PressWhi� y, Geoff (July-Aug, 2001) Education, Social Class and Social Exclusion.Journal of Education Policy Vol. 16 No.4Sergiovanni, T. (1992) Moral Leadership: Ge� ing to the Heart of School Improvement. Jossey BassStoll, L. and Fink, D. (1996) Changing Our Schools: Linking School Eff ectiveness and School Improvement. Taylor and Francis

Contact Steve Jones, Sheffi eld Hallam University, U.K.Telephone: +44 114 225 3998Email: [email protected]

Steve JonesSteve is in the process of completing his PhD thesis prior to submission. His background is as a secondary school teacher in the South Yorkshire state education system, coupled with being an elected representative for one of the most deprived, inner-city areas of Sheffi eld. He approaches the issue of educational improvement in highly disadvantaged communities from a democratic socialist standpoint, urging that practical lessons learned from successful pedagogy in these situations should be applied with a sense of urgency to address massive potential waste of human capital in the future.

A Comparative Analysis of Duties of the Inspectors with...A Comparative Analysis of Duties of the Inspectors with...

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AbstractIt could be stated that the objective of all inspection systems is to promote the quality in the schools. Supervision of education could literally be said to include four main dimensions: evaluating, advising, monitoring and reporting. Historically, two main paths have developed. The fi rst path can be seen in Great Britain, where from the beginning there has been a strong focus on the school as a whole, on its institutional quality. The other path, for which France is the best example, has focused the search for quality on the quality of the teachers. What determines the structure of a supervision system can be analysed regarding various variables such as population, economy, geography and educational policy. An overall view shows that EU countries have diff erent supervision structures depending on their formation of their educational systems as well.Ongoing relations between EU countries demands and concludes with social, cultural, economical and political integration. The main integration agent can be said to be educational systems of every individual country. The purpose of this study is to analyse the inspection systems of some of the EU countries and Turkey to fi nd out the similarities and diff erences. This study further, aims to focus on analysing the duties of inspectors comparatively depending on their organisational structures and discuss the outcomes in order to understand the overall framework and develop suggestions for commitment of the inspection system of Turkey to EU inspection framework.

A C�� A�� D�� I� �� R�� T�� O�� S�� T�� E�� U�� C��

Ass. Prof. Dr. Ali SABANCI, Akdeniz University Antalya, Turkey

Key words: Inspection, supervision, education, evaluation of education, inspection systems.

Özet (Turkish Abstract)Denetim sistemlerinin temel amaçlarının okulun kalitesini geliştirmek olduğu söylenebilir. Okulların denetimi söz konusu olduğunda dört boyu� a incelemek olası görünmektedir. Bunlar: değerlendirme, yöneltme, rehberlik etme ve rapor vermedir. Tarihsel olarak iki bakış açısının vurgulandığı görülmektedir. Birinci bakış açısı okulu bütün olarak kurumsal kalitesiyle değerlendiren ve İngilterede temellerini bulan yaklaşımdır. İkincisi ise en iyi örneği Fransa olan kalitenin sağlanmasında inceleme birimi olarak öğretmeni merkeze alan yaklaşımdır. Nüfus, ekonomi, coğrafya ve bunlara bağlı olarak oluşturulan eğitim politikalarının denetim sisteminin yapısını belirleyen başat değişkenler oldukları söylenebilir. Bütüncül olarak değerlendirildiğinde Avrupa Birliği ülkelerinin eğitim sistemlerinin yapısına bağlı olarak farklı denetim sistemlerine sahip oldukları anlaşılmaktadır.Avrupa Birliği ülkeleri ile süregelen ilişkiler bütünde sosyal, kültürel, ekonomik ve politik bütünleşmeyi gerekli kılmaktadır. Bu çerçevede bütünleşmeyi sağlayabilecek en önemli unsurun her ülke için eğitim olduğu söylenebilir. Bu çalışmanın amacı, Avrupa Birliği ülkelerinde uygulanmakta olan denetim sistemlerinden bazılarını incelemek ve Türkiye Milli Eğitim Sisteminde uygulamada bulunan denetim sistemi ile karşılaştırmalar yoluyla benzerlik ve farklılıkları nedensellik ilişkisi içinde irdelemektir. Bu amaçla, denetim sistemlerinin örgütsel yapıları gözönünde bulundurularak denetmenlerin görevleri incelenmiş ve Türkiye’nin denetim sistemi boyutunda uyumu açısından yapılan çözümlemeler ışığında öneriler sunulmuştur.

Anahtar sözcükler: denetim, eğitim, değerlendirme, eğitimde değerlendirme, denetim sistemleri

IntroductionIn the 21st century, the continuing process of European integration creates new realities for the peoples of the new era. For appreciating and fully integrating these realities into the lives of the European citizens, it is clear that the national educational systems need to respond appropriately. Opportunities have to be created for the adaptation of such systems to the new needs, opportunities, and responsibilities implied if the results of greater European integration


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are to be made fully meaningful to the populations involved. What is needed can be the development and inclusion of a proper European dimension in the educational systems and the other sub-systems of education and schools such as inspectorates (Ryba, 2000, p.244). As well, in Magna Charta Universitatum (1988) and Sorbonne Joint Declaration (1998), developing European cultural dimensions is obviously stressed and it is also emphasised that future of mankind depends on cultural, scientifi c and technological improvements. In the Bologna declaration, the Europe of Knowledge has been widely recognised as an irreplaceable factor for social and human growth together with an awareness of shared values and belonging to a common social and cultural space (The Bologna Declaration, 1999). For spreading cultural, scientifi c and technological improvements to whole Europe, adaptation of educational systems to each other and sharing common values play a pivotal role. That’s why, educational inspectorates can be seen as a key element in the continuing evaluation of European integration. Inspection system is one of the functions that are essential to the operation of a good school (Haris, 1963, p.5).

The management of educational organisations is known as administration. The function of administration which has to do with maintaining and improving the educational program is known as supervision (Feyereisen, Fiorino & Nowak, 1970, p.15). The eff ectiveness and the productiveness of the education system that is in interaction with the other systems have to be evaluated. In factories and in other organisations when an error is spo� ed, it is possible to stop production and collect the product from the market. Is it ever possible to take malformed individuals back to school a� er they enter the society? Therefore, inspection is an inevitable function of education. A clear and illuminating feedback about the eff ectiveness of the education system is provided with the information collected by means of inspection. The institutions that cannot be backed up with the inspection results depend on coincidences to overcome the problems and shortcomings. During inspection, however, these turn into healthy data provided for decision organs. Every complex organisation has an inspection system. This is an organisational and managerial must (Aydın, 2000; Bozkurt, 1995, p.531; Yalçınkaya, 1992, p.30). Evaluation is an inevitable part of inspection system. It enables

the survival of the organisation through giving feedback. Evaluation is conducted in accordance with the data gathered at the end of the inspection. The evaluation in Turkey is practised by the inspection system and executive manager transfers the duty of evaluation to inspection units (Karakütük, Aksoy & Akçay, 2000). Since evaluation is a judgement which is a� ained through the comparison of the information that is gathered during the inspection it is defi ned as an extension of inspection and a process of judging the proportions of the benefi ts of the decisions, plans, organisation, communication and coordination. By means of evaluation, the powerful sides of initiation are determined and emphasised, shortcomings are identifi ed, undermined or remedied (Aydın, 2000; Başaran, 2000, p. 287; Halis, 1998; Taymaz, 2003).

According to Tortop, İşbir & Aykaç (1999) the reasons of the inspection are as follows,1) Prevention of the disproportionate enlargement tendencies of the

state administrations. 2) Enabling the bureaucracy workers to consider the criticisms of

the public opinion. 3) Preventing state offi cers from arbitrary interpretation of the legal

texts.4) Hindering bureaucrats from ge� ing advantage of their chairs for

their own benefi ts while ignoring the rights of the ruled.5) Impeding bureaucrats to become unique authorities in the

management of the state.

Evaluation is related with every kind of learning and improving and it is a continuous process. Thus, education and teaching activities go beyond of being a repetition the result of which is unknown, instead it gains continuous development dynamism and an experimental quality. The evaluation process in education organisation covers all the individuals related with the evaluation. In other words, the evaluation of teaching activities in a school necessitates the involvement of many elements. These elements are the teacher as a whole, students, administrator, experts, se� ing, facilities and the environment. The teacher as the planner and the conductor of these activities go beyond of being in charge of transferring information in traditional ways and instead he gains a quality of researcher who


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accepts education as a problem solving area (Karakütük, Aksoy & Akçay, 2000; Küçükahmet, 1999).

Aydın (2000) identifi es the steps of evaluation as follows:1) The fi rst step in evaluation process is to determine and defi ne

the part of the activity that is going to be evaluated. The decision must be taken before about what to evaluate in the evaluation process.

2) The second step is to develop fundamental hypothesis or the criteria on which the interpretation and the judgment of the evaluated activity will depend.

3) The third step is identifying and gathering the data related to criterion. The best way of gathering information is collecting the needed information in the most useful way.

4) The fi nal step of evaluation is the interpretation and analysis of the data.

The topics of evaluation in the education system seem to be analysed under the dimensions of input, process and output. According to this, in the dimension of input (1) the consistencies of the behaviour that are wanted to be observed at the end of the education process with inner and related behaviours (2) whether the individuals possess the pre-conditioned behaviours in the intellectual, emotional and psycho-motor areas which are necessitated by the activities in the process or not (3) the se� lement of the individuals to the appropriate programs in terms of individual properties are considered. On the other hand, in the dimension of process (1) the education activities to develop targeted behaviours, (2) tools and materials, (3) the eff ectiveness of these to generate the behaviours, (4) their appropriateness to the students who are a� ending the education are evaluated. In the dimension of output, (1) the behaviours possessed at the end of the education (2) their adequacy and consistency with plans at the beginning of the education (3) the occurrence of unwanted behaviours and their defi nitions are examined. This evaluation mostly involves specifying the level of learning that is to say contrasting the behaviours of the students and the behaviours although were expected did not occur (Baykul, 1992, p. 86).It seems necessary to continuously observe the studies in the school, to fi gure out the use of sources, the check of product and

productiveness to encourage the increase of productivity. At this point, the concepts of management and inspection come to the surface. While management is related to provide materials and tools and general functioning, inspection is related with the enhancement of the learning se� ing.

Educational supervision can be stated as providing a be� er learning atmosphere for students (Goldhammer, Anderson & Krajewski, 1980, p.198). In addition, the success of supervisors will in large part depend upon their ability to organise and use the resources of others (Cogan, 1973, p.31). The purpose of the inspection is to help increase the opportunity and the capacity of schools to contribute more eff ectively to students’ academic success (Sergiovanni & Starrat, 2002, p.6). In other words, the aim of the inspectorate is to provide an independent, external evaluation of the quality and standards of the schools (OFSTED, 2003, p.4).

Inspection could be defi ned as an eff ort to understand the appropriateness of the organisational acts to the determined principles and rules in the direction of approved organisation goals and monitoring and improving the functioning of the organisation in order to impede deviation from planned goals. Inspection is also defi ned as the control of the administrator to see whether the works in the organisation are done in accordance with the orders, laws, plans and budgets. With this aim, the organisational functioning is observed as a whole in a planned and programmed way continuously and defi ciencies are identifi ed so that a healthier functioning is tried to be obtained. Inspection in education has to be accepted and practised as a combination of idea and act. Inspection is evaluated as a refl ection of theoretical analyses to educational organisations and process. According to this, in the fi rst group, learning, character and behaviour theories take place. In the second group, legal and political theories, information and group dynamic theories take place. And in the third group, organisation, management, communication and role theories take place (Aydın, 2000; Başaran, 2000; Bursalıoğlu, 2000; Kaya, 1999; Taymaz, 2002). Inspection is a large service area which covers evaluating and inspecting the studies, proposing suggestions to the related in order to improve the studies, helping the staff in the institutions with their work and growth by the way of counselling.


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Moreover, it involves the acknowledgment of the results of discipline or illegal events to higher ranks (Taymaz, 2002). Inspection is an occupational help and counselling that can be provided in the desired time and place. It includes the collective use of education sources eff ectively, the analysis of the situations and eff ects that infl uence the quality of education with a critical approach. The control or the inspection unit of the education system should not only satisfy the responsibility of evaluating and reporting. If actual control duties are expected from such a unit, it must be endowed with the right of involving into decision and planning processes (Aydın, 1986; Demirel, 2001; Öz, 1992, p.227; Te� iş Kurulu Başkanlığı, 1993).

Inspection in education is the process of directing, counselling, helping the teacher and developing teacher’s teaching behaviour with the aim of improving education. Inspection is bi-dimensional. The fi rst is the technical dimension that involves plan, program, coordination, research acts and the second is the social dimension that covers sensitivity, observation, communication, learning and renovation. The goal of inspection is to improve the teaching and learning situation in the class. Inspection is the process of improvement that is processed with the people working with students and it is a help service given to teachers to enable them to do their duties be� er. Inspection is interested in the teacher’s activities in the class rather than his own. In the understanding of inspection, the value of the inspectorate is measured with the contribution it provides for the improvement of teaching. And what is expected from the inspectorate is to increase this contribution degree (Ataklı, 1997, p.7; Spears, 1956, p.16; Yalçınkaya, 1992, p.44-45).

Inspection is defi ned in two ways as in-administrative (administrative) inspection and out-administrative inspection which is processed through outer ways. In-administrative inspection: (1) Hierarchical Inspection: is the inspection of lower rank workers by higher rank workers. (2) Administrative Inspection: It is a kind of inspection performed by an inspection commi� ee or a number of inspectorates in the name of the executive who has the authority of administration in the organization. (3) Wardship Inspection: is the inspection in which the local administration organs are inspected by the central administration organs. Out-administration inspection: (1) Political

Inspection: is the inspection of legislation over the administration or execution (parliamentary investigation or questioning, etc) (2) Adjudicatory Inspection: is the transfer of the authority of solving administrative functional inconsistencies to an organ independent of administration. (3) Public Inspection: is the inspection performed to protect the rights of the people who claim to have suff ered form administrative acts or procedures. (4) Public and Pressure Groups’ Inspection: is the inspection carried out by media, associations, unions, political parties and civil society organizations which have infl uence on the administration (Aydın, 2001).

It could be stated as well that the concept of inspection is comprised of steps of control, evaluation, improvement and development and these steps compose the elements of inspection. Control and gathering information refers to depiction of the situation as it is as if taking its photo. In the step of control, an objective analysis of the conditions is prepared in order to enable the comparison that will be of use in the step of evaluation. Evaluation refers to comparison of the data collected in the step of control with the ideal criterion and identifying positive and negative sides. While the step of control aims at proving, the step of evaluation aims at development. Improvement and Development: This is the step which represents the real aim of the inspection. Control and evaluation is made use of as a tool to aid the actualization of improvement and development step (Başar, 2000).

In terms of the inspectional goals; a) the condition of the a� ainment of educational goals, b) the appropriateness of the educational se� ing, c) the appropriateness of the used techniques and methods, d) the appropriateness of criterion and assessment materials, e) teacher’s eff orts, f) school-environment, teacher-student-director collaboration and coordination, g) analysis, evaluation, improvement and development of the conditions related to the problems of the inspection itself could be acknowledged (Karakütük et al., 2000; Gökçe, 1994, p. 73; Öz, 1992, p. 227).

Inspection, fi rst, took place in America in 1642 when some of the selected people out of public visited the schools. Later, it became more formal and it became known that a commi� ee was formed and


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the ones who were in charge went to schools. It was in 1864 that inspection started to be performed by educationalists not by the public and the idea of counselling the teacher was put forth in 1900’s. Sooner it was accepted that inspection was a group work. A� erwards, it was handled as leadership and the idea of collaboration was appraised so these changes have infl uenced the defi nitions of inspection (Ataklı, 1997, p.7).

It is understood that till the midst of the 19th century inspection emphasized protecting the standards instead of developing them (Sullivan & Glanz, 1999, p. 6). However, it was declared that in the beginning of the 20th century, inspection had an understanding of giving importance to human nature, behaviour and relations and diagnosing teacher’s personal and professional errors. Therefore, inspection was rather considered as an activity limited to the observation and the treatment of the topics within the four walls of the classroom. The concepts of authority and control were underlined in the mutual interactions of teachers and the directors (Hicks & Gulle� , 1981, p. 135-162; Sergiovanni & Starrat, 2002, p.14-17; Yançınkaya, 1992, s. 40).

By the 1930s supervision was considered as a creative endeavour a� empting to unify democratic and scientifi c supervisory practices. During the 1940s, group processes were emphasized, giving a� ention to member interactions related to group eff ectiveness. Further, promoting democracy among students and faculty was considered central to the purposes of supervision in education. By the 1950s, supervision objectives and human dimensions were highlighted. During the 1960s, supervision was generally seen as leadership that encouraged a continuous involvement of all personnel in a cooperative a� empt to achieve the most eff ective school program and as action through wide participation of all concerned in the process of inquiry and the judgment of outcomes, which was the goal of supervision. Further, modern supervision was perceived as positive, democratic action aimed at the improvement of classroom instruction through the continual growth of all concerned the child, the teacher, the supervisor, the administrator, and the parent or other interested person. By the 1970s, supervision included planning for observation, analysis, and treatment of the teacher’s classroom

performance, giving emphasis to the need to gather classroom-based information. Supervision generated data from the events of the classroom by applying systematic descriptive techniques in order to mirror the teaching behaviours considered. The analysis of these data and the relationship between teacher and supervisor formed the basis of the program, procedures, and strategies designed to improve students’ learning by improving the teacher’s classroom behaviour. By the 1980s, instructional supervision emphasized the use of data from fi rsthand observation of actual teaching events and involved face-to-face (and other associated) interaction between the supervisor and the teacher in the analysis of teaching behaviours and activities for instructional improvement. Similarly, cooperative professional development as a supervisory option was conceived as “a moderately formalized process by which two or more teachers agreed to work together for their own professional growth, usually by observing each other’s classes, giving each other feedback about the observation, and discussing shared Professional concerns”. Supervision was also promoted as an alternative model that is interactive rather than directive, democratic rather than authoritarian, teacher-centred rather than supervisor-centred (Ovando, 2000, p.109-111).

In traditional inspection, teacher centred inspection, visit and meeting, poor planning, compulsion, authority and an inspection performed by one person were the ma� ers of discussion whereas in modern inspection goals, materials, techniques, methods, teacher, student, environment based educational work, analysis, varied duties, successful planning and a collaborative inspection which is performed by a number of persons have gained signifi cance (Marks, Stoops & King-Stoops, 1971, p.13). Intentionality, continuity objectivity, totality, clarity, being situational and planned are highlighted as primary principles in modern inspection (Başar, 2000). Inspection is an intentional and deliberate process. Democratic leadership takes place in modern inspection. An eff ective inspection carries out the functions in accordance with the current structure and conditions. Teaching and learning se� ing is considered as a whole in modern inspection. The starting point of an eff ective inspection program is the permanent problems of the educational se� ing. The modern education inspection gives importance to collaboration. Modern


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inspection follows the group approach in the processes of decision making, planning and problem solving. Modern education believes in the need of sharing the responsibility. Modern inspection is not a modelled process. Modern inspection enables the teachers to unveil their professional powers. An eff ective inspection follows a positive approach in human relations. The heart of modern inspection is interaction. Modern inspection is evolutionist. Modern inspection believes in consensus for success. Modern inspection believes in the maintenance of evaluation. Modern inspection believes in the perpetual research (Aydın, 2000).

Supervision is of vital importance to promote instructional improvement. Modern conceptions of supervision promote professional growth of teachers, foster curriculum development, and support instruction (Glanz, 2000, p.77). Postmodernists have criticized modern conceptions of supervision as bureaucratic, hierarchical, and oppressive. According to a postmodernist view, supervision stifl es individual autonomy, especially that of the teacher. A postmodern supervisor seeks to unse� le conventional hierarchical power relationships, replacing such relationships with “relational” ones (Glanz, 2000, p.70). The basic roles of the inspectorates which are one of the most important variables that sustain eff ectiveness in education systems in terms of quality and quantity could be stated as follows (Marks et al, 1971, p. 15):

1. The share of perspectives, procedures and materials in order to develop and evaluate the curriculum.

2. Developing materials and procedures to apply the curriculum. 3. Planning educational development by the way of in-service

training, institutions, researches, workshops and projects. 4. Forming professional expert personnel team.5. Directing the teachers towards the goals through democratic

ways while using special methods in individual and group dynamics.

6. Involving teachers to the processes of planning and organizing. 7. Evaluating curriculum, materials and methods in the light of

scientifi c research fi ndings and basic goals.

Though some roles of inspectorates have been explicitly identifi ed some other roles have not been defi ned yet. One of these identifi ed roles is se� ing up the relation between administration and its practice. According to Likert inspectorates form the link between higher and lower ranks of the organizational structure. On the other hand, Davis describes inspectorates as an element of back up which combines administration and the workers. Besides their combinatory role, inspectorates interpret and acknowledge the fi rm goals and policies, evaluate performance of the workers, propose suggestions to top levels of the administration, fi nd out the needs of the workers and transmit them to administration, form an interpretation and evaluation model of the administration philosophy (Ricks, Ginn & Daughtrey, 1995, p. 17). According to Sergiovanni ve Starrat (2002, p.5) supervisors have two broad responsibilities: fi rst to provide the most eff ective supervision they can for teachers, second to provide the conditions, help and support teachers need to engage in the supervisory functions for themselves as part of their daily routine.Many European countries have inspectorates of education and although they diff er in some ways, all focus on the quality of education, all undertake evaluations and all strive for improvement in education (Leeuw, 2002, p.137). In addition, the supervisor today must recognize that he lives and works in a community made up of diverse groups and of individuals with a multitude of concern, interests, and needs. His task is to coordinate the many divergent pressures and movements of individuals and groups in a common direction whenever possible (Unruh & Turner, 1970, p.66). Briefl y, the broad modern interpretation of the role of the supervision would be action and experimentation aimed at the improvement of instructions and the instructional program (Marks et al, 1971, p.15).The purpose of this study is to analyse the inspection systems of some of the EU countries and Turkey in terms of the duties of inspectors comparatively.

Research Design and Methodology In the study, out of the European Union countries England, Germany, France and The Netherlands are chosen to be analysed along with Turkey. The choice is made owing to the structural diff erences in their inspection systems and a comparative research method is used.


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The study has been evaluated within the perspective of possibility of Turkey to join the European Union.

Findings and Interpretations

The Organizational Structure of Educational Inspection in Turkey The Ministry of National Education is responsible for the supervision of the educational system except higher education. Higher education has its own inspectorate organisation called Council of Higher Education Inspectorate. The inspectorate system of education is organised at central level and provincial level under The Ministry of National Education. At central level The Chairmanship of Inspection Commi� ee is organised as inspection unit of the Ministry. At provincial level there are Heads of Primary Education Inspectors in 81 provinces.

Duties of the Chairmanship of the Inspection Commi� ee at Central Level comprise: 1. The central level units of the ministry,2. Province and district national education directorial offi ces,3. Inspection of offi cial and private high school and the equivalent

schools,4. Realizing the goals of the ministry, carrying out researches and

investigations in order to facilitate a consistent performance up to the plans and programs, preparing needed suggestions and submi� ing them to the minister,

5. Completing the tasks defi ned in the special laws and the tasks obliged by the minister (Regulation of Inspection Commi� ee).

Duties of primary education inspectorates at provincial level comprise:1. Conducting the inspection and evaluation of the related schools

and the institutions and carrying out investigations and researches that will constitute the base of the measures, helping teachers, directors and the other personnel in their in-service training, identifying criteria and principles for the evaluation of inspection and counselling services of schools and institutions,

2. Analysing and searching the topics proposed by the governorship, the data, suggestions and opinions introduced to the commi� ee within the framework of the laws,

3. Preparing programs related to professional meetings, in-service training and meeting management,

4. Identifying to what degree the goals of counselling and in-service training, inspection, investigation and research services in schools and institutions have been a� ained, what measures have to be taken and fi guring out the other problems if any exist,

5. Preparing a general evaluation of the reports about schools and institutions, teachers, directors and the other personnel,

6. Evaluating the reports of the education year prepared by inspection commi� ees,

7. Determining the research topics to enhance quality in education, fi gure out the problems and propose suggestions for the solutions,

8. Verifying the work program which will be followed in the related schools and institutions, leading counselling services, proposing suggestions to national education directorships.

As it could be seen, within the Inspection System of Turkish Education, the central authority is made active for the inspection of all offi cial and private education institutions in provinces and districts, the province and district organizations and for the outlining and decision-making of the policies related to education.It is understood that generally three diff erent tendencies have been adopted in the European Union countries in terms of authority. Within this framework, the authority structure of Turkey and some of the European Union countries have been presented in Table-1 in order to a� ain a comparative basis.

Table-1. The Comparison of Inspection Systems in Terms of Authority


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Country Authority

Turkey Inspection is conducted under the authority of the ministry.

France Inspection is conducted under the authority of the ministry.

The Netherlands Inspection is conducted under the authority of the ministry but in a form of semi-independent.

Germany Inspection is conducted under the authority of local govern-ments.

England Inspection is conducted under the authority of local govern-ments.

According to the data presented in Table-1, it is seen that in Turkey, France and partly The Netherlands the ministries of central government are responsible for the inspection of education systems. On the other hand, partly in The Netherlands, in Germany and England local governments are responsible for the inspection of education. Therefore, the organization of inspectional authority of education systems appears to be central in Turkey and France, semi-central in The Netherlands and local in England and Germany (Maes, Vereecke & Zaman, 1999).

Table-2 Comparison in Terms of Inspectorate Tasks

Turkey Inspection and Evaluation

Counselling and In-service training

Search Investigation

The Netherlands

Evaluation Consulting Observation Reporting Control

England Evaluation Consulting Observation Reporting

France Evaluation Consulting Observation Reporting Other Responsibilities

Germany Evaluation Consulting Observation Reporting Other Responsibilities

As it is seen in Table-2 the inspector tasks in Turkey, The Netherlands, England, France and Germany are (1) Assessment, (2) Consulting, (3) Observation, (4) Reporting, (5) Investigation (Control). When the assessment tasks of inspectors are researched it has been found that only in France and Turkey the inspectors have the authority of inspecting in the class and giving a mark for the performance,

however in Turkey, the inspectors’ right to give marks for the teachers as their second superior of employment record has been repealed. The inspectors in The Netherlands, England and Austria do not have the right of inspecting the teacher in the class and giving a mark for the performance. In these countries, the inspectors enter the classrooms not to observe the teachers but to increase the quality of education. In Austria, the director of the school is the one who is in charge of making these observations. The inspection of the school educational personnel in Austria takes place only in the teacher’s fi rst years and in the situations which are approved by the director (Maes, et al, 1999). In terms of the topics of assessment, there are similarities in Turkey and France. In both countries schools are evaluated as a whole such as fi nance, school, teaching programs, teaching methods, curriculum and teachers etc. In England, assessment includes curriculum planning, content, quality of education, standards of education, fi nancial sources and social, cultural, ethic growth of children. In Austria, fi nancial topics, teachers’ recruitment, transfer and payment aff airs, administrative topics, curriculum and self-evaluation cover assessment. Yet, administrative and fi nancial management do not take place in evaluation topics in The Netherlands.

When the inspection types and contents are analysed, in France the institutions of inspection include the management of general education policy and the inspection results infl uence the personnel’s career development. In the schools in Turkey, two types of inspection, school inspection and lesson inspection are conducted and they are repeated every year.

In The Netherlands, inspection is not performed if it is not urgent; since self-evaluation studies are conducted in schools and the inspection commi� ee makes use of these self-evaluation results. Assessments are made in the ways of performance meetings and assessment meetings. It is understood that these evaluations are put forward as (1) annually, school performance, update of the report cards, the discussion of quality guarantee, discussion of school development, analysis of the factors that obstruct development, (2) once in three years regular quality supervision, (3) additional inspection, (4) quality development.


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School projects are applied in England, France and Austria. A school council, which evaluates the school management via the school project, takes place in French schools. Although in England the self-evaluation process is realized, it is not included in the process of school inspection. In Austrian schools, a system of self-evaluation linked to the school development programs take place under the name quality project. Families and teachers are also involved in this project (Maes, et al, 1999).

The inspection systems of these countries demonstrate diversity owing to their education systems being central or local. Since France and Turkey have a central education system management every member engaged in the inspection system hierarchically is under the authority of the ministry and the prime ministry (central authorities). Nevertheless, as England, The Netherlands and Austria are managed by local administrations and their education systems possess the same property, their inspection systems are also locally based.

The inspection offi cers working in the school inspection commi� ees are under the authority of regional school management commi� ee or provincial school management commi� ees. There are not any central and regular inspection commi� ee constructed by the federal education ministry in Austria. In the Austrian inspection system the school development centres are also responsible for the assessment of school systems and these centres are under the authority of regional or provincial school authorities.

Monitoring tasks of inspectors In France, IGEN (Education General Inspectorate) to the minister; IGAEN, (The General Inspectorate for Education Administration) to the rector, schools and institutions, IPR-IA, (the Inspecteurs D‘académie Regional Pedagogical Inspectors) to the rector and the teachers, IEN,” (the National Education Inspectors) to the rector in professional education fi eld, Inspecteur de L’education Nationale to the academy inspector in primary education and to the teachers give advice. Inspectors also off er help within teachers’ pre and in-service training.

In The Netherlands, inspectors counsel the minister, authorities, school personnel, regional and local authorities by means of exchanging opinions. In England, contractual inspectorates advise teachers informally and the wri� en reports of these inspections have the quality of suggestion. OFSTED (the Offi ce for Standards in Education) advises to the minister and to the institutions of teacher training. They recommend on national exams while HMI’s (Her Majesty‘s Inspectors) help registered inspectors with writing reports.In Austria, inspectors counsel families, students, directors and the teachers. They counsel teachers about new working programs, new teaching methods and the topics related with se� lement. They give advice before the curriculum is changed and they also involve in curriculum change process. The most crucial part of school inspection is admi� ed as counselling. In the core of the instructions for the inspectors, the major aim of inspection is stated as counselling and collaborating with the teachers and the directors. Nonetheless, this kind of counselling task is also among the tasks of the school directors. In Turkey, inspection services are conducted in the beginning and end of the education year through meetings. Inspectors meet the teachers and the directors a� er the inspection to provide them with counselling services. The inspectors in Turkey are responsible for following the changes and innovations in the laws, assisting the data basis of chairmanship (this is performed systematically by a distinct institution in other countries), counselling the teachers, training candidate offi cers and in-service training.

When the monitoring tasks of inspectors are examined, In France, IGEN is responsible for the inspection of all the staff , for the inspection and observation of all the personnel in schools, election, training and evaluation of the inspectors and the examinations in their area. Inspectors are in charge for the evaluation of the schools, recruitment of the teachers, identifying opening and closing dates of the school and taking part in teacher training eff orts. In England, HMI is responsible for the approval of the education of inspectors, contractual inspectors and experienced inspectors and recruitment of appropriate inspectors to perform inspectional tasks. OFSTED forms a data basis with the information taken from


7979

DFEE (The Department for Education and Employment) along with its research and analysis team and contractual inspectors. This information is used in school description reports before inspection and to produce performance assessment reports for LEA (Local Education Authority). Contractual inspectors get data from national examinations. In The Netherlands, inspectors, analysing the school inspection reports monitor the whole system. Inspectors in Austria observe the teacher, director or the whole school and give advice. Counselling the teachers in their activities is among the duties of the directors. Directors are in charge of all of the school functions and they are responsible to the inspectors. The district inspector is responsible for the observation of the activities in compulsory general schools.

