BIOLOGY INTERNATIONAL · Biology International N" 32 (January 1996) Biodiversity The Implications for Human Health by HRH Princess Chulabhorn Didyasarin Mahidol, Thailand A lecture

BIOLOGY INTERNATIONAL The News Magazine of the International Union of Biological Sciences (IUBS)

FEATURE ARTICLES

Biodiversity: The Implications for Human Health by HRH Princess Chulabhorn Didyasarin Mahidol

The Vegetation Map of Europe: lnternational Cooperation in Geobotanical Mapping by Z.V. Karamysheva, Z. Neuhauslova and T.K. Yurkovskaya 10

lnternational Code of Zoological Nomenclature: A Discussion Draft of the Fourth Edition by O. Krause and W.D.L. Ride

NEWS HIGHLIGHTS

Call for Nominations for New Members of ICZN 23 Towards Stability in Names of Animals 24 Measuring and Monitoring Forest Biological Diversity The International Network of Biodiversity Plots 24 3rd Quadrennial Conference of the lnternational Society of Hymenopterists 26 2nd European Workshop on lnvertebrate Ecophysiology 27 4th lnternational Congress of Comparative Physiology and Biochemistry 27

PUBLICATIONS REVIEW

CALENDAR OF MEETINGS

Biology International N" 32 (January 1996)

Edi torial

An IUBS Review: How to adapt to a changing world

by Talal Younès Executive Director, IUBS

A year ago the IUBS General Assembly established an Ad Hoc Committee of Review to look into its structure and function. This Comrnittee will propose the appropriate measures that can help better meet emerging needs, new demands and challenges to the next Assembly, in 1997.

Basic questions should be considered such as: Does the IUBS status still correspond with its mission ? What are the lessons to be gained from the past ? And how can the Union members (science academies, research institutions and societies) better contribute to fulfil its stated objectives ? And what steps can be taken to do so ?

According to its Statutes, the IUBS is a non-governmental, not-for-profit organisation, whose main objectives are to promote the study of biological sciences through collaborative research programmes, the organisation of international conferences and dissemination of their results through scientific publications.

No matter how unusual it may be to define entities by what they are not, non- governmental, non-profit organizations (NGOs) phenomena have become, at the close of the 20th century, very distinctive features of democratic, liberal and participatory societies. Pioneering the NGO movement, the IUBS, and its parent organisation, the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU), were established in 1919 and their original objectives have remained unchanged since then.

At that time, only a few international scientific congresses were organized, scientific publications were limited, and international collaborative research programmes were non-existent! Now, with easier and less expensive travel, a flourishing publishing industry and the advent of modern communication tools, the world scientific community has become, virtually, an almost permanent conference.

With its traditional tasks becoming a daily routine activity, the IUBS had to adapt and a new order of priorities had to be established. In 1982, an IUBS Review, chaired by Sir Otto Frankel, resulted in more emphasis on the promotion of international collaborative research. Consequently, a large number of scientific initiatives were undertaken, some having been completed as is the case with the IUBS programmes 'the Decade of the Tropics' (1983- 1993), 'Bioindicators' (1982- 199 l ) , and 'Vegetation Map of Europe'Rojectl (see page 10). Others are now entering into their second phase, such as the 'DIVERSITAS', 'Reproductive Biology and Aquaculture', 'Bionomenclature' and 'Biosystematics' programmes. The Union has also been very active in promoting the activities of some of its Scientific Members in the fields of botany, ecology, biological education, marine biology and medicinal and aromatic plants.


In the meantime, however, the world has been undergoing rapid and impressive changes. In 1992, environment and development occupied the centre stage of the frst Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro, where international conventions on biological diversity and climate change were signed by almost al1 the countries of the world. Ecology, biology and biotechnology are no longer a domain reserved for scientists. They are at the heart of political, economic and social issues at both national and international levels. The lecture "Biodiversity, the Implications of Biodiversity for Human Health", by HRH Princess Chulabhorn of Thailand, published in the present issue of Biology International, illustrates well this issue in a national context. Topics that were confined to scientific circles are now being dealt with by a host of govemmental and non-governmental, national and international, and public and private organisations. And in these times of economic crisis, al1 are competing for very lirnited financial resources available.

In this new context, again, what role can the IUBS play, what priorities should be set and can they be attained? This Editor 's Note is not the place to make an inventory of successes, failures, assets, constraints and difficulties encountered by the Union during almost 80 years of its existence. However, a few lessons and basic principles can be highlighted.

In spite of the age of multimedia and information highways and perhaps because of it, the IUBS still represents an ideal forum for al1 biologists to address the major issues related to the environment and sustainable development, to reach a consensus and provide the scientific base responding to societal demands in a coherent and reasoned manner.

Also, in spite of the current trend of world globalization and, again, perhaps because of it, the IUBS should strengthen its national dimension, since biological research is being undertaken within national institutions by national scientists and paid for with national funds.

Because of the multitude of actors and the difficult competition for limited resources, the key word for the future should be partnership- at the international and national levels, with the public and the private sectors as well, and bringing together scientists, policy and economic decision-makers.

These and other related questions will be addressed by the Ad Hoc Committee of Review chaired by Professor Otto Solbrig. It is for the IUBS members, national science academies and research institutions, and international scientific societies and organisations to help answer these questions and to decide the future course of action. Hereby, we invite suggestions, ideas and proposals to be sent directly to Professor Solbrig at the following address:

Prof. Otto T. Solbrig Dept. of Organismic & Evolutionary Biology Harvard University Herbaria 22 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge MA 02138, USA Tel: (617j 495 4302, Fax: (617) 495 9484


Biodiversity The Implications for Human Health

by HRH Princess Chulabhorn Didyasarin Mahidol, Thailand

A lecture given at the International Forum "Biodiversity, Science and Development, Towards a New Partnership, held 5-9 September, 1994, at UNESCO Headquarters, Paris, France.

Introduction

Biodiversity - the diversity of living forms - has lately attracted a great deal of interest and concern since biological resources constitute an asset with a great deal of immediate as well as potential benefit for the quality of life. Ironically, just as we begin to recognize some of the potential benefits that might accrue from Our having a large number of species, we are also coming to a realization that there is a current decline in the number of species and that this may have catastrophic consequences. This decline in biodiversity is largely the result of human activities such as drastic transformation of natural landscapes or deforestation. These phenomena pose a serious threat to sustainable development since species diversity may well be Our planet's most important and irreplaceable resource. Once depleted, species regeneration, if at al1 possible, rnight take 5 to 10 million years. Its loss would thus have profound negative effects on the overall quality of life on our planet and on Our potential development.

It was believed until the early 1980s that there were about 3 million species (approximately 1.5 million knowil species and about the same number of unknown species). In the early 80s however, when the tropical rain forests began to be studied systematically, these estimates were altered immensely. Conservative estimates suggest that there are more than 10 million species, while other less conservative estimates suggest there are between 20 and 80 million species. To illustrate this: of the species of flowering plants, more than half are found in the tropics where tropical rain forests contain the richest concentration of biota. In the tropics, many species may be found in very limited areas. For example, a one hectare plot in Kalimantan, Indonesia, yielded approximately 700 species of plants. In the Amazon region up to 500 different species of trees grow on a single hectare of forest. And a single tree in Peru yields 43 ant species in 26 genera. The enormous consequential losses are obvious when one realizes that approximately 42 million acres of rain forest are permanently lost every year.

Since the turn of the century, more than one-half of the world's tropical forests have been lost. Not surprisingly, most of the disappearing tropical forests belong to the developing world. At the current rate of deforestation, it is predicted that between five and ten percent of plant and animals species will become extinct. It is believed that approximately 27,000 species were lost in tropical rain forests last year alone as a result of deforestation. Edward O. Wilson estimates that deforestation results in the loss of half of one percent of the existing species each year. If this current trend continues, millions of species will vanish without ever even having been discovered by man.


Consequences of Species Loss in Connection with Human Health

The consequences of a reduction in biodiversity through loss of species constitute a serious threat to human survival. In medical science, the loss of species could reduce the opportunity for treatment of diseases through the loss of medical models and new medicines as a result of reduction of the availability of natural products which have potential medicinal properties. In other aspects, the loss of species could reduce the availability of natural products used as raw materials for manufacturing and industry. It could also diminish the future availability of new genetic resources and wild germplasm essential for breeding crop varieties with higher productivity and with greater resistance to insects, diseases, and adverse climatic conditions.

Medical Models

Animals and human beings share certain similarities as well as differences in a number of biochemical processes and mechanisms. It is through the knowledge and research findings obtained from studies in animals that many physiological and biochemical mechanisms are unravelled, particularly those underlying the aetiology of diseases that lead to development of therapeutic methods and discovery of agents currently employed.

