Biology EOC Review

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Living and nonliving

Characteristics of LifeTo be alive you must…..

•Made of cells *unicellular – one celled

or * multicellular – many celled with levels of organization (cellstissuesorgans systems organism)•Reproduce *asexual – offspring are genetic clones of parent *sexual – offspring have genetic variation from parents- MEIOSIS•Use and obtain materials for energy(metabolism) * energy is required for life processes * autotrophs make their own food (photosynthesis/chemosynthesis) * heterotrophs eat other organisms for food•Maintain Homeostasis * maintenance or regulation of body conditions such as body temperature, blood sugar level, water balance (cell membrane), pH•Genetic/Hereditary Material * DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid – is the genetic material that codes for proteins of all organisms. The genetic code is “universal” A-T C-G /A-U C-G•Respond to stimuli * responding to the biotic and abiotic factors in the environment are key to survival-hot, cold, hungry….etc. •Grow and Development * growth – by cell division or cell enlargement- MITOSIS * development – any change from conception to death - embryonic, puberty, aging•Evolutionary Adaptation- (genetic change over time) * adaptations – structures, behaviors, or processes that aid in an organisms survival are passed on from parent to offspring.

EcologyOrganelle cells tissue organs organ system Organisms Populations

Community Ecosystem Biomes Biosphere • Populations – are members of the same species living in the same area• Ecosystem- all the living and non-living factors in a certain areaPopulation growth – *affected by natural disaster, disease, food, water, and shelter * Carrying capacity– the maximum number the environment can support due to

food, water, and shelterCommunity Interactions * Competition – food, water, shelter * Predation- hunt, kill, eat * Symbiosis – parasitism +-, commensalism +0, and mutualism ++Food Chains and Food webs 10% energy transferred

to the next level.The rest lost as heat.

27000kcal

2700kcal

270kcal

27kcal

Ecological succession

Climax community

Pioneerspeices

Biochemistry• Organic – contains Carbon• Macromolecules are often built by dehydration synthesis and digested by

hydrolysis Poly=many Mono= one • Four main types1) Carbohydrates –glucose/starch, quick ENERGY, in cell membrane ose=sugar1) 2) Lipids – fatty acid/glycerol, stored energy/insulation, waxy coating,

hydrophobic- no mix with H2O), in cell membrane3) Proteins –amino acids – ENZYMES, Polypeptide, cell transport, in cell

membrane ase= enzyme

4) Nucleic Acids –nucleotides , genetic/hereditary info DNA or RNA, in nucleus

• Enzymes are proteins that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy. They have a specific shape and interact with a specific substrate which binds at the active site. Lock and Key. Never changes

• Enzymes help break or build macromolecules

• Enzymes are reusable and are not changed during a chemical reaction. They can be damaged at temperature and pH extremes.• Cold- enzymes work slowly• Warm- work faster• Too Hot- denature/destroyed

Cells• Cell theory - 3 parts

1) cells are basic unit of life 2) cells come from existing cells (cell division)3) all organisms are composed of cells

• Prokaryotic versus Eukaryotic A) simple A) complexB) no nucleus B)nucleusC) no MB organelles C) has MB organellesD) only ribosomes D) protists, fungiD) bacteria plants, and animals

• Organelles – little cellular organs that carrying out specific jobs / chemical reactions1) chloroplast – photosynthesis creates glucose2) mitochondria – cellular respiration

creates ATP(energy)

3) ribosomes – protein synthesis4) vacuoles – storage5) nucleus – contains DNA and

controls cell actions6)lysosome- cellular digestion(enzymes)

7) cell membrane- controls what enters and leaves cellsemi-permeable/Homeostasis

• Plant versus AnimalA) has cell wall A) no cell wallB) has chloroplasts B) has no chloroplasts

C)Photosynthesis C) has small vacuolesD) has large vacuole

eukaryotes, go thru cellular respiration, & have mitochondriamulticellular

ribosomes, metabolism, 4 biomolecules,unicellular

Robert Hooke – 1st to look at and name cell

Cellular Transport • Plasma/Cell membrane controls homeostasis (balance), phospholipid by

layer with proteins• Semi-permeable; selective on what enters and leaves cell

Types of Passive Transport – NO ENERGY required1) Diffusion – moves substances from high to low concentrations (O2, CO2,

perfume, dye in water) (equilibrium when particles are distributed equally)