Whereas in Turkey, the responsibilities of inspectors related to their investigation tasks are identifi ed as researching the topics introduced by the ministry, identifying the needs of the school, teacher, the other personnel and materials and acknowledging them to chairmanship, analysing student irregular a� endance, reasons and suggestions for it, school inspection, improvement of printed books related to evaluation reports, acknowledging the shortcomings of the schools about the related laws to the chairmanship, fi guring out the education problems and proposing suggestions for them (Regulation of Primary Education Inspectors)

In terms of reporting tasks of the inspectors When the roles of the inspectors in terms of reporting task are examined it could be seen that the task of search in Turkey also covers the task of reporting and it is recommended to be organised as annual reports. Inspectors in The Netherlands have to submit 15 reports about the condition of education to the parliament and the minister in a year. And in England both HMI’s and the inspectors report inspection results. Also, OFSTED present the information gathered from inspection and other data to the schools and LEA’s in a statistical solution method. PANDA report (Performance and Assessment Reports) is presented to every primary and secondary school. HMCI (Her Majesty‘s Chief Inspector of Schools in England) has to prepare an annual report about the condition of education for

the parliament, government and public. This annual report makes use of the research results of OFSTED and HMI inspections. In France, IGEN prepares an annual report, IGAEN submits an annual report to the ministry, IPR-IA presents an annual report related to the studies of the education personnel, lessons and educational topics to the rector, IEN prepares an annual report of the studies of education personnel and on the topics identifi ed by professional education and academy.In Austria, the task of reporting is given least importance. Inspectors prepare their reports in order to enable comparisons and depending on these comparisons overcoming the inconsistencies and to evaluate candidate teachers. In the light of this information, it may be found remarkable that the inspectors in England provide information and data to the schools through collaborating with other institutions. When the task of investigation is generally evaluated only in The Netherlands it is named as the investigation of special event and a diff erent evaluation is done in the process of which the complaints are concerned. In order to perform this function six secret inspectors take part. When the special case of these inspectors in The Netherlands is taken into consideration it can be seen that this task overlaps the task of investigation of the inspectors in Turkey. It is declared that the workload and work diversity and especially the task of investigation of inspectors of provincial level organizations may lead to negative perceptions of the teachers in the practice of other inspectional tasks. So, this may have the eff ect of preventing inspectors from maintaining positive relationships with the teachers (Sabancı and Günbayı, 2004, p.121).

CONCLUSIONThere are positive and negative sides of each of the systems whether it has centralized, regional or local character. Although centralized systems have been accused of being clumsy it can be claimed that they play an important role at protecting, unique and national structure of a country and also refl ecting local character to national and further to universal. In Turkey the organization of education has a huge body that it has spreaded to a wide geographical area. Although there is a school at almost every village bacause of the character of the population, geographical and economical diffi culties etc. The


8080

need for mobilised primary education, regional primary school with dormitories, primary school with pensions or joint classes education have arisen. For this reason, in order to follow the suitability of aplications to the general and specifi c aims specifi ed by the ministry of education in every school there is need for supervision. Moreover inspectors visits to schools are important because of refl ecting new developments about educational processes and supplying the homogenity, oppurtunity and equity around the whole country. Finally the duties of the inspectors determined at Turkish supervision system can be said to overlap the duties determined at EU countries educational supervision systems. There is also a strong need to do new arrangements at investigation duty which has also been discussed among the researchers and reported in their studies (Sabancı and Günbayı, 2004, p.121).

REFERENCESAtaklı, A. (1997). Denetlemenin Tarihçesi ve Bugünkü Durumu [History and Recent State of Inspection System]. Çağdaş Eğitim Dergisi, 22(229), 7-9.Atay, K. (1996). İlköğretim müfe� işlerinin yeterlikleri. Eğitim Yönetimi Dergisi, 1, p.25.Aydın, A. H. (2001). Yönetim ve Organizasyon [Management and Organization]. Ankara: Nobel Yayıncılık.Aydın, M. (1986). Çağdaş Eğitim Denetimi [Modern Education Management]. Ankara: İM Eğitim Araştırma Yayın Danışmanlık A.Ş.Aydın, M. (2000). Eğitim Yönetimi [Educational Management]. Ankara: Hatiboğlu Yayınları.Başar, H. (2000). Eğitim Denetçisi [School Inspector]. Ankara: Pegem A Yayıncılık.Başaran, İ. E. (2000). Yönetim [Management]. Ankara: Feryal Matbaası.Başaran, İ. E. (2000). Eğitim Yönetimi, Nitelikli Okul [Educational Management, Qualifi ed School]. Ankara: Feryal Matbaası.Baykul, Y. (1992). Eğitim Sisteminde Değerlendirme [An Assessment in Education System]. Hace� epe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 7, p. 86.Bozkurt, E. (1995). Eğitimde Değerlendirmenin Gerekliliği [Necessity of Assessment in Education]. Eğitim Yönetimi Dergisi, 4, p. 531.

Bursalıoğlu, Z. (2000). Okul Yönetiminde Yeni Yapı ve Davranış [New Structure and Behaviour in School Management]. Ankara: PegemA Yayıncılık. Cogan, M. L. (1973). Clinical Supervision. Boston: Hougton Miffl in Company.Demirel, Ö. (2001). Eğitim Sözlüğü [Dictionary of Education]. Ankara: PegemA Yayıncılık.Eurydice. (2002/2003c).The Education System in the Netherlands. Retrieved May 15, 2005, from The Information Network on Education in Europe Web site: h� p://www.eurydice.org /Eurybase/Application/frameset.asp?country=NL&language=ENFeyereisen, K.V., Fiorino, A.J. & Nowak, A.T. (1970). Supervision and Curriculum Renewal A SystemsApproach. New York: Appleton-Century-Cro� s. Meredith Corporation.Glanz, J. (2000). Supervision: Don’t Discount the Value of the Modern. In J. Glanz, and B. Behar-Horenstein (Eds.) Paradigm Debates in Curriculum & Supervision: Modern & Postmodern Perspectives (pp. 70-92). Westport,CT, USA:Greenwood Publishing Group, Incorporated. Goldhammer, R., R. H. Anderson, & R. J. Krajewski. (1980). Clinical Supervision: Special Methods for the Supervision of Teachers. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.Gökçe, F. (1994). Eğitimde Denetimin Amaç ve İlkeleri [Aims and Principles of Inspection in Education], Hace� e Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 10, 73.Halis, İ. (1998). Eğitim Yönetimi [Educational Management]. İzmir.Haris, B. M. (1963). Supervisory Behaviour in Education, Englewood Cliff s, N.J.: Prenticehall.Hicks, H. G. & C. R. Gulle� . (1981). Organizasyonlar: Teori ve Davranış. (Çev. B. Baykal). İstanbul: İ.İ.T.İ.A. İşletme Bilimleri Enstitüsü Yayınları.Karakütük, K., Aksoy, H. H. & Cengiz, A. R. (2000). Eğitim Yönetiminde Değerlendirme Süreci [Assessment Process in Educational Management]. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, p.376.Kaya, Y. K. (1999). Eğitim Yönetimi [Educational Management]. Ankara. Küçükahmet, L. (1999). Öğretimde Planlama ve Değerlendirme [Planning and Evaluation in Education]. İstanbul: Alkım Yayınları.


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Köklü, M. (1996). Etkili Denetim [Eff ective Inspection]. Eğitim Yönetimi Dergisi, 2, p. 259.Leeuw, F. L. (2002). Reciprocity and Educational Evaluations by European Inspectorates: Assumptions and Reality Checks. Quality in Higher Education, 8(2), 137-149.Maes B., Vereecke E., & Zaman M. (1999). Inspectorates of Education in Europe A Descriptive Study. Brussels: SICI.Marks, J. R., E. Stoops & J. King-Stoops. (1971). Handbook of Educational Supervision A Guide fot the Practitioner. Boston: Allyn and Bacon Inc.Yalçınkaya, M. (1992). Ortaöğretimde Ders Denetimi [Course Inspection in Secondary Education]. Ph. D dissertation, Department of Educational Management, Ankara University, Ankara.OFSTED.(2003). Inspecting schools Framework for inspecting schools. London: Offi ce for Standards in Education. Ovando, M. N. (2000). Collaborative Supervision: Implications for Supervision Research and Inquiry. In J. Glanz, and B. Behar-Horenstein (Eds.) Paradigm Debates in Curriculum & Supervision: Modern & Postmodern Perspectives. Westport,CT, USA: Greenwood Publishing Group, Incorporated. pp. 108-145. Öz, M. F. (1992). Sekiz Yıllık İlköğretimde Te� iş [ Inspection in Eight Yeared Primary Education]. Hace� epe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 8, p.226. Ricks, B. R., Ginn, M. L., &Daughtery, A. S.(1995). Contemporary Supervision Managing People and Technology. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. Ryba, R. (2000). Developing the European Dimension in Education: The Roles of the European Union and the Council of Europe In J. Schriewer. F. Orivel& E. S. Swing (Eds.). Problems and Prospects in European Education. USA: Praeger Publishers. Sabancı, A. & Günbayı, İ. (2004). İlköğretim Denetmenlerinin Görev Alanlarının ve Yüklerinin Yeterlik Alanları Açısından Değerlendirmesi (Antalya İli Örneği) [An Assessment of Primary Education Inspectors’ Duties and Workloads in Terms of Competency Areas]. Akdeniz Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi. 1, 114-121.Sergiovanni, T. J. &, R. J. Starra� . (2002). Supervision A Redefi nition. New York: McGraw Hill. Spears, H. (1956). Improving the Supervision of Instruction. Englewood Cliff s, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.

Sullivan, S.& Glanz, J. (1999). Supervision That Improves Teaching Strategies and Techniques. California: Corwin Press Inc. Taymaz, H. (2002). Eğitim Sisteminde Te� iş [Inspection in Education System]. Ankara: PegemA Yayıncılık.Taymaz, H. (2003). Okul Yönetimi [School Management]. Ankara: PegemA yayıncılık.Te� iş Kurulu Başkanlığı. (1993). Te� iş Kurulu Yönetmeliği [Inspection Board Regulation]. Resmi Gazete. Sayı:21717The Bologna Declaration. (1999). Retrieved May 25, 2004, from web site: h� p://www.bolognaberlin2003.de/pdf/bologna_ declaration.pdfThe Magna Charta Universitatum (1988). Retrieved May 25, 2004, from web site: h� p://www.esib.org/BPC/docs/Archives /BPC001Magna_Charta.pdfThe Sorbonne Joint Declaration. (1998). Retrieved May 25, 2004, from web site:h� p://www.bolognaberlin2003.de/pdf/Sorbonne_declaration.pdfTortop, N., İsbir, E. G. & Aykaç, B. (1999). Yönetim Bilimi [Management Science]. Ankara: Yargı Yayınevi.Unruh, A. & H. E. Turner. (1970). Supervision for Change and Innovation. Boston: Hougton Miffl inCompany.

CorrespondenceAss. Prof. Dr. Ali Sabanci is The Head of The Department of Educational Sciences. Field of Study: The Department of Educational Administration, Supervision, Planning and Economy. Akdeniz University, Faculty of Education, The Field of Educational Administration, Supervision, Planning and Economy. [[email protected] / [email protected]]

Local/School Level Inputs to National Policy Formation - An Example from SerbiaLocal/School Level Inputs to National Policy Formation - An Example from Serbia

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AbstractAn extensive process of new educational policy formation took place in Serbia in 2001-2002. Several expert groups were commissioned by education authorities to develop policy proposals in a few priority areas. At the same time local consultations were launched throughout Serbia, comprising almost 9000 people from schools (teachers, students, principals...) and from local community, having their say on key aspects of envisaged education reform. This paper deals with how this complex process was planned and managed, how the results were communicated to the expert groups and policy makers and what kind of impact they had. We will look in more detail at a reform priority area - democratization of education system - as an example of a topic elaborated both locally and by the expert group.

Abstract in Serbian Tokom 2001. i 2002. godine u Srbĳ i se odigravao proces ekstenzivnog formulisanja nove obrazovne politike. Prosvetne vlasti su formirale nekoliko ekspertskih grupa čĳ i je zadatak bio razvĳ anje predloga nove obrazovne politike u određenom broju prioritetnih oblasti. U isto vreme pokrenut je proces lokalnih konsultacĳ a širom Srbĳ e, koji je obuhvatio skoro 9000 ljudi iz škola (nastavnika, učenika, direktora...) i iz lokalne zajednice, kako bi se čuo i njihov glas o ključnim aspektima predviđene reforme obrazovanja. Ovaj rad se bavi time kako je ovaj složeni proces bio planiran i kako se njime upravljalo, kako su rezultati predstavljeni ekspertskim grupama i kreatorima

L��/ �� - � �� S��

Dejan Stanković, University of Belgrade, Republic of Serbia

obrazovne politike i kakav su uticaj oni imali. Detaljnĳ e ćemo se pozabaviti jednom prioritetnom reformskom oblašću - demokratizacĳ om sistema obrazovanja - temom koju su obrađivali i na lokalnim konsultacĳ ama i jedna ekspertska grupa.

Key wordseducational policy, educational reform, policy consultation, stakeholder involvement, education system democratization

Ključne reči:obrazovna politika, obrazovna reforma, konsultacĳ e, uključivanje interesnih grupa, demokratizacĳ a obrazovnog sistema

IntroductionGovernance and policy-making in education sector may have, in general, two ways of opening up, internal or external. The former could be conceptualized as internal professional ‚democratization‘ (Rado, 2001), i.e. giving voice to schools, teachers, principals and other professionals in educational policy-making. The la� er could well be seen in one of the strategic goals, identifi ed in the report on the future concrete objectives of education and training systems in Europe (European Commission 2002): ‚Opening up education and training systems to the wider world‘. This strategic goal was broken down into 5 objectives, one of them being: ‚Strengthening the links with work and research and society at large‘. Validation for it was an observation that education and training systems in Europe in many ways are still turned in upon themselves and that grater cooperation with a broad range of actors in business, research and society at large, including social partners is needed (ibid 2002, pp. 27). In other words, what is wanted is active involvement of stakeholders - any individual or group who can aff ect or is aff ected by the actions, decisions, policies, practices, or goals of organization (Freeman, in Gregory, 2003). There is a growing awareness that organizations are given a ‚licence to operate‘ by stakeholders, without which the organization will fail. Therefore, public consultations, as a mode of stakeholder involvement, have become increasingly important to governments. Consulting with and taking into account the wishes and needs of various stakeholder groups may also be seen as a quest


8383

for making publicly funded services more accountable (Gregory, 2003).

Along with the horizontal, stakeholder dimension, the vertical dimension of policy consultation deserves special consideration. It is connected with diff erent levels of an education system: national level, regional level, local level and the level of institution (school). In the case of policy consultations where each and every opinion is signifi cant and valuable, it seems reasonable to devote a� ention to the individual level of a teacher, student, or parent. Depending on the policy issue, some levels are more natural allies with others, but at least a minor level of association within all of them exist in almost all policy issues. In policy-making on a national level the most vertically distant are the local and school levels. It has o� en been the case, throughout sectors and throughout countries, that their voices have been neglected. But, more and more, engaging with local and school levels is seen as a sound investment in public policy-making in developed and in developing countries, too.

The OECD has developed a useful conceptual framework of the types of citizen engagement in public policy making: information, consultation and active participation. While information is a one-way relationship in which the government produces and delivers information for use by citizens, consultation is a two-way relationship in which citizens provide feedback to government. The main purpose (of consultation) is to improve decision-making, by ensuring that decisions are soundly based on evidence, that they take account of the views and experience of those aff ected by them, that innovative and creative options are considered and that new arrangements are workable. The highest level of citizen engagement is active participation, a relationship based on partnership with government, in which citizens actively engage in defi ning the process and content of policy-making (OECD, 2001).

Local consultations - an example from SerbiaA� er the overthrow of the long lasting authoritarian regime, the newly established Serbian government in 2001 engaged in reforming, what seemed to be, an ineff ective and ineffi cient education system. The very fragile political, social and economic situation demanded

that new education policy ought to be evidence-based and to rely on several strong pillars. Firstly, reviews of the Serbian educational system done by UNICEF, and OECD put the fi nger on the biggest problems and gave general and more specifi c recommendations on the issues (UNICEF, 2001; OECD, 2001). Secondly, education authorities had recognized the importance of professional expertise in the formation of new education policy and decided to form expert groups that would analyse ongoing policies and give policy proposals in a few priority areas. Thirdly, and most importantly for this paper, there was a strong commitment from the Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES) to consulting and involving stakeholders as early as possible in the process of policy-making. It should be stressed that this position was a novelty in the Serbian education system which has for decades functioned in a political-administrative manner (UNICEF, 2001). This was especially the case in the 1990s with all reform initiatives having only a top-down direction, without involving in decision-making process those who will be most aff ected. In that period no (or no eff ective) legislation on consultation and feedback existed, nor did the relevant institutions - such as tripartite forums, representative education councils or pedagogical advisory or consultative bodies. At the same time the low level of self-organization of the diff erent interest groups was evident, a problem still valid nowadays. Therefore, these new initiatives had to rely on emerging new policy on consultation in the education sector, which was initially set in the discussion paper and later in the offi cial reform strategy ‚Quality education for all - a way toward a developed society‘: ‚The reform agenda in education stresses decentralisation of education management and cooperation with a variety of stakeholders. For sustained impact in this respect, the capacity of municipalities to understand and deal with educational issues, as well as the capacity of stakeholders for informed participation will be of major importance‘ (Ministarstvo prosvete i sporta Republike Srbĳ e, 2002, pp. 11)

The project started with the key questions: how to involve people from the local community and at an institutional level in the reform process, and how to ensure that they be asked and their opinion to be taken into consideration? A group of ministry offi cials and education


8484

professionals dealt with these issues for three days in a sort of quarantine. The points of departure were to consult a large number of people for the purpose of be� er understanding of the state of Serbian schools and education, to hear people‘s expectations from reform, and their suggestions for it. All this was supposed to be communicated to the expert groups in order to be taken into account while developing policy proposals. This was also seen as a good opportunity to assess the level of energy people had for reform but also to estimate possible resistances and barriers this process will encounter. At the same time these consultations could have important role in raising interest in reform and raising motivation for learning, taking over the tasks and responsibilities for forthcoming activities. These local consultations were called ‚Razgovori o reformi‘ - Discussions about reform (RoR). The main solutions to these questions were further strategically elaborated and formulated into an action plan. Local consultations started in October 2001 and lasted for a month and a half. For that period 85 RoRs were conducted, in 65 places in Serbia, with a fi nal number of 8928 participants (including some atypical roundtables e.g. for representatives from non-governmental organizations dealing with education). On one day, 15th November 2001 at the same time the process went on in 9 towns, involving 1000 participants. Consultations were held in schools that had satisfactory facilities and were ready to be hosts of the one-day event. On each RoR there were around 100 participants, representatives from 12-15 schools, coming from diff erent interest groups, thus all local authorities and schools from area had been represented. In fact participants were divided in 6 groups: primary school teachers; secondary school teachers; students from secondary schools and from higher grades of primary schools; parents; principals and members of school boards (including representatives of local self governances); and school psychologists and pedagogues. Discussion topics were limited by several considerations: topics had to be very relevant for the envisaged changes; the number of topics had to be limited due to the very nature of consultation design; and fi nally, topics should be closest to the experience of the participants. The four predefi ned topics were: curriculum, professional development of teachers, evaluation and assessment, and democratization of the system.

Selection and training of facilitators (67 altogether) earned considerable a� ention. Of the same importance was the consultation scenario. It had to provide the structure and clear and precise instructions to lead participants through the whole process. On the other hand each scenario was designed to leave facilitators and participants maximum space for creativity, to allow free fl ow of ideas and to allow optimal conditions for the production of high quantity and high quality products. As stated before, participants were divided in groups according to their affi liation to one of the interest groups. At the beginning of the work all were given the referent framework including information on reform activities to that point and the rationale and goals for ongoing consultations. Then, facilitators presented 4 discussion topics, identifi ed as priority areas by international and domestic experts. They were formulated as questions:1. How to disburden, restructure and improve the curriculum?2. How to improve the initial education and the professional

development of teachers?3. How to democratize the education system, management, and

relationships between actors within school (students - parents - teachers - principals - local community)?

4. How to change the assessment system and quality assurance (evaluation)?

Each stakeholder group was further divided in four subgroups following the discussion topics. Participants were free to choose topic they wanted to discuss. As in any other workshop some basic rules were suggested to ease and enhance the process. All the discussion results - ideas and suggestions - were wri� en on big paper sheets.The second phase of the roundtables consisted of gathering all the participants to discuss one of the topics (e.g. democratization). Each group gave a 5 minute presentation of group work, starting with the main ideas. The idea behind this was that groups could hear each others proposals. A� erwards, all were given an opportunity to add or amend, as a group, their initial ideas. At the end of this stage all groups had one more opportunity to present their results or an exhibition of papers was organized. In the fi nal phase, a summary of all products from all the groups by four topics was presented by facilitators, in plenary session, in


8585

front of all the participants. At the very end participants were given a chance to write on a sticker what they expected most (hoped for might be be� er) and what they feared most about reform.

The RoR data comprised the ideas that were wri� en on around 2000 big paper sheets plus over 8000 stickers. Classifi cation categories were developed in advance by the expert groups, based on the results from the fi rst pilot series of the RoR. The fi nal results of the data analysis (basic descriptive statistics only) were communicated to the same expert groups.

Texts describing the RoR results were published in the ‚Educational Review‘, a journal regularly distributed to all schools in Serbia, and the main fi ndings became an integral part of all related education policy documents dra� ed subsequently.

Consultation topic - democratization of the education system

Reviews of the Serbian education system at the time recognized the fact that the system was extremely centralized and that schools were not innately democratic (UNICEF, 2001). This burning issue was prioritized by education authorities, and it was incorporated in local consultations. The question put in front of the RoR participants was: how to democratize the education system, management and relationships between actors within school (students - parents - teachers - principals - local community)? The total number of ideas and suggestions related to this question was 3460, having in mind that the unit of measure is not an individual but a group of participants. In this way, any idea wri� en on paper sheets had been discussed and presumably had some kind of consensus agreed. This is an obvious advantage of this method against classical surveys done through individual interviews or questionnaires.

Table 1. 15 most frequent categories of suggestions

Suggestion

Psyc

holo

gist

s an

d pe

dago

gues

Pare

nts

Stud

ents

Prin

cipa

ls a

nd

scho

ol b

oard

s‘

mem

bers

Prim

ary

scho

ol

teac

hers

Seco

ndar

y sc

hool

teac

hers

TOTA

L

Note: Upper number in cells indicates absolute frequency of the category and number in parentheses denotes rank of the category within each stakeholder group (mark ‚/‘ means that this category is not within 15 most frequent for the group in the given column)As Table 1 shows, improving cooperation between schools and local community, giving voice to students and parents in school

Remove politics and politicians from the school 26(4)

31(2)

20(6)

25(2)

40(2)

25(2)

167

Improve relationships between students - teachers - parents

13(14)

22(3)

50(1)

17(7)

25(4)

27(1)

154

There should be stronger parent participation in school decisions and related ma� ers

32(1)

35(1)

11(14)

23(4)

19(10)

20(5)

140

Respect the will of school staff in principal appointment

32(1)

15(7)

4(/)

19(6)

41(1)

25(2)

136

There should be stronger student participation in school decision-making

28(3)

12(10)

32(3)

12(/)

14(14)

19(6)

117

Local community should be actively engaged in solving problems of children and school

16(10)

20(5)

15(10)

16(10)

21(7)

21(4)

109

Empower cooperation between the school and local community (companies, media, sport and culture centres)

19(6)

19(6)

15(10)

17(7)

21(7)

16(8)

107

Nurture respect and cooperation between all involved in school life

19(6)

21(4)

14(12)

17(7)

20(9)

14(10)

105

Find a permanent and stable solution for school fi nancing and improve the living standard of school staff

15(13)

15(7)

6(/)

16(10)

23(5)

14(10)

89

Students‘ parliaments, students‘ councils should be established

13(14)

9(13)

23(5)

16(10)

11(/)

14(10)

86

Lessen the power of principal and the distance from his staff

18(8)

7(/)

3(/)

7(/)

29(3)

18(7)

82

Give schools more autonomy and link them to the local community

11(/)

9(13)

4(/)

28(1)

14(14)

7(/)

73

Remove corruption, discrimination and privileges (in school and in the system)

3(/)

8(15)

38(2)

6(/)

9(/)

8(/)

72

Insist on the principles of active learning 16(10)

7(/)

18(7)

6(/)

14(14)

9(/)

70

Fear should be eliminated from education and develop direct communication

5(/)

7(/)

30(4)

5(/)

14(14)

7(/)

68


8686

management, improving relations and communication within schools and fostering rule of law are the most popular proposals coming from local consultations. A randomly chosen example of original group results is presented in Box 1.Box 1. Original proposals of a group of primary school teachers

Smederevo; 15.11.2001; Primary school teachers

1. Stronger engagement of the pedagogical-psychological services of the school to improve communication between students and between students and teachers;

2. Financial help from local community for equipping the school (with teaching aids), and for the professional development of teachers;

3. Nurturing mutual respect parent-teacher and student-teacher;4. Opinion of school staff must be taken in account in the appoint-

ment of a principal;5. Principal must not be autocratic, he/she must work in compli-

ance with the law and collective contracts when assigning du-ties and defi ning salaries;

6. Stronger engagement of Parents‘ council in resolving the prob-lems of students, the teaching process etc.;

7. Be� er overview of school fi nances, fundraising...;8. Stronger engagement of children in school ma� ers and greater

appreciation of their views/opinions (Can it be that the teacher is always right?);

9. The Ministry of education should organize trainings in non-violent communication for parents, students and teachers

The expert group on democratization of education and education for democratic citizenship got the feedback from the local consultations. This group had three main tasks, and one of them was studying the global problems of democratisation of education and preparing a strategy and plan of short and long-term activities for the democratisation of education system. It off ered strategic directions on the system level, on the level of curriculum and on the level of school/education process. Below are presented just those strategic directions for the democratisation on the level of school/education process:

• Enabling, by legislative and other regulations, teacher-student-parent-local community participation in the management of the school/institution and in the processes of decision-making on the contents and organisation of school life,

• Promoting and systematically working on the transformation of schools into open institutions,

• Articulating and reconstructing the “hidden curriculum” (rules, roles, routines) of the school through public and common action and negotiation,

• Transforming and modernising education, • Empowering parents with an understanding of the contents and

methodology of education for democracy,• Developing the requirements for school autonomy, • Establishing and improving democratic procedures for recruiting

teachers, principal and school board members,• Assisting, by special training programmes, the building

of competencies and responsibilities for managerial and administration offi cers at the school, municipality and regional level,

• Supporting the development and democratic restructuring of professional associations, teacher and student trade unions, the pupils’ parliament,

• Encouraging extra-curricular and out of school activities, • Enabling the application of alternative textbooks and of

alternative sources of information.• Encouraging extra-curricular and out of school activities, • Enabling the application of alternative textbooks and of

alternative sources of information (Ministarstvo prosvete i sporta, 2002, pp. 117).

Having in mind the lists serve as an illustration for the project results, just few comments about their relationship will be put forward. Disregarding the diff erent wording and terminology, a short look at these lists confi rms the overall conclusion about the signifi cant level of equivalence between suggestions coming from local consultations and the reform directions set by the experts. Naturally, this relation is far from perfect. It is to be expected with this issue that higher levels of consensus are more easily reached when the debate is about the fundamentals like the rule of law, rights and freedoms, the principle


8787

of inclusion and participation etc. But when it comes to real-world, interest-driven solutions for these principles (such as who should be involved in decision-making, or fi nancial ma� ers and how can they be involved) it becomes much more diffi cult to reach agreement. For example, teachers were demanding a leading role in school boards, but the fi nal legislative solution was in favour of parity of teachers‘, parents‘ and local self-governance representatives. Inevitably, there were discrepancies within and between interest groups. An entertaining example is the high level of support from parents for their involvement in school decision-making - rarely mentioned by students. Conversely, the students were most eager to see themselves taking part in school decisions, but the weakest support for this was from the parents (Stanković, 2002)!

DiscussionOne of the principles of new public management is the active involvement of interest groups in decision-making process; otherwise they will use everything within their power to manipulate policy to meet their objectives. For example, in reform of rural non formal education in Burkina Faso neither donors nor decision-makers saw the importance of bringing interest groups into original decision-making process. Parents took up a position of passive resistance and rural teachers’ subsequent demands made the reform fi nancially unviable (Haddad, 1995). Governments are more and more aware of importance of involving public into policy-making and there is evidence of governments experimenting with new approaches to consultation and interest mobilization (Marsh, 2000). Well described is the case of public information and consultation exercise in the Czech Republic - ‚A Challenge for 10 Million‘ conducted during the preparation of the Government‘s White Book on Education Policy in 1999 to 2000 (OECD, 2001). The scope of the Serbian case, the depth of detailed planning and organization of the process, and the way it was genuinely embedded into education reform, deserves to be presented as an example of good practice. Nevertheless, there were pitfalls as well. The gathered information has not been utilized to the full extent. All presentations of the RoR results stopped at the level of the most frequent and most sound proposals and requests. What has been missing is more thorough data analysis which could show less visible disagreements,

confl icts of interests, regional diff erences - facts that are of invaluable importance for further policy formation and implementation. The reasons for this were probably due to the opinion of MoES offi cials that, given the policy formation time-frame, basic data analysis will provide suffi cient level of policy inputs at the time. An in depth elaboration of the results was done in the later stage but, for diff erent reasons, it has never been communicated to the public. However, policy-makers should always bear in mind that bureaucratically obtained information is seldom enough to allow for effi cient design, much less effi cient implementation (Crouch, Healey and DeStephano, 1997).

Investing in this kind of process brings substantial benefi ts according to OECD analysis (OECD, 2001). Comparable are the benefi ts of the Serbian example. Firstly, these local consultations fostered greater transparency in policy-making and more accountability of the MoES. Secondly, it enhanced legitimacy of education reform steps taken later on: as mentioned earlier each and every policy document related to 4 topics discussed in the RoRs included an account of the main results of the consultations. This way, local voices were always kept to the front, allowing comparisons with new policies, and serving as a basis for public critique. The next benefi t was be� er quality of policy decisions, which were now based on a wider range of information sources. The advantage of the RoR was its participant‘s knowledge of school life on a day-to-day basis, knowledge of the specifi cities of the education process, how they diff er from school to school, teacher to teacher and how it diff ers from wri� en legislations. They were good sources of concrete, practical solutions, with a great sense of what might and what might not be feasible solutions. Finally, consultations are o� en seen as a path to higher levels of implementation and compliance given greater public awareness of policies and participation in their design. Refl ection, exchange of ideas, questioning and discussing - all this leads to creation of personal and shared meanings of educational change, which are necessary if are we to fi nd the considerable energy to transform the status quo. In other words we should be aware of the way in which ‚meaning fuels motivation‘ (Fullan, 2001, pp.48). Given that the RoR was an example of ad hoc public consultation in policy making, thus having all the limitations this status


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brings, the MoES‘s white book of education reform included the recommendation that: ‚The good experiences from the realised practice of comprehensive and open consultations with the participation of all parties with a stake or an expectation for the educational sector need to be built into the process of governing and creating education policy in the form of clear procedures, on all levels of the system and relating to all important topics that will be opened in the future‘ (Kovač-Cerović et al, 2004. pp. 58).

ReferencesCrouch, L., F. Henry Healey and J. DeStephano (1997). Foundations of Education Reform Support, in Education Reform Support series, Offi ce for Sustainable Development, Bureau for Africa, U.S. Agency for International DevelopmentEuropean Commission (2002). Education and Training in Europe: Diverse Systems, Shared Goals for 2010. Luxembourg: Offi ce for Offi cial Publications of the European Communities Fullan, M. (2001). The New Meaning of Educational Change, 3rd ed. New York: Teachers College PressGregory, A. (2003). The Ethics of Engagement in the UK Public Sector: A Case in Point, Journal of Communication Management, Vol. 8 (1), 83-94Haddad, W.D. (1995). Education Policy-planning Process: An Applied Framework. Paris:UNESCO Kovač Cerović, T., V. Grahovac, D. Stanković, N. Vuković, S. Ignjatović, D. Šćepanović, G. Nikolić and S. Toma (2004). Kvalitetno obrazovanje za sve: Izazovi reforme obrazovanja u Srbĳ i (Quality Education for All: Challenges to the Education Reform in Serbia). Beograd: Ministarstvo prosvete i sporta Republike Srbĳ eMarsh, I. (2000). Strategic Policy-making and Consultations: A Second Wave in New Public Management? Asian Review of Public Administration, Vol. XII, No. 2 (July-December)Ministarstvo prosvete i sporta Republike Srbĳ e (2002). Kvalitetno obrazovanje za sve: put ka razvĳ enom društvu (Quality Education for All: a Way towards Developed Society). BeogradOECD (2001). Citizens as Partners: Information, Consultation and Public Participation in Policy-making. ParisOECD (2001). Thematic Review of National Policies for Education: Serbia. Paris

Rado, P. (2001). Transition in Education. Budapest: The Open Society Institute Stanković, D. (2002). Direktor - prvi među jednakima (Principal - fi rst among equals). Prosvetni pregled, vanredni broj, 09.01.2002, 15-16UNICEF (2001). Comprehensive Analysis of Primary Education in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Beograd

Notes on authorDejan Stanković is a policy analyst in the Ministry of Education and Sports of the Republic of Serbia. He has particular interests in the areas of governance and quality assurance of education system.