Because of these similarities, valuable medical models can be found arnong animals as different from Our own as the amphibian, fish and other mammals. Such models can assist in our understanding of human physiology and illness.

Some animal species that are currently at risk have been shown to be valuable medical models offering windows for greater understanding of human physiology and biochemistry which may lead to successful treatments of diseases that are at present incurable.

An example of medical model developed from animal species is highlighted by research on the active ingredients of frog toxins. The research undertaken by John Daly of the National Institute of Health, U.S.A., and colleagues since the early 1970s deserves special mention. Certain types of frogs found in tropical rain forests in Central and South America produce alkaloids, which are nitrogen-containing ring compounds which make the dart-poison frogs (Dendrobatidae) an extremely important medical model in Our understanding of cross-species biochemistry. These brightly- colored, toxin-producing frogs are, however, in danger of extinction because of the destruction of their habitat. Alkaloids, which are the active ingredients of the frog toxins, work by binding to specific ion channels and pumps at the synaptic junctions in neurons. These alkaloids are important scientific tools in the study of the basic unit of membrane function and neurophysiological research.

Specifically, batrachotoxin, which is one of the toxins produced by dart-poison frogs, binds to specific site in sodium channels and has been of critical importance in defining the action of this fundamental molecular structure.

Sodium channels are very important for the passage of electrical signals from one ce11 to the other; they are present in the excitable membrane of nerve axon and cardiac

4

Biology International NO 32 (January 1996)

muscle. The function of the sodium channel can be disrupted in several ways; for example, the marine toxins tetrodotoxin block these channels by binding to channel receptors near the extra cellular surface. Biological toxins such as batrachotoxin bind to the receptors within the channel and prevent recovery from inactivation.

Since Na+ channels are very important for communication among cells, precise understanding of their role and regulation is very important. Abnormalities of their functions can lead to pathological States such as cardiac arrhythmia, motor movement disorders, and neurological disorders. The study of the mechanism of action of frog toxins may provide clues for the production of new therapeutic agents for treatment of diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and other neurological disorders. Unfortunately, continued deforestation will likely result in the extinction of the dart-poison frog and the resulting loss of a possible tool for studying neurological disorders.

Another example of the loss of a medical mode1 caused by species extinction is the reduction in the number of sharks which are being slaughtered by man to the point of extinction. The immune systems of certain kinds of sharks are very good at warding off cancerous tumors and infections. It has been shown that tumors resulting from known potent carcinogens cannot be induced in some types of sharks. These sharks have a type of substance found in their cartilage which prevents the growth of tumors by slowing the growth of new blood vessels toward tumors. How these sharks' immune systems work to prevent the growth of tumors may never be discovered however, since sharks are in jeopardy of becoming extinct.

In addition, a compound, squalamine, has been isolated from the tissues of the Dogfish shark. Squalamine has demonstrated potent activity in laboratory tests against a variety of bacteria, fungi, and parasites, leading to the exciting possibility that new antibiotics might be developed for infectious organisms that have become resistant to dmgs in current use. It is a water-soluble amino sterol and exhibits the same potency as ampicillin. The compound is stable to heat and protease enzymes and can be easily absorbed by the digestive tract, indicating that the compound should be capable of being taken orally.

The loss of other species could have immediate negative effects on the use of medicines derived from these endangered species. The rapid dying out of the periwinkle plant illustrates the negative result of deforestation. Both Vinblastine and Vincristine, derivatives of the periwinkle plant, have proved to be effective against tumor growth. Vinblastine has been shown to be a very effective treatment for Hodgkin's Disease, and has also been used to treat breast cancer, Kaposi's sarcoma, and other diseases. Vincristine is well known for its 90% success rate in treating different types of childhood leukaemia. Extinction of the periwinkle plants as a result of deforestation would thus result in a loss of treatments which have proven effective in treating certain illnesses.

Throughout the ages, humans have exploited the cornucopia of nature as a source of medicines for the treatment of a variety of diseases. Plants have formed the basis for traditional medicine for thousands of years. It is clear that the demand for dmgs, disposable consumer products, biological agents and insecticides will continue to increase for the foreseeable future. But unless we take specific action to protect and develop our environment under sustainable conditions, the

window of opportunity for the discovery of new medicinal and biological agents will be shut forever.

Importance of Natural Products in Drug Development

In industrialized nations at the present time, some fifty percent of al1 prescribed drugs are derived or synthesized from natural products, the only available sources for which are animals, marine, plants, and microorganisms. it is considered that because of the structural and biological diversity of their constituents, terrestrial plants offer a unique and renewable resource for the discovering of potential new drugs and biological entities. However, only 5000 of the world's 250,000 flowering plants have as yet been analysed for their possible medicinal uses. The most alarming cause for concern is that, by the turn of this century, it is expected that some 25,000 species of plants will have ceased to exist. This represents about five plant species a day between now and the year 2000.

Moreover, in developing countries, medicinal plants continue to be the main source of medication. In China alone, 7295 plant species are utilized as medicinal agents. The World Health Organization has estimates that for some 3.4 billion people in the developing world, plants represent the primary source of medicine. This represents about 88% of the world's inhabitants who rely on traditional medicine for their primary health care.

It is thus a matter of utmost concern to public health and indeed to human life that urgent action is taken to prevent further diminution of actual and potential availability of medicinal and biological agents.

Natural remedies that, although undocumented, may have been used for many thousands of years by the human race must be appropriately catalogued to ensure that vital ethno-medical information is not lost forever.

My country, Thailand, as a tropical country, has long enjoyed the luxury of an innumerable variety of tropical plants. In this regard, the Thai's have a long tradition of folklore medicine, utilizing alleged medicinal herbs and plants. However, most of these "claimed" curative properties have neither been scientifically proven nor properly investigated, and it is not uncommon to find an herb cited as a cure for "al1 ailments". It is apparent that expeditious research is urgently needed to explore the potential of these natural products before opportunities become forever lost through advancing deforestation.

As a natural product chemist, 1 commit myself and my research endeavors to this field. Some of the work that 1 will describe later will demonstrate research undertaken in Thailand and at my Institute, the Chulabhorn Research Institute.

Stages in Natural Product Drug Development

To demonstrate the effort and the amount of work a scientists has to undertake in development of drugs from natural sources, let us examine some of the steps involved in this process. There are some fundamental steps and requirements for the discovery of drugs, or any biological agents.


1) The selection, collection, and unambiguous identification of the organisms.

2) The preparation and evaluation of an extract in an appropriate automateci in vitro test system.

3) Prioritization of the plant to be studied further. 4) Bio-activity-directed fractionation. 5 ) Structure determination of the active isolate(s). 6) Biological, toxicological and pharmacological testing.

These drug development studies are now estimated to cost over 200 million dollars for a given drug to reach the stage of approval for marketing.

With the above protocol, the U.S.A. National Cancer Institute (NCI) has launched an extensive programme for the development of natural products for the treatment of various forms of cancer. Many clinically useful drugs have been discovered from various plants. These include the previously mentioned vinblastine and vincristine from Catharanthus roseus. and the recently discovered taxol and the semi-synthetic taxotere. Taxol, which has been isolated in 1962 from the bark of the Pacific or American yew tree, Taxus hrevifolia. appears to be an exceptionally prornising drug. It exhibited a very broad spectrum of activity against leukaemia and solid tumors, and has been found to be beneficial in treatment of refractory ovarian, breast and other cancers and the drug was recently approved for marketing. It is estimated that four mature yew trees which take about 100 years to reach full maturity are needed to produce enough taxol to treat a single case of ovarian cancer. At present, although the synthesis of this extremely complicated taxol molecule has been accomplished, it has not yet become commercially feasible.

Apart from the role of drugs derived from plants for the treatment of cancer, plants can be a valuable source for other types of medicine, for example medicine to treat malaria.

It is not al1 exaggerated to say that malaria has been responsible for much of the human suffering and misery accompanying the process of social and econornic development. About 110 million cases of malaria occur in the world every year. Oves the last ten years, the malaria situation has been worsening in many areas of the world. More than 2000 million people in some 100 countries now live in areas where there is a definite risk of falling sick from malaria.

