Biotechnology

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Comparative genomics also has been used to identify recently mobilized transposons in genetically diverse humans. For example, over 600 recent transposon insertions were identified by examining DNA resequencing traces from 36 genetically diverse humans.

Tbl 1 Which transposable elements are active in the human genome? (2007) Ryan E. Mills et al. Trends in Genetics 23: 183-191

DNA fingerprinting using RFLPs

Visualizing differences in DNA sequence by using restriction enzymes

Sequence 1

Sequence 2

Restriction Enzymes cut DNA at specific sequences

EnzymeRecognitionSequence Cut

EcoRI 5'GAATTC3'CTTAAG

5'---G AATT C---3'3'---CTTAA G--- 5'

BamHI 5'GGATCC3'CCTAGG

5'---G GATCC---3'3'---CCTAG G---5'

HindIII 5'AAGCTT3'TTCGAA

5'---A AGCTT---3'3'---TTCGA A---5'

TaqI 5'TCGA3'AGCT

5'---T CGA---3'3'---AGC T---5'

AluI 5'AGCT3'TCGA

5'---AG CT---3'3'---TC GA---5'

Examples of some restriction enzymes…

Visualizing differences in DNA sequence by using restriction enzymes

Sequence 1

Sequence 2

Separating DNA on a gel by size

• Gel electrophoresis

Fig 20.11

Visualizing differences in DNA sequence by RFLPs

DNA fingerprinting

DNA fingerprinting

DNA fingerprinting

Can DNA be obtained from hair?

How can DNA be obtained from such a small sample?

The inventor of PCR

Polymerase Chain Reaction:amplifying DNA

Fig 20.14

Polymerase Chain Reaction

Polymerase Chain Reaction:Primers allow specific regions to be amplified.

The inventor of PCR

PCR animation http://www.dnalc.org/ddnalc/resources/pcr.html

Areas of DNA from very small samples can be amplified by PCR, and then cut with

restriction enzymes for RFLP analysis.

What is the largest scale experiment that is being currently performed?

Genetically Modified Organisms

Human resource production and use

from Teosinte MaizeBy artificial selection that began ~10,000 years ago.

Figure 20-19

Fig 20.19

Wild Brassica oleracea: small side buds

Brussels sprouts: extremely large side buds

Artificial selection

Nu

mb

er o

f In

div

idu

als

Size of buds (cm)

0 1 2 3

1. Select individuals that have the largestside buds and breed them.

2. Of the offspring, select individuals that have the largest sidebuds and breed them.

3. Of the offspring,select individuals that have the largest sidebuds and breed them.

4. After severalgenerations, bud sizeincreases dramatically.

Different foodsfrom one species of plant. Created byartificial selection.

Hunter-Gatherer

Agricultural

Industrial

Genetic Engineering: Direct manipulation of DNA

Mil

lion

s of

Acr

essize of Texas, 172

Global Area planted with GM Crops

Why Change a Plant’s DNA?

• Can change plant so that it has new or different characteristics– Produce needed protein

– Insect resistance (Bt toxin)

– Herbicide resistance (Round-up)

– Drought or other stress resistance

– Chemical remediation

% o

f T

otal

US

Acr

esCommon Genetically Modified Crops

Herbicide Tolerance; Insect Resistance; Viral Resistance

Types of Genetically Modified Crops

Mil

lion

s of

Acr

essize of Texas, 172Is Genetically Modifying Plants a

Good Idea?

Is Changing an Organism’s DNA a Good or Bad Idea?

• Genes flow within species and between species.

• Are GM foods safe for the environment?

• Are GM foods profitable for:– Consumers, Farmers, and Companies?

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AAL 25.17

Pollution in Gulf of Mexico from run-off in the Mississippi river

Pollen is easily transferred from plant to plant, and to related species.

GM crops illegal

GM crops found in Oaxaca and other MX states

Genetic information moves.

GM crops illegal

GM crops found in Oaxaca and other MX states

Genetic information moves, and is self-replicating.

Many Questions, but Few Answers?

• Are herbicide or insect resistant plants safe to eat?

• Are GM foods safe for the environment?

• Are GM foods profitable for:– Consumers, Farmers, and Companies?

Herbicide Tolerance; Insect Resistance; Viral Resistance

Types of Genetically Modified Crops

Patents give 17 year monopoly for inventor

Examples of current patents:

•Atryn- antithrombin produced in transgenic goats (in milk) has anti-clotting properties

Examples of current patents:

•Atryn- antithrombin produced in transgenic goats (in milk) has anti-clotting properties

•Evolutec has patents on proteins in tick saliva for use as anti-inflammatory

Examples of current patents:

•Atryn- antithrombin produced in transgenic goats (in milk) has anti-clotting properties

•Evolutec has patents on proteins in tick saliva for use as anti-inflammator

•GTG in Australia has patents on non-coding human DNA for detecting risk of various diseases

Examples of current patents:

•Atryn- antithrombin produced in transgenic goats (in milk) has anti-clotting properties

•Evolutec has patents on proteins in tick saliva for use as anti-inflammatory

•GTG in Australia has patents on non-coding human DNA for detecting risk af various diseases

•Harvard patented cancer susceptible mouse

Examples of current patents:

•Harvard patented cancer susceptible mouse

•Rejected by Canadian Supreme court in 2002

The Canadian Patent Act defines "invention" as "any new and useful art, process, machine, manufacture or composition of matter, or any new and useful improvement in any art, process, machine, manufacture or composition of matter".

The Canadian Patent Act defines "invention" as "any new and useful art, process, machine, manufacture or composition of matter, or any new and useful improvement in any art, process, machine, manufacture or composition of matter".

Canadian court ruled that microorganisms, GM plants, modified DNA and cells could be patented, but not whole animal.

Examples of current patents:

•Atryn- antithrombin produced in transgenic goats (in milk) has anti-clotting properties

•Evolutec has patents on proteins in tick saliva for use as anti-inflammatory

•GTG in Australia has patents on non-coding human DNA for detecting risk af various diseases

•Harvard patented cancer susceptible mouse

•Over 70 U.S. patents for use of Indian neem tree

Neem, say the women, helps babies sleep, keeps flies away, is a cosmetic, a disinfectant and a pesticide. Its leaves make good cattle fodder, its twigs are good for teeth and gums. It is used, they say, for snake bites, malaria, hysteria, high blood pressure, pain relief, skin diseases and a host of other ailments.

Over 70 U.S. patents for use of Indian neem tree

Neem, say the women, helps babies sleep, keeps flies away, is a cosmetic, a disinfectant and a pesticide. Its leaves make good cattle fodder, its twigs are good for teeth and gums. It is used, they say, for snake bites, malaria, hysteria, high blood pressure, pain relief, skin diseases and a host of other ailments.

Over 70 U.S. patents for use of Indian neem tree

One was rejected due to previous use in indigenous Indian culture

Concerns of developing nations vs. industrialized countries

Bioprospecting