CorrespondenceDejan StankovićMinistarstvo prosvete i sporta Republike Srbĳ e (The Ministry of Education and Sports of the Republic of Serbia)Sektor za razvoj obrazovanja i međunarodnu saradnju (Sector for Development of Education and International Cooperation)22-24 Nemanjina street11000 BeogradSerbia and [email protected]

The Role of Globalization in Today’s School: Context and ...The Role of Globalization in Today’s School: Context and ...

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AbstractToday’s society is increasingly interested in the process of globalization as a change phenomenon that aff ects both positively and negatively every sphere of modern life off ering boundless possibilities and also threats to the world. The aim of the research paper is to study the theoretical approaches and former researches on the notion of globalization and its defi nitions given by diff erent authors and the very author of the paper and to fi nd out the positive and negative aspects of the globalization process and its eff ect on today’s school in Latvia and education system on the whole.

Anotācĳ a (in Latvian)Mūsdienu sabiedrībā arvien pieaug interese par globalizācĳ as procesu kā pārmaiņu fenomenu, kas ietekmē ikvienu modernās dzīves sfēru kā pozitīvi, tā arī negatīvi, vienlaicīgi piedāvājot plašas un neizmērojamas iespējas, un tai pašā laikā arī radot draudus visai pasaulei. Pētījuma mērķis ir izpētīt teorētiskās nostādnes un līdzšinējos pētījumus par globalizācĳ as jēdzienu un tā defi nējumiem dažādu autoru, kā arī pašas pētījuma autores interpretācĳ ā, un noskaidrot globalizācĳ as procesa pozitīvos un negatīvos aspektus un to ietekmi uz mūsdienu skolu Latvĳ ā un izglītības sistēmu kopumā.

Keywords: globalization, integration, paradigms, interpretation, information society, today’s school.

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Anita Auzina, University of Latvia, Latvia

What is globalization?The world has entered such a phase when people experience the so called globalization process and we all more or less realize that we are eyewitnesses and partners of this phenomenon. Extremely rapid results of the science and technological progress – modern goods, technological services, global energy and information transformation network dominate our everyday lives. More than ever before we are confronted with changes due to global goods, services, capital and human exchange. People all over the world are more and more culturally, economically interconnected and information technologies generously off er us a chance to take part in global relations. But the question is – do we understand the very notion globalization? What kind of changes are we experiencing at the moment? What, when, where and why is something happening today? These are questions that should be asked by everybody and there is no place for indiff erence. However, the problem with globalization begins when we try to defi ne it. An accepted defi nition neither exists in science, nor in the broader public debate. GLOBALIZATION has become a catch phrase, BUT … What is it? Where is it? The concept itself is overwhelming: It‘s everywhere and nowhere, all at the same time. The term of globalization was fi rst used in the fi eld of economy. Nevertheless the process of globalization has deeply aff ected the economic, social, cultural and technological sides of societies in the new world order.As a phenomenon globalization has to be described from several aspects because there exists:

1. Culture and ideology globalization, which includes changes of traditions, culture, ideology and religion.

2. Territorial globalization including both the formation of state unions and the resource concentration in cities.

3. Economical globalization – trade and economical structure globalization.

4. Information globalization – exploration of the universe to transmit information, and creation of world’s informative network and computerization.

These varied aspects of globalization raise a deep discussion and intellectual debate among scholars and researchers which is blended


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with political confl ict. Studying a sample of theoretical literature the following debates can be found representing currently infl uential views regarding the globalization phenomenon. Main debates concern:

1. Meaning: Process vs. Project - According to T. Friedman’s (2000,p.7-8) view, globalization is the “inexorable integration of markets, nation-states and technologies to a degree never witnessed before - in a way that is enabling individuals, corporations and nation-states to reach round the world farther, faster, deeper and cheaper than ever before” By contrast, some groups of scholars and activists view globalization not as an inexorable process but as a deliberate, ideological project of economic liberalization that subjects states and individuals to more intense market forces (P. McMichael, Development and Social Change, 2000; P. Hirst and G. Thompson, Globalization in Question, 1996). 2. Interpretation: New Era vs. Nothing New - Discussions of globalization o� en convey a sense that something new is happening to the world: it is becoming a “single place” and experienced as such (R. Robertson, Globalization, 1992), global practices, values, and technologies now shape people’s lives to the point that we are entering a “global age” (M. Albrow, The Global Age, 1997), or global integration spells the end of the nation-state (K. Ohmae, The End of the Nation-State, 1995). A new world order is emerging, according to “hyperglobal” accounts (Held et al., Global Transformations, 1999). Sceptics counter that there is nothing new under the sun since globalization is age-old capitalism (I. Wallerstein, Globalization or The Age of Transition, 1999), or that governments and regions retain distinct strengths in a supposedly integrated world, or that the world is actually fragmenting into civilizational blocks (S. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order, 1996). 3. Evaluation: Good vs. Bad - Globalization used to be widely celebrated as a new birth of freedom: be� er connections in a more open world would improve people’s lives by making new products and ideas universally available, breaking down barriers to trade and democratic institutions, resolve tensions between old adversaries, and empower more and more people. The term globalization was used increasingly to express concern about the consequences of global change for the well-being of various groups, the sovereignty

and identity of countries, the disparities among peoples, and the health of the environment. Politicians opposed to America’s global infl uence and activists opposed to the inequities of oppressive global capitalism now portray globalization as dangerous. Globalization has thus become an issue in a wide-ranging global debate.4. Explanation: “Hard” vs. “So� ” - Many authors a� ribute the dynamics of globalization to the pursuit of material interests by dominant states and multinational companies that exploit new technologies to shape a world in which they can fl ourish according to rules they set (I. Wallerstein, Globalization or The Age of Transition, 1999). An alternative view suggests that globalization is rooted in an expanding consciousness of living together on one planet, a consciousness that takes the concrete form of models for global interaction and institutional development that constrain the interests of even powerful players and relate any particular place to a larger global whole (R. Robertson, 1992; J. Meyer et al., World Society and the Nation-State, 1997)5. Political: End vs. Revival of Nation-State - According to one line of argument, globalization constrains states: free trade limits the ability of states to set policy and protect domestic companies; capital mobility makes generous welfare states less competitive; global problems exceed the grasp of any individual state; and global norms and institutions become more powerful. Others suggest that in a more integrated world nation-states may even become more important: they have a special role in creating conditions for growth and compensating for the eff ects of economic competition; they are key players in organizations and treaties that address global problems; and they are themselves global models charged with great authority by global norms.6. Cultural: Sameness vs. Diff erence - A standard complaint about globalization is that it leads to cultural homogeneity: interaction and integration diminish diff erence; global norms, ideas or practices overtake local mores; many cultural fl ows, such as the provision of news, refl ect exclusively Western interests and control; and the cultural imperialism of the United States leads to the global spread of American symbols and popular culture (H. Schiller, Mass Communications and American Empire, 1969; C. Hamelink, The Politics of World Communication, 1994). The counterargument stresses new heterogeneity that results from globalization: interaction


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is likely to lead to new mixtures of cultures and integration is likely to provoke a defense of tradition; global norms or practices are necessarily interpreted diff erently according to local tradition, and one such norm stresses the value of cultural diff erence itself; cultural fl ows now originate in many places; and America has no hegemonic grasp on a world that must passively accept whatever it has to sell (cf. B. Barber, Jihad vs. McWorld, 1995; M. Featherstone et al., eds., Global Modernities, 1995; J. Tomlinson, Cultural Imperialism, 1991).

Thus the process of globalization can be witnessed and analyzed more as a paradox rather than a paradigm because many essential benefi ts as well as crucial problems come into being together with it. This is the reason why globalization should be investigated and researched both from its positive and negative aspects it has introduced and still continues to introduce as there are many people who support this phenomenon and benefi t from it. On the other hand, also the anti-globalist views have to be taken into consideration and discussed. As Best and Kellner (2001.p.1) admits that this “epochal process” – “globalization has produced a world economic system and trade laws that protects transnational corporations at the expense of human life, biodiversity, and the environment. It is accompanied by computerization of all facets of production and expanding automation, generating heightened exploitation of labour, corporate downsizing, and greater levels of unemployment, inequality, and insecurity.”

Globalization and EducationThe globalization process has entered today’s world with a lot of excellent scientifi c discoveries and solved seemingly unsolvable problems, many states have overcome their lagging behind and their living standard has risen and is still gradually rising although in quite a diff erent speed. Apart from that a feeling of disappointment in the world exists, e.g., especially witnessed in rich countries where more and more people become unemployed and outcast. It causes stress. Delor (2001, p.20) lists diff erent stresses caused by globalization which are the main problems of the 21st century. They are the following:

Stress between global and local phenomena; Stress between general and individual;

Stress between traditional and modern phenomena; Stress between closer and further objectives; Stress between needed and healthy competition and striving to reach equality;

Stress between the wideness of knowledge and person’s capability to acquire them;

Stress between mental and material sphere.

The world continues to rotate faster and faster, therefore there are a lot of reasons to emphasize repeatedly the role and signifi cance of education, especially nowadays when people are experiencing the changes connected with the process of globalization or in other words global integration which the author of the paper, as a specialist in intercultural and global education studies, defi nes as the universal process of arranging the world which brings together people, countries and cultures creating an integrated and interconnected environment. As education has an important place in shaping the society, it has to be connected with globalization and the global activities have a deep impact on education. Besides education is a major area of government expenditure and is a signifi cant target for human resources. Education allows everyone to perceive the other person’s individuality and understand the world’s orientation towards relative unity. But this process has to be started with self-understanding and inner trip - knowledge, refl ection and self-criticism.

General tendencies – creation of the information society, process of globalization, progress of science and technique, which sometimes overtakes the development of society, make us to revalue objectives of education. Although the statistics show that signifi cant progress can be witnessed in the sphere of education, global data announced in Dakar (2000) just fi ve years ago showed that more than 113 million children could not a� end school and 880 millions of adults were illiterate. Gender discrimination still continues to exist in educational systems and the learning quality, the human value and skill acquisition is too far lagging behind the needs and desires of the individual and the society. Still there are youth and adults who have no access to the acquisition of skills and knowledge which is necessary for gaining jobs and a full participation in society life


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demanded by a global age. Without an accelerated progress leading to the provision of education to everyone, our aims to reduce poverty and inequality among countries and society members worldwide will continue to fail.

Thus on our way to a knowledge-based information society the main educational basic principles are high quality, equality and life-long learning - so that all children and youth have a possibility to become educated and professionally skilled to get good jobs in order to be able to compete in an endlessly changing trade market, also allowing adults to access regular further education. And no doubt that education, employability and social policy should be closely coordinated. Even more, the 21st century society expects that its citizens will be active and able to cope with changes in their lives both being alone, together with others and within the intercultural context. Apart from other social institutions, education is the only one having a potential to reach this kind of an aim. But unfortunately education does not teach entirely a person how to get out of this kind of changes. To escape the dead-end, educators – both administrators and teachers – should think of themselves as change experts (Fulans, 1999). If they will become change agents, educators will be able to infl uence pupils’ lives and thus expand the society’s capability to face changes enhancing the ability of learners to access, assess, adopt and apply knowledge, to think independently to exercise appropriate judgment and to collaborate with others to make sense of new situations.

The Eff ect of Globalization on Today’s School in LatviaAs globalization aff ects the educational systems in a general sense, it has inevitably aff ected the school as a social system witnessed world-wide as well as in Latvia. In order to state the eff ect of globalization on schools in Latvia the author chose a sample of 49 teachers from both rural and urban schools. Teachers were questioned and interviewed to study their understanding of globalization as a process as such and fi nd out their observation of positive and negative eff ects of globalization witnessed in their schools.

As it was stated in the beginning of this paper that there is no universal defi nition of globalization, therefore everyone can interpret

it according to one’s personal understanding. Interviewing the sample of chosen teachers, 38 of them expressed their opinion about the discussed phenomenon, however, 11 teachers were not aware of what globalization means being quite reserved and reluctant to defi ne the ‘foreign word’. This might lead to an argument that people are cautious to deal with things or terms they do not know and understand – and keep a distance. Here we could draw a parallel with the positivism and interpreting paradigms occurring in education stated by professor Hiitonen from the University of Helsinki. He describes them as follows (in Kručinina, Magdaļeneka, 2001, p.10)

Positivism paradigm – where a person is like a passive observer who is not involved in the changes of the environment. Those who decide are others, they are the ones who know what is be� er, what not, but the observer waits till others will tell what he/she must do. This kind of paradigm is typical in totalitarian society.Interpreting paradigm – where a person is seen as an activist, who is interested to think, develop him/herself, purposefully improve the environment around him. The person wants to reach his/her set of aims and objectives. This kind of paradigm is more characteristic to the democratic society.Thus it can be only wished that more and more people and especially educators will change their a� itude to the ongoing processes taking place in the world, not just passively observing paradigm shi� s and world changes from afar, but also actively being involved in them. “Think globally, act locally” invites the slogan of antiglobalists – the logic is in there, isn’t it?

Being asked of changes coming along the process of globalization occurring in their schools, respondents stated that there are real changes in the:

Educational process and its organization; Subject content and curriculum and Environment.

First of all school is no more the only source of information or a treasure-house of knowledge. With the development of wide range information resources and their off ered entertainment, news and


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advertisements learners can fi nd it competing and confl icting with the things and issues taught at school. If a child spends comparably shorter time for studies than watching television, immediate satisfaction provided by the mass media is in confl ict with the a� ention and eff ort needed to gain success at school. Teachers, therefore, have to solve and deal with a range of new objectives – to create the learning environment more challenging and enjoyable for learners at the same time implicitly applying instructions how to use the information resources.

Secondly, we cannot be indiff erent to social problems which are not staying behind the school doors: poverty, hunger, violence and drugs are entering the school together with the learner. Today’s teachers are expected to deal and cope with these problems, and at the same time to fi nd the balance between traditions and modernity as well as ideas and a� itudes brought by learners in the school environment. When the space between the class and the outer world becomes less strict, also teachers are expected to take the learning process out of the class in a physical sense providing practical study experience in places which are outside the school, and regarding the study content are connected with the themes and everyday life issues. Especially this kind of practical study experience was emphasized by those teachers working in rural areas. They organize diff erent fi eld trips and involve their pupils in various projects connected with life modernity, technologies and city life issues which pupils cannot experience in their everyday situations living in a country side. However, Delor (2001, p.131) states the contradiction that takes place in today’s study process: ”On the one hand in order to achieve good study results, the knowledge the child brings to school has to be used as a starting point; on the other hand if the child has to acquire independence, creativity and curiosity, which are needed to expand his knowledge, teachers have to keep a distance with all their might between the school and the social environment so that children and youth could still use their abilities to think critically”.

In the past a learner was supposed to accept everything that was taught. But nowadays things have changed and the society and the demands of modern life more and more are striving to infl uence the study process regarding the very content and organization of it. Thus

the teachers’ role changes – they are no more the ones who “feed the child with a spoon from a jar of wisdom”, but they become guides, advisors and facilitators helping the learners to acquire skills how to search and gain, organize and use their knowledge competently. Teachers are meant to lead the process and guide pupils, but not shape and form them. Teachers have to develop pupils’ multiple intelligences (See Table 1.) which are compulsory to meet the developmental needs in the new millennium we have just entered.

Human Nature in Social Context

Contextualized Multiple Intelligence

Defi nition of ContextualizedMultiple Intelligence

Learning Person Learning Intelligence It refers to the ability to learn and think creatively and critically and maximize the use of biological/physiological abilities.

Technological Person

Technological Intelligence

It refers to the ability to think, act and manage technologically and maximize the use of various types of technology.

Economic Person

Economic Intelligence It refers to the ability to think, act and manage economically and maximize the use of various resources.

Social Person Social Intelligence It refers to the ability to think, act and manage socially and develop harmonious interpersonal relationship.

Political Person Political Intelligence It refers to the ability to think, act and manage politically and create win-win situation in competing resources and interests.

Cultural Person Cultural Intelligence It refers to the ability to think, act and manage culturally and maximize the use of multiple-cultural assets and creative new values.

Table 1: Contextualized Multiple Intelligences. (Cheng, Y.Ch. (2000) Globalization, Localization, and Individualization for Eff ective Education. The 13th International Congress for School Eff ectiveness and Improvement. January 4-8, 2000. - Hong Kong: ICSEI 2000.)

Apart from that teachers involved in the study admi� ed that in this global age they as change agents are to help the new generation to develop their understanding and tolerance when quite a narrow


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nationalism shi� s to universal awareness; ethnic and cultural stereotypes to tolerance and understanding; autocracy to democracy in its various expressions; and the technologically split world, where technologies were a privilege of only few people, to a technologically united world.

Environment? The majority of scientists today maintain that heredity makes 30-60% of a person’s potential, and 44-77% is the result of the environment. This is quite an impressive diapason. The study environment consists of three basic elements – objects, conditions for a mental work, and members of the study process. The process of globalization has more or less aff ected all these above mentioned basic elements; however, the respondents of the study emphasized their observed sudden changes when high technologies entered the school environment. A person learns with a help of rational, empirical and emotional methods: rational with the help of mathematics; empirical – through science; emotional – e.g., through literature. In addition, at the end of the 20th century the fourth method joined these three ones – a method of modeling which can be acquired in information science. Can a modern school manage without computers? Might be, BUT a modern today’s school cannot be imagined without it anymore. Computers serve as a mean to improve and modernize the study process, therefore it is essential to acquire technology skills both for pupils and teachers.

The interviewed teachers described another technical device coming along with the globalization – video cameras at school for the security of pupils and teachers, for disciplinary reasons and protection against outsiders who are willing to enter the educational institution, e.g., drug dealers. Initially this innovation was received with diff erent emotions because people evaluated the need of video cameras from diff erent aspects – security, morality and upbringing. Today schools, basically those in urban regions, are used to having video cameras, admi� ing that they discipline, e.g., in many schools toilets for boys were regarded as risk zones where ‘business’, gambling and bullying took place. However, teachers from rural regions are still reserved to this kind of innovations believing that their institutions do not need them as cameras infl uence pupils in a negative way – children

become unnatural and start to pretend. Some teachers even drew parallels with the reality shows so popular nowadays.

Together with the globalization also advertisements have entered today’s school and its environment. It was already discussed that globalization is seen as an absolute exchange of goods and money where everyone is involved – as well adults as children. Today children meet advertisements not only in streets and at home with the help of mass media, but also at school, where posters are exposed addressing the li� le consumer constantly. Advertisements address children from everywhere, for example small calendars and diff erent stickers, pupils like so much, and we cannot forget also one of the most popular places among children - the school’s café where they can enjoy more and more world-wide recognizable brands, e.g., Coca Cola. “The undoubtedly consumer philosophy has entered the school environment”, admi� ed the respondents, “and nothing can be done about it.”

Finally, analyzing the eff ect of globalization, one more important aspect has to be discussed and it is the issue concerning the demographical situation in Latvia which infl uences today’s school life and development to a great extent. Schools will exist not only when eff ective and actively thinking teachers work, but also when schools will be a� ended by pupils who are willing to learn. Today’s statistics regarding demographic indicators in Latvia are not at all brilliant. At the end of the 20th century the birth-rate dramatically decreased, therefore today’s schools have huge problems with not having enough 1st grade pupils to arrange class groups. Unfortunately rural regions are suff ering more. School reorganization takes place there. Although many schools are not closed yet, they do not have elementary school forms.

To improve the demographic situation the state has to work out a policy or concrete measures, i.e. economic, social, and other stimuli, which might encourage families to have more children, infl uence the process of migration, as well as stimulate the health of the very nation itself, etc. The scenario of Latvia’s future in the context of other European countries could be the following (See Table 2):


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2005 2010 2025 2050

Population aged 0-19 % Latvia 22,4 19,1 19,2 18,8

% Europe 23,0 21,5 20,7 20,5

Population aged 20-59 % Latvia 56,6 58,8 51,8 42,1

% Europe 56,6 56,8 51,2 45,3

Population aged 60+ % Latvia 21,0 22,0 29,0 39,0

% Europe 20,5 21,7 28,1 34,2

Natural population growth % Latvia -3,3 -2,0 -3,4 -4,6

% Europe -0,3 -0,1 -1,0 -2,9

Migratory population growth % Latvia -0,7 -0,5 0,5 2,5

% Europe 1,2 1,3 1,9 2,7

Table 2: Europe: One Continent, Diff erent Worlds. Population Scenarios for the 21st Century. Kluwer Academic Publishers. (1999, p.170).

We just have to remember that any demographic prognosis has to be evaluated precautionary. They are calculated on condition that the tendencies observed in the past and present will continue also in the future. It actually warns - where the development of demography could lead. However, favourable conditions of the social and economic development might change the demographic situation for good.

ConclusionGlobalization as an on-going process of bringing changes is a real phenomenon which is transferring the world therefore there is no more place for ignorance. Cogburn (2000) states among many other benefi ts of globalization that globalization meets the knowledge, education and learning challenges and opportunities of the Information Age. Thus the interconnected changes occur in both globalization and education as education has an important place in shaping the society, and it is connected with globalization, whereas the global activities have a deep impact on education. Thus with the concept of globalization new tendencies, a� itudes, values and demands are entering today’s school. Will they remain – that is just a question of time?

ReferencesBest, S., Kellner, D. (2001) The Postmodern Adventure. Science, Technology, and Cultural Studies at the Third Millennium. – London: The Guilford Press.Cheng, Y.Ch. (2000) Globalization, Localization, and Individualization for Eff ective Education. The 13th International Congress for School Eff ectiveness and Improvement. January 4-8, 2000. - Hong Kong: ICSEI 2000. Delors, Ž. (2001) Mācīšanās ir zelts. Ziņojums, ko Starptautiskā Komisĳ a par izglītību divdesmit pirmajam gadsimtam sniegusi UNESCO. – Rīga: UNESCO LNK. 17.-173.lpp.Fulans, M. (1999) Pārmaiņu spēki. Izglītības reformu virzieni. – Rīga: Zvaigzne ABC. Friedman, T.L. (2000) The Lexus and the Olive Tree: Understanding Globalization. - New York: First Anchor Books Inc.Kručinina, M., Magdaļenoka, I. (2001) Mūsdienu skolas vadība. Skola pārmaiņu procesā. – Rīga: RAKA. Robertson, R. (1992) Globalization. Social Theory and Global Culture. - London: Sage. Waters, M. (1995) Globalization. – New York: Routledge. Cogburn, D.L. (2000) Globalization, Knowledge, Education and Training in the Information Age.http://www.unesco.org/webworld/infoethnics_2/eng/paper/paper_23htmDakaras vadlīnĳ a darbībai. Pieņemts Pasaules Izglītības forumā Dakarā, Senegālā 2000. gada 26. - 28. aprīlī. h� p://www.izm.lv:8080/lv/info/izgl_visiem/Dakaras_vadl.htmSkrīveris, M. (2001) Globalizācĳ as rēgs klīst pa pasauli. Svētdienas Rīts. Nr.33. h� p://www.zvans.lv/portal/htmlh� p://www.sociology.emory.edu/globalization/debates.html

NOTE ON AUTHORM.Ed.Sc. Anita Auziņa, a lecturer and teacher trainer at the University of Latvia, Faculty of Education and Psychology, is specialized and interested in intercultural and global education and promotion of tolerance and understanding of cultures through ELT for developing intercultural awareness and ICC.

Anita Auziņa, University of [email protected]

The Quality of Online LearningThe Quality of Online Learning

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Abstract The purpose of the article is to explore teachers’ and students’ experiences of student learning in web-based courses. We analyse how teachers’ and students’ ICT skills, and teachers’ teaching and students’ learning experiences infl uence estimations of meaningful learning and obstacles in web-based learning environments. Students’ experiences of learning are analysed through the theoretical framework of meaningful learning. Overall, the teachers estimated the dimensions of meaningful learning stronger than students, except with regards to intentionality. Teachers evaluated learning to be particularly more contextual. The teachers estimated that the greatest problems arouse from students’ lack of time management skills and usability problems. The students, however, did not perceive lack of time management as a problem. Rather, they experienced isolation and loneliness, and usability problems to be the main obstacles for learning. Yet, neither teachers nor students estimated the obstacles for learning to be very strong. The study shows that there are prerogatives in place for good teaching and learning in web-based environments, but there is a gap between the teachers’ perceptions of student learning and students’ actual experiences of the meaningfulness of learning. The teacher’s signifi cantly more positive views imply a challenge for pedagogy. Constricting the gap between teachers’ and students’ experiences is a starting point towards higher quality teaching and learning.

T� Q�� – T�� ’ �� ’ �� -� � ��

Anne Nevgi, Erika Löfström, University of Helsinki

Key words: Web-based teaching, Meaningful learning, Higher education, Teacher-student comparison, Obstacles in learning

Tiivistelmä (Finnish)Artikkelin tavoi� eena on kuvata eurooppalaisen tutkimusyliopiston ope� ajien ja opiskelĳ oiden käsityksiä opiskelĳ oiden oppimisesta verkkoympäristössä. Tarkastelun kohteena ovat ope� ajien ja opiskelĳ oiden tieto- ja viestintätekniset taidot sekä ope� ajien opetus- ja opiskelĳ oiden opiskelukokemus, sekä se miten nämä ovat yhteydessä näkemyksiin oppimisen mielekkyydestä ja toisaalta ongelmien kokemiseen verkko-opiskelussa. Kaiken kaikkiaan ope� ajat arvioivat oppimisen mielekkyyden voimakkaammaksi kuin opiskelĳ at kaikilla mielekkään oppimisen dimensioilla, intentionaalisuu� a lukuun o� ama� a. Ope� ajat arvioivat opiskelĳ oita tilastollisesti merkitsevästi useammin oppimisen olevan tilannesidonnaista. Ope� ajat arvioivat opiskelĳ oiden ongelmien verkko-opetuksessa johtuvan opiskelĳ oiden puu� eellisista ajanhallinnan taidoista sekä käyte� ävyyteen lii� yvistä seikoista. Opiskelĳ at eivät kuitenkaan kokeneet ajanhallinnan ongelmia. Sitä vastoin he kokivat eristyneisyyden ja yksinäisyyden sekä käyte� ävyyteen lii� yvien ongelmien olevan verkko-opiskelun suurimpia haasteita. Yleisesti o� aen ongelmia ei kuitenkaan koe� u kovin voimakkaina. Tutkimus osoi� aa, e� ä verkko-opetuksen laadukkaan toteutuksen edellytykset ovat hyvät, mu� a ope� ajien ja opiskelĳ oiden näkemysten välillä on merkitseviä eroja. Ope� ajien huoma� avasti myönteisemmät käsitykset opiskelĳ oiden oppimisen mielekkyydestä on nähtävä pedagogisena haasteena.

Avainsanat: verkko-opetus, mielekäs oppiminen, yliopisto-opiskelu, ope� aja-opiskelĳ avertailu, oppimisen esteet

IntroductionThe purpose of the article is to explore teachers’ and students’ experiences of student learning in web-based courses at a large European research university. The University has decided in its’ Virtual University Strategy that a third of all its teaching is to be off ered utilising information and communication technology (ICT). The aim is to make learning and studying more fl exible for students and to enhance learning outcomes. The degree to which ICT is utilised for educational purposes varies greatly, but there are hardly any courses off ered completely as online education. Most of the web-


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based courses include parts in which teaching takes place as face-to-face contact teaching in traditional class room se� ings. The quality of the web-based courses has not been systematically evaluated. Monitoring the quality of teaching has been mainly the responsibility of individual teachers. Creating web-based courses and teaching in web-based environments has to a large extent been embraced by a relatively small number of enthusiastic teachers who have eagerly pursued the idea of developing the use of ICT in their own teaching. Similar tendencies have been reported also elsewhere (Korhonen & Pantzar, 2004) in Higher Education.

Support structures at the University provide both pedagogical and technical training and support for teachers who wish to engage in the development of ICT mediated teaching. All faculties, but not all departments (some of which are small ones), have pedagogical and technological support staff available to help teachers implement web-based teaching. Some faculties have centralised support services for all its departments, whereas others have staff serving a specifi c department. The organisation varies as faculties have the opportunity to choose how to organise support structures. Much of the training provided for teachers is centrally organised by the University’s staff development unit, but faculties provide also their own training on specifi c issues, for example related to discipline-specifi c teaching, not addressed in the course selection off ered by the staff development unit. Teachers’ experience in web-based teaching varies greatly between faculties and departments. No training is compulsory, although it is highly desirable that teachers participate in the training as the development of the use of ICT in teaching and learning is a strategic aim of the University. As such, the faculties are expected to address this objective in their strategies. (Löfström, Heikkilä & Haarala-Muhonen, 2005)

In order to enhance quality awareness, strengthen networking among teachers and support staff , and identify good practices in the use of ICT, the University set up a three-year research project (2004-2006). In connection to the research project a set of surveys were carried out with diff erent stakeholder groups, namely institutional leaders at the level of strategic planning, teachers as the implementers of the strategies, pedagogical and technological support staff as a resource

for teachers, and students as the ultimate end-users. The results from the surveys of teachers and students provide the data on which this article is based upon (leader and support staff data have been analysed in Löfström & Nevgi, revision submi� ed). Examination of the criteria for meaningful learning and obstacles for learning are in the focus of this article. Diff erences in teachers’ and their students’ estimations of student learning are analysed, and we explore and analyse how teachers’ and students’ ICT skills, and teachers’ teaching and students’ learning experiences infl uence estimations of obstacles and meaningfulness of learning. The theoretical background related to the meaningful learning model is discussed, and the creation of the Instrument Measuring Meaningful Learning is presented.

Meaningful learning as a quality criterion for web-based teachingThe concept of quality is a polymorphous element. The defi nition of quality takes on diff erent forms depending on whose perspective or for what purpose it is defi ned. Depending on what features or characteristics in teaching and learning are emphasised, quality in web-based teaching in Higher Education can be viewed from a variety of aspects. One aspect of quality is student’s learning experience. In this article, students’ experiences are analysed through the theoretical framework of meaningful learning. Experiences of relevance and meaningfulness are central facilitators of learning. According to Ausubel (1968) meaningful learning is a dynamic process where new knowledge is combined with existing knowledge. Theories of situated cognition (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989; Lave & Wenger, 1991) emphasise the importance of connecting learning content with authentic contexts. Learning is essentially a dynamic, constructive and situational process (Novak, 1998).

Meaningful learning encompasses the following dimensions (Ausubel 1968; Jonassen, 1995; Novak, 1998): activity, intentionality, collaboration, constructivism, refl ection, contextualization, transfer, and interactivity. This means that the student actively seeks learning experiences and has a goal and purpose for his or her learning. The student is assumed to learn when constructing knowledge collaboratively and in interaction with peer students and the teacher, while refl ecting upon his or her learning. Knowledge is constructed towards structures of greater defi nition and sophistication in accord


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with the principle of constructivism. Learning is situational, implying that learning contents do not necessarily transfer from one context to another thus reducing the student’s experience of relevance (Novak & Gowin 1984; Jonassen, 1995; Novak, 1988). Web-based teaching provides techniques for combining theoretical content with multimedia applications, animation and simulation with diff erent aims of learning, such as understanding, exploring, applying, and producing new knowledge (Laurillard 2002). Finally, the interaction between students and between students and the teacher are assumed to improve the meaningfulness of learning, if carried out with the student’s learning as the ultimate goal in mind. The interaction also provides important clues for the teacher about his or her teaching as well as about students’ learning. From the principle of constructive alignment (Biggs, 1999) follows, that all components of teaching should support each other and the same objectives simultaneously. From the teacher’s perspective the virtual environment brings forth the challenge of presenting the contents, choosing appropriate media, facilitating collaboration in the virtual environment, and evaluating the quality of the students’ eff ort and learning outcomes. With student learning and development towards greater expertise as the ultimate goal, the idea of quality as transformation (Harvey & Knight, 1996) best refl ects our view on quality in Higher Education.

Researchers comparing teachers’ and students’ perceptions of traditional learning environments (see Fraser, 1998) have reported that teachers perceive the learning environment more positively than their students. In web-based teaching and learning, each time a student enters a virtual environment, he or she fi rst has to form a cognitive map of that environment and then grope the way towards a suitable practice. There is no script for how to go about in a virtual environment, such as there is for the traditional classroom. The student has to monitor his or her own activities, set proximal goals, and employ new strategies when encountering diffi culties or problems. Only a� er this can the student start to utilise what Jonassen (2000) describes as mind tools, that is, cognitive tools for learning, and begin to construct knowledge as a collaborative activity. The complexity and uncertainty of the virtual environment may stress the learner, and students diff er in how they tolerate these situations. Learner characteristics such as ambiguity tolerance, level of anxiety,

cognitive and learning styles, level of activity vs. passivity, locus of control, self-effi cacy beliefs, and self-regulation skills of learning (Weinstein & Mayer, 1986; Anderson 2000) all aff ect the student’s functioning in the learning situation. Students diff er in how they manage stress created by complex and uncertain situations, where the rules and procedures are unknown. In web-based courses such situations are common as the virtual learning environment is a relatively novel one. Students with higher self-regulation skills, that is, ability to benefi t from cognitive processes in goal a� ainment, tend to fi nd more meaningfulness in online courses (Whipp & Chiarelli, 2004).