In most areas of Asia and Latin America where malaria now occurs, it had been considerably reduced or eliminated during the 1960s and 1970s. However, the situation has been worsening particularly in the frontier areas of economic development such as agriculture and mining in newly-opened jungle, and in areas of warfare, illegal trading and migration of refugees. In many parts of the world where there are wars and other conflicts, or smuggling and movements of refugees across the borders, the disease has spread rapidly because no control activities and treatments could be undertaken. The need to find new anti-malaria1 medicines is pressing, due to the discovery of the resistance of the human malaria1 parasite, Plasmodium falciparum to the presently available common anti-malarial drugs. Treatrnent has thus become both less effective and much more expensive. The problem is further aggravated by the resistance of

Biology International N" 32. (January 1996)

vector anopheline mosquitoes to the most effective and least toxic insecticides which were used to kill them.

The potential of natural products as therapeutic agents in the treatment of malaria is enormous. Quinine, from the barks of the cinchona tree which grows in large plantations in Africa and Asia, was introduced as an anti-malaria1 drug more than a century ago. Quinine also served as a prototype of an anti-malarial drug leading to the discovery of many synthetic anti-malaria1 medicines including Mefloquine which has recently been introduced as an anti-malarial drug.

The Chinese have a long history of use of a herb called Qing hao (Artemisia Annua) for the treatment of malaria. It was reported as early as 1596 that chills and fever from malaria can be combated by Qing hao preparations. The pure compound was isolated in 1972 and named Quinhaosu (QHS) or Arteannuin meaning the "active principle of Qing hao"; the name Artemisinin is recornmended by Chemical Abstracts.

Sesquiterpene lactones are common natural products of some plant species but it is the endoperoxide moiety that makes this compound unusual. Using natural Arternisinin as a template, many synthetic analogues of Artemisinin were synthesized, some of which were found to be more potent than Artemisinin itself. It is this particular finding that has stimulated the resurgence of interest in plants as potential sources of new anti- malarial drugs.

Now, 1 would like to turn your attention to the development of the anti-parasitic agent. The Thai plant Diospyros mollis has been extensively investigated as an anti-parasitic agent. Fresh berries of this plant have long been used effectively against intestinal hookworm infestation. The anti-hookworm property of the D. mollis berries was scientifically tested. In traditional practice, the fresh berries were ground in a mortar and fresh coconut milk was added; after filtration the milk extract was then taken orally. The efficacy of the treatment has been found to be excellent even though the taste of the extract is extremely unpleasant.

The chemistry of the active principle of D. mollis benies was isolated in 1957 and the compound was named Diospyrol. In 1975, reinvestigation of D. mollis berries was initiated when it was reported that the pure Diospyrol is less effective than the fresh bemes in the controlled experiment. The situation for the utilization of diospyrol for anti-hookworm treatment is at present unsettled. About ten years ago, a mass chemotherapy programme was conducted by the Ministry of Public Health and some cases of blindness were reported in this treatment. Because of this report, the mass chemotherapy programme was stopped. Recent toxicological testing of diospyrol itself and the oxidized products revealed no acute or delayed lesions of myelin, optic nerves or retina. The cause of the blindness in the mass chemotherapy programme is still unknown. Plants are also a good source of anti-ulcer drugs. The modem treatment of peptic ulcers started in the 1960s with the use of a drug called carbenoxolone, which is a sodium salt of a triterpenic acid. The h g was discovered after intensive investigation of the roots and rhizomes of liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra); it is the transformation product of glycyrrhizic acid, a natural product found in this plant.


Another anti-ulcer h g , Plaunotol has been discovered from the plants from Thailand called Plao-Noi [Croton syblyratus Kurz (Euphorbiaceae)]. The compound was proved to be a potent anti-ulcer drug: the mechanism of the action of this drug probably raises the defensive factors since it enhances prostaglandin levels in gastric mucosa. This compound is now cornrnercially available under the trade narne of "Kelnec".

Conclusion

Presently we are seeing a selfish drive to achieve material wealth at the expense of the earth's biological resources. There is no doubt that preserving these resources is of paramount importance. The question thus becomes how could we achieve the goal. It seems ironic that while patent laws protect corporations as well as individuals from having their ideas and inventions stolen, nature's biodiversity and ethno-medical knowledge are largely unprotected. Ethno-medical knowledge has been passed down from generation to generation and now is considered an important factor in the discovery of new drugs and biological agents. This knowledge will be irretrievably lost without the sustainable development of the tropical rain forests. To rectify this problem, the pharmaceutical community needs to accept the responsibility of paying equitable compensation to the source country for discoveries of biological medicines which lead to profit. On a small scale, this has already begun. For example, Merck Research Laboratory is paying compensation in order to receive greater access to medicinal plants in Costa Rica. The U.S. National Cancer Institute has also agreed to pay compensation if they make discoveries which result in profit. Another point of equal importance is better enforcement of uncontrolled deforestation practices. This may involve helping to provide alternative work for individuals involved in the timber trade as well as enactment of more careful control over endangered areas. Along this line, the Thai Government and the Thai Royal Family are striving to reach the goal. Also international agreements for open access to native resources along with reasonable compensation for this access must be made.

Now is the time to accept responsibility of taking care of the Earth's natural resources; otherwise, it will be too late -- many valuable resources have already been lost or are being lost even as we discuss this matter. Every minute we wait to act we lose species diversity and knowledge of the uses of plants and animals -- two of our planet's most valuable resources. Finally, 1 would like to close my presentation by quoting Ralph Waldo Emerson, who said " We did not inherit the earth from our forefathers; we are borrowing iffrom our descendants".


The Vegetation Map of Europe International Cooperation in Geobotanical Mapping

by Z:V. Karamysheval, 2. Neuhauslova2, T.K. Yurkovskayal

'Komarov Botanical Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Popova 2, 197376 St. Petersburg, Russia

21nstitute of Botany, Czech Academy of Sciences, CS-25243 Pruhonice, Czech Republic

Introduction

The need for international collaboration in the domain of vegetation mapping at world or continental level has long been a subject of interest (Gaussen, 1949) and has been repeatedly discussed at international congresses and symposia. A special committee was convened in the early 60s, under the aegis of UNESCO (Sochava, 1965; 1966) to coordinate vegetation classification and small scale vegetation mapping on an international level. The Cornmittee was not successful in fulfilling its task because of the lack of a uniform approach to the theoretical background and of the map's legend composition, as well as the different levels of studies being carried out concerning the vegetation of different countries.

Three outstanding phytogeographers, E.M. Lavrenko (Komarov Botanical Institute), W. Trautmann (Nature Conservation and Landscape Ecology Institute, Bonn) and P. Ozenda (University of Grenoble) met at the XIIth International Botanical Congress in Leningrad in 1975, and decided to initiate the "Vegetation Map of Europe Project" to be carried out on an international cooperative basis. Invitation letters were sent to the scientific institutions as well as individual scientists in Western, Central and Eastern European countries, and an "Editorial Board" was composed.

By the late 70s the practical preparation of the map started, as vegetation of the European subcontinent had been well studied, including the development of mapping methods. Although it was noticed that countries such as Sweden, Great Britain, etc., facilitated cooperation in the European mapping project (as their geobotanical mapping research was significantly more active), while several countries in southern and south- western Europe, as well as part of Scandinavia had been less well-equipped with the proper survey phytogeographic materials (Grivoba, Isachenko, 1980a, Neuhausl, 1980a).

The lack of regional mapping data, however, was not a particular problem. The most difficult aspects addressed were the differences related to vegetation classification to be used for the legend's composition for the regional and state maps. Indeed, there were three dominant phytocoenological scientific schools in Europe with specific principles and classification methods. The traditional method in Russia was an ecological- phytocoenotic one, based upon the dominant-determinant approach. Western and Central European counties developed the floristic classification based upon the analysis of the total. floristic composition of the community, taking into account the presence of specific characteristic and differential species (Braun-Blanquet scientific

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school). In Northern Europe the classification was based upon the layer structure, the dominant and constant species and the physiognomic features of the latter. Obviously, if the rnap legends were prepared on the basis of these different pnnciples, it was very difficult to make any correlation. However, the Editorial Board succeeded to solve the essential problems of theory, methods and scientific management through a series of international meetings with the participation of authors from various countries of Europe. Most of the meetings were organized by the Botanical Institute of the Czechoslovak Academy of Science, which acted as a Coordinating center for the work done on the European vegetation map. For over 10 years the curator of this work was Academician R. Neuhausl. His great efficiency and talent in bringing together the different scientific schools pre-determined, in many respects, the successful development of the work on this map. After Professor Neuhausl's death in 1992, the role of coordinating center was passed on to the Institute of Nature Conservation and Landscape Ecology in Bonn, under the scientific leadership of Professor U. Bohn.

The First Conference

In a brief review of the main stages of the work, the First Conference in Liblize (1979), though devoted to organisational matters, also resulted in the adoption of a set of important decisions and demonstrated a cornmon desire of al1 participants to create a uniform Vegetation Map of Europe (Neuhauslova, Bohn, 1993).