2) Osmosis – the diffusion of WATER from high to lower water concentrations; water moves towards the most solute. (hypertonic-water out/cell shrinks; hypotonic-water in/cell swells; isotonic-water in/out/cell stays same)Ex) cell in salt water – shrivels Ex) cell in fresh water swells

***SOLUTE SUCKS!!!Look at outside to inside Hyper, Hypo, Isotonic

Active Transport – REQUIRES ENERGY– moves substances against the concentration gradient from low to high concentrations-

Endocytosis - in cell Phago-solid and Peno-drink

20%20% 20% 80% 80% 20%

iso hypo hyper

Out of cell

Photosynthesis= makes glucose and O2

• Producers/Autotrophs convert sunlight to chemical energy in glucose• EQUATION: 6CO2 + 6H2O + E C6H12O6 + 6O2 • Carbon dioxide + water + energy glucose + oxygen

• Takes place in LEAVES• Autotrophs use carbon dioxide and water and produce oxygen and glucose• Guard cells/Stomata control gas exchange & Water loss ( transpiration)

• CHLOROPLASTS -site of photosynthesis. • Produces glucose and oxygen for consumers• Pigments-Chlorophyll / carotene

ThylakoidThylakoid: sac like membranes/LDR

StromaStroma space between thylakoids

GranaGrana: stack of thylakiods

stomataStomata

productsreactants

CO2O2 & H2O

Photosynthesis in pictures Photosynthesis in words Photosynthesis in symbols

Carbon dioxide and water combine with light to create oxygen and glucose.

light

CO + H2O → C6H12O6 + O2

Cellular Respiration=makes Energy

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36 ATP• Cellular respiration is the process by which organisms break down

food to release its energy. This energy is then stored in ATP (Adenosine triphosphate)

• Three parts to ATP1) adenine2) ribose3) 3 phosphates (high energy)

• ATP/ADP cycle – It fuels most cellular• process. ATP loses a phosphate to become ADP• ATP Uses-movement, • active transport (peno, phagocytocysis), • building and breaking large molecules (carbs, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids)

Aerobic AnaerobicO2 REQUIRED NO O2 REQUIREDmost organisms- plants animals (yeast/bacteria)2 ATP 2ATP 32 ATP =36ATP 2 ATP

Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, ETC Alcoholic & Lactic Acid Fermentation- soreness

***Steps of CR1. Glycolysis –breaks glucose into pyruvate in cytoplasm, makes 2 ATP2. Krebs- Pyruvate broken down in mitochondria, makes 2 ATP3. ETC- oxygen boost used to make 32 ATPTOTAL= 36ATP

AdenineRibose

3 Phosphates

Adenosine

ATP

Energy from food

Energy for cellular processes

Cell Division• Haploid –set of chromosomes (n) – gametes – sperm/egg (23)• Diploid two sets of chromosomes (2n) – body cells/somatic – one set (46) is

maternal and one is paternal• The cell cycle – Interphase – growth

- Mitosis – division • Mitosis creates identical daughter cells• tissue repair and growth and reproduction

in animals (somatic cells, body cells, eye, liver…)• Stages of the cell cycle –

– Interphase-growth preparations , S phase- DNA rep– Prophase- chromosomes condense/visible– Metaphase- chromosomes in middle– Anaphase- chromosomes separate– Telophase- cell pinches in, – Cytokinesis- cell divides and have 2 identical daughter cells. Same kind & # of chromosomes

***Mitosis in Plants- CELL PLATE produced in Telophase. No pinching in

• Meiosis – cell division that creates 4genetically different cells called gametes

(sex cells/egg or sperm)Meiosis involves 2 divisions – Meiosis I

and Meiosis II • Meiosis I-Prophase I crossing over occurs. This

recombination increases genetic variation for the species ***Homologous chromosomes separate