The MethodThe data for the study originates from a survey conducted as a part of a research project encompassing the entire University (Löfström & Nevgi, 2005) with focus on enhancing quality awareness, strengthening networking among teachers and support staff , and identifying good practices in the use of ICT.

Development of the instruments measuring the dimensions of meaningful learning and obstacles for learning in web-based environments

The survey instrument was a revised version of a measure on university teachers’ and students’ experiences of web-based courses. The instrument has been developed and applied in research on teachers’ and students’ experiences of Open University learning (Tirri & Nevgi, 2000a; Tirri & Nevgi, 2000b; Nevgi & Tirri, 2003). The revisions were based upon thorough testing of the original instrument through explorative and confi rmatory factor analyses. In the original instrument the scales were formulated by the researchers (Nevgi & Tirri, 2003) to measure the dimensions of meaningful learning as defi ned by Jonassen (1995). The researchers added transfer of learning as an additional dimension of meaningfulness (Nevgi & Tirri, 2003). In the original instrument 49 items were used to cover the following eight dimensions of meaningful learning: activity, intentionality, collaboration, interaction, constructivism, contextual, refl ection, and transfer of learning. In the explorative factor analyses the following dimension of meaningful learning were distinguished:


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transfer of learning, collaborative, intentional, feedback of teacher, constructivism, and tailored web-based learning environment (Nevgi & Tirri, 2003). The number of items in the scales was reduced, as the testing showed that the scales would still be reliable even with four items per scale in the Instrument Measuring Meaningful Learning (24 items for eight scales: activity, intentionality, collaboration, constructivism, refl ection, contextualisation, transfer and teacher feedback).

The scales examining the obstacles of online learning were based on the experience of teaching in web-based learning environments of the fi rst author of this article, and on a research review (see Garrison, 1987; Burge, 1994; Nielsen, 1994; Harasim, Hiltz, Teles & Turoff , 1995; Khan, 1997). The following three scales were adopted from the original Instrument Measuring Obstacles in Online Learning: isolation and loneliness, time management diffi culties, and usability problems. The scales ‘lack of resources’, and ‘diffi culties seeking and receiving help’ were formulated by Nevgi with assistance from one of her students, who refl ected upon and shared with her teacher her experiences as an online student in an interview relating to her studies. For each scale three items were constructed.

For both measures the items were formulated for teachers and students separately. First, student items were formulated in fi rst person present tense (I do) to encourage students to refl ect upon their own online learning experiences. Secondly, the teacher items were put in third person present tense (students do) to guide the teachers to refl ect upon the learning experiences from their students’ viewpoint.

The questionnaireThe demographic variables included in the teachers’ questionnaire were gender, age, status, teaching experience in the university, experience in teaching online, and participation in pedagogical and technological training. Students’ demographic variables included gender, age, pace of the studies, number of study credits, and experience of studying in web-based learning environments. Mastery of ICT skills was measured with a self-evaluation instrument consisting of 14 items (e.g. skills to use electronic posting, internet,

electronic databases, word processors, editors, learning platforms) with a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 for “No skills” to 5 for “Experienced User”.

The sets of scales of meaningful learning and obstacles in online learning were integrated in the questionnaire with a fi nal of seven scales with 24 items for measuring meaningful learning and fi ve scales with 15 items for measuring obstacles for learning. A fi ve-point Likert scale describing response alternatives from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree” was used to solicit responses.

Sample The questionnaires were posted by e-mail to the teachers (N = 146) who had experience in teaching web-based courses, and to their students (N = 1398) at the end of spring semester 2004. The survey forms were electronically available on a web site. The questionnaires were completed and returned by 70 teachers and 146 students, which constitutes overall response rates of 47.9% and 10.3% respectively. The students’ response rate fell very low due to the timing of the survey, which took place at the end of the term when most students had already fi nished their course work for the semester. The intention of the researchers, however, was not to generalise their fi ndings to the entire University, rather to provide a glimpse of student experiences, and how these relate to their teachers’ conceptions of student learning.

The teachers were mostly full-time lecturers (44.6%). There were also professors (16.9 %), researchers (15.4%), research assistants (10.4%), and part-time teachers (12.3%) in the sample. The majority had less than fi ve years of teaching experience (56.5 %). The teachers represented younger teaching staff compared to the overall body of teachers at the University. Half of the teachers had participated in ICT training courses. The other half were self-learned. One quarter of the teachers had taught a web-based course once. More than half (57%) had experience of teaching between two and four courses. One fi � h of the teachers could be classifi ed as experts in teaching in web-based environment with experience from teaching and developing a number of courses.


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The students were mainly master’s students (133). Ten were doctoral students. The master’s students were mainly second and third year students (68%). 22% were freshmen, 2.5% had studied more than four years. Students’ previous experience of studies varied mainly between participation in one web-based course (44%) to participation in 2-3 courses (47%). Nine percentages of the students had studied in more than four such courses. The students represented the following faculties: Theology (n=14), Arts (n=14), Science (n=53), Biosciences (n=7), Behavioural sciences (n=31), Social Sciences (n=14), Agriculture and Forestry (n=9), and Veterinary Medicine (n=1). 86% of the students had participated in ICT training.

AnalysesCronbach’s Alpha coeffi cient (α) was calculated to validate and examine the internal consistency of the sub-scales of meaningful learning, and the sub-scales of obstacles for learning. The diff erences between teachers’ and students’ experiences were examined through independent samples t-test. The relations between the dimensions of meaningful learning and obstacles for learning were examined through separate correlation analyses in the teachers’ and in the students’ data. The experiences of ‘less’ versus ‘more computer-experienced students’ were compared through one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).

ResultsIn the following, diff erences between teachers’ and students’ evaluations of the meaningfulness of students’ learning experiences, and experiences of obstacles in learning are examined more closely. Both teachers and students estimated their ICT skills on a scale comprising 14 items. Teachers and students were equal with regards to ICT skills. However, diff erences in ICT skills were found according to gender in both the teacher and the student samples. Male teachers evaluated their ICT skills statistically signifi cantly (t(55.9) = 2.05, p = .045) stronger than female teachers. Female teachers estimated ICT skills more congruently than male teachers who as a group had larger variance in the estimation of their skills. Also male students estimated their ICT skills statistically signifi cantly (t(91.4 ) = 4.38, p = .000) stronger than female students, and female students, again, were more uniform in their estimations than the male students.

Meaningfulness of learning evaluated by teachers and studentsBoth teachers and students estimated the meaningfulness of learning in web-based environments on a scale of 24 items, and obstacles for learning on a scale of 15 items. The reliabilities for each of the eight scales for measuring meaningful learning and for each of the fi ve scales measuring the obstacles for learning were calculated using Cronbach’s α. These are displayed in Table 1.

Teachers Students

Scale α N α N

Meaningful learning

Activity 0.61 48 0.63 106

Intentionality 0.73 41 0.72 101

Contextual 0.77 46 0.79 101

Collaborative 0.88 43 0.72 109

Constructivism 0.77 43 0.68 106

Refl ection 0.80 42 0.83 101

Transfer 0.36 40 0.74 111

Feedback 0.73 53 0.76 113

Obstacles of online learning

Isolation and loneliness 0.73 33 0.76 97

Time management diffi cults 0.73 42 0.71 106

Usability problems 0.52 39 0.60 107

Lack of resources 0.79 37 0.85 72

Diffi culties in seeking help 0.72 43 0.59 101

Table 1. Cronbach’s α for the seven scales for meaningful learning and the fi ve scales for obstacles in online learning for teachers and student samples.

The reliability indices for the diff erent sub-scales of meaningful learning vary from low to good. Despite the low response rate of the students, Alphas indicate acceptable reliability. The reliability indices for the diff erent sub-scales of obstacles for learning vary from low to good. Overall, the teachers estimated the dimensions of meaningful


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learning to be stronger than did the students themselves evaluate, except with regards to intentionality. Teachers evaluated their online teaching to result in more contextual learning than did the students estimate (t = 4.44, p<.001). In general, neither teachers nor students estimated the obstacles for learning to be very signifi cant (table 2). The teachers estimated that the greatest problems arouse from students’ lack of time management skills and usability problems. The students did not perceive lack of time management as a problem (t = 2.5, df = 146, p <.05), rather they experienced isolation and loneliness, and usability to pose the main obstacles for learning in web-based environments.

ScaleTeachers Students

Mean SD Mean SD t-value

Meaningful learning

Activity 3.02 0.83 3.29 0.99 -1.25 n.s.

Intentionality 2.76 0.95 2.90 0.95 0.67 n.s.

Contextual 4.07 0.80 3.14 1.21a 4.44***

Collaborative 3.92 0.99 3.37 1.17 2.17*

Constructivism 3.96 0.80 3.50 0.96 2.27*

Refl ection 3.64 0.91 3.00 1.11 2.72**

Transfer 3.99 0.59 3.46 1.01a 3.20**

Feedback 3.81 0.95 3.01 1.19 3.16

Obstacles in online learning

Isolation and loneliness 1.83 0.70 2.09 1.08a -129 n.s.

Time management diffi culties 2.24 0.88 1.91 0.92 1.50 n.s.

Usability problems 1.99 0.67 1.91 0.91 0.13 n.s.

Lack of resources 1.82 0.89 1.65 0.98 0.73 n.s.

Diffi culties in seeking help 1.50 0.79 1.46 0.76 0.21 n.s.

Table 2. Comparison of means of the meaningful learning scale scores and obstacles in learning scale scores for teachers (N = 28/26) and students (N = 69/52).

n.s. = no signifi cant mean diff erence* = p<.05** = p<.01*** = p<.001Note: aEqual variances not assumed

As a whole, students’ experiences did not diff er by gender. However, independent samples t-tests revealed that female students (M = 3.22; SD = 1.10) estimated themselves to engage more in refl ection during the learning process than the male students (t(99) = -2.22, p = 0.029). Teachers estimations of students learning experiences did not generally diff er by gender, though independent samples t-tests revealed that female teachers (M=4.18, SD=0.87) estimated their students’ learning experience to be more collaborative than male (M = 3.56, SD = 1.14) teachers (t(40) = -2.01, p = .051).

Students with stronger ICT skills had accounted fewer obstacles for learning than students with weaker ICT skills. Students’ strong ICT skills correlated negatively with time management diffi culties (r = -.20, p = .044), problems related to accessibility and lack of resources (r = -.28, p = .023), and with diffi culties seeking help (r = -.31, p = .003). Teachers’ ICT skills did not correlate with the teachers’ estimations of the students’ perception of the obstacles. However, teachers who estimated that students had perceived feelings of loneliness, also estimated that the students had time management diffi culties (r = .60, p = .000), and technological usability problems (r = .38, p = .039). Teachers who estimated that students had problems with time management, also estimated that students lacked help seeking skills (r = .441, p = .004), had accessibility and usability problems (r = .428, p = .008), and lacked suffi cient resources (r = .408, p = .014). The students’ responses revealed similar correlations as the teachers’ estimations. Students with time management problems also experienced isolation and loneliness (r = .625, p = .000), encountered problems in usability of web sites (r = 565; p = .000), had diffi culties seeking help (r = .534, p = .000), and lacked resources in order to access learning opportunities (r = .414, p = .001) in web-based environments. Experience of usability problems correlated with diffi culties seeking help (r = .460; p = 000). Teachers’ and students’ perceptions of the causes of problems thus coincided.


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In general, experience of studying in web-based environments did not diff er within the student sample. However, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed signifi cant diff erences in students’ estimation of how refl ective their learning process had been (F(2.98) = 3.57, p = .034). Bonferronis’ post hoc test, with its signifi cant diff erence procedure (α = 0.05) showed that students who had studied only in one course estimated that their learning was less refl ective than students who had studied in more than four courses.

DiscussionThe diff erences between teachers’ and students’ estimations of the dimensions of meaningful learning were consistent with a previous research (Fraser 1998; Nevgi & Tirri, 2003). Teachers generally estimated the dimensions of meaningful learning to be stronger than students. Teachers evaluated the students’ experience of learning to be particularly contextual. This signifi es that the teachers themselves may have an idea of how the topic to be learned relates to actual situations, but it does not translate well into the students’ reality. The connection remains loose if the teacher is not able to point out the actual relationship. Simulations and video clips, for instance, provide means for teachers to bridge the gap between the more abstract and the pragmatic aspects of the topic. Female teachers estimated that their students’ learning was more collaborative. This may indicate that female teachers tend to put more emphasis on interaction in the learning process than male teachers, and use more o� en cooperative learning methods in their teaching, also in web-based learning environments. Female students evaluated their learning to be more refl exive than did the male students. Female students may use more refl exive methods, such as learning diaries and peer discussions. The more the students had experience of studying in web-based environments, the more refl ective they estimated their learning to be. Refl ection is a mechanism for constructing knowledge based on experience (McAlpine & Weston, 2000). This indicates that for the student to be able to engage in refl ection about his or her learning, experience of studying is needed. Experience precedes the refl ective process and feeds back to the experience so that when the student the again engages in learning, he or she will return to the previous experiences in order to utilise these to further enhance the learning process. Refl ective students are also important sources of feedback for teachers. This linkage, however, is rather li� le researched and documented (McAlpine & Weston, 2000).

Generally, students had not experienced strong obstacles in online learning, but when problems were encountered, these were cumulative and combined with negative experiences. In a similar manner, Lee, Hong and Ling (2002) found that the positive eff ects of virtual learning were cumulative. In their study, experiences of usefulness and easiness of virtual learning environments were correlated, and appeared to enhance an overall positive a� itude towards virtual learning. In our study, many students did experience web-based courses as a meaningful way to study and to learn. These students did not encounter signifi cant obstacles during their studies. Students who experienced problems had generally also experienced the studying negatively. Lack of technology or technical support staff or accessibility did not aff ect the students’ experiences of learning. However, students lacking time management skills had experienced their learning less meaningful, and had felt that their learning was less constructive and they themselves engaged less in refl ective practice. These students felt that they did not receive suffi cient feedback from the teacher, and they could not apply what they had learned. When students had experienced usability problems they had also stronger negative experiences of not being able to apply their own intentions and planning in the learning process. Collaboration with peers was less evident. These students also experienced that their learning was neither constructive nor refl ective, and that they did not receive feedback from the teacher.

Shared regulation as a form of instruction may alleviate the situation for those students with a low ambiguity tolerance or strong experiences of obstacles. Low ambiguity tolerance leads to a stronger need for feedback and tutorial help (Anderson 2000). The optimal outcome of shared regulation is constructive friction, which characterise situations in which students are unable to utilise particular learning activities independently, but are able to do so with facilitation from the teacher (Vermunt & Verloop 1999). Shared regulation is suitable in situations in which students have already some skill in employing particular learning activities, but have a need for further skill development (Vermunt & Verloop, 1999). This is o� en the case in virtual learning environments.

Teachers’ and students’ perceptions of the obstacles for learning appeared to coincide, indicating that the teachers had a realistic view of their students’ problems in web-based courses. There is, however, a gap between the teachers’ perceptions and students’ experiences of the meaningfulness of learning in web-based environments. The teacher’s


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signifi cantly more positive views of the meaningfulness of the students learning imply a challenge for pedagogy. It’s true that the teachers’ role as facilitator of learning is crucial. But unlike the case in production technology, the teacher does not provide the students with a ready ‘knowledge package’. The teacher can with the help of professional content and pedagogical knowledge provide the frameworks for learning, but the ‘end product’ - learning - is ultimately in the hands of the student. Understanding student learning is the key in the teachers’ activity. Constricting the gap between teachers’ and students’ is a starting point towards higher quality web-based teaching and learning.

ReferencesAnderson, M. D. (2000). Individual Characteristics and Web-Based Courses. In C. R. Wolfe (Ed.) Learning and Teaching on the World Wide Web. San Diego: Academic Press. 47-73.Ausubel, D. P. (1968). Educational psychology: a cognitive view. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.Biggs, J. (1999). Teaching for Quality Learning at University. Buckinghamshire, UK, Society for Research into Higher Education and the Open University Press. Burge, E. (1994). Learning in computer conference contexts: the learners’ perspective. Journal of Distance Education 9 (1), 19-43.Fraser, B. J. (1998). Science learning environments: Assessment, eff ects and determinant (Pp 527-564). In B. Fraser & K. Tobin (Eds.) International Handbook of Science Education. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer.Garrison, D.R. (1987). Researching dropout in distance education. Distance Education, 8(1), 95-101.Harasim, L., Hiltz, S., Teles, L. & Turoff , M. (1995). Learning networks: a fi eld guide to teaching and learning online. Cambridge: the MIT Press.Harvey, L. & Knight, P.T. (1996). Transforming Higher Education. Buckingham: The Society for Research into Higher Education & Open University Press. Jonassen, D. (1995). Supporting communities of learners with technology: a vision for integrating technology with learning in schools. Educational Technology 35 (4), 60-63.Jonassen, D. (2000). Computers as mindtools for schools engaging critical thinking. 2nd ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.Khan, N. (Ed.) (1997). Web-based Instruction. Englewood Cliff s, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.Korhonen, V. & Pantzar, E. (2004). Verkko-opetuksen ja vuorovaikutuksen erityispiirteitä tunnistamassa (Identifi ying characteristics of web-based

teaching and interaction) (Pp. 17-45). In V. Korhonen (Ed.) Verkko-opetus ja yliopistopedagogiikka (Web-based teaching and Higher Education). Tampere: Tampere University Press.Laurrillard, D. (2002). Rethinking University Teaching. A conversational framework for the eff ective use of learning technologies (2nd edn.). London: Routledge Falmer.Lee, J., Hong, N. L. & Ling, N. L. (2002). An analysis of students’ preparation for the virtual learning environment. Internet and Higher Education, 4, 231-242.Löfström, E., Heikkilä, M. & Haarala-Muhonen, A. (2005). Tieto- ja viestintätekniikan käy� ö opetuksessa - haaste strategiatyölle ja johtamiselle (ICT in teaching – a challenge for strategic planning and competence development) (Pp. 111-135). In A. Nevgi, E. Löfström & A. Evälä (Eds.) Laadukkaasti verkossa. Yliopistollisen verkko-opetuksen ulo� uvuudet (Quality online – dimensions of virtual learning in higher education). Department of Education Research Publications 200. University of Helsinki.Löfström, E. & Nevgi, A. (Revision submi� ed). From Strategic Planning to Meaningful Learning. Diverse Perspectives on the Development of Web-based Teaching and Learning in Higher Education. British Journal of Educational Technology.Löfström, E. & Nevgi, A. (2005). English summary (Pp. 11-15). In A. Nevgi, E. Löfström & A. Evälä (Eds.) Laadukkaasti verkossa. Yliopistollisen verkko-opetuksen ulo� uvuudet (Quality online – dimensions of virtual learning in higher education). Department of Education Research Publications 200. University of Helsinki. McAlpine, L. & Weston, C. (2000). Refl ection: Issues related to improving professors’ teaching and students’ learning. Instructional Science 28, 363-385.Nevgi, A. & Tirri, K. (2003). Hyvää verkko-opetusta etsimässä. (In search of a good online teaching) Suomen kasvatustieteellinen seura. Kasvatusalan tutkimuksia 15. Turku. Finnish Educational Research Association. Nielsen, J. (1994). Report from a 1994 Web usability study. Website reviewed 29.9.2005 h� p://www.useit.com/papers/1994_web_usability_report.htmlNovak, J. D. (1998). Learning, Creating, and Using Knowledge: Concept Maps as Facilitative Tools in Schools and Corporations. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Novak, J. D., & Gowin, D. B. (1984). Learning How to Learn. New York: Cambridge University Press.


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Tirri, K. & Nevgi, A. (2000a). In search of a Good Virtual Teacher. Paper presented at the Annual European Conference on Educational Research (Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom, September 20-23, 2000). ERIC_NO: ED448122.Tirri, K. & Nevgi, A. (2000b). Students’ views on learning in virtual university. A paper presented at Innovations in Higher Education conference (Helsinki, Finland, August 30-September 2, 2000). ERIC_NO: ED448121.Vermunt, J. D. & Verloop, N. (1999). Congruence and friction between learning and teaching. Learning and Instruction, 9, 257-280.Weinstein, C. E., & Mayer, R. E. (1986). The teaching of learning strategies (Pp. 315-327) In M. Wi� rock (Ed.) Handbook of Research on Teaching. New York: Macmillan.Whipp, J. L., & Chiarelli, S. (2004). Self-regulation in a Web-based course: A case study. Educational Technology Research & Development. 52(4), 5-22.

Notes on AuthorsAnne Nevgi is a senior lecturer. She holds a Ph.D. in adult education from the University of Helsinki, and specialises in university teachers’ pedagogical training and in research on web-based instruction and learning in Higher Education.Erika Löfström is a researcher. She holds a Ph.D. in adult education from the University of Helsinki. Her research interests include teaching and learning in higher education, quality in Higher Education, web-based instruction and learning, and cognitive styles research. Both authors work at the Centre for Research and Development of Higher Education at the University of Helsinki.

Correspondence details: Erika Löfström; Centre for Research and Development of Higher Education, Faculty of Behavioural Sciences, Department of Education, P.O. Box 9, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, [email protected] , Tel. +358-9-191 20623

Education, Mobility and Reproduction of Social InequalityEducation, Mobility and Reproduction of Social Inequality

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AbstractClaiming a decisive role for education in the reduction of social inequality is the usual a� itude of educationalists. Extensive research (Anderson, Passeron, Bourdieu, Boudon, Bernstein; Ringer, Simon, Välĳ ärvi, Klasen and others), on the other hand, has proved that social mobility related to education is far less important than claimed and that the very logic of education (symbolic violence and the reproduction of cultural capital – Passeron and Bourdieu) is in favour of social reproduction. One of the main forms in which reproduction is taking place is no longer vertical segregation of diff erent social classes (Dahrendorf, Wright) but vertical segmentation (Ringer) at the level of tertiary education. Educationalists should refl ect on these facts, not to become fatalists, but to be able to reduce the level of social reproduction of inequalities that is taking place in education.

Key words:Education, social reproduction, inequalities, segmentation, mobility, Bourdieu, Boudon, fatalism, cultural capital

I. From obligation of society to social inclusionAt least from the declaration of public instruction during the French revolution, education was seen as a promoter of opportunities. In sociological terms, education became a mechanism for “vertical mobility in the realm of social space” (Sorokin 1927/1956). At the same

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Slavko Gaber, University of Lujubljana, Slovenia

time it began to fi gure as a neutral provider of equal opportunities for all.

Condorcet in 1791 — stating that “public instruction is an obligation of society toward its citizens” — was arguing for education as facilitator of be� er life for each and every citizen (1791/1994, 61). Whereas “during the centuries of ignorance, the tyranny of force was joined by that of feeble and uncertain knowledge concentrated exclusively in a few small classes,” with the Revolution the time had come to make equality of rights possible (ibid., 62). According to Condorcet it “would be vain to declare that all men enjoy equal rights, (…) if the inequality in men‘s mental faculties were to prevent the greatest number from enjoying these rights to their fullest extent.” (ibid. 61)1 Enabling pupils to read, write, and do arithmetic thus gave them the chance to lead independent and be� er lives.

1. Reproduction of social inequalities as “natural”But strange as it may seem, it is obvious that public instruction was, at its beginnings, seen as a means of social reproduction. Actually, almost no one had any doubt that children from the upper classes of society were going to do be� er in the schools than the ones from lower classes. “Natural order” should be in favour of such a state of aff aires. Even more, when it came to the question of possible promotion of pupils from lower classes to the top it was accepted as possible but not fairly likely. Ringer reports that as new programs were inaugurated (a� er 1860) even “most reformers (…) did not expect graduates of the schools and programs they recommended to reach the highest positions in society. The son of an artisan might prepare to be a foreman in a substantial machine shop (…). Yet (…) an increase in ‘applied’ schooling could be expected to lead to no more than sectorally limited forms of social mobility (…). Thus until late in the nineteenth century , even determined reformers could share the almost universal assumption of status persistence, and do so ‘innocently’, without any conscious intent to limit mobility”(1989, 61–62).

More than a century a� er Condorcet, Durkheim, while considering unity and diversity in society, wrote: “In most cases, we are not predestined by our intellectual or moral temperament for a given


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function. The average man is eminently plastic; he can be equally well used in widely varied occupations” (Durkheim 1922/1956, 118). But, according to Durkheim, society — to maintain itself — “requires labour to be divided among its members and to be divided among them in a given fashion rather than the other” (ibid., emphasis mine). It is because of the society and by society that “education is thus diversifi ed” (ibid.). And for Durkheim it was not a real problem that we “today (…) see education vary with social class or even with locality” (ibid., 117). Although it was already then evident that “education of our children should not depend upon the chance of their having been born here rather than there, of certain parents and not of others” (ibid.), it took decades to become a ma� er of policy and a fi eld of clashes and profound reconsiderations.

2. From reproduction of inequalities to social inclusion Only with the infl uence of socialist movements and (later) political parties did the idea of education as a mechanism able to create equality come to the forefront. Coq even claims that in France — at least from the end of WW I, when Compagnons de l’universite proclaimed the need for “obligatory, free of charge, education for all the children from 6–14 (Coq 2002, 59) and in particular from De Langevin-Wallon (1947 S.G) and Lionel Jospin — “reforms are trying to (…) realise (réaliser) equality in society through school” (Coq 2002, 58). This presumption is leading from one reform to another. A� er World War II, the reform movement “gained ground, reforms are becoming every day more frequent. There isn’t a minister that could allow himself not to have an idea of global reform of school” (ibid. 57). The illusion that education can bring inequality to an end is thus causing a crisis in modern education. It also seems that crisis is becoming a “natural” state of aff airs for education in democratic society because of the permanent search for equality via education!

Today in many countries — in particular developed ones — we almost all claim that equality in the form of social inclusion is one of the primary goals of education. The concept of social exclusion, at fi rst popularised as referring only to “physically disabled” and “mentally disabled”2, later expanded and today “includes those with disadvantages” (Evans and Deluca 2005, 1). And what is for us the most important: it includes “those from disadvantaged backgrounds”

(ibid.). As responsibility for social inclusion shi� s to society, we are reaching the peak in pointing out the importance of education for social integration and mobility.

The most valued educational systems today are those with highest ability to incorporate students from disadvantaged backgrounds. Nordic countries are thus praised for being able to reach that target. Even more, “a� aining high overall performance, while at the same time, evening out disparities in performance is one of the key aims of national education policy in most OECD countries. (…) In the light of PISA fi ndings, Finland seems to have managed extraordinarily well in combining these two principles” (Välĳ ärvi 2002, 24). This thinking has a long tradition in “Finland and in other Nordic countries” (ibid.). And it is going to be important also for other countries to “take a radically diff erent track. Instead of the average or top performance of a school or an educational system, the distribution of educational performance will now assume much greater importance. In particular, the distance of the poorest performers to the average will now be of particular relevance (…)” (Klasen 2005, 9).

II. Limited social mobility, reproduction of inequalities and educationThe complexity of democratising education is revealed by two discussions running in parallel: on the one hand, promotion of social inclusion and on the other, questioning overly optimistic theories promoting education as the remedy for social inequality. Many prominent scholars claim that diminishing social inequality is far from an easy task for education.

At almost the same time as the peak of the illusion that education could bring inequality to its end — in the 1960s — some theoreticians presented evidence questioning easy and overly optimistic hypotheses about the role of education in social mobility. So when Bourdieu (1990) reminded readers that even in America “which was almost invariably described, in the sixties (…) as the promised land of social fl uidity and individual achievement” (xi), schools are “devoted, like their European counterparts, to the perpetuation and legitimation of social hierarchies” (ibid.), there was already plenty of evidence — theoretical and empirical — in place.


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1. Mobility and education Anderson, describing the situation in developed countries in 1961, reported that a number of authors claimed great importance for education in vertical mobility. Centers — for example — off ered data for the USA out of which “the mobility eff ects of schooling seem to have been important. Similar though less striking results are reported for Britain” (1961, 166). And the same goes for Nordic countries. “It has been shown for Sweden that a fourth of the urban labourers with more than folkschool training had entered white-collar positions fi ve years later; of those with only folkschool, one man in twenty did so” (ibid.). In brief, in diff erent analyses it is frequently “demonstrated that a son is more likely to be mobile upward if his schooling is superior to that of other sons in the same class of origin (…)” (ibid., 167).

But interestingly enough, Anderson, while taking a closer look at mobility and the relative magnitude of “other factors as against schooling in determining the total amount of mobility” (ibid.), concluded that “only a relatively modest part of all mobility is linked to education” (ibid., 171).3

Anderson — praised for this fi nding4 —points out that Gösta Carlsson is the one to whom “must go credit for the most explicit questioning of the conventional view that schooling is a powerful infl uence upon mobility (…). Carlsson concluded that in Sweden, schooling is “hardly the decisive factor in the majority of cases where people have moved upwards on the social ladder” (ibid., 169).

As Carlsson for Sweden, Anderson in his article demonstrates for England that in a sample of 257 sons “now in the top stratum (…), 124 inherited their position and 133 entered from below (…). In the lowest stratum there are now 1.010 sons of whom 407 inherited their position and 603 came down from various higher strata” (ibid.). Out of the numbers it is obvious that we are dealing with a period of relatively lively mobility. But for us, it is of special importance that when “we look at the educational composition of these ascending and descending streams we see that over nine-tenths of the sons moving in to level 5 from below were in the two lowest educational categories” (ibid.). For Anderson, this is not surprising due to the fact

of poor education in these categories. But it is much more “impressive (…) that half of the sons moving into the top stratum (level 1 S.G.) were in the two poorest categories of schooling. Moreover, half of the poorly educated sons moving into the top level originated in the two lowest strata. In total, two-fi � hs of the present top class originated in the two lowest classes, of whom three-fi � hs had less than a grammar school education” (ibid., 171). Out of those facts, Anderson is clearly able to question — also today — what is for many scholars a dominant presupposition: that education is not only an important but a key factor of social change, mobility, and success5. In his article he is demonstrating that education is only one factor of mobility and that “only a relatively modest part of all mobility is linked to education” (ibid.). Anderson reveals the complex territory related to education and vertical mobility6. For the purpose of this text, we are going to take on board his claim that no “one could deny that, (…) be� er schooling has a favourable infl uence upon mobility” (ibid.) and his less explicit message that education — and above all merit in education — is not the principal mechanism that enables vertical mobility.

2. Limited and segmented access to educationWhile Anderson demonstrated that education is not a crucial promoter of social mobility, Bourdieu and Passeron have searched for the reason why that is so: why and how schools are reproducing inequality. Publication of Les Héritieres in 1964 brought quite a shock to the public, particularly in France, where the illusion of diminishing social inequality through education for all dominated for decades. Revelations of Les Héritieres and La Reproduction have been additionally painful while citizens of France and the French government tended to believe in education as a means to improve their personal and national prospects. A� er WW II it became a “norm in the family — in particular in middle class ones — to project a hope on the child for social promotion” (Troger 2002, 17)7. Hope was additionally stimulated by the belief of de Gaulle that it is necessary for the sake of maintaining and gaining the position of economic power, to “form more numerous elites at the fi elds of science and technology” (ibid.). With this message in mind, obligatory education has been prolonged from 14 to 16 years of age and an “eff ort was made to widen the access to the fi rst cycle of secondary education” (ibid.)


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in the years 1959 and 1963. School “was more and more perceived as a chance for all children, and not only for the elite, to reach be� er socio-professional status than their parents” (ibid.). “In this context publication of Héritieres appeared as operation of disillusioning” (Troger 2002, 17).

The pure fact that there “is not more than 6% points of the sons of workers in higher education” (Bourdieu and Passeron 1964/2004, 11) was shocking. With hardly disputable statistics, it was demonstrated that a large part of the “democratisation” of education is an illusion. School, contrary to expectations, functions as a “machine of social selection. While the majority of children from the milieu with powerful cultural capital is progressing at the university, children from milieu of ordinary people are ‘under selected’” (ibid.).

But this was only the fi rst shock. It was even more depressing when it became obvious that reproduction was not taking place only through the small percentage of lower class children admi� ed to higher education. Together with the less obvious (“horizontal”) segmentation of those entering HE, the disillusion was even greater. Claims for the democratisation of education faced the fact that contrary to expectations, lower class students — even if they are in position to enter higher education —are far from being able to enter certain studies. “(…) we are facing — when it comes to the most de-privileged — pure and simple elimination” (ibid., 12).8 Bourdieu and Passeron have, while questioning the socially biased structure of diff erent types of studies, paved the way to later developed theories of segmentation and — to a degree —systematisation in education. A few decades later, with the development of massive higher education, the phenomenon noted in Les Héritieres is becoming more important and obvious.