The Conference discussed the rnap project's scale, principles of the legend composition and mapping units choice, as well as several questions concerning management. The participants were already familiar with the published vegetation rnap of Western Europe and its explanatory text (Ozenda, Noirfalise, Tomaselli, et al., 1979; Ozenda, 1980; Noirfalise, 1987). This map, which was used as a basis for discussion and subject to essential criticism (Gribova, Isachenko, 1980a) was nevertheless considered to be one of the first successful attempts at small scale mapping of Western Europe, and that some countries had no detailed vegetation maps at al1 at that time.

At this Conference, the theoretical concepts and methodological principles of the vegetation survey mapping were based upon the vast experience of small scale mapping in the USSR. It was also suggested having further discussions on the principles of the preparation of the legend for the recently published "Vegetation Map of the European Part of the USSR" at the scale 1:2 500 000 (Isachenko, Lavrenko, 1979). This rnap served as a base for the preparation of the new small scale geobotanical rnap of the former USSR as a huge block of the European subcontinent. For the legend's construction, the regional-typological principle was assumed. The latter being based upon a complex criteria, namely the phytocoenotic, the floristic, the ecological, the geographical, and the dynamical. Such an all-around approach, which ennched the legend's content and increased the rnap formation, also allowed the map's authors to reflect the vegetation diversity of the mapped area, its specific features and actual state in a more comprehensive and profound way.

Special attention was given to resolving the differences between the approaches in constructing the thematic vegetation maps and those dividing into geobotanical districts. An example was given in the published vegetation rnap of Western Europe,


where some of the mapping units represented both the typological categories as well as the territories with the heterogeneous vegetation composition.

The vegetation map of Romania at the scale 1: 1 000 000, as well as that of Hungary and Bulgaria were presented and commented upon. There was also an exhibition of maps organized during the meeting.

Some important resoiutions concerning the map's preparation were adopted as follows: 1) the map should reflect the natural vegetation of Europe; 2) the map should be easily readable, depicting the features of zonal, sub-zonal, altitudinal, regional, and edaphic differentiation of vegetation of Europe, as well as its extra-zona1 and non- zonal characters, and their most significant historical features; 3) the units of mapping should be outlined based on the phytocoenotic criteria and methods, including the combinations and complexes of the plant comrnunities.

Alsohovize Conference

The Second Conference in Alshovize (1980) had fewer participants and was actually a workshop. According to the resolutions from the preceding Conference, botanists from participating countries submitted preliminary versions of the state map legends for further discussion, agreement and unit choice in order to agree upon a unified legend. General problems of theoretical and methodological nature were also examined, i.e. a) choosing the scheme of the botanical-geographical regionalization of Europe or its major parts which would be the most suitable for the regional subdivisions of the legend; b) the extent of the legend higher units as well as the basic ones; c) determining the best approaches when selecting of homo- and heterogeneous mapping units according to the plant cover structure. Practical problems discussed were minimal size for the contours on the map, use of an out-of-scale symbol, etc. The draft legends for the Czechoslovak and Polish vegetation maps were presented, and the situations in Scandinavia, the Balkan and Western Europe, as well as the European part of the USSR were also discussed.

R. Neuhausl presented the important coordinated variants of different legends, particularly emphasizing the advantages of a legend composition according to the hierarchical principle in which different subdivisions of a legend reflect different levels of the vegetation differentiation, i.e., zonal, sub-zonal, altitudinal, and regional. This approach was agreed upon by most of the workshop participants, unifying the views of botanists from Western Europe and Russia. Other principles adopted were a) the extent and content of the higher units of the legend (vegetation types or classes of formations in the interpretation of the Russian scientists and out-of-rank units - formation - as being viewed by the scientists in Western Europe); b) the principles of recognition for the main mapping units and their extent (associations of the Braun- Blanquet school, group or sometimes classes of associations as interpreted by the Russian school); and c) the principle of formulation of (of naming) the mapping unit (according to the dominant cornrnunity).

Trzhebon, 1980

The international colloquium in Trzhebon (1980) played the most important role in constructing a unified legend. Suggestions were made on the recognition of the main

12


formations as a higher subdivision. 18 were composed and decided upon based on the legends for the regional and state maps of the Arctic and boreal vegetation, the Balkan vegetation, the vegetation of the forest-steppe, steppe, and desert zones within Eastern Europe. Although this list was subject to improvement later on, it nevertheless represented an important stage in the process of agreement on specific issues concerning the vegetation mapping of particular regions, especially the coitntries' frontiers and correlation among the maps of different countries. Also included in the discussions at the colloquium were the preliminary obligatory colour scale for the preparation of separate state maps, and the choice of a uniform topographic base rnap which would be most convenient for the vegetation map's publication.

The 4rth meeting of the Editorial Board was held in Vykhodna, 1981, with the traditional agenda of presentations, progress reports, and outlining plans for future action and discussion. The list of formations composed at the previous colloquium was subject to considerable change. An agreement was not still reached concerning the position of the high mountain (alpine and sub-alpine) vegetation within the legend unit system, nor on the phytogeographic differentiation of such vegetation (Gribova, Yurkovskaya, 1983; Gribova, Ladygina, 1985; Karamysheva, Yurkovskaya, 1994). Also the problem of a subdivision scheme for boreal vegetation was left unsolved due to the different schools concerning the mire vegetation. But the draft state maps presented enabled a valuable foundation for the combined legend and integrated generation to be formed. An important decision was adopted regarding the color design of the rnap based upon the use of colored backgrounds and different kinds of hatching. The further elaboration of the rnap was considerably facilitated by the decision to use the rnap at a scale of 1:2 500 000 as a uniform topographic base map, provided by the land-surveying service of Czechoslovakia.

It should be noted that at the first stage of rnap preparation, work was being carried out simultaneously within the 2 large blocks of Western Europe and that of Central and Eastern Europe (former CMEA countries). At smaller author group meetings in 1983 and 1984, improvements were made to the legend's text, partially modifying the general structure, the "Steppe" formaiion was divided into three large independent blocks, such as "Forest-Steppe", "Steppe", and "Oreoxerophitic vegetation". The "High Mountain Vegetation" of the Nemoral zone was singled out as a separate formation. Such formations as "Tundras", "Mesophytic and Hydromesophytic Coniferous and Broadleaf-Coniferous Forests" and "Mires" were amended. The list of main mapping units was supplemented, and their diagnoses were specified on the basis of edited state maps; the geographical names of mapping units were unified. The resulting legend was then published (Bondev, Borhidi, Hofmann et al., 1985).

Also, of great importance, was the corresponding of the state manuscript maps and the respective state borders, and adoption of the draft explanatory text for the map.

XXllnd IUBS General Assembly Scientific Symposium

The XXIInd General Assembly of the IUBS held in September 1985 in Budapest, Hungary, provided a good opportunity to promote the "Vegetation Map of Europe" adopted within the IUBS Scientific Programme since 1982, attracting new


participants, particularly from Southern Europe and Scandinavia. A symposium was organized within the Assembly resulting in an analysis of the map's conception and the main results. Also emphasized was that the Vegetation Map of Europe was the first successful experience of international cooperation in this area and could be used as a mode1 for similar projects (Neuh~usl, 1987). Ozenda and Bohn presented the rnap sheet X, which covered the considerable part of Central Europe and adjacent areas in Southern and Western Europe and explained the botanical contents (Bohn & Ozenda, 1987). Sheet XI was also presented, which was designed with the Russian mapping tradition(Gribova, Karamysheva, 1987). This sheet sparked particular interest as it covered the Eastern European Plain with its obvious zona1 changes in vegetation, due to the plain's vast extention from north to south, and with adjacent huge mountain systems (the Carpatians, the Crimea Mountains, and in part, the Caucuses) with altitudinal vegetation belts. It was noted in the Symposium's resolution that the rnap sheet XI exhibited by the Komarov Botanical Institute showed a high level of both ecological interpretation of vegetation and rnap performance. This sheet was also exhibited at the XIVth International Botanical Congress in West Berlin, 1987, and was very highly praised (Neuhausl, Bohn, Ozenda et al., 1987; Neuhausl, Born, Gribova et al., 1990). The problem of the explanatory text preparation was also reviewed at the symposium, and the text plan which had been worked out for the vegetation rnap of CMEA countries was approved. The curators assigned to select specialists and put them into the author groups for wnting different parts of the text were also appointed at that time. It must be mentioned that the scientists from Komarov Botanical Institute (Russia) and the Botanical Institutes of the Georgian and Ukrainian Academies of Science were confirmed as curators and then as editors and authors of 13 out of 19 text parts. Each part dealt with the description of the main mapping units and the main subdivision within the proper formations.