• Meiosis II- Sister chromatids separate

DNA, RNA, and Protein Synthesis

DNA and RNA are composed of nucleotidesDNA RNADeoxyribose Ribose A-T C-G A-U C-GThymine (T) Uracil (U)Double helix Single helixCodes for Copy of DNA info proteins/RNA

• Replication –copies DNA – enzyme unzips DNA and each side of the ladder acts as a template for the building of the new half. Use the N-base paring rules : A-T ; C-G

EX) TACGGAC (old strand)ATGCCTG (new strand

***Transcription – the process of making RNA from DNA in nucleusEX) TACGGAC (template DNA strand)

AUGCCUG (RNA built) (A-U C-G) 1) mRNA – messenger from DNA to ribosome to make a specific protein2) tRNA – transfer - carries amino

acids to ribosome- truck3) rRNA – ribosomal – makes up

a ribosome***Translation – tRNA carries amino acids to the ribosome to assemble a Protein/polypeptide

TRANSCRIPTION

TRANSLATIONDNA mRNA Protein

nucleus

transcription translation

ribosome

Watson and Crick – DNA is Double Helix

Mutations• ANY CHANGE IN DNA SEQUENCE THAT CAN LEAD TO A CHANGE IN AMINO

ACID SEQUENCE• Some good- better immune system, be antibiotic resistant, camouflage• Some Bad- cancer- leukemia• Some neutral- eye color

TYPES OF MUTATIONS

ONLY MUTATIONS/CHANGESTO PARENTAL GAMETE DNA CAN BE TRANSFERRED TO OFFSPRING

• Nondisjunction – having abnormal • chromosome number s• abnormal separation of chromosomes

Ex) Down’s Syndrome aka Trisomy 21

XX/xx- female- sex chromosomes are the same size Xx- male- sex chromosomes are different sizes

substitution

Sex chromosomes

Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes-1st 22 are homologous or autosomes-23 pair are sex chromosomes

Reproduction• Reproduction is a characteristic of life• Continues a species- allows genetic diversity,, meiosis, crossing over• 2 forms: asexual and sexualAsexual Sexual____________-1 parent -2 parents (usually)-No gametes -genetic variation, crossing over-Offspring are genetically identical -Offspring genetically unique

to the parent (clones)-Fast, efficient, less energy -Slower, less efficient, more

energy-No variation -Huge amounts of variation-Stable Environment -Changing Environment

• Asexual Strategies Sexual strategies1) binary fission-bacteria 1) Internal fertilization

sperm meets egg in female 2) External fertilization released into the

environment usually aquatic

2) budding

Simple Genetics• Gregor Mendel – Father of Genetics worked with pea

plants to learn inheritance of traits• Phenotype – physical - tall, green eyes, no horns• Genotype – the gene combination – either Homozygous (TT or tt)

or Heterozygous (Tt)Monohybrid Cross – follows 1 trait through several generationsP(parental) TT x tt **one dominant over the other; same letter (T & t) T T T t t geno- all Tt T geno – ¼ TT, ½ Tt, ¼ tt t pheno – all tall t pheno – ¾ Tall; ¼ short

(3:1 ratio)Other important monohybrid crosses T t T t T geno- ½ TT; ½ Tt t geno – ½ Tt; ½ tt T pheno – all Tall t pheno– Tall; ½ short

• Dihybrid cross – follows two traits RRYy X Rryy= all offfspring will have round seeds

Tt Tt

Tt Tt

TT Tt

Tt tt

TT Tt

TT Tt

Tt

tt

Tt tt

Note 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio

Complex Genetics• Incomplete Dominance – blended phenotype

Ex) snap dragons Red (RR) X White (WW’) all Pink (RW) R R R W

W geno- all RW R geno- ¼ RR; ½ RW; ¼ WW

W pheno-all pink W pheno- ¼red; ½ pink; ¼ white

• Codominance – both parental phenotypes show up in offspring Ex) Chickens Black x White Black and White feathers

W B W W

• Multiple Alleles– trait with 3+ alleles ex) A, B, O blood types

• Sex Linked– genes carried on sex chromosomes Ex) hemophilia, color blindness Cross shows a

carrier female and a normal male. For a female to inherit the trait the father must have it and the mother must at least be a carrier