Ringer, who is heavily dependent on insights drawn from Pierre Bourdieu and Max Weber (Lowe 2005, 152), developed the theoretical framework needed for analyses of social reproduction in systems characterised by inclusive education. In an era of mass tertiary education, schools tend to reproduce social structures not only by vertical stratifi cation but by systematisation and segmentation

horizontal in relation to the levels of education. At the same time, exercises refi ne social selection.

“(…) the measure of segmentation within the given sector of an educational system is the degree in which distribution or access percentage for particular school programmes within the sector deviate form the norm provided by comparable percentage for the sector as a whole” (Ringer 1989, 56). Educational segmentation is of two types: socially vertical and socially horizontal. “The typical form of educational segmentation is socially vertical, that is one of the ‘tracks’ caters to a socially more ‘elevated’ clientele than the other” (ibid.). But there has been segmentation “socially horizontal to some degree” (ibid.). It is possible to imagine a situation in which upper middle–class groups predominate in the classical schools while working-class youth — if they reach secondary education — are “markedly over represented in the modern stream. This is a typical form of socially vertical segmentation. At the same time, the relative access and distribution percentage for the ‘non-economic’ upper and lower middle classes are slightly higher, respectively, than those for the ‘economic’ upper and lower middle classes, with respect to both secondary education in general and classical secondary schooling as a segment within the secondary sector. This is socially horizontal segmentation” (ibid., 57, emphasis mine). As Ringer is stressing, one can interpret this diff erence in terms of the importance of “cultural” and “economic capital”9. Both types of segmentation are important for social reproduction in education. But in the era of widely open access to upper secondary and even to tertiary education, especially in Europe, socially vertical segmentation is crucial. From the start it is important to make it evident. Because of its horizontal appearance, it is a typical example of misrecognition that helps the reproduction of inequalities. Even more so while Ringer is claiming:— that for the beginning of segmentation of curricula it was crucial that it followed a rising level of inclusiveness in secondary and higher education. The main argument for the segmentation in more and less prestigious programmes have been claimed needs for specialised institutions in “’modern’, ‘technical’ or ‘applied’ studies whose inferior status was typically linked to their supposed practicality” (ibid., 59).


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—that till today there “is no clear evidence that these younger studies actually contributed signifi cantly to the economic development of the period, or that they arose in response to objective and specifi able ‘needs’ of the high industrial economy” (ibid.).

In this respect, Lowe’s hypothesis is that segmentation “raises the possibility that the role of an education system in the modern period is to retard or to minimise social mobility in the interest of those social groups which are already in other ways advantaged” (2005, 154). Conceptualising his model for historical insights, he is concluding that:— “not only were schools increasingly agencies for stabilisation of society and key arbiters of life chances” — as such they were “consciously planned and understood by the participants on both sides, the providers of education and the recipients” (emphasis mine).— what developed “was a divided education system which had the eff ect of carefully distinguishing the young people it processed by class and gender. Its function became, increasingly, to fi t them for particular niches in society which were increasingly preordained from birth” (ibid. 157).

Today — with the complete blossom of inclusiveness that already reached tertiary education — descriptions like the one about “particular niches in society which were increasingly preordained form birth” are under profound reconsideration. But it is certainly necessary to follow carefully the seemingly unbiased rising of enrolment in tertiary education across Europe. It is more or less clear that certain programs are in place only to accommodate the needs of mass tertiary education. Such (supposedly new and allegedly in accordance with the needs of industry) programs are frequently nothing more than yet another form of social reproduction of inequalities in education. This time they take the form of neutral segmentation which is actually an example of socially vertical segmentation!

3. School curricula and teachers in line with middle class pupils and students Above, we have been discussing the shock that the work of Bourdieu and Passeron brought to the French public through its claim that access to education is not at all as democratic as it was perceived to be. But the major innovation that shocked the public — above all educationalists — in France was the claim that school is responsible for the reproduction of inequalities due to its inner logic. It is the very logic of education: the curricula content, methods of teaching, and above all selection by examination and a� ributing degrees in accordance with supposed “formal equality of the students” (1964/2004, 103), that is at the very heart of the reproduction of inequality.

First it creates an illusion that it is up to each and every person whether he or she is going to reach certain level of education or not. And second school is de-facto — through the process of education (instruction and education) — working in favour of the middle class and thereby reproducing the status quo. “The most privileged students enjoy not only a milieu familiar to their origin, habits, practices, and a� itudes that services them directly in their schooling. They also have inherited knowledge and have mastered the acting, good taste, and desire to profi t in school (…)” (ibid., 30).

Cultural privileges are evident when “it comes to the knowledge which goes only with regular a� endance of theatres, museums, concerts (a� endance which is not organised by the school and it is not only sporadic one” (ibid.).

A� ending theatre, exhibitions, jazz concerts, cinema etc. is in correlation with social origin. And that very “culture” is forming the background of school curricula. Teachers, even more so if they’ve interiorised this kind of culture by struggling for it, are taking it as a norm. Middle-class culture is in the centre of core curricula. School is easy and acceptable for middle-class students who are almost “at


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home” in such a school and something yet to master for the lower class students.

Later, especially in La Reproduction (1970), Bourdieu and Passeron, elaborated the concept of symbolic violence. For them school curricula — “inculcating” to the students the dominant culture as the “best” one — is an act of symbolic violence. Pedagogic action (PA) “is objectively symbolic violence insofar as it is the imposition of a cultural arbitrary by an arbitrary power” (Bourdieu, Passeron 1970/1990, 5). While inculcating/instilling certain meanings and excluding others as worthy of “being reproduced”, PA is arbitrary. It expresses “objective interests (material and symbolic) of the dominant groups or classes” (ibid., 9). Each selection of meanings that defi nes a group or class culture as a symbolic system for all “is arbitrary insofar as the structure and functions of that culture cannot be deduced from any universal principal (…)” (ibid. 8). Even more arbitrary is such a selection of meanings when it is presented as the only possible or natural one. Signifying relations are namely a “product of history” (ibid., 9) and they should be presented as such. Bourdieu and Passeron are pointing to the “misrecognition” of arbitrary power as “legitimate authority” (ibid., 13) through the relatively autonomous status of education.

According to a number of authors, “misrecognition” of the arbitrariness of school curricula (not only of the content of teaching) and of the selection that is the fi nal result of it, is one of the decisive mechanisms of modern domination.

Bernstein describes schooling as a mechanism of social control. Socialisation for him is not just neutral operation as it is for Durkheim. “Where pedagogy is visible, the hierarchy is explicit, space and time are regulated by explicit principles, there are strong boundaries between spaces, times, acts, communications” (Bernstein 1977, 135). The main task of education is to “get the child to accept (not necessarily understand) the ordering of principles” (ibid.). And if he or she “learns these rules (…) acquires the classifi cation” (ibid.). And yet visible pedagogy is only part of PA. In addition to, and instead of, visible social control, implicit control emerges in the realm of “invisible pedagogy” (ibid.) Inside this realm “space and

time are weakly classifi ed” and “control is vested in the process of interpersonal communication” (ibid.). The number of lower class pupils and students being successful in this process of “socialisation” is far lower than the one among upper class ones. According to Bourdieu and Passeron, a combination of lack of specifi c cultural capital of middle class families and culturally biased school curricula can explain the largest part of school reproduction of social inequalities.

4. Costs and risks as mechanism of self-restriction in educational mobilityRaymond Boudon, while accepting the thesis of inequality of chances in education, is critical towards the theory of Bourdieu and Passeron10. He claims that a lack of cultural capital as the main reason for inequality in education is not an explanation for diff erent orientations of pupils with the same results at the end of diff erent levels of education — for example at the end of primary education (2001, 157).

Boudon describes how equally successful children decide diff erently about continuation of education in correlation with their social origins. Out of “very successful and successful students from the families of workers 37%, 53% of employees, 70% of middle ranking executives, and also 70% of industrialists and liberal professions, and 83% of those coming from the families of senior ranking executives, are continuing their education at lycée” (ibid., 157). Socially conditioned decisions are even more marked when it comes to average students. Here “22% of students from the families of workers continue their education at lycée, 36% of employees, 50% of middle ranking executives, 70% of industrialists and liberal professions, and 83% of those coming from the families of senior ranking executives” (ibid.). Demonstrating with statistics that the rule is the same for weak pupils11, he asks why it is so.

The fact that “infl uence of origin depends on success” (weaker if success is good and stronger if success is weak) should prove, according to Boudon, that reasons for diff erences in correlation with social origin, “can’t have origin in cognitive or cultural handicap (…) while we are examining children with the same level of success


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(…)” (ibid.). It seems that Boudon understands Bourdieu’s concept of habitus and of reproduction as a narrow one. But at the same time he reveals an additional important element of social reproduction12. Not only does a child from the lower class face cultural barriers in the school curriculum, a� er he or she reaches the threshold, there is yet another barrier stopping him or her in the process of education.

According to Boudon, there are two reasons for the decision not to continue with education in the demanding and prestigious lycée.

The fi rst reason is the ratio between the costs and the probability of success. According to Boudon, economists properly claim that pupils from lower classes decide for more demanding education less frequently because of the costs in relation to the risk to fail. For them and their parents, the costs and risks are higher than for those from upper classes13.

“But economy is not able to explain details of the statistics observed. “(…) for this it is necessary to refer to classical sociological theory of reference groups” (ibid., 158). According to this theory, family more or less precisely defi nes “status which is considered for a child legitimate to try to obtain. Status is very much determined in relation to the current status of the family” (ibid.). So for the son of a primary school teacher, it is a success if he reaches the post of upper secondary teacher. “But that is not the case when we consider the son of university professor” (ibid.).

Without admi� ing it, Boudon is at this point close to the concept of habitus developed by Bourdieu. Perception of one’s own position in society through the reference group is near to the concept of socially formed habitus, and it is not only the result of an “objective” position, chances, and costs in society. It is also the result of the spectrum of diff erent habitus even members of the same class can conceive and reach. Of course, there is no doubt that Boudon is right claiming that is counterproductive to deny the “objective” importance of origin for the decision related to education (comp.: ibid.,159), yet it is to the same degree counterproductive to deny the importance of cultural capital in this respect.

Boudon is however on the right track claiming that considering reproduction of inequalities in education one should keep in mind two things:

1. The fi rst one is the important role of school curricula as a structure working in favour of pupils and students being already be� er off . Cultural capital inherited in the family is in this respect crucial for possible success. 2. And second is the fact that even when socially deprived pupils and students have been successful in accommodating to the demands — standards — of middle class education, they are facing harsh decisions related to the cost and probability (risk) that investment is going to pay of14.

III. Is it enough to demonstrate reproduction of inequalities and to lament? »Is it enough to establish and to lament unequal representation of diff erent social classes in higher education, to part — once for all — inequalities in relation to school?”

That is the somewhat ironic opening of Bourdieu and Passeron in Les Héritieres. And as o� en happens with irony, the authors were, because of the content of that book and of La Reproduction, frequently declared to be fatalists. And yet this question is, together with a number of them following, very important for us: teachers and students.

1. What should we be aware of? Even very serious thinkers such as Brian Simon (2005) categorized their work among those that “project a kind of frigid or pallid fatalism concerning the role of education and of the teacher” (ibid., 142). While he is quite correctly claiming that education is — “especially if one takes the long view”15 (ibid., 149) — a force of change in society, he erroneously accuses Bourdieu and a number of others revealing the complexity of social reproduction in education of being fatalists.

A number of facts prove that claim. In conclusion we are going to try to reconsider some aspects of the so-called fatalism of those revealing the reproductive role of school.


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Let us start with the very revelation. Is it fatalist? It seems to us that there is no need to be. Yet there is one far more dangerous position: namely overly optimistic perception of school as an element of progress per se.

1.1. So for the start, one should be aware of:— limited access of lower class pupils and students to higher levels of education (Bourdieu and Passeron);— segmented (socially vertically segmented above all) access of the lower classes to education (Bourdieu, Passeron, Ringer);— the biased structure and functioning of school curricula — biased in favour of middle class pupils and students (Bourdieu, Passeron, Bernstein, Apple);— the importance that perception of the costs, chances and value of education play in decisions (“self-selection”) for diff erent tracks and levels of education among the pupils and students (their reference groups) with the same success in education (Boudon); — the limited role that school has in vertical mobility (Anderson).

1.2. Then we should try to answer for ourselves why and how all that happens. Bourdieu, while reconsidering Les Héritieres from the perspective of 25 years, claims that the main breakthrough of their work is that it “is drawing consequences or bringing out the mechanisms which are at the bo� om of empirical observations” (Bourdieu 2002, 73). Above all, it is important that we the teachers have an insight into the way school curricula function and our role in it. We should be aware of the “contribution (…) that system of education, namely teachers, is adding to the reproduction of social divisions” (ibid.).

1.3. These two insights are already important and to a degree a precondition for changing the role of education in relation to social reproduction.

2. To raise the awareness that reduction of social inequalities is not an easy job, but quite to the contrary a very complex and not easily rewarding one, is yet another precondition for a refl ected approach to it. “We namely have to know the way reproduction is functioning if

we want to have a tiny chance to minimise reproductive functioning of the schools” (ibid., 77).

From these and many other preconditions we are only at the beginning of a trial to install mechanisms not eradicating but “minimising reproductive functioning of the schools.“

2. What can we do to minimise reproduction?So what we can do and which are the dilemmas we are facing in trying to minimise the eff ects of education to social reproduction?

1. We can fi nancially support students with less favourable backgrounds. With grants we can maximise the chance that when facing the decision whether to go for a more demanding level or track of studies lower-class students are going to take this risk.1.1. Upper secondary and tertiary education free of charge raises the probability for more of them to continue their education! 1.2. Counselling regarding the orientation in education is of benefi t although “only to a certain degree” (Boudon 2001, 165)1.3. With the extension of comprehensive education, lower class families are facing less deliberation about risk and costs and thereby the negative eff ect is not that strong (comp.: ibid.). 2. External examination — although disputed by a number of scholars — is another mechanism one should introduce because the weight of frequently socially biased internal grading is thereby reduced.

3. But at the same time many areas are still open for discussion. Above all are those pointed out as fi elds of symbolic violence. The sole fact that Bourdieu himself decided to be for quite a period profoundly engaged in policy making at the fi eld of curricula renovation in France is telling. For him, one of the main fi elds of refi ned social reproduction is certainly the structure, content and functioning of school curricula16.

3. Involvement in curricula renewal When François Mi� errand in 1984 asked professors of the Collège de France to rethink »which could be the basic principles of teaching in the future« (cit. in Bourdieu 2002, 199), Bourdieu accepted the duty of fi nal redaction of the text. The president of the French Republic le�


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the formulation of the principles to the professors while expecting that in formulating their principles they would follow guidelines of unity in pluralism; openness to the outside world and autonomy; and periodic evaluation of knowledge taught. Collège de France established nine basic principles for future education. Among the principles17, some are of bigger interest for the topic discussed here.

»Diversifi cation of forms of excellence« quietly re-inaugurates the famous division of labour which according to Durkheim calls for diff erentiation of education. “(…) and as the child must be prepared for the function that he will be called upon to fulfi l, education, beyond a certain age, can no longer remain the same for all those to whom it applies” (Durkheim 1922/1956, 68).

Bourdieu obviously accepted such a formulation being aware that division of labour is a must for modern societies and that education must be diversifi ed. The question is:1. How is it diversifi ed? Are all the tracks needed? 2. How, by whom and where will decisions about individual divisions of labour take place and what will the role of education be in them? Another interesting principle is the third one: multiplication of chances. One can in precise formulation trace the infl uence of Bourdieuian thinking. When it comes to the “consequences of the school results” (Bourdieu 2002, 200), professors are not only in favour of giving “second” chance to low-achievers, they are also against the irreversibility of the position achieved by successful students. They want neither irreversible condemnation nor recognition (comp. ibid.) 3. Even more, Pierre Bourdieu — together with François Gros — chaired the commission for reconsiderations of the content of teaching in 1989. In accordance with his principles related to the position of intellectuals and in particular of sociologists in society, Bourdieu took part not only in revealing the weak points of school as one18 of the elements of reproduction of social inequalities, he also deeply engaged himself in proposals concerning the future of education in France. When tackling content, he was at the very core of the mechanism of symbolic violence. How radical was his group in his proposals to the then socialist government in France?

In explications of seven principles that should govern renovation of curricula in France, there are some of more profound interest to us. Our reading is guided by the search for possible policy making suggestions. Considering proposed changes, one should bear in mind that there is no single measure or easy way to reduce social inequalities.

3.1. Knowing that democratisation of education is accompanied with the pressure to lower the standards, they are proposing:— clear defi nition of standards that must be a� ained at a certain point in education and— reduction of the quantity which “should allow to elevate the level to the degree (and only to the degree) which is allowed by working less extensively but be� er” (ibid., 218). For Bourdieu it is namely clear that lowering standards is against the interest of lower classes in education. Seemingly such education is more inclusive, but it actually devaluates reached levels of education and thereby restricts chances of vertical mobility of those with diplomas. Clear defi nition of standards is also a mechanism to reduce frequently biased grading in schools.3. 2. To reach necessary standards, teachers are supposed to “replace passive learning with active one” (ibid.). 3.3. Grading should combine fi nal examination with “continuous control of the level reached” — another example of care for standards.3.4. All pupils should be trained to think critically, to be engaged in experiments, to put facts in historical context, and to work systematically on enlarging their knowledge. “Handing over to all the pupils such a technology of intellectual work, and more generally to instil to them rational methods of work (as for example ability to choose between required tasks or to distribute them sequentially) should, to a degree, contribute to the reduction of inequalities linked to cultural heritage” (ibid., 219).

Declaration we’ve just referred to is — as the one above — an element of logic that existed for decades a� er demonstrating that school is contributing to the reproduction of social inequalities, Bourdieu’s mo� o. In closing remarks in Les Héritieres, he (together with Passeron) argued for “rational pedagogy” (pédagogie rationelle).


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Only with a carefully elaborated and permanent approach to cultural inequalities19, he believed, pupils and students from lower classes can actually benefi t from necessary but insuffi cient democratisation of education.

Footnote:1 “Thus, for example, the man who does not know how to read, write, and do arithmetic really depends upon the more literate man to whom he must constantly have recourse. He is not the equal of those to whom education has given this knowledge; he cannot exercise the same rights to the same extent and with the same independence.” (Condorcet 1791/1994, 62)2 The concept of social exclusion »was fi rst popularised in 1974 in France, by René Lenoir then Secretary of State for Social Action (...)« (Evans and Deluca 2005, 1).3 A realistic view concerning education is also expressed in the introduction to the Education, economy and society reader (1961). “Schools and universities are not designed for the selection processes thrust upon them in a modern economy by the tightening bond of schooling with occupation, and hence with social class, nor were they designed to act as agencies of social justice, distributing “life chances” according to some meritocratic principle in face of the social claims of parents for their children.” (5) 4 Cuin (2000) is crediting Anderson as the one who »demonstrated that in industrial societies (...) existence of powerful relation between the level of instruction and position in society is not in correlation with the sensible infl uence that level of instruction of certain individuum is excercising on the chances for vertical mobility« (114).5 Sadlak (2001) pointing out that the »number of students in HE in the world increased from 51 milion in 1980 to about 82 milion in 1995« is accepting Unesco‘s optimistic vision related to the future development of society via education (314). 6 Even more, one way out of his trajectories leads to the conclusion that when tackling the issue of vertical mobility and the reproduction of inequalities in society, education is not an important fi eld to explore.7 Before the war it was »globaly accepted that majority of children maintain position in the class of his or her origin« (Troger 2002, 17).

8 In Les Héritieres, fi elds of study »not available« for labour classes were medicine and pharmacy Comp. (ibid. 13).9 Another Ringers remark worth noting concerns incongruities between hierarchies of cultural and economic capital. They “rarely occur at the very top or in the lowest third of the social scale (…)” (Ringer 1989, 57).10 In his early work, L‘ inégalité des chances (1979), he is categorising them in the tradition of Parsons and functionalism. »(...) theory presented by this author in La Reproduction undoubtedly part of functionalist tradition and it is revealing the same mode of thinking« ( 90).11 5% of working class pupils, 20% of employees, 50% of middle ranking executives, 58% of industrialists and liberal professions, and 73% of senior ranking executive’s children with weak results at the end of previous education are deciding for lycée. 12 To a degree developed already by Bourdieu and Passeron. Comp.: 1970/1994, 153–155. 13 »To put it diff erently: it is pre� y likely that costs are »higher« for milieu less favourable. « (Boudon 2001, 158).14 As pointed out earlier, we believe — contrary to Boudon — that these two elements, although not directly related, are not independent of each other.15 Stimulating also is his thesis of unintended consequences of education. He demonstrates his thesis with the development of education in Russia. While copying German classical gymnasia and French Grandes Écoles, they “did produce the offi cials and bureaucrats, the doctors, lawyers and military experts that were required. What was clearly not intended was the massive alienation and radicalisation of a large portion of the students, leading to the great student strikes and related actions of the 1860s” (Simon 2005, 140).16 Contrary to the above mentioned opinions, he was not a “fatalist” but rather an “activist”. His Interventions 1961–2001 (2002) clearly demonstrate the claim. 17 Unity of science and plurality of cultures; diversifi cation of the forms of excellence; multiplication of chances; unity in and through pluralism; unity of transferred knowledge; continuous and alternate education; use of modern techniques in education; openness to


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the outside world; and autonomy — those are the nine principles established by Collège de France. 18 »In La Reproduction we are not saying that school is producing or reproducing inequalities. We say that school is in part »contributing« to their reproduction« (Bourdieu 2002, 205).19 From primary education to the university we should »methodically and continuously neutralise functioning of social factors of cultural inequalities(...)« (Bourdieu, Passeron 1964/2004, 115).

LiteratureAnderson C.A. (1961), A Sceptical Note on Education and Mobility in: Education, Economy and Society (ed. Halsey A.H., Floud J. and Anderson C.A.), New York: Collier-Macmillan.Boudon R. (1979), L’inégalité des chances, Paris: Hache� e.Boudon R., Cuin C-H., Massot A. (2000), L‘axiomatique de l‘inégalité des chances, Paris: l‘ Harma� an.Boudon R. (2001), Les causes de l’’inégalité des chances scolaires in: École et société. Les paradoxes de la démocratie, Paris: PUF.Bourdieu P., Passeron J-C., (1964/2004), Les Héritieres, Paris: Minuit. Bourdieu P. Passeron J-C., (1970/1990), Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture, London: Sage.Bourdieu P. (2002), Science sociale et action politique, Marseille: Agone.Bourdieu P. (2002a) Interventions 1961-2001, Marseill: Agone.Condorcet (1791/1994), Cinq mémoires sur l’instruction publique, Paris: GF-Flammarion.Coq G. (2001), La démocratie condamne-t-elle l‘école à la crise? in: École et société. Les paradoxes de la démocratie, Paris: PUF.Cuin C.H. (2000), Les travaux de Raymond Boudon in: L‘axiomatique de l‘inégalité des chances, Paris: l‘ Harma� an.Durkheim E. (1922/1956), Education and Sociology, Glencoe: The Free Press.Evans P., Deluca M. (2005), Social Exclusion and Children —creating identity capital, Paris: OECD. Floud J., Halsey A.H. (1961), Introduction in: Education, Economy and Society (ed. Halsey A.H., Floud J. and Anderson C.A.), New York: Collier-Macmillan.

Klasen S. (2005), Social Exclusion, Children, and Education: Conceptual and measurement issues, Paris: OECD.Lowe R. (2005), Schooling as an impediment to social mobility in nineteenth and twentieth century in Britain in: The RougledgeFalmer Reader in History of Education (ed. McCulloh G.), London: Routledge. Ringer F. (1989), On segmentation in modern European educational systems: the case of French secondary education 1865-1920 in: The rise of the modern educational system (ed. Müller D.K., Ringer F. and Simon, B.), Cambridge: CUP. Sadlak J. (2001), Globalization and Concurrent Challenges for Higher Education in: Sociology (ed. Giddens A.), Cambridge: Polity Sorokin P.A. (1927/1964), Social and Cultural Mobility, London: FP.Troger V. (2002), Bourdieu et l’ecole: la démocratisation désenchantée, SH - special number on Bourdieu.Välĳ ärvi J. et al. (2002), The Finnish Success in PISA, Jyväskylä: Kirjapaino Oma Oy.

Teacher´s Collegial Relations through Bourdieu‘s Concepts ...Teacher´s Collegial Relations through Bourdieu‘s Concepts ...

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Abstract:Previous research in schools has highlighted the need of more co-operations in teachers‘ relationships to prevent a kind of isolation and lonely work. The aim of this article is to describe a theoretical framework for the investigation of teachers‘ relations as colleagues through Bourdieu‘s concepts habitus, capital and fi eld. Teachers’ weekly meetings will form the context in which these concepts are applied. The argument is that the teacher education in Finland is at an academic level that implies use of academic language. The aspect of form refers to Andy Hargreaves’ writings on teacher development and is used as a starting point. The objective of this article is twofold. First, teachers’ relations in the professional work are described in collaborative cultures. Secondly, the objective is to analyse the grade of using academic and educational terminology in diff erent levels of talk that may reveal diff erent symbolic capital that comes from the teaching subject. Finally, the article highlights that the perception of another discipline‘s traditions and working methods can form a pedagogical collaboration between teachers that is based on creativity and inspiration.

Keywords: collaborative cultures, collegiality, professional talk, symbolic capital, Bourdieu, critical theory

Tidigare forskning i skolorna har uppmärksammat behovet av mera samarbete bland lärarna för a� förhindra isolering och e� ensamt arbete. Sy� et med

T�� ‘ �� B��‘ �� , ��

Inger Österlund, Åbo Akademi University

denna artikel är a� beskriva en teoretisk referensram för a� undersöka lärarnas relationer som kolleger med hjälp av Bourdieus begrepp habitus, kapital och fält. Lärarmötena utgör det sammanhang inom vilka begreppen tillämpas. Argumentet är a� lärarutbildningen i Finland är på en akademisk nivå vilket utgår från a� e� akademiskt språk används. Aspekten av form hänvisar till Andy Hargreaves texter om lärarutveckling och används som en utgångspunkt. Målet för artikeln är tvåfaldig. För det första, lärarnas relationer i det professionella arbetet beskrivs i samarbetskulturer. För det andra, är målet a� analysera graden av a� använda akademisk och pedagogisk terminologi på olika nivåer av samtal. De olika nivåerna av samtal kan avslöja olika symboliska kapital som härstammar från läroämnet. Till sist riktar artikeln uppmärksamheten på a� en varseblivning av e� annat ämnes traditioner och arbetssä� kan skapa e� pedagogiskt samarbete mellan lärarna som baserar sig på kreativitet och inspiration.

Nyckelord: Samarbetskulturer, kollegialitet, professionellt samtal, symboliskt kapital, Bourdieu, kritisk teori

IntroductionThe current discussion of the teacher’s role in the schools emphasises the cooperation among teachers as colleagues as an essential part of a sustainable and educational development. According to Goodson (2003) some pa� erns of social change underpin crises in education and public services. He mentions memory, mentoring and retaining as three objectives in the basic education to identify some of the problems. Memory, where cultural traditions are the base for education, is today in danger of loosing its importance when changes occurs. With mentoring is meant the ways of introducing the new teacher into the working community and ways of colleagues to provide support to the newcomer. Mentoring has been easily overlooked because of the lack of time. Finally, it has been obvious that a tendency of changing profession of teachers calls for more appreciation of the work to retain the professionals. ”If we do not understand this crisis in the „heart and minds“ of those professionals involved in public service, our a� empt at reform and restructuring will be mindless and meaningless“.

Teachers’ collaboration and collegiality has not been studied as much as the social processes between teachers and pupils. Yet there


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is evidence that teachers’ collaboration provide benefi ts that result in successful teaching and high achievements in the classroom. Some evidence of teachers’ collaboration shows that teaming did enhance refl ective decision making in the classroom. (Lieberman 1990, 169; Li� le 1987, 513). It is very seldom that teachers themselves highlight the need of collaboration. Teachers seem to highly appreciate their autonomy in teaching even if it will result in lonely work and isolation. It is usually people outside the school, such as administrators and researchers that initiate teacher collaboration.

In the context of the Swedish speaking Finns in Finland, who mainly populate coastal areas, the collaboration between the regions has been notifi ed. The regional spreading of all degree of all school levels emphasise today networking in collaborative cultures as a necessity and a need for revitalisation. The only Swedish speaking Teacher Education department, which is a parallel system with the Finnish speaking departments, is situated in the Osthrobothnian coastal area in the central part of the country. The regional diff erences in language with subcultures originate from the history when Finland was an integral part of Sweden. Today teachers in the Osthrobothnian area seldom move to the south which has led to a shortage of Swedish speaking teachers in the southern parts and the capital of Finland. Even if this shortage has recently been addressed there is still a future challenge for regional collaboration between teachers and schools.

At micro level teachers are working in isolation in spite of the need of cooperation, professional support and response from colleagues. The professional appreciations are more seldom coming from colleagues. The pupils are evaluating the teachers’ work and how the teaching has succeeded (Lieberman 1990, 154). At macro level resources that support opportunities for teachers to cooperate are not recognised in the curriculum. Regardless of eff orts in building team and networking teachers o� en prefer to work alone. The teacher’s autonomy is a concern for many.

The problem is that collaboration in teachers’ meetings has o� en showed elements of frustration and confl ict (Hargreaves 1994, 2003; Lieberman 1990; Hansén 1997; Kärkkäinen 1999; Willman 2001; Salo 2002). Adelswärd claims that there is an imbalance between human

experience and the verbal ability which illustrates the fundamental feature in the development of language. There is a continuous swing between the ability to express something when the feeling comes a� erwards and the ability to fi nd verbal expressions for what you know and feel (Adelswärd 1991, 162-166). Also Hansén claims that teachers’ social relations and language point out richness in language but at the same time weakness in language when the form (concepts and words) dominate at the sacrifi ce of the semantical profundity. Teachers’ linguistic usage has been demonstrated to contrast with the demanding task of responsibility of youngsters’ social and intellectual development. (Hansén 1997, 127) The change from diff erent levels of talk highlights fl exibility in the use of language. The fl exibility appears as an assumption of being aware of diff erent levels of talk and also as the grade of creativity and the meaning in the use of the language.

This article suggests a theoretical framework of professional talk among colleagues by using the critical theory and Pierre Bourdieu’s refl exive sociological tools. Teachers’ weekly meetings provide the se� ing in which these theories are contextualised. The research problem is that while Teacher Education in Finland has an academic level the academic terminology is not as apparent as it ought to be in teachers’ cooperation as professionals. The following questions express the main objectives:

• What kind of collaborative culture supports collective refl ections and critical thinking?

• What kind of hidden structures in the use of language reveal tensions that make the cooperation diffi cult?

• Are there pa� erns that reveal which discourse is used for instance in decision-making?

To fi nd out the use of academic terminology and critical thinking in collaborative cultures two models are proposed. First, restricted and extended collegiality in open and closed collaborative cultures is explained. Secondly, the relationships are discussed between the levels of talk and academic terminology. The terminology is divided in educational and other academic terminology such as mother


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tongue, mathematic etc. It is essential to mention that the focus of the article is on the form rather than on the content of meetings.

Theoretical frameworkThis article will concentrate on teachers’ collaboration as colleagues during the weekly meetings and especially on how teachers communicate with each other. In Finland the Teacher Education is at an academic level1 that implies the use of academic terminology in teachers’ professional talk. Communication and talk can be investigated by placing focus on meaning and content or/and on terminology and form. Hargreaves claims that it is in bringing about change in the form of teachers’ cultures and subcultures that the change in the content of these particular cultures can be secured (Hargreaves 1992, 219-220; Willman 2002, 34). Therefore, terminology and the form of the communication are primarily emphasised in this article.

The professional talk is in this investigation divided into three levels: talk, discussion and professional talk. Talk is the small talk that is relaxing and fi lls the pauses between the other levels. Discussions are open dialogues that may be short in time. Professional talk is focused on specifi c topics and themes for instance curriculum planning, administration and ma� ers concerning the teaching subject. Professional talk presupposes the use of concepts and to provide critical refl ections that are helpful when the social reality in schools is to be understood (Hansén 1997, 127).