Warsaw (1 990) and Bad-Godesberg (1 992)

The Editorial Board Meeting in Warsaw (1990) exhibited for the first time, not separate sheets, but a major part of the manuscript rnap covering most of the European area.

The first draft uniform version of a color scale was reported upon. Manuscript maps were discussed from their content point of view of Norway, Greece, Spain, and Portugal. The problem of the sub-zona1 line disagreement along the Finnishmussian border was discussed. Also, the question on the place of the alpine and sub-alpine vegetation and alvares within a general system of legend units again came up. The Board's was brought to the first version of the legend for the rnap at a scale of 1: lOmln.

The Board met again in 1992 in Bad-Godesberg, and was attended by not only botanists who had witnessed the origin of this Project but also newcomers representing their various countries. Professor Bohn, the new rnap curator, reported that the rnap was near completion. The original manuscript of the whole rnap at a scale 1:2 500 000 was also presented for the first time, but of course the color design had not yet been unified throughout.

Significant attention was paid to the explanatory text for the map, and essential changes were made. It had been presumed earlier that most of the text would contain


the description of the main mapping units, while the general part of the text before the description would include al1 data concerning the map itself; the Project history, theoretical backgrounds, the legend composition principles and the review of its main subdivisions. But at the meeting the general part of the text was considerably extended by the addition of sketches of the physiographic outlook of the European subcontinent, the paleogeography, and the phytogeographic division.

The problem of the pine forest's position was revised; it was signed out into a separate section along with the spruce forest. The contents of the legend and the map of a scale 1:10 000 000 which would be published as an appendix to the explanatory text was also discussed.

Conclusion

If the whole course of the map's elaboration were to be analyzed it must be emphasized that the main difficulty encountered in the Project's first phases was the difference in theoretical backgrounds of the different phytocoenological schools as aforementioned, and was successfully resolved. The analysis of the legend with that of the different vegetation classification systems in Europe has shown that most of the syntax of each found their place within the general structure of the legend. The syntax of different scientific schools appeared more or less comparable with each other, though their rank was soundly different (Gribova, Karamysheva, Neuhausl et al., 1989).

In the course of the map's preparation, the results of the often rather "acute" discussions concerning principles and ideas were compromises and settlements for many problems, i.e., composition of the legend and the elaboration of its structure, distinguishing between its main divisions, etc. This was one of the most valuable conclusions of the mapping project, and mutual enrichment for al1 involved.

At present the general editing of the legend is being carried out, and the modern nomenclature for the plant species which are mentioned in the legend text is being verified. In middle of 1994 the difficult and time-consuming task of the elaboration of a color scale for the legend (which comprised more than 600 mapping units within itself) was finished. This work was accomplished by the engineerlcartographer group from the Komarov Botanical Institute. Also at this time the color legend to the electron map has been constructed (Bohn & Ulisch).

It should be highlighted that the participants in this Project continually informed the scientific community about the events taking place during the course of the map's elaboration (see also Lavrenko, Isachenko, Gribova et al., 1980; Neuhausl, 1991).

References

Bohn, U. (1992) Zum international Project einer Karte der natürlichen Vegetation Europas im Massstab. 1:2,5 Mio. Konzept, Inhalt, Erarbeitung, kartographische Darstellung und Anwendungsmoglichkeiten. Natur und Landschaft. 67, 10:476-480.

Bohn, U. and Ozenda, P. (1987) Interpretation of the sheet X at Symposium "Vegetation Map of Europe" Symposium at the 22nd General Assembly of the International Union of Biological Sciences. Geobot. Mapping, Leningrad. 81-84. (In Russian)


Bondev, 1. and Borhidi, A., Hofmann, G. et al. (1985) Vegetation Map of CEC-Member European Countries. General Conception, the Legend.Geobot. Mapping, Leningrad. 7-34. (In Russian)

Gaussen, H. (1949) Projets pour diverse cartes du monde à 1:l 000 000. La carte écologique du tapis végétal. Ann. agron.n.ser., an. 19.1:78-102.

Gorchakovsky, P.L. (1979) International colloquium on the "Vegetation Map of Europe", Liblize, 1979. Ecol. 6:101-1022. (In Russian)

Gribova, S.A. (1981) "Vegetation Map of Europe", Geobot. Mapping, Leningrad. 55- 60. (In Russian)

Gribova, S.A. (1984) 1st Workshop on the Vegetation Map of CEC-Member European Countries", Kiev, 1983. Bot. Journ. 69,9:1285-1290. (In Russian)

Gribova, S.A. (1987) Report on "Vegetation Map of Europe" Symposium at the 22nd General Assembly of the International Union of Biological Sciences. Geobot. Mapping, Leningrad. 76-80. (In Russian)

Gribova, S.A. and Isachenko, T.I. (1980) Report on the First Intemational colloquium on the "Vegetation Map of Europe", Liblize, 1979. Geobot. Mapping, Leningrad. 52- 68. (In Russian)

Gribova, S.A. and Isachenko, T.I. (1980b) Report on the First International colloquium on the "Vegetation Map of Europe", Liblize, 1979. Bot. Journ. 65,4:609-613. (In Russian)

Gribova, S.A. and Karamysheva, Z.V. (1987) Interpretation of the sheet XI at Symposium "Vegetation Map of Europe" Symposium at the 22nd Generai Assembly of the Intcmational Union of Biological Sciences. Geobot. Mapping, Leningrad. 84- 91. (In Russian)

Gribova, S.A., Karamysheva, Z.V. and Neuhausl, R. (1985) Vegetation Map of Europe Project. Biology Intcmational., Paris. 11:17-18.

Gribova, S.A., Karamysheva, Z.V., Neuhausl,, R. and Yurkovskaya, T.K. (1988) Vegctation Map of Europe and the Problems of Classification. Geobot. Mapping, Leningrad. 3-13. (In Russian)

Gribova, S.A. and Ladygina, G.M. (1985) "The Problems of Vegetation Mapping", from the International Symposium on "Ecology of High Mountains", Tbilisi, 1984. Geobot. Mapping, Leningrad. 86-90. (In Russian)

Gribova, S.A., Nachutsrishvili, G.Sh., Doluchanov, G.L. and Neuhausl, R. (1988) "The High Mountain Vegetation on the Geobotanical Map of CEC-Member European Countries". Proceedings of the "Ecology of High Mountains", Tbilisi, 1984.131-138. (In Russian)

Gribova, S.A. and Yurkovskaya, T.K. (1983) Report of Session of the Editorial Board of Vegetation Map of Europe in the CSR, 1981. Geobot. Mapping, Leningrad. 69-76. (In Russian)

Gribova, S.A. and Yurkovskaya, T.K. (1989) Vegetation Map of Europe. Geobot. Mapping, Leningrad. 72-75. (In Russian)

Isachenko, T.I. and Lavrenko, E.M. (Eds.) (1979) The Map of the European Part of the U.S.S.R. on Scale of 1:2.5 million. GUGK, Moscow.

Karamysheva, Z.V. (1986) Report of the 2nd Workshop on the Vegetation Map of CEC- Member European Countries. Geobot. Mapping, Leningrad. 56-61. (In Russian)

Karamysheva, Z.V. and Yurkovskaya, T.K. (1994) The Next Workshop on the Vegetation Map of Europe. Geobot. Mapping, St. Petersburg. 199255-59. (In Russian)

Lavrenko, E.M., Isachenko, T.I. and Gribova, S.A. (1980) Pflanzendecke der UdSSR und Transkaukasiens. (Ein Fragment der Legende zur Ubersichtskarte der Vegetation des europâischen Teiles der UdSSR). Folia Geobot. Phytotax, Praha. 15: 165- 17 1.

Lavrenko, E.M., Isachenko, T.I., Gnbova, S.A. and Neuhausl, R. (1980) A New Project of Vegetation Mapping of Europe (a Contribution of Central and East European Countries). Abstract of IUBS International Symposium on Small Scale Vegetation Mapping, Grenoble. 2:2p (sine pag.)

Neuhausl, R. (1979) Kolokvium O planovane vegetacni mapê Europy. Vesmir, Praha. 58:3 16.


Neuhausl, R. (1980a) Die einheitliche Vegetationskartierung Europas und ihre Bedeutung für die thecretische und angewandte Vegetationskunde. Folia Geobot., Phytotax., Praha. 15: 174-176.

Neuhausl, R. (1980b) Das 1. Internationale Kolloquium über die geplante Vegetationskarte Europas. Folia Geobot. Phytotax., Praha. 15: 155-206.