RW RW

RW RW

RR RW

RW WW

BW BW

BW BW

B B

BB BW

BW WW

B Wgeno- all BWPheno- all bl & wht

geno- ¼ BB; ½ BW; ¼ WWPheno- ¼ black; ½ bl&wht; ¼ wht

Evolution- genetic change over time within a population

• Charles Darwin – FATHER OF EVOLUTION, proposed that organisms (species or populations) change over time after studying finches in the Galapagos Islands

• Natural Selection – “survival of the fittest”- can survive and reproduce in the environment they live in

• Evidence of Evolution

1) Fossils (geologic time)

2) Homologous Structures –same basic structure formed fromsame embryonic tissue- **shows common ancestry

3) Vestigial Structures – structuresthat have lost function ex) Appendix Tailbone, femur bone in whale

4) Embryology – embryos of variousspecies appear identical untilDNA becomes more specialized

5) Genetics – DNA and protein amino acid sequence comparisons- ** most accurate in relatedness- DNA or A.A. sequence

6)Adaptive radiation /Descent w/Modifications– an ancestral species radiates or diverges into many species. Ex) Galapagos Finches

Homologous

Vestigial

Classification• Carolus Linnaeus – Father of Taxonomy and Classification

• ***King Philip Came Over For Grape Soda

• Binomial nomenclature – uses Genus and species to name an organism• Dichotomous keys – a series of paired statements that lead to the name of

an organism • Taxonomy- study of classifying an organism

Kingdom Cell type Uni or multi cellular

Autotroph Heterotroph

Cell wall

Archae- bacteria

Prokaryote Uni - Both yes

Eu-bacteria

Prokaryote Uni - Both yes

Protists Eukaryote Uni/multi Both some

Fungi Eukaryote Uni/multi Heterotrophs yes

Plants Eukaryote Multi- Autotrophs yes

Animals Eukaryote Multi- Heterotrophs NO

•Archaebacteria – are extremists that live in hot, acidic, saline, or other harsh environments; extremophiles•Eubacteria are “true” bacteria – strept, E. coli…..etc

broadest

Most specific

Bacteria vs Virus • PROkaryote• NO nucleus/NO nuclear membrane• UNIcellular

• LIVING cell• Autotroph or heterotroph• Cured with antiobiotics• cell wall • Eubacteria- true bacteria- streptococcus, E. coli• Archaebacteria- old Extremophiles, halophiles, thermophiles• DECOMPOSER• Aids in digestion• Breaks down in NITROGEN CYCLE• PREvention- heat, soap, cook food• Refrigerate• Antibiotic resistant- does not respond to antibiotics Pathogen- any disease causing agentImmune response- how body response to diseaseOutbreak- spreading of a disease

Bacteria Virus• NOT living• NOT a cell• Prevented with VACCINES• PROTEIN CAPSID holds DNA or

RNA

• Needs/hijacks HOST to replicate

• Used for research• Stored for possible germ warfare or

natural epidemics• FLU- influenza• HIV- destroys helper T cells• Herpes, Chicken Pox

Viruses < bacteria cells<eukaryote cells

cilia

flagella

Plants• Plant cell structure – cell walls, large vacuole, chloroplasts• Autotrophs(Photosynthesis), eukaryotic, multicellular, cell wall of cellulose1) Nonvascular – no true roots/stems/leaves – ex) mosses (Bryophytes)2) Vascular with seeds in cones – Gymnosperms (pines, fir, spruce) “GYM”3) Vascular with seeds in fruits – Angiosperms – flowering plants “Angie”• Types of Vascular Tissue

A) Xylem – transports water from roots to leavesB) Phloem – transports sugars from leaves to roots

5) Adaptations- Large leafs plants- catch what sunlight they can/very little sun exposure- jungle, tropical rainforest

-Small leaf plants- small surface area to catch sunlight because exposed to sun-Fibrous roots- get water from surface/ top soilTaproot- extends down in ground to absorb deep ground water-Cuticle- waxy covering on plant leaves to prevent water loss or

to soggy – Desert or Tropical rainforest- lipids hydrophobic6)Tropisms – growth responses to stimuli – often controlled by hormones.