Previous research on teachers’ teams and cooperation have highlighted that frustration and confl ict are o� en the result of the conversation (Hargreaves 1994, 2003; Lieberman 1990; Hansén 1997; Kärkkäinen 1999; Willman 2001; Salo 2002). It is here assumed that teachers’ own subject and academic language infl uence decision making during the meetings. More weight on one special subject compared to another reveals hidden structures and self evident statements that usually is behind tensions and the questioning. It is only by recognising a value of, for instance, a legitimate language, that diff erent authorities compete to impose the legitimate mode of expression, that can ensure the legitimacy and it can function as a capital (Bourdieu 1991a, 58; Broady 1998a, 5). Teachers in diff erent

subjects have diff erent traditions and styles of conversation. The use of academic language varies because of diff erent traditions but the educational language is the same. Teachers’ social practice as one fi eld has a variety of fi elds within this fi eld2 which can be one explanation for the struggles and frustrations. On the other hand, teachers’ collaboration occurs in a creative atmosphere because of the practice in education with several traditions and subjects which at its best provides a new potential and inspiration to the culture of collaboration in the school.

Teachers’ collegial relationships in collaborative culturesA collaborative culture contains the internal culture of the school with a climate that distinguish schools. Subcultures inside schools are composed of groups of for example teachers, pupils and, teachers and pupils. The culture in the school provides stability and social capital3 with an inclusive approach that foster qualities of openness, trust and support between teachers. It is for instance in the acceptance, recognition and gratitude that collaboration can increase. Collaborative cultures are built on small gestures and jokes that signal sympathy and understanding (Hargreaves 1992, 233). It is a challenge to analyse the climate in social practices in collaborative cultures because of the refl exivity that comes from the culture and previous generations. Therefore, the form of teachers’ professional talk provides a point of departure that can reveal underlying pa� erns in the communication that may hinder an open dialogue.

Social practices as collaborative cultures in the social world is produced and reproduced through habitus and it is intertwined with the concepts of capital and fi eld. Bourdieu avoids defi nitions of his concepts but provide descriptions of how they function in relation to each other. Habitus is

“embodied in the individual, and acts in such a way that the underlying elemental social structures are reproduced through individual interpretation of meaning from action, experience, and learning. The system of schemes of perception and discrimination embodied as dispositions and abilities refl ect and are refl ected by the group, and are acquired through formative experiences in childhood. The structural code of the culture is inscribed in habitus,


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and it generates the production of social practice. Social practice can be analysed to reveal the nature of habitus, through relations of homology that can be observed among various elements forming the unity of the culture. One can also analyse inhibition of reproduction”. (Bourdieu 1984 [1979], 101; Bourdieu 1991b, 12; Nash 1999, 177; Löfström, Österlund & Nemlander-Sjöberg 2003, 43)

The climate of the school varies because of activities and events during the year that have diff erent purposes with teachers and pupils in collaboration inside and outside the classroom. The school culture is dependent on the possibilities to create collaboration at macro level. In Hargreaves (2003) diff erent scenarios are described that are directed from macro level. Figure 1 derives partly from these descriptions.

In fi gure 1 restricted and extended collegiality are described in open and closed collaborative cultures. First, the restricted collegiality in a closed collaborative culture is comprehended as corrosive individualism leading to features as competition and social reproduction. Characteristics for corrosive individualism are contracts and competitive individualism in schools. Schools compete with schools and schools try to be diff erent but look the same because of the imposed standards. Competition prevents schools and teachers to learn from each other and the fl ow of ideas decreases. It is not common to share ideas and gain advantage from it, such as is the case in business and economics, for instance. Tendencies of regression are obvious and create public schools only for those pupils who lack cultural or fi nancial capital to choose a private school. (Hargreaves 2003, 130-131)

Secondly, extended collegiality in a closed collaborative culture is a contrived collegiality (Hargreaves 2003, 130). Collaborative cultures combined with hierarchical systems of control, top-down, create problems when the collaboration becomes forced or artifi cial. Collaboration opportunities are then undermining teachers own joint projects, shared learning and collective inquiry in areas such as action research, team teaching or curriculum planning. On the other hand, contrived collegiality can be a useful phase in the development

towards professional learning communities. (Hargreaves & Fullan1992, 230)

Thirdly, the restricted collegiality combined with an open collaborative culture is understood as professional learning communities. Collaborative culture transforms knowledge and professionals are recognized. Joint work focus on continuous learning that is based on evidence and data for supporting classroom improvement and solving problems in the schools. Local solutions are built on shared commitments with joint responsibility and distributed leadership. (Hargreaves 2003, 133-134) The restricted collegiality may be revealed in the individualistic approach that still highlights the competitiveness of teachers as professionals. The entrepreneurial professional is concerned about the autonomy of the social practice. But the collaboration with colleagues as professionals develops a need for more critical awareness in a more extended collegiality.

Fourthly, the open collaborative culture in an extended collegiality emphasizes collaborative learning cultures. The collaborative learning between colleagues is a potential with collective refl ections together with a critical approach. Here, it is not meant that evidence should be the base of every sentence (Adelswärd 1991, 18). Only, that critical thinking is an academic approach and professional talk.

Teachers’ relations in the professional work

Collaborative cultures

CollegialityRESTRICTEDIndividualism

EXTENDEDCollectivism

CLOSED ”corrosive individ-ualism”

”contrived collegiality”

OPEN ”professional learn-ing communities”..transition to…

Collaborative learning:Collective refl ections, criti-cal and problematising ap-proach

Figure 1: Teachers’ relations in the professional work based on Hargreaves (2003), Hansén (1997), Willman (2001) and Salo (2002).


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Collaborative learning culture is a process of performing dialogue and produce questions related to a certain context. Students are more eager to know the results of the learning process itself than to go through an actual process of learning which is hard and time-consuming. Are the teachers willing to undergo this process? The quality of interaction is important for the nature of learning. For instance with regards to comprehension ability, heterogeneous groups have been shown to a� ain competence more quickly than students in homogenous groups (Palincsar & Herrenkohl 2002). Also, Fukuyama (2002) referred to networks, which have strong ties and overlaps with networks to other ones. Collaborative learning cultures functions in this aspect as an alternative to increase the collaboration between teachers inside the school and also between the schools (Österlund 2004, 8). Finally, the teachers own experiences and beliefs in how to collaborate directs his or hers approach when participating in collaborative learning. Collaborative learning contexts provide for pupils a boost of development so why not for the teachers also.

The relationships between levels of talk and academic terminologyTeachers’ relations in a communication during meetings are expected to reveal pa� erns of talk in collaborative cultures. The academic terminology in diff erent levels of talk highlights the form and communication during the meetings. The symbolic capital is here used to seize the relation that certain people or institutions, exams or titles, arts or scientifi c work receive respect, prestige and regard in the form of recognition. The word “reconnaître” has two meanings in the French language which Bourdieu, according to Broady (1998a, 6) uses much. First, the meaning is to recognize somebody as a friend in the shop and secondly, it is to recognize somebody’s work.

The symbolic capital refers to the relation between resources and characteristics of an individual, a group or an institution on one the hand and, dispositions of people who recognize those resources and characteristics (the two meanings included) on the other. Here, the symbolic capital can only exist implying a harmony between objective structures and systems of dispositions. The overall existence, the harmony, of symbolic capital Bourdieu explains, according to Broady (1998a, 6), by that the dispositions o� en are products of the same or similar resource. Broady refers to several examples in Bourdieu’s

educational sociological studies on teachers’ ability to point out certain pupils as more talented. These pupils possess certain symbolic resources, generated from previous generations as cultural capital4 . It is this special form of language capital that schools recognize and teachers award this value for the simple reason that their own dispositions are shaped in a trajectory where the same language has been highly valued.

The symbolic capital can also be emphasized as a goal or development of language in terms of teachers’ professional talk. It is assumed that the infl uence in the classroom is direct on the condition that teachers are aware of the pa� erns of dominance that the language capital can create. The intention is not to increase inequalities or to accept them. More the academic terminology, concepts and words together with critical thinking create a potential boost in the teachers’ social relations and in the classrooms.

The expectations are that a group of teachers use the academic language more in the professional talk than in the other levels. Another group distinguish the small talk and discussion from the professional talk and use other forms of verbal expression. Finally, it is expected that certain subject traditions, for instance mother tongue, use more academic concepts than for instance subject traditions of arts.

The symbolic and language capital play an essential role in the interpretation of fi gure 2. The multidimensional space of positions in the social fi eld is comprehended as a system of coordinates whose values correspond to the values of diff erent pertinent variables. In the fi rst dimension agents are distribute according to their volume of capital they possess and in the second according to the composition of the capital. The knowledge of the position occupied contains information to the agents’ intrinsic properties (condition) and their relational properties (their position). If teachers note that there is a middle position between the two extremes of the fi eld, agent and structure, in a neutral point of space, they can balance between the two extreme positions (Bourdieu 1991a, 231). The multidimensional space can be seen as the fl exibility in the practice to change the levels of talk rapidly when the topic is changed between abstract and


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practical concepts and also when the individual or group is changing the level. Levels of Talk Terminology

EducationalOtherAcademic

TalkDiscussionProfessional Talk

Figure 2: The relationship between levels of talk and Academic terminology

In fi gure 2 the relationship between levels of talk and terminology is distinguished in order to fi nd out the grade of using academic terminology in the diff erent levels and the overall use of academic language. The terminology is divided in educational terminology and in diff erent subject related terminologies to provide a distinction between the practice and the subjects. The concepts and words are observations that are grouped according to diff erent levels of talk.

ConclusionTeachers today have a strong commitment to their work and a strong conviction of the impact of their teaching. Teachers emphasise the importance of providing pupils in basic education the optimal possibilities to succeed. Nevertheless, teachers are overwhelmed by tests and evaluations that result in ranking lists on the school level. The increased administrative work and changes in work life, resulting in changes inside the school, are causing more burdens instead of providing tools for using the creativity in classrooms. Even if most teachers desire more collaboration among colleagues that could fi ll the gap of need of professional support and appreciation, teachers choose the lonely work because of the autonomy that this isolation bring.

Bourdieu’s critical arguments towards educational systems that reproduce power structures favouring the elites in the society have in this paper another meaning. Another approach is that the use of academic terminology between teachers can emphasise the need of

development and understanding in critical refl ections. This is an example of why Bourdieu’s theory hardly can be implemented as an entirety. Every culture forms its own systems of norms, networks and institutions that are derived from historical se� ing. Nevertheless, Bourdieu’s concepts, in relationships to each other, such as habitus, capital and fi eld, form a refl exivity that a critical theory should stand for. Symbolic and social capital have been emphasised to be essential tools to reveal hidden pa� erns and power relations in diff erent collaborative cultures. Therefore, it is important that the investigation considers teachers’ comments and feedback throughout the observations. Teachers’ own voice and participation in the investigation is intended to bring fourth ethical considerations.

The profession of teaching has that quality that the more methods and way of working are introduced the more alternatives are available for the pupils. Problematic situations occur when only one teacher introduces only a few approaches in spite of the professional ability. The idea of achieving a best practice is a myth in the context of schooling. Teachers’ collaboration as colleagues is signifi cant because of the rich atmosphere that the diff erent subjects and subject traditions highlight. An innovative working environment contains trust and networks where everybody participates with his or her ability because of the spontaneous desire to collaborate and develop the work.

Footnotes:1 Master’s degree in Education completed at universities is a condition to be qualifi ed for primary school teaching. (Förordning 986/1998)2 According to Broady (1998b, 21) education can be diffi cult to characterize as a fi eld because of the diffi culties in clarifying polarities. Some teachers are more dependent on educational politicians, journalists and teacher educators than on colleagues.3 that is kinship, friendship relations, and possession of durable networks that are capable of being mobilized or at least manifested (Bourdieu 1990[1980] , 35). Social capital includes networks that are institutional and collective in nature, and depends on the amount of trust and confi dence.4 Cultural capital, as for instance linguistics in a culture like oral and wri� en expressions that refers to symbolic resources that previous generations have formed, „functions as a sort of advance (both a head-start and a credit) that from the outset of example of culture incarnated in familiar models, makes it possible for the


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newcomer to start acquiring the basic elements of the legitimate culture, from the beginning, that is, in the most unconscious and impalpable way - and to dispense with the labour of deculturation, correction and retraining that is needed to undo the eff ects of inappropriate learning“ (Bourdieu. 1984,70 [1979])

ReferencesAdelswärd, V. (1991). Prat, skra� och skvaller och annat vi gör när vi samtalar. (Talk, laughs and gossips and other things we do when we talk) Helsingborg, Sweden: BrombergBohman, J. (2005). “Critical theory” in Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy at h� p://plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-theory 28.09.2005Bourdieu, P. (1980). Le sens pratique. Paris: Minuit (In English 1990 The Logic of Practice. Cambridge : Polity Press)Bourdieu, P. (1979). La distinction. Critique sociale du jugement. Paris: Les edition de Minuit. (In English 1984. Distinction. A social critique of the Judgement of Taste. Translated by Richard Nice. Cambridge: Harvard University Press)Bourdieu, P. (1983). “Forms of capital” in J.C.Richards (ed) Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education. New York: Greenwood Press Bourdieu, P. (1984). Homo academicus. Paris: Minuit (In Swedish 1996 Homo academicus. Stockholm/Stehag: Brutus Östlings Bokförlag Symposium. In English 1988 Homo academicus. Cambridge: Polity press) Bourdieu, P. (1991a). Language and Symbolic Power. Cambridge: Polity pressBourdieu, P. (1991b). Kultursociologiska Texter (Text on cultural sociology). D. Broady & M. Palme (EdS.) Stockholm: Brutus Östlings Bokförlag Broady, D. (1998a). Kapitalbegreppet som utbildningssociologiskt verktyg (The Concept of Capital as Education-Sociological Tool). h� p://www.skeptron.ilu.uu.se/broady/sec/ Retrieved 28.07.2003Broady, D. (1998b). Inledning: En verktygslåda för studier av fält (The Concept of Field in Education and Cultural Sociology). h� p://www.skeptron.ilu.uu.se/broady/sec/k-fal02.htm Retrieved 28.07.2003FSL. Finlands Svenska Lärarförbund rf. (Swedishspeaking Teacher Association in Finland)

h� p://www.fsl.fi /index.php?action=show_list&category_id=001Retrieved 31.10.2005Fukuyama, F. (2002). Social Capital and Development: The Coming AgendaSAIS Review vol.XXII no. 1 (Winter-Spring 2002)Förordning om behörighetsvillkoren för personal inom undervisningsväsendet (Ordinance for conditions of qualifi cations for personnel of the Finnish Educational system)h� p://www.fi nlex.fi /sv/laki/alkup/1998/19980986Retrieved 31.10.2005Goodson, I. (2003). All the Lonely People: The Struggle for Private Meaning and Public Purpose. Paper at Kasvatustieteen päivät 20.11.2003http://video.helsinki.fi/media-arkisto/Kasvatustieteenpaivat2003.html Retrived 31.10.2005Hansén, S-E. (1997). Jag är proff s på det här. Om lärarens arbete under en tid av förändring. (I am a professional on this. About teacher’s work in time of changes) Rapporter från pedagogiska fakulteten vid Åbo Akademi nr 16Hargreaves, A. & Fullan, M. (1992). Understanding teacher development. New York: Teachers College PressHargreaves, A. (2003). Teaching in the knowledge society. Education in the age of insecurity. Philadelphia: Open University PressKärkkäinen, M. (1999). Teams as Breakers of Traditional Work Practices. Hakapaino: HelsinkiLieberman, A. (1990). Schools as Collaborative Cultures: Creating the Future Now. New York: The Falmer Press (School Development and the Management of Change Series: 3)Li� le, J. W. (1987). Teachers as colleagues. In Richardson-Koehler, V. Educators’ Handbook. A Research Perspective. New York: LongmanLöfström, E., Österlund, I. & Nemlander-Sjöberg, C. (2003). Applicability of Bourdieu’s concepts in the analysis of trends in education. In F. Buchberger & S. Berghammer (eds.) Education Policy Analysis in a Comparative Perspective. p.41-58. Linz. Futurecollege.Nash, R. (1999). Bourdieu, „Habitus“, and Educational Research: is it all worth the candle. British Journal of Sociologyof Education. vol 20, no.2.Norrby, C. (1996). Samtalsanalys. (Analysis of talk) Lund: Studentli� eratur


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Opetusalan amma� ĳ ärjestö, Undervisningssektorns fackorganisation, (Trade Union of Education in Finland)h� p://www.oaj.fi /Resource.phx/oaj/eng/in_english.htx?menu=engRetrieved 31.10.2005Palincsar, A. S & Herrenkohl, L.R. (2002). Designing Collaborative Learning Contexts. Theory into Practice. Volume 41, number 1, Winter 2002Salo, P. (2002). Skolan som mikropolitisk organisation. En studie i det som skolan är. (The school as a micro political organisation) Åbo: Åbo Akademi University PressWillman, A. (2001). Yhteistyön ristiriitaiset puhetavat. Diskurssianalyy� inen näkökulma luokanope� ajien tulkintoihin tiimityöstä. (Contradicting manners of speaking in collaboration. A discourse analytical perspective of teachers’ interpretations on teamwork) Oulu: Oulu University PressÖsterlund, I (Accepted) An analysis of Teachers‘ Social Networks with Network Closure and Structural Holes. In F. Buchberger & S. Berghammer (Eds.) Education Policy Analysis in a Comparative Perspective III. Linz. Futurecollege.

Correspondence: Inger ÖsterlundFaculty of EducationÅbo Akademi UniversityGeorgsgatan 1800120 HelsinkiEmail: [email protected]

M.Ed. Inger Österlund is a full time Ph.D. student at Åbo Akademi University. Her research interests include the fi eld of social education, multicultural education, well-being in working life, and educational policy in a European context. In her dissertation „Teachers as colleagues. Schools as collaborative cultures“ she investigates the dynamics of collegiality, professional talk and cultural collaboration in schools. Österlund has herself taught psychology at the upper secondary level. She has a background working in occupational health (physiotherapy) as a consultant and in corporate human resources management. She has worked as an entrepreneur for 12 years in the fi eld of occupational health. Her areas of expertise also include the management of EU projects.

University Teacher´s Professional Identity and its ConstructionUniversity Teacher´s Professional Identity and its Construction

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Abstract:University as an institution has changed through diff erent factors, my interest is what has changed due to these changes in university teacher’s identity. The university teacher is the micro level actor, and it might be that he has only been the adaptor to meso-macro level changes or that he has also been the actor. From this emerges the research question: how does the university teacher conceive his professional identity and how does he create it? The aim of the study is to give „voice“ to the university teachers and to present an analysis of the university teacher’s identity in Tallinn University. The empirical part of the research will use narrative research method with theoretical sampling. Current paper will present the theoretical conceptual frame for the topic, dealing with identity, professionalism, academy and academic identity and university teacher’s professional identity.

IdentityThe self has basic value in Western society and the construction of the self can be considered as one of the major tasks in life (Baumeister 1997:685), it is human phenomena. The concept of „identity“ is closely related to „self“ and „self-concept“.

Identity (cf fi gure 1) can be understood as a sense or a meaning scheme about oneself (self-defi nition) (Simone 2001).

UNIVERSITY TEACHER’S PROFESSIONAL IDENTITY AND ITS CONSTRUCTION

Kristiina Krabi, Tallinn University, Estonia

Figure 1. Concept of identity (Simone 2001; Baumeister 1997; Olesen 2000; Illeris 2003).


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The identity consists of qualities which make persons unique and diff erent (Liimets 2005). Identity is plural, and multifaceted (the complexity has grown in time), and consists of experiences and meanings of one’s gender, nationality, family, roles, relationships, personality traits, capabilities, competencies, a� itudes, values, priorities, and ideals (potentiality) (Baumeister 1997:682; Lotman 1999:59). So we can talk about diff erent identities: gender identity, ethnic identity, cultural identity, personal identity, class identity, scholarly/academic identity, learning/teaching identity, role identity, moral/ethical identity, institutional identity, professional identity, etc.

Identity is a fl uid phenomena with a limitedly stable core, it is constantly (de/re)constructed, while being a whole (not necessarily coherent) (Illeris 2003). Persons can take up diff erent identities in diff erent situations (Illeris 2003). There are some areas unknown and some areas hidden (unconscious) in the human self (Johari window), part of it can be made explicit through refl ection (Mezirow 1991). Also it must be said that identity is not predictable, it is a creation (Lotman 1999).

Identity is constructed in the life context, which is situated in constantly changing cultural-historical context and is formed in the web of social relationships (Baumeister 1997). Cultural-historical context has historical and collective stories (grand narratives, cultural texts) which are functioning as a social memory, se� ing an authoritative discourse in the context (Lotman 1999; Foucault 1985). But each person’s story is also a part of the historical and collective story. The process of identity construction can be described as the negotiating process, both dialogic (individuation-socialisation) and monologic (language speaks us, death of subject) (Olesen 2000; Wenger 1998:146; Bakhtin 1981). Ideas of self are constantly changing in culture, it was traditional in pre-modern society, national or class oriented in modern, and uniqueness, subjectivity aiming in post modernity (Heikkinen 2001:115). This means that nowadays persons should be more liberated than ever before to make decisions connected with them. Our identity constructions serve our interests (identity also has defence mechanisms), but it is always interpersonal, socially defi ned, and it needs social validation and public recognition

(be it even negative) (Baumeister 1997:687; Illeris 2003). Identity construction can be seen also as a process of negation, exteriorisation or limiting oneself (’me’ and ’not me’, in culture: ’ours’ – ’not ours’). It is important to fi nd, when the contact with „the other“ has been crucial in person’s (identity) formation (Lotman 1999:58).

Identity formation starts with the given identity (family, nationality), and it needs to transit to personally constructed identity, creation of subjectivity, which means that person takes control over its being (Baumeister 1997; Olesen 2000:20). Baumeister (1999:682) makes a slight diff erence between identity and the self-concept, where „children are born with identities, ... but must develop self-concepts“.

Identity construction is a process of learning, a process where the experiences are conceptualised (crucial role of language, discourse) and constructed into the meaning schemes which are forming an identity (Baumeister 1997; Olesen 2000; Lotman 1999:66,80). Identity construction is altered through narratives, being an intellectual endeavour, where introspection, refl ection and experimentation must take place (Simone 2001, Baumeister 1997). Identity formation is a painful process, where we can talk about identity crisis as a problem of defi ning oneself, especially when there are many alternatives to choose from, and it can end with escaping from self (alcoholism, eating...) (Simone 2001; Baumeister 1997:685,703), and it can be deceptive.

Competencies for identity construction can be defi ned as phronesis – practical wisdom about one’s identity making process. Subjectivity can be considered as a work of art, and it can be a source of challenge and satisfaction as well as threat and diffi culty (Baumeister 1997:703), and the result is never determined, there have been several alternatives during the course of life (Lotman 1999:71).

Professional identity is self-meaning connected with work (Olesen 2000).


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ProfessionalisationAcademics include doctors, layers, architects, higher managerial and professional occupations (Noon & Blyton 2002).

Developing expertise in certain fi eld takes a lot of resources, so professionalisation can be seen as a rationalisation of society, action (Olesen 2000). Expertise consists of knowledge and competencies unique to the special profession, and there is implicit, tacit knowledge involved. Developing expertise can be called the professional development process from novice to expert (Berliner 2004).

Expertise means status and power, when others are made dependant on professionals’ services. Profession is an institution with moral and legal bands (Olesen 2000:24) – self-regulated by code of ethics and norms, and state regulated by legislations. Society gives profession trust, but profession must give to society their competencies and do it with responsibility. The question of professional ethics and a� itudes is very important to profession.

Professionalism is also an ideology (professionals striving for status and privileges) – where there is an obligation to think certain ways or about certain things, and only the professional can determine the real needs of a client, and the client does not have the intellectual resource to challenge the concept (Foucault 2005; Eraut 1994). Foucault did not see power as a thing imposed from above, but something that works its way through all social relations and through the „internal discourses of the institution“, for power’s „success is proportional to its ability to hide its own mechanisms“ (Foucault 2005:103-5). The power of discourses represents themselves in everyday, taken-for-granted situations (Chapman 2003) and it has been researched in professional discourse (academic or habitual) analyses (Olesen 2000:24; Bourdieu 1994).

The critical paradigm has challenged diff erent professions, aiming emancipation and self-directedness, self-regulation, and consciousness of individuals (Illich, Freire). So professionalism can be understood both positively and negatively: being a rationalisation for society and an instrument to misuse power.

Academy and academic identityKnowing that context is important in identity construction and in order to investigate it, we should also analyse the university teacher’s organisational context – academy/university as community with distinct culture.

Academy can be conceptualised as a web of meaning, dynamical community (verb not noun), as a system of accumulated expertise, which is based on social narratives (stories that are told about what organizations are, how they operate, what they are a� empting to accomplish) and model stories (Czarniawska, cf Mohr 1998).

The culture of the academy consists of values (for example academic freedom), moral virtues (vocation, care, responsibility), symbols, self-evidences, resources (stock of knowledge, symbolic capital), conceptions, beliefs, and myths, strategies (spirit of play described by Bakhtin and Huizinga, normalisation, cricisism), structure and hierarchy (gendered institution, Bailyn 2003), principles, roles, discourse (discursive control through peer-review), and normative regulations, standards.

The roles of the university (and university teacher) have been (Boyer 1997; Simone 2001): 1. research (textualising the world),2. teaching and3. services (to society, to deparment, to university).

During the last centuries the university has seen signifi cant and dynamical changes, the most important of them is the change in function: from the idea of the cultivation of character (Bildung, emphasis on teaching, pre-modern university) to inquiry/research based (making knowledge, Wissenscha� , German university tradition) to an economical profi t-progress oriented institution (US mass-university, more legislated by state). This also changes the student community (to heterogenic mass), the roles of faculty, the curriculum, the work context, the academic freedom (more legislated), and the teaching and the assessment (Nixon 1996; Schwehn 1992; Boyer 1997). There are diff erences in culture in universities, but it can also vary within universities – on one side


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there is the traditional university culture and on the other side the fl exible and innovative new profi t achieving universities oriented to marketing. Boyer (1997) has reconceptualised the role of faculty to the scholarship of discovery (researching with intellectual climate), to integration (interdisciplinary research), to application (relating acquired knowledge to community) and to teaching.

University teacher is socialized (indoctrinated) into the academic culture through graduate education by interpretation of the language and the culture of academy (Bourdieu 1988:41; Schwehn 1992; Simone 2001:283). At the same time the basis of selection of the new academics is not just the scientifi c work, but the overall manner of acting (habitus) (Bourdieu 1988:47), because it is the aim to produce agents supporting existing social order (Bourdieu 1988:62). More socially responsible professions where „academic coherence is more uncertain“ tend to focus more on pedagogical relationship (idea of Bildung) (Bourdieu 1988:65) – again in order to sustain habitus.

Power works through internal discourses in institutions (Foucault 2005). University culture problematises certain phenomena and is silent about others; the problematisation for Foucault was the ways being off ers itself to be, necessarily thought; it is a ma� er of discourse, structure, and symbols (Foucault 2005). Giroux has talked about challenge to be a border intellectual (Giroux 1992). For him, „being a border crosser suggests that one has to reinvent traditions not within the discourse of submission, reverence, and repetition, but „as transformation and critique.“... „Home,“ in the sense I am using it, refers to the cultural, social, and political boundaries that demarcate varying spaces of comfort, suff ering, abuse, and security that defi ne an individual‘s or group‘s location and positionality. To move away from „home“ is to question in historical, semiotic, and structural terms how the boundaries and meanings of „home“ are constructed in self-evident ways o� en outside of criticism. „Home“ is about those cultural spaces and social formations which work hegemonically and as sites of resistance. In the fi rst instance, „home“ is safe by virtue of its repressive exclusions and hegemonic location of individuals and groups outside of history. In the second case, home becomes a form of „homelessness,“ a shi� ing site of identity, resistance, and opposition that enables conditions of self and social

formation.“ (Giroux 1992). Bourdieu has said that „a scientifi c practice that fails to question itself does not, properly speaking, know what it does“. What are the unquestionable sides in academic life?

But at the same time university teacher is a creative actor creating social reality and „academic career provides more freedom and autonomy than most high-level endeavours, it allows on to work on things one really cares about, and the system of tenure provides a level of job security unheard of in most other occupations. Characteristics that make it demanding“ (Bailyn 2003).

To sum up, a university is the context of socialisation, fi eld connected with power, and the individual has to start a dialogue or monologue with it in order to be part of it.

University teachers professional identityUniversity teacher is a complex identity. Within academia, the university teacher’s role is a teacher’s, scholar’s (research) and active participant’s (service) in the life of the university and departments. My research interests are teaching academics, whom I call university teachers. Simone argues that „the teacher is less involved with the creation of knowledge than with the interpretation and transmission of knowledge“ (Simone 2001:287). But here comes the problem: university values research, so teaching is not considered important, valued (Schwehn 1992). At the same time inquires show that the satisfaction of teachers and their sense of fulfi lment as university teachers comes mainly from dealing with the students. And bad experiences in auditorium are compensated in research or service activities (Kupferberg 1996) or it can be said vice-versa.

The university teacher’s professional identity is the micro level issue. So far the paper has focused on meso level, but most of the research in educational sciences about (university) teachers (esp. in teacher education) has done in micro level, and the focus has mainly been on teaching and learning (Berliner 2004; Kremer-Hayon & Zuzovsky 1995 etc).

What is important in the construction of identity in university? Can we talk about identity crises in university? Are there many


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alternatives to identity to choose from? What is the role of the subject? „It appears that young academics need to create a vision of the intellectual that is appropriate for themselves, one that is rooted in our cultural perception and institutional expectations, but one that they perceive as a� ractive and refl ective of their personality and their reality.“ (Simone 2001). Is the professional the one who cares about his being (his identity), and in the sense of Weber has vocational duty (commitment to science)at the same time (Schwehn 1992)? Can we talk about uniqueness and emancipation as an aim in university? What about educational justifi cation, the ethical side, questions of discourse and power, and on moral and intellectual dilemmas – is it talked, problematised, in the university context? Being a doctoral student and also a university teacher I am also the subject of research and should ask, based on Bourdieu (1998:16), what are my interests in this research, what am I motivated to see and not to see?

University teachers’ professional development is described in fi gure 2, where it is seen that novice is mainly dealing with his identity, himself, but the experts focus on students and their learning. Although this fi gure is silent about meso and macro level in university, it does not mean that it does not exist, so in the course of research I must fi nd out the infl uences between diff erent levels (micro-meso-macro) on university teacher’s identity.

Figure 2. Professional development of (university) teachers (Berliner 2004; Kremer-Hayon & Zuzovsky 1995; Good & Brophy 1995; Krull 1998).


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We could ask how the changes in macro and meso context have infl uenced subjective life histories/narratives of the university teachers (Olesen 2000). Is there resistance (Illeris 2003)? As the teaching-learning situation is an interaction between two identities – the students and the teacher, it is not just dialogue (or monologue) between university and university teacher, but also a dialogue/monologue between teacher and student (another socialization-individuation process). Is the university teacher also a learner or just a teacher (the one who is learned)? Who does he/she have dialogues with, or is it just a monologue from science to university, from university to teacher and from teacher to student, or are these relationships dialogic?