Neuhausl, R. (1982) Das 2. Internationale Kolloquium über die geplante Vegetationskarte Europas. Folia Geobot. Phytotax., Praha. 17:207-219.

Neuhausl, R. (1983) Information on the present state of the elaboration of the vegetation rnap for the area of the CLEA countries and Yugoslavia. Ecol. Kooper., Bratislava. suppl. 2: 19-22 (In Russian).

Neuhausl, R. (1987a) Fortschritte der Arbeiten am Project der Vegetationskarte Europas. Folia Geobot. Phytotax., Praha. 22:89-95.

Neuhausl, R. (1987b) Vegetation rnap of Europe: Initiative and concept of the project. Presentation at symposium at XXII IUBS General Assembly. Geobot. Mapping, Leningrad. 80-8 1 (In Russian).

Neuhausl, R. (1989) Vegetation rnap of Europe. A contribution to th eunified classification of European forest. Stud. Plant. Ecol., Uppsala. 18:194-195.

Neuhausl, R. (1991) Vegetalion rnap of Europe: first results and current state. Journal of Vegetation Science. 2: 13 1 - 134.

Neuhausl, R., Bohn, U., Gribova, S., Matuszkiewicz, W., and Ozenda, P. (1990) The vegetation rnap of Europe: ils concept and elaboration demonstrated by specimen sheet XI. In: Bohn, U. and Neuhaüsl, R. (Eds) Vegetation and Flora of Temperate Zones. SPB Academic Publishing, The Hague. 3-9.

Neuhausl, R., Bohn, U., Ozenda, P., and Matuszkiewicz, W. (1987) The vegetation rnap of Europe: ils concept and elaboration demonstrated by an exemplary sheet. XVth Int'l Botan. Congr. Abstracts, Berlin. 428.

Neuhausl, R. and Michalko, 1. (1984) Resolution of the 2nd workshop of the authors of the Vegetation Map of the European CMEA countries, organized within the framcwork of the Programme III. 1. Ecol. Kooper, Bratislava. 35-7 (In Russian).

Neuhausl, R. and Neuhauslova, Z. (1982) 2nd int'l symposium on the problems with the vegetation rnap of Europe. Geobot. Mapping, Leningrad. 51-60 (In Russian).

Neuhausl, R. and Bohn, U. (1993) vegetation rnap of Europe: its current state. Folia Geobot. Phytotax., Praha. 28:211-214.

Noirfalise, A. 1987. Map of natural vegetation of the member countries of the European Community and the Council of Europe. Scale 1:3 million. 2nd Edition. Council of Europe, Strasbourg. NO80 (with the maps).

Ozenda, P. (1980) Commentaire et proposition a partir d'une carte de la végétation de l'Europe occidcntalc. Folia Geobot. Phytotax., Praha. 156-160.

Ozenda, P., Noirfalise, A., Tomaselli, R., and Trautmann, W. (1979) Carte de la végétation dcs Ctals membres du conseil de l'Europe. Echelle 1:3000000. Strabourg. NO97 (avec des cartes).

Sochava, V.B. (1965) Symposium of vegetation mapping in Edinburgh. Geobot. Mapping, Moscow/Lcningrad. 75-81 (In Russian).

Sumerina, I.Yu. and Lipalova, V.V. (1985) 1st workshop meeting on the vegetation rnap of the CEC-member European countries, June, 1983, Kiev. Geobot. Mapping, Leningrad. 82-86 (In Russian).

Trautmann, W. and Bohn, U. (1980) Probleme bei der Herstellung einer Vegetationskarte Europas. Folia Geobot. Phytotax., Praha. 15: 160-165.

Biology lnternational N" 32 (January 1996)

The lnternational Code of Zoological Nomenclature:

Explanatory Notes to the Discussion Draft of the Fourth Edition

by O. Kraus (Past- President) and W.D.L. Ride (Chairman, Editorial Committee) The International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature

The following 'Explanatory Notes of a Discussion Draft of a New (Fourth) Edition of the lnternational Code of Zoological Nomenclature' is now available. Copies are being sent without charge to al1 subscribers to the Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature and to mernbers of the American and European Associations for Zoological Nomenclature. The Discussion Draft is subject to amendment: the provisions set out in it have no force, and it is to be used exclusively for the purpose of formulating possible irnprovements.

Before completing the definitive text of the Fourth Edition, the lnternational Commission on Zoological Nomenclature will (in accordance with Article 16 of its Constitution) take into account al1 comments and suggestions submitted within one year of the draft's original distribution, that is by 1 June 1996.

The current (Third) edition of the Code was published in February 1985. It was inevitable that some constructive suggestions made before that time could not be incorporated, and many others were prompted by the appearance of the new edition. In 1988 the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature set up an Editorial Committee to work towards an eventual Fourth Edition and published an invitation to zoologists to submit further recornmendations. Many have been received, and the Commission is grateful to al1 those who have assisted it. The Commission held open meetings in 1988 (Canberra), 1990 (Maryland) and 1991 (Amsterdam) for preliminary discussion of proposed improvements to the Code, many of thern intended to meet changing needs and rapidly evolving communication techniques.

The Editorial Committee met in Hamburg in October 1993 and reviewed each Article of the existing Code in the light of the above discussions and al1 the suggestions which had been made. The Committee now offers to al1 zoologists and other users of scientific names, and to the full Commission itself, a Discussion Draft of the Fourth Edition. Under Article 16 of its Constitution the Commission will take into full consideration al1 comments made on the Draft within one year of its original dismbution (that is, by the end of May 1996). It is hoped that it will be possible to publish the new Edition, with the approval of the International Union of Biological Sciences, in 1996 and that its provisions will take forma1 effect (superseding the current Third Edition) on 1 January 1997. To achieve this timetable, and more importantly to ensure that the Code will meet the needs of its users, zoologists and others are now invited to submit comments on the Discussion Draft.

Biology International hi' 32 (January 1996)

The Editorial Committee has been guided by the principle that scientific names are labels for taxa and provide the only universal means of accessing zoological information. Stability in their application and form, consistent with taxonomy, is therefore of paramount importance irrespective of any priority or linguistic consideration. This aim to maintain stability must take precedence over the tools that the Code uses to promote it. Thus, while priority remains the basis for determining validity, and linguistics the basis for the formation of names, neither is an end in itself. Under the changing circumstances of science these and other means of promoting stability must be reviewed for each new Edition. This has been done and the major changes proposed reflect that view. Like al1 zoologists, members of the Editorial Committee recognize that many names in current use are in breach of the existing Code and that no scientific purpose would be served by continuing to make them vulnerable to change for purely forma1 reasons. In the proposals for the Fourth Edition every effort has been made to ensure that names in present use will remain valid when the new Code comes into effect, or that they can be easily validated.

The proposed Edition differs from earlier ones in enabling zoologists, wherever possible, to adopt automatic solutions directly, rather than requiring them to defer decisions until the Commission has determined the outcome in response to formal applications. It is emphasized that in every such case the proposed "do-it-yourself" solution involves consultation with workers interested in the field. Recourse to the Commission remains in the event of disagreement and as a safeguard against abuse.

The notes below are intended to draw attention to the main proposals which distinguish the Discussion Draft from the current Code, and to indicate some of the reasons for making changes; the Draft itself must be consulted for details of the Articles and Recommendations. For the sake of continuity the order of Articles in the existing Code has been retained. The Draft does not contain the indexes, appendices and glossary which will be in the definitive Code, nor proposed administrative amendments to the Constitution of the Commission which have been published recently (Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature, 52: 6- 10).

1. Additional requirements for the availability of names first published after 1 996

Several proposals are made to improve the unambiguous definition and typification of new nominal taxa and the recognition and accessibility of their names. In practice the great majority of names published in recent decades meet the suggested requirements, but these will not apply retrospectively.

(a) Species-group taxa. (i) The new nominal species or subspecies must be explicitly indicated as

being new [Art. 16el. (ii) The name-bearing type (a holotype, or syntype series) of the new nominal

taxon must be unambiguously designated [Arts. 16e, 72~1. (iii) The diagnosis of the taxon must include a sumrnary of characters which

are considered to differentiate it fi-om at least one other of the sarne rank (i.e. related species or subspecies) which must be cited by name [Art. 16al.


(iv) The diagnosis must be given in a language which uses the Latin alphabet; it is recommended that the diagnosis should be given in a language which is widely used, and also in those of the regions relevant to the taxon [Art. 16bl.