Phototropism Gravitropism Thigmotropism

Animals• – no cell wall, small vacuoles, no chloroplast, cellular respiration for Energy• Heterotrophs, Multicellular, no cell wall, mobile, eukaryote

• Classification – 2 main groups Vertebrates Invertebrates Phylum Chordatafish Arthropods – insects (6 legs)Amphibians (exoskeleton) - arachnids (8 legs)Reptiles - crustaceans Aves (birds) Mollusks – have shell created byMammals structure called mantel

Human Anatomy – Look through the chapters in your book regarding anatomy.* Neurons- nerves* circulatory- veins /arteries- transport O2, CO2, glucose, hormones* Endocrine- hormones* Reproductive- ovaries- eggs testes- sperm MEIOSIS genetic variation* Muscular- many mitochondria

Animal Behavior – responses that allow an organism to respond to stimuli1) Innate Behavior – instincts, inherited, inborn behaviors

ex) circadian rhythms – daily patterns of activity – including feeding behaviors - nocturnal

ex) annual rhythms – yearly patterns of activity – including courtship, estivation, hibernation, migration

2) Learned Behavior – based on experienceex) imprinting – recognition of parentsex) Trial and error learningex) Conditioning (Pavlov’s dog) – learning by association

3) Social Behavior – division of labor as in a termite or ant colony

Human Systems

Immune protects body from disease, kills pathogens

White blood cells, lymph nodes

Endocrine controls growth, metabolism and hormones

hormones

Reproductive Creates gametes

(eggs & sperm)

Testes, ovaries

Circulatory transports nutrients/wastes and oxygen/carbon dioxide though body

Heart, blood vessels

Respiratory Provides oxygen, removes CO2

lungs

Integumentary skin, protection & helps regulate body temperature

Skin, hair, and nails

Muscular movement Smooth, cardiac and skeletal muscles

Skeletal support, protects vital organs, movement

Bones

Nervous controls/coordinates body movement

Brain, spinal cord, nerves

Digestive digest and absorb nutrients Mouth, stomach, intestines

Excretory eliminates wastes from body Kidneys, Bladder (urine) lungs (CO2)

System function major structuresSystem function major structures

Homeostasis- Positive & Negative Feedback LoopsHomeostasis depends on the action and interaction of body systems to maintain a balance in the body.

•Body responds to an extreme condition by working towards going back to homeostasis

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK - - -reversing the responsereversing the response

A child goes outside in December without a jacket. Within a few minutes the child begins to shiver uncontrollably.

Five minutes into a run on a warm sunny day, I began to sweat.

After eating a candy bar, blood sugar levels rise triggering insulin to be released to return the blood to normal sugar levels

POSITIVE FEEDBACK- promoting or increasing that responsepromoting or increasing that response ++++

As child labor intensifies (intensity to push), the body releases oxytocin to increase uterine contraction and the urge to push until delivery

A person gets cut and the body responds by releasing blood platelets to stop the cut from bleeding. Blood platelets are continuously released until the bleeding stops completely.

Receptors in the blood monitor pH level. If the blood pH is too acidic or too basic the body will make more buffers to bring the blood pH back to a more neutral pH level.

Sensor - detects the change (body is getting too warm) Control Center - receives signal (usually the brain) from sensor and sends message to effector Effector - reverses the initial change (skin pores begin to perspire and blood vessels dilate)

Biologists• Robert Hooke – discovered and named the cell

with crude microscope

• Anton van Leeuwenhoek - saw “wee little beasties” living cells for the first time

• Gregor Mendel – is the father of genetics – discovered the basic patterns of inheritance in pea plants

• Charles Darwin – is the father of evolution proposed that organisms that are most fit or best adapted to their environment are more likely to survive – called Natural Selection

• James Watson and Francis Crick – discovered the double helix structure of DNA

• Linnaeus- Father of Taxonomy and Classification -----Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family,

genus, species ----King Phillip Came Over For Grape Soda