ReferencesBailyn, L. (2003). Academic Careers and Gender Equity: Lessons Learned from MIT. Gender Work and Organization 10 (2), 137-153.Baumeister, R. F. (1997). Identity, self-concept and self-esteem. In R. Hogan, J. Johnson, S. Briggs. Handbook on personality psychology (pp. 681-710) . San Diego: Academic Press.Berliner, D. C. (2004). Describing the Behavior and Documenting the Accomplishments of Expert Teachers. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society 24 (3), 200-212.Bourdieu, P. (1988). Homo academicus. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Bourdieu, P., Passeron, J. C, & Saint Martin, M. (1994). Academic discourse. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Boyer, E. L. (1997). Scholarship reconsidered: priorities of the professioriate. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Chapman, V.-L. (2003). On ‚knowing one‘s self‘ selfwriting, power and ethical practice. Studies in the Education of Adults 35 (1), 35-53.Eraut, M. (1994). Developing professional knowledge and competence. London: Falmer.Foucault, M. (1985). The Use of Pleasure: The History of Sexuality. 2. London: Penguin.Foucault, M. (2005). Seksuaalsuse ajalugu 1. Tallinn: Valgus.Giroux, H. A. (1992). Paulo Freire and the Politics of Postcolonialism. Retrieved June 13, 2005, from h� p://www.cas.usf.edu/JAC/121/giroux.html

Good, T. L., & Brophy, J. (1995). Contemporary educational psychology. (5th ed.). New York: Longman Pub.Heikkinen, H. (2001). Toimintatutkimus, tarinat ja ope� ajaksi tulemisen taito. Jyväskylä studies in education, psychology and social research 175. Jyväskylä: Jyväskylän yliopisto.Illeris, K. (2003). Adult education as experienced by the learners. International journal of lifelong education 22 (1), 13-23.Kremer-Hayon, L., & Zuzovsky, R. (1995). Themes, processes and trends in the professional development of teacher educators. In Russell, T., Korthagen, F. (Eds). Teachers who teach teachers (pp. 155-171). Washington: Falmer Press.Krull, E. (1998). Õpetaja professionaalne areng: teooria ja praktika. In Krull, E (Ed). Õpetajakoolitus III (pp. 7-27). Tartu: TÜ kirjastus.Kupferberg, F. (1996). The reality of teaching: Bringing disorder back into social theory and the sociology of education. British journal of sociology of education 2, 227–248. Liimets, R. (2005). Mina kui ruumilis-ajaline konstrukt. [Doctoral dissertation]. Tartu Ülikool: Tartu Ülikooli kirjastus.Lotman, J. (1999). Semiosfäärist. Tallinn: Vagabund.Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative Dimensions of Adult Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Mohr, J. (1998). Book review: Narrating the Organization: Dramas of Institutional Identity. By Barbara Czarniawska. American Journal of Sociology 104 (1), 277-9. Nixon, J. (1996). Professional identity and the restructuring of higher education. Studies in Higher education 21 (1), 5-16.Noon, M., & Blyton, P. (2002). The realities of work. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.Olesen, S. H. (2000). Professional Identity as Learning Processes in Life Histories. Roskilde: Papers from the Life History Project 12.Schwehn, M. R. (1992). The academic vocation: `Specialists without spirit, sensualists without heart‘? Cross Currents 42 (2): 185–199.Simone, D. M. (2001). Identity of the university professor is formulated over time requiring self-discovery followed by being an intellectual scholar and teacher. Education 122 (2), 283-96.Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Adventist Schools in the Finnish Educational SystemAdventist Schools in the Finnish Educational System

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AbstractAlthough Christian schools are very few in Finland, they provide an alternative for most levels of the mainstream educational system. This article presents an overview of Christian schools in the Finnish educational system, with a special emphasis on the Adventist Church –maintained schools, as they represent a particularly long tradition of a minority denomination organized alternative educational system in the country. I will start by presenting some general information on independent schools in the Finnish society, and the current policies for establishing Christian schools. Then I will briefl y look into the curriculum for Christian schools, and fi nally introduce the Adventist schools.

Keywords: Adventist schools, Christian schools, Finnish educational system

Tiivistelmä (Finnish)Vaikka kristilliset koulut ovat Suomessa suhteellisen harvinaisia, ne tarjoavat vaihtoehdon kunnalliselle koulujärjestelmälle lähes kaikilla kouluasteilla. Tämä artikkeli tarkastelee kristillisten koulujen asemaa suomalaisessa koulujärjestelmässä. Erityistä huomiota kiinnitetään Adven� ikirkon ylläpitämiin kouluihin, joilla on pitkät perinteet uskonnollisen vähemmistön järjestämän vaihtoehtoisen opetuksen tarjoamisessa. Artikkelissa esitellään perustietoa yksityiskouluista suomalaisessa yhteiskunnassa sekä kristillisten

A�� S�� F�� E�� S� ��

Arniika Kuusisto, University of Helsinki, Finland

koulujen perustamiseen lii� yvistä käytänteistä. Kristillisten koulujen yhteistä opetussuunnitelman perusosaa tarkastellaan tiivistetysti, minkä jälkeen luodaan katsaus erityisesti Adven� ikirkon ylläpitämiin kouluihin Suomessa.

Avainsanat: Adven� ikirkon koulut, kristilliset koulut, Suomen koulujärjestelmä

Overview of Educational System in Finland Figure 1. Educational System in Finland

(Ministry of Education 2005) Finnish educational system includes nine years of compulsory schooling, generally completed between the ages 7-16. This so-called


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comprehensive school (marked as “Basic education” in Figure 1) has traditionally been divided into a 6-year primary school and a 3-year lower secondary school, but these are now o� en combined into 9-year comprehensives under the same roof. Additionally, there is an optional preschool for 6-year-olds, currently a� ended by 96% of the age group (Ministry of Education, 2005). A� er compulsory schooling, the 16-year-olds can choose between an upper secondary school1 , a vocational school, and apprenticeship training or other work experience. Subsequent to upper secondary or vocational schooling, the young people can apply to universities or polytechnics. Also vocational schools run programmes for upper secondary school graduates. They also off er some vocational training programmes in which upper secondary schooling can be completed simultaneously with the vocational qualifi cations.

Religious Education is a part of the comprehensive and upper secondary school curricula. Depending on the religious home background, and in some cases choice parental choice2, the child can participate in either the mainstream Evangelical-Lutheran RE, Orthodox RE, Life Questions & Ethics, or RE of one of the other confessions, including Catholic, Islam, Adventist, The Christian Community (Kristiyhteisö), and Bahá‘í. Other than Evangelical-Lutheran or Orthodox RE or the Life Questions & Ethics instruction is arranged when the parents of at least three pupils request it. (See e.g. Saine 2003; Seppo 2004).

The Government Bill on a new Freedom of Religion Act (453/2003) was adopted in Finland in 2003. In it, the Commi� ee supported the continuation of religion as an obligatory part in public school curricula. Therefore, the pupils belonging to the Lutheran Church are obliged to take part in Lutheran RE lessons, whereas others can choose between Lutheran RE, their own religion lessons (as above) when possible, or Life Questions & Ethics lessons. The teaching of religion is to be of non-confessional nature, i.e. not “practice” of religion. (Report on the Situation of Fundamental Rights in Finland in 2003. 2004, 2)

Independent Schools in FinlandIn Finland, church schools and other privately operated educational institutions are relatively scarce, 98-99% of the comprehensive schools are run by local municipalities (Karvonen et al. 2004, 3). As an example, at the end of 1999, there were 84 independent schools and approximately 4200 mainstream ones providing comprehensive school education. Thus, only around two percent of Finnish children a� end an independent school. (Rask 2000).

At that time (1999-2003) the Minister of Education, Maĳ a Rask, has stated that independent schools have a supplementing role in the educational system in Finland. Privately run schools are a part of the offi cial educational system, and their curricula are based on the national curriculum.3 Thus, also the rights of the pupils and students are the same than for those a� ending mainstream schooling: comprehensive school, upper secondary school, and vocational secondary education are provided for everyone free of charge. (Rask 2000). Therefore also independent schools receive governmental funding, provided that the school has received an offi cial status.

The application for the offi cial status to get a projected independent school, requires an “evident need” for the new institution. This means that it has to a� ract a certain amount of pupils for the size of the proposed school to be large enough, it needs to have suitable se� ings, equipment, teaching staff , and assured fi nances (Laaksola 1999). The proposed institution needs to off er some type of education that is not already provided by the local council, and it has to be willing to serve also pupils from other councils. In practice, this has generally meant independent schools based on either alternative pedagogies4 or religious values5. (Rask 2000). The school needs an authorization for an offi cial status from the Ministry of Education in order to acquire governmental funding (Laakkonen 2003), and its curriculum has to be approved by the Finnish National Board of Education (Feeniks-koulu 2005).

History and Present of Christian Education in FinlandAmong the independent schools in Finland are Christian schools. The oldest one was established by the Adventist Church in Piikkiö 1932. In 1987, the fi rst interdenominational Christian school was


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founded in Helsinki and, in unison, the National Association for Christian Education (Kristillisen Kasvatuksen Keskus RY) in Finland was founded (Laakkonen 2003/2005; Toivonlinnan yhteiskoulu 2005). According to its underpinning principles, the association was set up for “advancing and supporting Christian education.” It supports the se� ing up process of Christian schools and kindergartens in Finland by helping and consulting the foundations willing to establish a new institution, and works as a network organization for the existing schools (12 approx.) and kindergartens (14). The around twelve6 Christian schools have currently approximately 800 pupils around the country. The schools are usually operated by either a local Christian school foundation or the Adventist Church of Finland (ABC+ 2005, 51) (Kristillisen kasvatuksen keskus 2005; Laakkonen 2005).

Although the independent system only covers a relatively small proportion in the national educational structure, a Christian values -based alternative can be found in practically all educational levels. In addition to the Christian kindergartens, comprehensive and upper secondary (2) schools, there are approximately 20 Christian vocational training institutions, or so called “Folk High Schools” (Ojaniemi 1999/2005). There is also a tertiary level educational institution based on Christian values, namely the Diaconia Polytechnic (Diak), which was founded in 1996. It consists of 8 units around the country, hosting a student population of approximately 3000. Diak off ers training in education, nursing, social welfare, sign language interpretation, and media. Approximately 40 % of the students aim for a qualifi cation for either diaconia or youth work within the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland. According to the institution, the fact that it bases its core set of values in Christianity means that justice, solidarity and human dignity are emphasized, and that Diak aims to empower the students “to infl uence societal change and [to] fi ght against social exclusion.” (Diak 2005).

Curriculum of Christian SchoolsMaarit Laakkonen (2005), principal of the Espoo Christian School, says that Christian schools do a lot of co-operation with each other. Also the basis for the new curriculum has been developed together. The fi nal stages of developing a curriculum, which in many institutions is still on progress, are done separately for each school.

The mutual basis for the present curriculum for Christian schools states, for example, the following:7 The unifying factor in the curriculum is Christian worldview, which aims to bring up the connection between the diff erent parts of the given information.

In teaching diff erent subjects, the current scientifi c assumptions are acknowledged and brought together in the holistic view including the nurturing of Christian educational tradition.In comparison to [mainstream] comprehensive school, the subject ma� er is, within the framework of national guidelines, distinctive; teaching methods are more or less the same; and the perception of knowledge and learning equivalent to those in the national curriculum. The notion of human being derives from Christian values.(Kristillisen kasvatuksen keskus 2005)

What is rather interesting, and maybe diff erent from many common (mis-)conceptions of the rather fundamental black-and-white instruction of church schools, the mutual basis of the Curriculum for Christian Schools 2002 states that Christianity is in these schools construed as appreciation for diff ering views. It is further described that in practice this appreciation means that the school’s instruction or its notion of Christianity is just one interpretation among others; this interpretation is also said to be in a continuous process of focusing and altering, and thus the interpretation and instruction presented should be evaluated critically (Kristillisten koulujen opetussuunnitelman yhteinen osuus 2002, 2–3, In Kristillisen kasvatuksen keskus 2005).

The document also states that the pupils’ freedom of choice implicates acknowledging the right for value choices that are not in line with the educational goals of the school, as the aim is to encourage children’s individual thinking. It is recognized that this means confl icts are sometimes inevitable. On the other hand, the norms and rules of the school should guide the pupils’ behaviour – still maintaining their personal freedom of choice. In conclusion, it is noted that the school community aims for open discussion and self-evaluation of each individual in order to minimize the discrepancies between the wri� en curriculum and its practical implications. (Kristillisten


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koulujen opetussuunnitelman yhteinen osuus 2002, 2–3, In Kristillisen kasvatuksen keskus 2005).

The curricula will also be partly diff erentiated between the Adventist schools and others, as the Adventist RE has its own offi cial status, whereas the other schools base their RE teaching in the mainstream Evangelic-Lutheran RE. Laakkonen (2005) states, however, that generally the Christian schools in Finland now increasingly work without congregational boundaries of the past, and also accept pupils from any religious home background.

Maintenance of Christian SchoolsAlthough most of the Christian schools have a subsidiary status in the governmental educational system, and thus receive governmental funding, there are some schools operating without being offi cially established. In these schools, pupils’ parents have agreed to take responsibility of their children’s learning, so in juridical terms the children are home-schooled. There are also diff erences in the proportion of governmental funding acquired by the schools, since the schools maintained by the Adventist Church, as well as the oldest non-Adventist Christian school, the Helsinki Christian School, have obtained their subsidiary school status within the old legislation, and receive 100% of the amount they would as a council school. The more recently established schools are set up a� er the change in legislation in the late 90’s, which changed the defi nition of “other” [than municipal/governmental] educational suppliers, and reduced the proportion of funding to 90%. (Laakkonen 2005).

The Christian schools in Espoo, Kerava, Kuopio, Pori, Jyväskylä and Helsinki (2 schools) are maintained by local Christian school foundations. The Turku Christian School, which was previously operated by a relatively small congregation, will re-open in 2006 with a more interdenominational perspective (Turun kristillinen koulu 2005). Currently at least Lappeenranta and Mikkeli Christian schools are being planned (Laakkonen 2005). Some Christian schools, for example the projected Mikkeli school, are (to be) operated in connection to a municipal mainstream school as a set of alternative teaching groups.

Adventist Church -Maintained SchoolsSeventh-day Adventist Church runs a worldwide network of educational institutions. The oldest school was founded 1856 in United States, and the more organised school system started to operate in 1870’s. At the time, Ellen G. White, one of the leading fi gures from the early days of the congregation, spoke strongly for the importance of educational work. White stated that school is the world’s most important institution, and she also emphasised the holistic approach to education. Education was, in White’s opinion, more than just preparation for the earthly life. She saw the purpose of education in a balanced development of body, mind and spirit. (Suomen Adven� ikirkko 2005).

Ellen G. White has had a signifi cant infl uence in both the general values of the Adventist Church and in the educational views within the movement. The church currently runs 5 605 schools, including 4.407 primary schools, 1 064 lower- and upper secondary schools, as well as 99 colleges and universities8. The total number of students is approximately 1.056.000. The biggest institution, Loma Linda University in California, hosts in excess of 5 000 students. (Suomen Adven� ikirkko 2005).

In Finland, the denomination runs four schools. All these off er primary school education (grades 1–6), two alongside with lower secondary year grades (7–9), and one provides education in all grade levels from primary level to upper secondary school (grades 1–9 and a 3-year upper secondary) and a dormitory for 13-18 year-olds. The schools are located in Nummela, Siikasalmi, Tampere and Piikkiö. In the following, I will briefl y introduce them.

1) Kopu School, NummelaKopu School provides comprehensive school education in grades 1-6. It was founded 1966 in Helsinki, and later relocated to Nummela 1992. It received the governmental subsidiary school status in 1997. Although maintained by the Adventist Church, the pupils’ parents also run an association Kopun Koulun Ystävät ry (Associates of Kopu School) for providing additional support for the school activities. The school also appreciates the network of other Christian schools and congregations. (Kopun koulu 2005).


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The aims of the school include, besides completing the school work of their grade level and other more general developmental aims, to help pupils in acknowledging a “Christian set of values” and to raise “a healthy and responsible, unhurt child of God, who understands in his/her activities one’s own and others’ worth”9. It is also stated that when it comes to RE instruction, the school follows the guidelines of the National Curriculum, focusing on the “core issues of Christianity”, leaving the teaching of “diff erent emphases of religion” to the parents. (Kopun koulu 2005).

2) Siikasalmi School, Liperi / Siikasalmi (Joensuu region)Siikasalmi School defi nes itself on the school website as “a comprehensive school of the Adventist Church”. Thus, it seems that at least the offi cial emphasis is slightly less interdenominational than in some other schools maintained by the church. The school provides education from pre-school throughout comprehensive school until year 9 of the lower secondary school. It is stated in the school introduction that in addition to national standards of the curriculum, it is an aim to acknowledge Christian principles in the every-day running of the school. The school was founded in 2000, and the number of pupils has increased year by year. Special theme weeks and fi eldtrips, camp schools, and tours are said to be an essential part of the regular Siikasalmi school programme. (Siikasalmen koulu 2005).

3) Tampere Christian School, Tampere (grades 1-9)Tampere Christian School off ers comprehensive education “based on Christian core values and worldview” in the grade levels 1-9. The school was founded 1966, and states that it is meant for pupils from all denominations, as the school culture is interdenominational. There are eleven full-time and six part-time teachers. The number of pupils has grown rapidly during the past few years, and is currently 139 (academic year 2005-2006). Thus, the future challenge is to built or renovate necessary extensions in order to fi t the growing number of pupils in the school (Tampereen kristillinen koulu 2005).

The stated core aim for the Tampere Christian School is to “provide quality teaching based on Christian values and to guide children so that they will use the skills and knowledge God has given them in a

manner that will honour God and benefi t people and environment.” This principle is clarifi ed with a set of sub-aims, such as “Pupil will get to know Jesus and grows in faith”, “Pupil will think independently”, and “In the school there is an atmosphere of love, openness and honesty formed by the Holy Spirit.” The aims also include that the pupil will know the right and wrong as set by God; and will respect other people, their religious beliefs, opinions, physical boundaries, and property (Tampereen kristillinen koulu 2005). The more general sub-aims include a goal that learning is inspiring and multi-faceted, and that teaching develops continually. That the learning environment is safe and that individual diff erences are respected. The goal is the pupils’ holistic growth, i.e. spiritual, cognitive, emotional, social, physical, ethical and esthetical development “for God’s honour.” Also teachers and homes are acknowledged in the aims; the goal is that teachers’ working environment is open, caring and encouraging, and that home and school work together for supporting the pupil’s development. (Tampereen kristillinen koulu 2005).

4) Toivonlinna School, Piikkiö As mentioned earlier, the Toivonlinna school was established in 1932, and was originally named Toivonlinnan lähetysopisto (Toivonlinna Missionary College). Toivonlinna primary school was established in 1964. It received a governmental subsidiary school status in 1996, and an independent comprehensive school status for grades 1-6 in 1999 alongside with new legislation for basic education. It was concurrently combined to the same entity with the upper year grades of the comprehensive school. Presently there are three teachers and a classroom assistant working in the primary school level, whereas the grades 7–9 share most of the same subject teachers who teach in the upper secondary school. (Toivonlinnan yhteiskoulu 2005).

The authorisation for Middle School (keskikoulu), the equivalent of the current lower secondary school, was granted for the school in 1960, and the same year also the upper secondary education was started there. The fi rst students graduated from upper secondary in 1963, and by now over 700 students have fi nished their matriculation examination there. The school provides instruction in both


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comprehensive school grades 1-9, and the upper secondary grade levels. It also has dormitories for boys and girls from age 13 up (Toivonlinnan yhteiskoulu 2005).

Toivonlinna School introduces itself by quoting the permission for arranging instruction which has been granted to the school. It says that “the school provides teaching and education based on Christian values.” Toivonlinna School has in the range of 80 pupils in the secondary school (78 in 2002-2003), and 40-50 in the primary school (46 in 2003-2004). (Toivonlinnan yhteiskoulu 2005).

ConclusionsOn the previous pages, I have provided a brief overview of the position of Christian schools in Finland; which can be seen as an alternative educational system covering most of the grade levels presented earlier in Figure 1. It seems that there is a growing interest by the parents in providing their children Christian schooling, as many of the schools are expanding and also new schools are being planned and established. The phenomenon is interesting, keeping in mind that all mainstream schools already provide both Lutheran Religious Education and a range of other options in their curricula.

What, then is it that makes parents choose a Christian school for their off spring? Maybe the church schools are seen as a more caring environment, both because of the value background and the o� en smaller size teaching groups. Or maybe it is due to a Christian identity and value system that the parents want to encourage in their children?

Comparing to some other countries, the number of Christian schools is relatively small in Finland. Although the vast majority (84%) of Finns still belongs to the Evangelical-Lutheran church, the society can arguably be seen as an increasingly secular one. It could be that the fragmentation of the societal values, the concern for the lack of values in young people, and the growing insecurity in the traditionally very safe society play a role in the growing interest in the Christian schools.

The Christian schools are co-operating increasingly nowadays. Also the previously denominational schools, such as the Turku Christian School, are becoming increasingly multi-denominational. All pupils are welcomed to Christian schools despite of the religious home background. The Adventist Church -maintained schools do not seem to essentially diff er from the other Christian schools in Finland when examining the introductions presented by the schools.

However, it seems that the process of becoming more multi-denominational has not been instant, and some schools have been faster in widening their perspectives. For instance, the Adventist schools in Siikasalmi and Tampere present a rather diff erent picture in their introductions, Siikasalmi presenting itself from a more denominational perspective than the multi-denominational Tampere Christian School.

On the other hand, this brief examination raises the question of religious identity of the schools. When stating that the RE teaching is based on the National Curriculum, leaving the diff erent “emphases” for the parents to teach, does Kopu School staff mean the RE instruction in the school is Lutheran, rather than Adventist? And if so, are the “Adventist” schools nowadays just like other Christian schools, only partially funded by a certain denomination? If so, what is the need for Adventist RE? And can Adventist parents ask for separate “own religion instruction” for their children, if they want to provide their children with Adventist RE instruction in the Adventist Church -maintained schools? Or is the Kopu School introduction merely a� empting to include pupils representing all faiths, rather than excluding non-Adventists? –A� er all, as stated earlier, all Christian schools are obliged to base their curricula in the National Curriculum.

It would be fascinating to study, whether the diff erences between the Adventist schools are visible in the everyday running of the school. Also, the multi-denominational inclination of the Adventist schools would be an interesting topic for further inspection. A� er all, the Adventist RE has got an offi cial status in the curricula. Thus, the new curricula and its everyday applications in the Adventist Schools would provide a fascinating topic for future research.


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Footnote:

1 Similar to Sixth Form in the UK, the upper secondary school leads to ylioppilaskirjoitukset / studentsrkivningen, i.e. a matriculation examination equivalent to the A-levels in the UK or Abitur in Germany.

2 In practice, this means that a pupil can participate in the Evangelical Lutheran instruction without being a member of the church if his/her guardian so decides. In the senior secondary level, this choice is up to the individual pupil. (Jankko 2003).

3 The only exceptions to this are Steiner schools and the schools operated in foreign languages, the la� er of which are also entitled to collecting some school fees.

4 There are e.g. approximately 20 Steiner schools in Finland (Steinerpedagogiikan yhteisöt ry 2005)

5 In addition to the Christian schools, there is e.g. a Jewish school (established 1918) in Helsinki.

6 The exact number of Christian schools varies slightly depending on whether the ones without an offi cial status are included in the fi gure or not.

7 Not an offi cial translation. Translated by the author, merely for the purposes of this paper.

8 Statistics last updated 31.10.2003.9 Text cited according to the original English translation by the school.

ReferencesFeeniks-koulu. (The Phoenix School) 2005. h� p://www.feeniks-koulu.fi /kysymyksia.html (site visited 8.9.2005)Finnish Ministry of Education. h� p://www.minedu.fi /minedu/education/index.html (site visited 2.10.2005). Jankko, T. 2003. Kristillisen perinnön säilyminen peruskouluissa (Continuation of Christian heritage in comprehensive schools). ABC+, 3/2003.Karvonen, S., Vikat, A. & Rimpelä, M. (2004). The role of school context in the increase in young people’s health complaints in Finland. Journal of Adolescence. Vol. 5, Nr. 6. 2004.1-16.Kopun koulu (Kopu School). 2005. h� p://kopunkoulu.ne� isivut.fi / (site visited 2.10.2005)Kristillisen kasvatuksen keskus (National Association for Christian Education). 2005. h� p://www.kristillinenkasvatus.net/ (site visited 7.9.2005).Laakkonen, M. 2005. (Principal of Espoo Christian School). Personal communication 9.9.2005.Laakkonen, M. 2003. European Educators‘ Christian Association (EurECA), Schools around Europe: From Finland. h� p://www.hfe.org/_old/eureca/reports/schools.htm (site visited 21.7.2005).

Laaksola, H. 1999. Yksityistämisestä epävarmuu� a. Ope� aja -lehti. (Uncertainty of going independent. Teacher -magazine) 22.2.1999.h� p://194.251.244.92/ope� aja/ope9908/opaakirj.html (site visited 8.9.2005). Ojaniemi, J. 1999/2005. Lue� elo suomalaisista kristillisistä sivuista / Koulut ja Opistot. (Listing of Finnish Christian Websites / Schools and Colleges)h� p://sks.tiedot.net/sks_koulut_opistot.html (site visited 8.9.2005).Rask, M. 2000. Finnish Ministry of Education. Uutiset (News).h� p://www.minedu.fi /opm/uutiset/archive/2000/01/18_1.html (site visited 8.9.2005).Report on the Situation of Fundamental Rights in Finland in 2003. 2004. EU Network of Independent Experts on Fundamental Rights (CFR-CDF). Fundamental Rights Series, January 2004. h� p://www.cpdr.ucl.ac.be/cridho/RapportsEnvoy%E9sCOM2003PDF/RapportsEnvoy%E9sCOM2003PDF/CFR-CDF.repFinland.2003.pdfSaine, H. 2003. Vähemmistöryhmien uskonnonopetus. (Religious instruction of minority groups). Kristillinen kasvatus (Christian Education). 3/2003. Seppo, J. 2004. Uskonnonopetus ja koulun juhlakul� uuri uskonnonvapauslain valossa. (Religious instruction and school festive culture in the light of Religious Freedom Act). Kristillinen kasvatus (Christian Education). 5-6/2004. Siikasalmen koulu (Siikasalmi School). 2005. h� p://www.siikasalmiyhdistys.fi /koulu.htm (site visited 2.10.2005).Steinerpedagogiikan yhteisöt ry (Associations of Steiner Pedagogy). h� p://www.steinerkoulu.fi /steinerkoulut.htm (site visited 8.9.2005).Suomen Adven� ikirkko (Adventist Church in Finland). 2005. Koulutoiminta (School system). h� p://www.sdafi n.org/toiminta/koulu.html (site visited 1.12.2005)Tampereen kristillinen koulu (Tampere Christian School). 2005. h� p://www.takriko.fi /index.htm (site visited 2.10.2005).Toivonlinnan yhteiskoulu: Historiaa ja nykypäivää (Toivonlinna School: History and Present-day). 2005. h� p://www.toivonlinna.fi / (site visited 7.9.2005)Turun kristillinen koulu (Turku Christian School). 2005. h� p://www.turunkristillinenkoulu.com/ (site visited 2.10.2005) Notes on Author:Arniika Kuusisto is PhD Student at the Department of Applied Sciences of Education, and researcher in the Behind the Scenes of the Society:


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Young People, Identity and Social Capital project (h� p://www.tajunta.com/bess/) at the University of Helsinki. Before starting her research on young people’s religious minority identity and social capital, she completed her MA in Education and taught in the primary school level. During 2003–2005, she visited the Research Fellow at King’s College, University of London. Her research interests are in value education, especially intergenerational transmission of values, as well as in socialization within minorities, and religious identity among youth.

Correspondence:Arniika Kuusisto (M.Ed.)Department of Applied Sciences of EducationUniversity of HelsinkiViidakkotie 6FI-04260 Kerava, [email protected]

Vodja School - Learning Environment as Milieu Therapy Vodja School - Learning Environment as Milieu Therapy

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AbstractOn the 1st of September 2005, a li� le school in Middle-Estonia’s peaceful countryside was opened. The school was created because of a strong need for alternative and specialist education. There is an increasing number of children in Estonia whose needs are not met by regular school education. This may be due to learning disabilities, concentration disorders, problematic domestic situations or a working pace too fast or too slow. We also expect to receive many children whose parents simply want to off er their children the benefi t of an individual approach in a natural environment. The policy of the school is to satisfy every student’s individual needs, which can be divided into 4 categories – academic, social, psychological and especially existential. The personnel concentrates on more than just academic a� ainment as it encourages the children’s personal development for life, valuing them and helping them to grow spiritually as people. Staff s comprise class teachers and special educators and they all want to be mentors for the children. The atmosphere in and outside the school could be considered as milieu therapy as a fertile environment is created for balance and positive growth. We hope that this school will be the example to spread more widely in our society and be keenly appreciated by our students.

IntroductionThis paper will give you an overview of the school which was opened in autumn 2005 in Middle-Estonia’s peaceful countryside

VODJA SCHOOL – LEARNING ENVIRONMENT AS MILIEU THERAPY

Hele Aluste, Tallinn University, Estonia

and which is quite an innovative project in the Estonian educational fi eld today. Vodja School is a conditional name for an environment which represents the educational institution as well as the support system for children who need more harmonic surroundings, cannot adjust to the regular school system or whose families are looking for an alternative for the big school in the city.

The idea of Vodja School has emerged from the growing critical need in our society – there are thousands of children who do not a� end school. Based on diff erent sources there are 1000–35 000 kids in Estonia who drop out of school. The early interruption of the school path is a growing problem in Estonia and it unfortunately applies to younger and younger students. Anne Tiko brings out in her recent study that every year there are approximately 1000 pupils who will not graduate from the basic school. In the year 2004 there were 14-15000 of youngsters without basic education in Estonia. And this number is still increasing. The reasons for not a� ending school may vary, but the consequences are quite uniform: these young people will soon face unemployment or involvement in risk behaviours. That’s why it is so important to understand the reasons behind the drop in school a� endance and to fi nd solutions to prevent it (Tiko, 2004).

There will be a closer discussion about psychosocially threatened children and about their risks, opportunities and needs in this paper with reference to Vodja School. By psychosocially threatened children we mean the children who are for some reason in some kind of risk situation and who are threatened to be neglected in the educational process.

Another important issue concerns the a� itudes and values of the students and teachers. That becomes apparent in the general a� itude towards the student – whether the student is considered to be someone about whom we know something and who is manipulated or a subject who knows and acts itself. There is a big diff erence and that is an important issue to ponder. A dialogue can take place only between two equals (Freire, 1970).


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This school will be based primarily on the principles of milieu therapy. There has been an a� empt to create an environment with the structure of personal contacts and professional activities. Vodja School proceeds from the standpoint that every child wants and is able to study and develop if the right conditions are created for him/her. Our aspiration is to create an environment where the child may experience the support and understanding for himself, to discover his true story, singularity and calling, and to fi nd the balance between his inner and outer world. The purpose is to open the inner source of the child from where he could derive his life-force and meanings in his life. In other words, the proper environment will be created for the children to perform the curative tasks to support the development of their personality.

A closer look at Vodja SchoolIf you want to change something, you have to start within yourself. If you want to create something, you have to perceive it in yourself. And if you are going to do something, you be� er give the best you can. These ideas are behind Vodja School too. It would be a school centred on the child. The higher we set our aim, the greater is the probability to achieve a worthy result. And that is what we have set out to do. All right, some of you may think these are unreal illusions. But if you will not try, you will never know whether it’s possible or not.

The idea of Vodja School comes from the Rocca al Mare School (RaM School). It’s a private high school with a thousand pupils created in the year 2000. Few years later RaM School began to develop the ideology and methodology of practical nature education. The location for ge� ing to know the natural environment and ecological lifestyle became the lands of Esna Manor. The project Vodja School was started in the year 2004.

The physical environment of Vodja School comprises the surrounding fi elds, forests and the old homey schoolhouse. Far from the noisy city, the peaceful atmosphere is healing in itself, and there is a lack of most of the modern temptations for youth (drugs, alcohol, gangs etc). The place holds also the opportunity for learning through work – gardening, ecological agriculture, farming, building and repair

work, woodwork and handicra� . The school is not isolated; it’s open for everyone and part of the local community. The centre of Vodja School is Vodja manor in the district of Roosna-Alliku. Two manors – Esna and Vodja – together own 300 hectares of forest and fi elds. Until the year 2004 public Vodja Elementary School functioned in the same building, but it was closed by the district authorities because of a lack of students. Then RaM School bought the school and today Vodja School functions as its subordinate establishment. Connectedness with RaM School is ideological, organisational and legal.

Vodja School is planned for 20 boys and girls from around the country. The working language will be Estonian. Vodja School engages elementary and basic education, learning through work and also social and psychological aspects. The school is not for children with mental disability or for kids who need specialized medical resources.

Who is it for?It is a fact that there are children in our society whose needs can’t be met by the regular school system. Whether it is a more talented child who is bored in the lesson or a hyperactive child who is really smart but who cannot sit calmly for a long time. Or this could be a child whose life at home is so unbearable that the education has no meaning for him at this time. We can say that in all these cases the children are psychosocially threatened. Their current life and educational environment does not support them in some part and their further educational process is jeopardised. Swedish theorist Sven Hessle divides psychosocially threatened people into two categories:1. The psychosocial risk group – people who are living in some kind

of risk situation and who tend to be neglected in some ways, but are not yet totally rejected. They have still a lot of connections with society. The work with them is mostly preventive

2. Psychosocially neglected (threatened) people whose life situation includes a lot of problems. Helping them presumes creating a whole picture of their life situation. In most cases, they do not have the necessary resources to function in the society – education, home, job, health etc. They represent a peculiar „social diagnosis“ by being carriers of info about the destructive tendencies in society.


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Through Vodja School we are trying to create opportunities for both of these groups. In both cases the children have likely suff ered from some kind of violence - whether it has been peer-pressure, a broken home with violent parents or some kind of emotional violence.

Ruth Soonets discusses diff erent points of view about emotional abuse and comes to the conclusion that emotional abuse and psychological abuse are two diff erent things.