(v) A new name must be recorded as such in the Zoological Record within five years of its first publication; if it is not, it is deemed not available from that publication [Arts. 8e, l lb] . Procedures and safeguards are recommended. Mandatory listing in the Zoological Record (which is accessible on paper, compact disk, and electronically) means that only this single source will need to be searched for the existence of new names.

(b) Genus-group taxa. The new requirements are the same as those given above, with the necessary changes of wording [Arts. I l b, 161. The designation of a name-bearing type (i.e. type species) is already required [Art. 13~1, and this is now extended to new ichnogenera (genera of trace fossils) [Arts. 16d, 661.

(c) Family-group taxa. The additional requirements are entirely analogous to those mentioned above. Tt is proposed that the name of the type genus must be explicitly cited [Art. 16~1.

II. Use of the term "epithet" in species-group names

Because there has been some confusion between the "name of a species" (which is a binomen) and the "specific name" (the word in the binomen which denotes the species), it is proposed that "specific name" be replaced by "specific epithet". The same applies to "subspecific epithet". This change is in harmony with the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature.

III. New provisions relating to the application of the Principle of Priority

Although priority is the main criterion in determining the validity of competing names the Draft makes provisions enabling zoologists to depart from it in some situations, without the recourse to the Commission required by the present Code.

(a) Conservation of junior synonyms. When a senior synonym has not been used as valid in the previous fifty years and a junior name has been universally and widely used in this period, then the junior name is to be given precedence [Art. 23jl.

(b) Conservation of subsequent spellings. Providing the same criteria as mentioned for junior synonyms are met, a subsequent spelling of a name which is different from that first published is to be accepted as the correct original spelling [Art. 33dl.

(c) Usage of family-group names contrary to priority. If two family-group names are in general current use such that the taxon denoted by the senior name (e.g. a subfamily) is included within that (e.g. a family) denoted by the junior name, such usage is to continue even though it is contrary to priority [Art. 35el.


IV. New provisions relating to the typification of nominal taxa

The additional criteria for a name published after 1996 to be available include some relating to type fixation, and these have been mentioned under 1 above. The draft contains other provisions which relate to typification but do not affect the availability of names, and which propose solutions independent of reference of cases to the Commission.

(a) Acceptance of name-bearing types found to have been rnisidentified.

(i) Family-group taxa: if a zoologist discovers that the type genus of a family- group nominal taxon had been misidentified when the taxon was established, or that there were errors or overlooked fixations in the typification of the type genus itself, the erroneous nominal fixations actually made should be accepted unless stability is threatened [Art. 41a].

(ii) Genus-group taxa: analogous provisions apply [Art. 70bl.

(b) Lectotype designations after 1996. It is proposed that a lectotype designation made after 1996 must give reasons and be unambiguous [Art. 74al.

(c) Status of neotypes following rediscovery of original type material. A validly designated neotype is to be retained as the name-bearing type of a species-group taxon if rediscovery of original type material causes no instability [Art. 75jl.

V. New provisions concerning the grammar and spelling of names

Zoologists have spent much time debating matters which are purely of grammar or spelling, and many destabilizing name changes have been caused as a result. Very few modern zoologists are at ease with Latin, although this was the language of international communication to Linnaeus and his successors (who, even so, were not always rigorous in their grammatical practices). Even fewer have any knowledge of classical Greek. The Discussion Draft attempts (i) to respect the names of the past but to preserve them in the forms in which they have been used in modem times, (ii) to avoid name changes, i.e. obstacles to information retrieval, made for non-taxonomic reasons, and (iii) not to regulate or "correct" the spelling of new names. The new provisions will no doubt be controversial, but the Editorial Comrnittee hopes that criticism of them will be for zoological or practical reasons and not simply on linguistic or historical grounds. The following changes are proposed.

(a) Gender of generic names. It is proposed that after 1996 generic names should be treated as words having no gender and therefore not affecting the spelling of adjectival specific epithets (e.g. albus, -a, -um) combined with them [Art. 301.

Consequent on this, the Editorial Comrnittee offers two alternatives [see Arts. 31b, 32c and 481 for discussion, as follows: Either: (i) After 1996 the original ending of such an epithet is to be used in al1 combinations, whether or not the combination is new and whether or not a change in an existing binomen results; or: (ii) the ending of such an epithet is to remain as it is in an existing combination (so a binomen


already in use for a species remains unchanged), but in new combinations first published after 1996 the original ending of the epithet is to be used.

(b) Acceptance of incorrect spellings.

(i) The original spelling of an adjectival species-group epithet fmt published after 1996 should be accepted as correct, even if its gender ending is grammatically improper in the original combination [Art. 3 1 b(iii)].

(ii) Certain endings of species-group epithets that are formed from persona1 names are to be treated as identical: thus spellings such as smithi and smithii are permissible variants [Art. 3 1 b(v)].

(iii) If an incorrect spelling of a name has been generally accepted that spelling is not to be changed [Arts. 29d, 33dl.

(iv) A new family-group name may be formed by adding the appropriate ending (e.g. -IDAE, -1NAE) to the entire name of the type genus, rather than only to its stem [Art. 29a, cl. This may be necessary to avoid the new family-group name being a junior homonym of one based on another generic name which has the same stem. The spelling of a new family-group name should not be emended by reason of having a grammatically incorrect stem [Art. 29~1. If a disused family- group name is a senior homonym of one in use its stem may be emended so as to conserve the junior name [Art. 55~1.

VI. Adoption of Lists of Available and Potentially Valid Names

In some taxonomic fields workers may wish to establish Lists of names at particular ranks (e.g. the family-, genus- or species-groups) which will automatically take precedence over any relevant narnes not listed [Art. 78j], so that the listed names and name-bearing types may be used with confidence (taxonomic validity being left, as always, to individual judgement). Procedures are proposed [Art. 771 for the adoption by the Commission of such Lists, it is being made clear that adoption will be only in response to initiatives by international bodies of zoologists interested in the relevant taxonomic fields and that extensive consultations will always be needed before the adoption of a List.

The Preface to the current (1985) edition points out (p. xii): "No Code is pegect. None will please everyone. Indeed, it is unlikely thut any Code would be completely satisfactory to any individual". Some of the innovations proposed for the Fourth Edition will be controversial, but the Editorial Committee believes that the Discussion Draft provides a significant advance for the future while respecting and preserving the names of the past.

We urge zoologists to test the changes proposed by the Editorial Committee constructively and without prejudice, with the needs of the wider biological community in mind, and with awareness of the changed circumstances of taxonomists today. We ask those who are not specialists but who use scientific names, in whatever way, to make suggestions so that the Code will meet their needs. We are aware that we are asking those who will comment on the proposals and those who will vote on their adoption, who are mostly specialists located in long-established centres, to review proposals sympathetically even though many will consider them unnecessary in their own situations. The most important of


these changes, if adopted, will widen the medium of publication beyond print media into an electronic age, will reduce dependence upon expensive and comprehensive library holdings and ancient works for nomenclatural searches, and will make farniliarity with classical Latin and Greek grammar unnecessary.

W e look forward to receiving suggestions that will improve the proposal, and for support that we are confident will result in the Commission and the International Union of Biological Sciences adopting on behalf of zoologists and users of scientific names a Fourth Edition that will more effectively meet the needs of the 21st century than could its predecessor.

Call for Nominations for New Members of ICZN The terms of service of the following members of the Commission will end at the close of the general session planned in conjunction with the International Congress of Systematic and Evolutionary Biology (ICSEB V) to be held in Budapest between A U ~ U S ~ 17-24, 1996:

Dr F.M. Bayer (U.S.A., Corallia); Prof J.O. Corliss (U.S.A., Protista); Prof Dr G. Hahn (Germany, Trilobita); Prof Dr O. Halvorsen (Norway, Parasitology); Dr Ya. 1. Starobogatov (Russia, Mollusca); Dr V.A. Trjapitzin (Russia, Hymenoptera).

Additional vacancies wili exist following the retirement of Prof L.B. Holthuis (The Netherlands, Crustacea) and Prof A. Willink (Argentina, Hymenoptera).

Al1 zoologists attending ICSEB will be able to take part in elections to the Commission.

The addresses and specialist fields of the present members of the Commission may be found in the Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature, 52 ( 1 ) : 3-4 (March 1995).

The Commission invites nominations, by any person or institution, of potential candidates for membership. Article 2b of its Constitution prescribes that: "The members of the Commission shall be eminent scientists, irrespective of nationality, with a distinguished record in any branch of zoology who are known to have an interest in zoological nomenclature."

(It should be noted that "zoology" here includes the applied. biological sciences (medicine, agriculture, etc.) which use zoologicai names).