Psychological or mental violence is an act toward a child that inhibits or impairs the development of the child’s potential abilities. Emotional violence is an act toward a child that places the child under emotional tension and thereby threatens the proper development of the child’s emotional life.Emotional negligence is not fulfi lling the child’s emotional needs (Soonets, 1997).

A� er meditating upon these defi nitions we can conclude that a lot of children are trapped in situations that do not off er them any possibility to heal their traumatized soul. Who can help them if their family ignores their needs? Friends? School? Society?All this could have painful consequences. We take care of the body. But if the soul is in real pain the person may decide to give up on his body. During 1992-1996 the amount of persons below 14 years who commi� ed suicide was the same during the previous 20 years altogether. That should make us think...

What shall we do?The fi rst thing we need to do is to perceive the child’s problem, to realize what it is and try to fi nd real solutions. When children need psychological help they normally show it. But you have to read it from their behaviour says the child psychiatrist Piret Visnapuu (Visnapuu, 2003). To be able to do that presumes special a� entiveness and caring from the teachers.

In proper circumstances the teacher could be a real help in mitigating the relationship between the child and his parents. Child psychiatrist D.W. Winnico� says that one of the main roles of the teacher is to be in loco parents which means that she can o� en guide and help a

problematic child even be� er than his/her parents because the teacher has no strong emotional connection with the child (Winnico� , 1997).

Edovald, who has researched emotional abuse in children, claims that compared to other kinds of abuse, emotional abuse is much more diffi cult to examine and evaluate because there is no physical evidence (Edovald, 2002). But if it is already identifi ed in a particular child then that child defi nitely needs an individual approach.

In Vodja School each pupil will have an individual curriculum and the rhythm and pace of the learning process will depend on the ability of the child. The curriculum is based on the state programme but the learning style can not be the same for everyone.

There are no identical human beings, each of us is born with diff erent preconditions and abilities. In trying to create the most benefi cial learning conditions we have to start from each individual. For example, one pupil is able to concentrate longer than the other, another one can delve deeply into a subject only when he is alone. The next one is interested in everything the teacher is telling but cannot sit still behind the desk because of innate restlessness, etc. It is obvious we cannot expect the best result if we are pu� ing all these individuals together in the same conditions. And one more thing – we cannot force a child to be interested in studying. That interest has to appear from within the child. The pupils do not respect a teacher who does not respect their inner freedom to think and choice in life (Calgren, 1992).

In my opinion, the most important thing a school should accomplish is to teach a child to think independently. But o� en that goal gets overshadowed by the enormous degree of information the pupils must memorise. Learning should be perceived as an experience. Tiiu Kuurme speaks about experience-learning and emphasizes the importance of the learner and the content of the learning material because these are directly behind the experience: the environment in which the learning process takes place, the goal they are trying to achieve, the expectations toward the scholar, the valuing of the learning material and the evaluations that are seen in the value of achievement.


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She brings out three main modes with reference to learning – learning as collecting, learning as experience and learning by accident.The fi rst counts mostly what you have learned: the knowledge, skills, customs, habits, behaviours, system of values etc.With the second - learning as experience – the most important thing is what is happening inside the person: the transformation of the inner world, thinking, comprehension, emotional life, the ways how you fi nd and defi ne yourself in reality. Learning is considered to be as creating yourself.The third mode is learning by accident. A person learns mostly things he never planned to learn and what the teacher never planned to teach. Majority of learning happens by accident (Kuurme, 2004).

Educational institutions are generally interested in learning as collecting because it can be measured, and students can be ranked based on these measurements in order to facilitate the functioning of these institutions. But with respect to the personal development the learning process should be seen primarily as experience.

In order to create and support the motivation to learn it is important to establish a trusting relationship with children and a safe and motivating atmosphere. Emotionally abused children need longer therapeutic work. What does that mean? Less stress, fears, competition, speed, anonymity, (info) noise and more freedom, dedication, peace and trust. In Vodja School there will be no mark assessments but verbal ones which are made by both – the teacher and the student. Top priority will be given to the child’s self-appraisal and the evaluation will be at the service of the child’s whole development.

Learning environment as milieu therapyOne of the solutions for involving psychosocially threatened children in the learning process is to create the proper environment. The principles of milieu therapy help us establish surroundings which by their nature help to rehabilitate the child’s wholeness. Milieu therapy grew out of the new trends of psychiatry in the 1940s. Since then milieu therapy has been used with people in diff erent ages and with diff erent problems: psychiatric rehabilitation of adolescents and adults, institutional care of drug dependants, juvenile delinquents, mentally retarded etc. The nature and principles of

milieu therapy have been elaborated by the Swedish social scientist Anders Hagqvist (Hagqvist, 2003).There is no fi nal agreement on the exact defi nition of milieu therapy, but in the general approach milieu therapy is considered to be the consciously and critically analysed activity of a person’s physical and social environment to evoke positive changes in his life. The client – in our case, the pupil – is an active participant and the instruments of therapy are such daily activities like eating, cooking, singing, discussing, learning, working, listening, speaking and so on. Professionals create a milieu which structure is based on the personal relationships and professional activities. There will be proper ground for children to perform therapeutic tasks and thereby support their personal development. It is possible to customize all these principles to the learning environment. Milieu therapy insists that the change in the client’s life should take place at a pace chosen by the client. There are ethical reasons behind this, and this has also been proven to be more eff ective. In order to bring this principle into the learning environment we need an individualized curriculum. And in Vodja School it is like that.

While regular schools put primary emphasis on good academic results from students and do not emphasize the learning environment or relationships that much, in Vodja School it is vice versa. At fi rst we try to fi nd the possible psychological solutions for problems in human relationships (school violence, broken family, etc), then we see what kind of learning environment will fi t to the particular pupil best, and a� er that we may expect good learning results.

In order to create the proper atmosphere for milieu therapy, Vodja School is going to have a boarding-school system. This boarding-school will be family like and will support from Monday till Friday all the learning and education goals. There will be two responsible housemasters in the boarding-school, much like a mother and a father, whose main task is to create a domestic atmosphere and to teach family values. The boarding-school aff ords safety and will be the place where the child can learn to do and share the traditional housework as in every family. During the weekends and holidays the pupils will return home because it is really important to keep up the strong contact with their family and roots.


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The correctness of our approach is supported by research of Estonian boarding-schools done by Anne Tiko: „The boarding-school is defi nitely a necessary institution, a micro-environment, which supports the child whose family cannot or does not want to guarantee a safe and profi table environment for the child’s development. Today the boarding-school functions as an instrument to solve or rehabilitate already existing problems but it actually is in the children’s interests that this institution would be also used to prevent possible problems.” (Tiko, 2004).

Learning in Vodja School is balanced between three fi elds, valuing equally knowledge and skills, direct experiencial discovery and spiritual development. Social skills also play an important role. We proceed from each individual child, try to fi nd the environment which would be best for his certain needs and interests.

A third of the school day in Vodja School will be dedicated to studing the necessary subjects through active learning. The students will be divided into groups and the tasks and exercises will be found according to their abilities and interests. There will be no classes in Vodja School.

The second part of the day will be devoted to studying directly from and in the nature, learning through work and creative activity. RaM School already has an existing nature class in the Esna manor and the handicra� workshops are developing, the gardening is already ecological and the school has working relationships with local community. All these opportunities will play an important part in the everyday life of the Vodja students.

The third part of the schoolday will be dedicated to working with your soul. Psychological and religious education should improve the child’s skills to manage his own and the others emotions, to motivate himself, to feel and shape the surrounding atmosphere, to acquire values, social skills and skills for teamwork.

It is important to see the child as a whole person – there are spiritual, mental and physical aspects, the balanced development of the complete character. We are also trying to fi nd the whole in the learning

content by integrating the diff erent subjects. The regulative and so� rhythm plays a signifi cant role in everyday life at Vodja School. Living according to the rhythm of the folk and church calendar will give the children a chance to celebrate and be conscious of the principal values of life. There will be time set aside for the students to enjoy some quiet and privacy every day.

ConclusionNot every child can adjust to the regular school especially if there is no supportive family behind him. Every child has diff erent needs and it is rather diffi cult to draw a line between education and special education. We may say that each child has his unique and yet universal needs which are to love and to be loved and to have a trustful relationships.

Vodja School will try to accomplish the goals of the state’s educational and social policy and to improve the existing school system. This is a kind of innovative project and our positive results can be expanded and developed as a model or used as an inspirational source throughout Estonia and even the wider world.

We consider the creation of Vodja School a reaction to the widely spreading competitiveness, success- and elite-oriented mentality, materiality and formality in our society.

Our message is a call for noticing, supporting and caring. Violence is not a solution, but if there has already been some kind of a violent act then healing needs to take place. We try to be a school which does not exclude children. We wish to adjust to every child’s needs and we do not presume them to adjust to our plans.

Vodja School wishes to be a partner for parents, teachers and local municipalities in fi nding solutions. A lot of teachers are saying that there are more and more pupils who are not „like in past days”, who need more compassion and a broader arsenal of communication skills. Vodja School tries to be an environment where each child has an opportunity to feel himself acknowledged and equal with others.


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ReferencesCarlgren, 1992. Vabaduskasvatus. Eesti Õppekirjanduse Keskus.Edovald, T, 2002. Antisotsiaalse käitumisega õpilased. Tartu.Freire, P. 1970. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Continuum. New York.Jukkum, T. 2003. Laste ja noorukite terviseprogramm. Sotsiaaltöö, 3/2003.Karjakina, R, 2003. Kohvilauaju� lastepsühhiaatriga. Intervjuu Piret Visnapuuga. Sotsiaaltöö 3/2003.Kuurme, T. 2004. Õppimine kui kogemus. Acta Universitatis Scientiarum Socialium et Artis Educandi Tallinnensis. A24: 60-67.Soonets, R, 1997. Lapse väärkohtlemise mõiste ja liigid. Rmt: D.Kutsar, Laste väärkohtlemine. Tartu.Tiko, A. 2004. Kodu, kool ja õpilaskodu sotsiaalökoloogilises perspektiivis. Rmt: Lapse kesvukeskkond ja sotsiaalsed oskused. Tallinn.Tärk, L, 2005. Vodja Kooli programme. Winnico� , D.W., 1996. Thinking about Children. Karnac Books. London.

Comparative Education Researches from a Social Pedagogue PerspectiveComparative Education Researches from a Social Pedagogue Perspective

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AbstractThis article presents shortly international comaparative researches on cooperation in education and gives a basic concept of social pedagogy according to Polish traditions. Such presentation gives opportunity to search for relations between the ideas behind education and social pedagogy and bewteen their fi elds of practice. But for the author’s brief views of those relations, some charcteristic of Polish education and examples of Polish social pedagogues’ actions, can be found in this paper.

Abstract in PolishArtykuł prezentuje po krótce międzynarodowe badania porównawcze współdziłania w edukacji oraz daje podstawowe pojęcie o polskiej Pedagogice społecznej. Prezentacja ta jest okazją do poszukiwania związków pomiędzy ideami i działaniami edukacji i Pedagogiki społecznej. Oprócz skromnego nakreślenia tych relacji według autora, w artykule można znaleść pewną charakterysykę polskiej edukacji i wybranych działań polskich pedagogów społecznych.

Key wordsSocial pedagogy, education, comparative research, cooperation, teachers, parents, social pedagogues

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Julian Potrzebny, University of Lodz, Poland

1.IntroductionSudden access to international ideas and concepts of education has brought many sugesstions for Polish education based on western traditions. It is very valuable to know them, and then to compare them with our own perspectives using a multidisciplinary approach.

2.Education researches“The fi eld of school, family, and community partnership is growing wider and deeper. It is growing wider because researches from many nations are studying whether and how educators, parents, and community partners can work together effi ciently to help students succeed. It is growing deeper because researches from many nations are asking increasingly diffi cult questions about how to measure and monitor the quality and eff ects of school, family, and community partnerships.”(Epstein,2002)

One of Polish researchers successfully looking for answers of such questions is Prof. Maria Mendel from University of Gdansk. In 1999 she conducted a very interesting international research on the issue of cooperation and partnership in education.

2.1. Theoretical foundation and the structure of researches by Maria Mendel

The background of Prof. Maria Mendel researches is the theory of overlapping spheres of infl uence by J.L. Epstein. This theory identifi es how home, school, and community intersect to infl uence students’ learning and development. In this view parents, teachers and others in the community (relatives, peers, families, business partners, organizations, etc.) share responsibility for students’ success. J.L. Epstein created a model for her theory based on the mathematical diagram of Venne.


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Figure 1. A model of the theory of overlapping spheres of infl uence by J.L. Epstein

The theory of overlapping spheres of infl uence in its full extent shows internal and external connections that are created in cooperation of all three subjects. Cooperation is believed to take place when the spheres overlap, which is when the subjects communicate witch each other in the course of action. Increasing communication and shared activities means increasing overlap of the spheres.

The author of the research, having deep insight into the nature of social processes in education, set many clearly specifi ed and detailed research questions, which enable her to measure the strength and describe the character of partnership in the course of qualitative studies.The main research problem was if there is partnership between the groups of the research. The answer was searched by surveying and interviewing all three groups, examining adequate documents and then by comparing the outcomes. If the members of the groups gave the same activities with similar description, indicating traits like equal relations and cooperation, it was considered if there is partnership between those groups. It was done by analysing a wide range of qualitative data collected in the research . The fi nal outcome, and the objective of the research, was not an arbitrary judgement on partnership existence but the description of the relations so that it can be seen if there is a need of any change that would be benefi cial for students’ development.

The research was carried in 1999 and, to gain international comparative perspective, was carried out in Poland (Gdansk, Sierakowice), Sweden (Norrkoping, Kalmarden) and in The United Kingdom (London, Lyton, Manchester, Staff s, Stockport, Wolverhampton).

2.2. The views of parents’ role in education and cooperation The theory of overlapping spheres of infl uence of family, school, and community on children’s development highlights the importance of teachers’ views of the parents’ roles in education. These views are signifi cant as they condition the undertaking of actions that may lead to developing cooperation between parents and teachers. Presented researches show certain tendencies in teachers’ ways of thinking about parents and tendencies of cooperation following them .

The most interesting research outcome in this aspect are the diff erences in the character of the cooperation between Polish teachers and parents, compared to the cooperation in the other countries included in the research. The analysis of the activities and relations, that are perceived both, by parents and teachers, as mutual, show similar tendencies in The United Kingdom and Sweden, in opposition to Polish tendencies.

In The United Kingdom and Sweden parents feel incorporated in their children education, and are perceived as such by teachers and members of local authorities. In these countries, like in Poland, the issues of education and upbringing are divided in common understanding, but in The United Kingdom and Sweden they are both seen as a sphere of parents involvement, while in Poland parents generally are not involved in their children education and are not expected to cooperate with teachers. In British researches all three groups mentioned similar activities showing parents’ involvement in their children education. The activities included assisting teachers during the lessons, developing children literacy skills and others. Moreover, all three groups stated that these activities of teaching support are based on personal involvement of parents, and are performed by the means of local community cooperation and by using its resources. Workshops


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for parents and children, parents’ help in school, problem solving actions were mentioned as examples of such activities. Thanks to congruence of the views in all three groups, the British case can be seen as an example of extensive incorporation of parents, as well as of local community, in children education.

In the United Kingdom formal home-school agreements are becoming more and more popular. They are to regulate the rights and the obligations between parents and the school if nedeed. They clearly show and divide parents and school responsibilities for children education, which facilitates cooperation between them and contribute to complete mutual responsibilities. Home-school agreements are frequently seen and applied as contracts, which is o� en based on A. Macbeth’s The Signed Understanding Mutual Obligations Model. Since September 1999 home-school agreements became obligatory to facilitate home-school collaboration (Heywood-Evere� , 1999; Mendel, 2001). According to the outcomes of the research this idea and law regulations should be considered when thinking about developing Polish education. Swedish researches showed similar levels and means of parents’ involvement in their children education in all three groups. Like in The United Kingdom, practical assistance of parents in everyday school life was seen as a main factor of parents’ involvement. Swedish respondents did not include local community as source of educational support in children education, but all the groups mentioned the same parents’ activities, while one activity was missing in one of the groups of British respondents. However, research showed wide inclusion of parents in their children education in both countries.

In Sweden home-school cooperation seems more a ma� er of tradition than of offi cial education policy. Parents organizations set up for cooperation with schools were established there already in the 19th century and the work is continuing. Nowadays there are about 2000 parents associations in Sweden. They are associated in The Home & School Federation, which was founded in 1945, and represents Sweden in The European Parents Association, as ‘the oldest’ member.

Comparing to British and Swedish examples the Polish situation is very diff erent. While parents in the United Kingdom and Sweden are expected to participate in their children education, parents in Poland are not perceived as a source of educational support. They are viewed as responsible only for upbringing their children and are seen as incapable of giving educational support. The school is seen as entirely responsible of children education. Polish respondents from all groups seen parents’ involvement only in the spheres of supporting upbringing of their children. This support in school was seen in activities such as meetings devoted to discussing the issues of children behaviour or management of their free time, while the teaching process is regardes as the exclusive teachers’ competence. Polish teachers mentioned several activities of cooperation with parents and local community but none of them were mentioned by parents or members of local authorities. Research proved that parents in Poland are seen mainly as observers of their children education by all: local authorities, teachers and fi nally by parents themselves.

Maria Mandel, among other Polish researchers, indicates the background of the passive role of parents in their children education. It is based on strong institutionalization of the education, inherited by the Polish education system a� er its totalitarian past, which is still existing in the structure of Polish education and people’s a� itudes. In the past school was seen as entirely responsible for the education of children and, as researches show, it is still seen as such to a great extent. Parents are seen as incapable of taking care of educational development of their children, and therefore, are not seen as a source of educational support, and are expected not to get even close to teachers competence. Hence, Polish school is seen as an institution taking parents responsibilities for their children education, not as an institution giving parents support in their children education.

The latest reforms in Polish education systems are seen by many educators as incapable of inclusion of parents in their children education, though they were meant to do so. Unsuccessful reforms in this fi eld lead to confusion among teachers as to the role of parents in education. On one hand the parents are to cooperate with schools, but on the other, they have no possibilities of infl uence on the quality of their children education. This leads to many diff erent ways of


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addressing the problem but in general cooperation between parents and teachers stays on wish-to-do lists (Mendel,2002). 2.3. The role of local authoritiesThe most signifi cant outcome of the analysis of collaborative activities by families, school and local community is that the local authorities play the i mportantrole in the stimulation of cooperation between all of them.

British and Polish rural research showed a great congruence between the actions declared by the local authorities and by other groups of the research. The analysis of the outcomes showed that collaboration brought by involvement of the local educational authorities engage school and parents in educational incentives for the children’s benefi t. Moreover, this was performed by collaboration in partnership relations.

In the United Kingdom in 1989 local authorities became responsible for introducing and coordinating cooperation between the three environments of children’s development: family, school and local community, and since then many programmes were developed. British surveys show that the respondents have deep understanding and reliable knowledge of mutual responsibilities, imperatives of cooperation and partnership relations between family, school and local authorities. Hence, the collaboration for the benefi t of children’s education is facilitated. The observation of British educational institutions, suggest that those issues are well-known, and that there are high standards of parenting, parental involvement, and real performance of open door and partnership policies (Mendel,2002).

Polish researches in urban areas showed a minor role of local authorities in building educational partnership. They showed that there were no actions of local authorities that could have been signifi cant for building up partnership and cooperation with schools, parents and local communities. There are two main reasons of this situation that need to be mentioned. The fi rst one is the lack of experience in inspiring and coordinating educational cooperation. Only in 1996 education was made one of responsibilities of local authorities and still the ways of cooperation with those environments are not

specifi ed. The second reason is that local educational authorities are still focused on administration and supervision not on coordination.

Research showed that the situation is be� er in rural environments in terms of cooperation between school and local authorities. The collaboration is facilitated be� er by li� le communities, with be� er social network, where people tend to have more than one role, for example the role of a mother and an offi cial of local authorities. However, qualitative analyses of congruent activities by respondents showed that not all of them are performed through partnership relations, and parents tend to play minor roles of helpers for practical ma� ers.

In British researches the representatives of the schools and local authorities emphasized the importance of representing the local community in the national government structures. They expressed the view that many local concerns, like some issues of home-school collaboration, have to be resolved not only by local authorities, but also by higher institutions, at a national level. In the United Kingdom, Sweden, and many other European countries, USA and Canada, there are Parents-Teachers Associations (PTA, Hem&Skola et.) that are working on education issues on each level; from school level, through local and regional, to national level. Parents-Teachers Associations choose their representatives so they can infl uence education policies on each level.

Unfortunately, the Polish reality is much diff erent than this. In Poland there are no appropriate law regulations so parents associations, if they exist, have no possibilities on infl uences on such a high level. They play some minor roles but mainly at school level. Many alternations were made in Polish National Educational Act since it was established in 1991, but there was no amendment on the regulations regarding social bodies of education management. Luckily, the parents unions demand appropriate law regulations so the situation is hoped to change soon. In Polish researches all three groups expressed their dissatisfaction about the strength and the character of collaboration between them. The lack of parents’ interest and involvement (expressed by all groups) and low activity


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of local authorities were seen as the most important diffi culties in cooperation.

It was characteristic that only in British research tasks and challenges proposed by the respondents were put into responsibilities of the local authorities. The targets mentioned by British respondents had clearly specifi ed recipients (Home-School Community Workers, Home-School Liasors etc.), who suggest that cooperation between research groups is well managed and the roles are precisely described. Suggestions made by Polish respondents were very general, directed to all the groups but particular recipients were not indicated; suggestions had general forms like: must, should be done, is needed etc. This shows that Polish parents, teachers and representatives of local authorities have no specifi ed idea of collaboration between themselves. 2.4. Conclusions of researchesThe most signifi cant outcomes of the research are the conclusions which are seen as challenges for Polish education in the sphere of partnership between educational environments of a child. Maria Mendel summarises them in six diff erent points outlining objectives for Polish education in this fi eld.

The fi rst one is developing a cooperation between family, school and local authorities that would be congruent. The second is developing various forms of the research-based framework of six types of involvement; Parenting, Communicating, Volunteering, Learning at home, Decision Making, Collaborating with Community. The third one is stimulating local authorities actions for cooperation with schools. The fourth is developing the sense of being part of a local community for teachers. The fi � h is developing openness for new roles of parents, local communities and authorities for teachers. And the last, but not least, is bringing appropriate law regulations to enable parents associations to infl uence education on higher school levels (Mendel,2001).

Comparative researches by Maria Mendel show that there is a long way to partnership between families, schools and local authorities. Still, J.L. Epstein expressed the view that “There is growing

understanding that all aspects of school improvement – challenging curricula, instruction for active learning, rigorous assessments, school and classroom management – are more likely to succeed if families and communities are involved in ways that help more students focus on schoolwork and on learning. This understanding may contribute to changes in Poland. Education is changing from emphasizing the separate responsibilities of families and schools, to recognizing the shared interests of parents and educators in successful schools and successful students.”(Mendel,2001) Furthermore, it is emphasized that particularly in a situation like in Poland “it is important to note that studies conducted in many countries show that when partnership programmes are implemented, all parents can become involved in their children’s education, not just those with more formal education and familiarity with schools”(Davies & Johnson, 1996; Sanders & Epstein, 1998; Mendel 2001). This all should encourage not only parents, school and local authorities to implement partnership programmes but also national authorities to implement suggestions like these made by Maria Mendel into law regulations and education polices. Finally, it seems worthwhile that all presented needs and suggestions should be considered together because only congruent actions and state polices can bring signifi cant changes, especially if it is about the change that cannot be simply implemented by institutional solutions, but have to come from individuals’ a� itudes.

3. Education and social pedagogyThe research of Maria Mendel was presented to show the pa� erns of collaboration between educators, parents, and community partners, to show how they can be examined and what they look like in Poland. It all shows how civic society is being developed through education in Poland.

The goal of presented researches was to examine and show how educators, parents, and community partners can work together effi ciently to help students succeed . When thinking about this issue in the contex of educational policies and comparative pedagogy it seems wortwhile to ask if social pedagogy can be used as a background.


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3.1.Theoretical foundation of social pedagogy To examine the relevance of social pedagogy related to education it is necessary to refer to the work of Helena Radlińska who, with Aleksander Kamiński, founded social pedagogy in Poland. “In developing the foundation of Polish social pedagogy on the Concepts of Natorp, where social pedagogy is placed within the context of the community and processes of social change, Radlińska concentrated on analyzing an individual’s conditions of life with the goal of strengthening his or her opportunites for full development. She examined these issues within the broarder social context. The goal is to analyze the condition of life to emancipate and elicit the creative potential of individuals, and not only solely to adapt them to society. Social pedagogy understood in this way describes the major issues facing the individual in relationship to the environment, and at the same time assumes a critical assessment of reality”(Lepalczyk, Marynowicz-Hetka, 2001).

‘The condition of life’ is one of the critical categories in Social pedagogy, which sees an individual as a bio-socio-cultural being. Those conditions are very complex and complete. An individual , a pupil or a student, is seen by a social pedagogue as dependent on those conditions but capable of self-development and capable of changing the environment as well. The idea of the development of the concept of social pedagogy is to discover the strenghts of an individual or community and use them. Community or individual strenghts are another critical category of social pedagogy. They can be found and used by the community/individual and for the community/individual. According to such a view these groups which were examined in the presented researches are seen as signifi cant factors infl uencing social and persoal potentials of an individual and possibilities of development.

3.2. RelationsThere are two most important things about researches of Maria Mendel in the context of this paper. Firstly, they show the interest and the strive of Polish educators for modernizing education so it would meet its challenges. Secondly, they show rather insignifi cant the level of educational cooperation between people and institutions. Of course, teachers are among the most important animators of such

actions. The presented research showed that they do not quite stand up for this role. It should be asked why this is so, but, maybe more importantly, it should be asked what can be done to help teachers to cooperate, and thus, to get some help from others in their strive for students’ success.

Personally I’m not really in favour of referring to big traditions and referring them to their wide contexts but it seems worth doing so this time. Especially in the light of Maria Mendel’s researches, it really seems that Polish education and the Polish teacher education is lacking traditions of social pedagogy. And it’s beyond doubt that the concepts and methods of social pedagogy can improve socio-pedagogical competences of teachers. Having thought this as a thesis, it seems interesting to think about researches by Maria Mendel from a social pedagogue’s perspective. This may be a good opportunity to sketch ideas of a social pedagogy that are important in the sphere of education and education policies. This is just to show how application of social pedagogy may contribute to bring into life some of the six conclusions made by the author of the presented researches.

The most important question behind Maria Mendel researches is how educators, parents, and community partners can work together effi ciently to help students succeed.So all those subjects, that directly or not directly infl uence children’s education, were seen as capable of giving educational support. Without going deeply into the theory of social pedagogy we can say that, in its view all these people, o� en representing social institutions, were seen as specifi c social forces infl uencing children’s education. But Polish researches showed that parents, as well as local authorities, are generally not involved in children’s education and are not expected to cooperate with teachers, and that it is based on both, parents and teachers negative a� itudes towards cooperation. It’s hard to change parent’s a� itudes but it can be done gradually by starting with changing the a� itudes of teachers, which seems really necessary. Application of social pedagogy ideas may help teachers to cooperate with parents. But it has to start with the knowledge of theory and perspectives of its application. Very precious knowledge of such applications, though not introduced as social pedagogy ideas, are actions presented in international researches by Maria Mendel. These


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actions are seen in activities in six types of involvement: Parenting, Communicating, Volunteering, Learning at home, Decision Making, Collaborating with Community. One could now ask: why should we even think about facilitating educational cooperation by developing teachers’ competences through social pedagogy if it does not play any role in some countries with good educational cooperation? Well, it is true it does not, and maybe it is not needed, but it is because these countries have been developing traditions of cooperation for many years, while in Poland such traditions, that once had existed, were destroyed by the communist period, which is being emphasized in many Polish researches, including the one by Maria Mendel. That is why it seems worthwhile to ask if social pedagogy can help rebuilding those traditions in Poland and contribute to promoting cooperation in education. A� er questioning if social pedagogy can play a role in teacher education, it seems interesting to roughly compare social pedagogy ideas and concepts behind cooperation in education and its researches.

Prof Maria Mendel referred her researches to the theory of overlapping spheres of infl uence by J.L. Epstein, which identifi es how home, school and community intersect to infl uence students’ learning and development. This theory reminds of the concept of the environment in social pedagogy. But in these two ideas mutual infl uences of above factors are seen diff erently. In social pedagogy the focus is not on the intersection (overlap) of the elements of the environment, (which has an institutional character), but on the individual. And the individual is infl uenced by the whole environment and conditions of life, whether they ‘overlap’ or not. According to social pedagogy, an individual can be infl uenced not only by complex actions but also by smaller events, which may also be a source of social infl uences and forces. So when the theory of overlapping infl uences gives a clear idea of the educational spheres of a student, the theory of social pedagogy sees them from the perspective of infl uences on the individual from the individual’s perspective. Furthermore, it focuses on enabling people to fulfi l their potential by using the forces of the environments, which are also seen in educational spheres of a student as it is very broadly understood by social pedagogues.

The very simplifi ed overview given above is an example how social pedagogy perspectives can be used in thinking about education. And they are used in practice as education is a very important sphere of social pedagogue’s actions. An interesting example of that is an international Programme Grundtvig2, which is being realized by the team of the Social Pedagogy Department of Lodz University.

3.3. Grundtvig 2 The programme Grundtvig 2 deals with the issue of social inclusion of young people in diffi cult life situations. It is designed to research the needs in this sphere and to research the possibilities of social inclusion of people in diffi cult life situation by supporting them through education and employment. The researches of the programme are to build comparative analysis of possibilities for socio-vocational inclusion through training in the fi elds of education, public health and social work. The outcome is not only theoretical recognition of the issue and methodological description of the practice, but also an indication of possible ways of addressing the problems and a design of best practice guidelines for action in those fi elds. The idea behind the programme is to back up the Grundtvig 1 programme, in which educational and vocational conditions for inclusion of young people in diffi culties would be created if needed.

Thanks to international cooperation the programme is gaining an international comparative perspective. The partners participating in the project are: (coordinator)Association Internationale de Formation et de Recherche en Instruction Specialise, Sante et Social (AIFRISS) (France); HOGESCHOOL van AMSTERDAM, Department of Social and Community Work (Netherlands); Universidad del Pais Vasco, Facultad de Cinecias de la Educacion, Donastia (Spain); Stockholm University, Department of Social Work (Sweden), University of Lodz, Faculty of Education (Poland). International comparative perspective is very valuable especially in looking for possibilities of actions as socio-vocational inclusion of people in diffi culties. This perspective is needed to compare the characteristics of ways of inclusion and then to think about the solutions in this sphere.

Grundtvig2 is not only multi-dimensional but also a transversal project. It is being realized thanks to combining two social spheres


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and two kinds of experiences and knowledge in social spheres. Firstly, it links professionals who work in education and social work areas. This project shows how educators, social pedagogues or social workers can work together, and thus, underlines the importance of the knowledge of both fi elds by them all. Then, it combines the experiences and knowledge of professionals focused on scientifi c and practical work in those fi elds; in this project university and social institution staff work together.

Actions of Grundtvig 2 may be seen as examples of social pedagogue activities. The project has a strong socio-pedagogical dimension as the general idea behind it is “to analyze the condition of life to emancipate and elicit the creative potential of individuals”. In this project strengthening individuals’ opportunites for full development, which is a goal for social pedagogy, is seen through education or training, which are seen as steps leading through social inclusion to social integration. This project is an examplatory case for combining social work and education, for the benefi t of the development of the individual.

4. SummaryThe researches by Maria Mendel present diff erent tendencies in cooperation between school, family, and local community and show Polish diffi culties in that sphere. The introduction of a social pedagogy perspective was to encourage using diff erent perspectives related to education and teacher training. Such a contentious suggestion to address the problem creates space for thinking and refl ection.

ReferencesLepalczyk I., Marynowicz-Hetka E. (2001). Historical portraits of important European leaders in social work, Helena Radlińska (1879-1954) – Poland. A Portrait of the Person ,Researcher, Teacher and Social Activist, European Journal of Social Work, The International Forum for the Social professions, Volume 4 Issue 2 , July 2001 Mendel M. (2001), Edukacja społeczna, Wydawnictwo Adam MarszałekMendel M. (2002), Partnerstwo rodziny, szkoły i gminy, Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek,

Notes on authorJulian Potrzebny is an undergraduate student at the Social Pedagogy Department of Lodz University in Poland. His main research interest is social work and community development. He is a member of the team working on the Grundtvig 2 programme at the Social Pedagogy Department.

CorrespondenceJulian PotrzebnyPodwale 598-200 SieradzPolande-mail:[email protected]