Nominations made since June 1990 will be reconsidered automatically and need not be repeated. Additional nominations, giving the age, nationality and qualifications (by the criteria mentioned above) of each nominee should be sent by 1 June 1996 to:

The Executive Secretary, International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, CIO The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, U.K.

Biology lnternational N" 32 (Januaw 1996)

Towards Stability in the Names of Animals The International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature was set up on 18 September 1895. In recognition of its Centenary a history of the development of nomenclature since the 18th century and of the Commission has been published in mid-1995, entitled "Towards Stability in the Names of Animals - a History of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature 1895-1995" (ISBN O 85301 005 6).

The main text was wntten by R.V. Melville (former Secretary of the Commission) and has been completed and updated following his death. It contains 14 full-page pictures of eminent zoologists who played a crucial part in the evolution of the system of animal nomenclature as universally accepted today. Copies may be ordered from I.T.Z.N., c/o The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, U.K. or A.A.Z.N., c/o NHB Stop 163, National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C. 20560, U.S.A. The cost is £30 or $50 (including surface postage); members of the American and European Associations for Zoological Nomenclature are offered the reduced price of £20 or $35. Payment should accompany orders.

Measuring and Monitoring Forest Biological Diversity: the lnternational Network of

Biodiverçity Plots An international symposium on "Measuring and Monitoring Forest Biological Diversity: the International Network of Biodiversity Plots" has been organized by the Smithsonian Institution/Man and the Biosphere Diversity Programme (Francisco Dallmeier, Chairman), on 23-25 May, 1995 at the Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC, USA. A total number of 311 participants from 38 countnes attended this meeting. Countries represented by 10 participants or more were the United States of America (45). Venezuela (16), India (24). Cuba (20), France (13), China (10) and the United Kingdom (10).

The principal aim of the symposium was to illustrate the importance of baseline information provided by forest diversity plots for research, management and economic evaluation. Sustainable use of resources is possible if reliable data about changes in ecosystems and their impacts on biodiversity taking into consideration the consequences of human caused disturbance. An attempt is currently being made to provide a network of projects dedicated to collect and process data, make them available to the user communities for management and conservation. The SmithsonianIMan and the Biosphere Biodiversity Programme has been actively participating by creating and managing research and education projects on several study sites distributed with various climates throughout the world.

During this symposium, biologists involved in vanous programmes for biodiversity analysis based on sample-plots were given the opportunity to present data and results. Most of these studies concern tropical forests, where biodiversity patterns and ecological processes are still poorly known.

The first plenary session consisted of methodological presentations with special emphasis on the importance of 1) developing the use of monitoring plots for the purpose of collecting data necessary to any kind of biodiversity studies; 2) linking these 'plot-projects' within a network with the purpose of facilitating comparisons between the different sites and making information available for other scientists as


well as users; and 3) the socio-economic aspects of biodiversity, and the necessary link between researchers, managers and conservationists.

Further sessions were organized according to a geographical framework. Concurrent sessions were dedicated to Europe and North America, the Caribbean (mainly Cuba and Puerto Rico), Africa, Australia, tropical Asia. A plenary session was devoted to Central and South America, with 10 oral presentations. Posters were displayed following a geographical arrangement during the whole meeting, . In every session, oral (61) as well as poster (107) presentations demonstrated the diversity of topics served by biodiversity plots analyses. Many of them contained descriptive and quantitative data (in floristics and structure) which are still so strongly lacking, especially about tropical forests where species richness and abundance, distribution of rare species, etc., remain poorly documented. Exhaustive 'species counts' over small areas are performed in various sites and allow quantitative comparisons. Some presentations concerned forest dynamics (turn-over rates, seedling regeneration, mortality, plant-animal relationships). Most papers deait with different types of tropical forests : evergreen, montane (the Andes), mangroves (SE Asia), dry (Zimbabwe, Central America), and sacred groves in India ! Some other related to temperate forests (Canada, Russia), and a few even to open areas like the Venezuelan llanos. Several papers focused on the interest of monitoring long-term plots (Central and South America, Malaysia, Australia, Uganda). Some involved the pristine, undisturbed forests while others demonstrated the effects of human activity, for instance, by companng virgin and logged plots, or by evaluating the impact of forest fragmentation due to deforestation. Most papers concerning plant biota concluded that long-term monitoring plots provide a consistent method for the study of particular species or populations, like the threatened Malagasy palm Neodypsis decaryi, or the over harvested mahogany (Swietienia macrophylla) in Bolivia. Animal communities are also concemed (birds, mammals, amphibians, arthropods), including such topics like the impact of elephants on plant communities (Zimbabwe). Effects of serious natural damages like hurricanes are also being measured and monitored using biodiversity plots: four papers dealt with the effects of destruction by the hurricane Hugo (1989) in different sites in the Caribbean.

Methodological and technical aspects were also considered, including a novel method for climbing rainforest trees (Thailand) as well as the interest of using the developing geographic information systems (GIS, GPS), or remote sensing imagery for the purpose of characterizing tropical forests.

The closing session was dedicated to theory and methods, with speciai emphasis on sarnpling techniques and related problems, 'separating signal from noise' was one of the topics discussed. The question of the smallest reliable sampling area is still not definitely answered. As well as the related question: are there good indicators for evaluating global biodiversity among animal or plant taxa ?

The Proceedings volume will be published by the Smithsonian Institution Press (Washington and London) .

by Odile Poncy, CNRS URA 1183, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle,

Laboratoire de Phanérogamie, 12, rue Buffon, 75005 Paris, France


Third Quadrennial Conference of the lnternational Society of Hymenopterists

The Third Quadrennial Conference of the International Society of Hyrnenopterists was organized on 12 -17 August, 1995 at the University of Califomia, Davis, USA. The Organizing Committee was chaired by Dr. Lynn S. Kimsey, of the University's Dept. of Entomology. Eighty-three participants from 18 countries attended the conference sessions on Phylogeny, Taxonomy, Systematics, Behavior and Ecology, Control Agents, Physiology, togethcr with a Symposium on 'Vims-like Particles (VLP) in Parasitoid Species'.

Reviews of the main issues were given by Drs. N.E. Beckage (USA), D. Jones (USA), G. Prévost (France), O. Schmidt (South Australia), D.B. Stoltz (Canada), M.R. Strand (USA), B.S. Vinson (USA), N. Volkoff (France), B.A. Webb (USA), and J.B. Whitfield (USA).

Polydnaviruses (PDV) or Vims-like particles (VLP) are present in any studied Ichneumonid and Braconid Hymenoptera parasitizing Lepidopteran species. Because PDV and VLP, together with products from calyx-fluid and venom play a major role in the physiological and immunity interactions between insect hosts and parasitoids, several fields of research are presently concemed by this subject. They are insect physiology, biochemistry, molecular biology, molecular genetics, virology and evolutionary biology . The two main questions related to the origins of PDV genes (of host, parasitoid or are composite origin) were adresscd at the following three Ievels of interactions:

1) Interaction Vims-wasp: including the analysis of different groups of genes from PDV genome; comparison betwecn PDV and other viruses that are commonly found in cells of parasitoid ovaries; establishment of PDV cycle of development in adult wasp, and identification of the wasp stages when PDV replicates; search of sequence homology in DNA from PDV and wasps; search of antigenic relations between PDV (or VLP) proteins; and co-phylogenetic analysis of wasps and vimses.

2) Interaction PDV-host insect: including the search of sequence homology in DNA from PDV and host insects, and ihe search of the expression of PDV genes in host cells.

3) Interaction wasp-host insect: with emphasis put on the search of lectin-binding proteins; the identification of the peptides found in the host hemolymph; and the regulation of the host endocrine-system.

Parasitoids associated with Drosophila hosts'are the only ones where VLP seem to be missing. Evasion from encapsulation in wasps of Drosophila hosts may result either from specific interaction with the host selfInon self recognizing system, or from passive protection of the parasitoid (egg and lama) surfaces. Research in physiology, biochemistry, molecular biology and population genetics needs to be developed to investigate the particular status of those Drosophila parasitoids.

Geneviève Prévost. Laboratoire de Biologie des Entomophages,

Université de Picardie - Jules Verne, 33 rue Saint Leu, 80039 Amiens cedex, France


Second European Workshop on lnvertebrate Ecophysiology

The Second European Workshop on Invertebrate Ecophysiology has been organized on 11-15 September, 1995 in Ceské Budejovice, Czech Republic. Dr. Magdalena Hodkova, from the Institute of Entomology, Academy of Sciences, Branisovskà 31, 370 05 Ceské Budejovice, Czech Republic, chaired the Organizing Committee of the Workshop, which was attended by forty eight participants from 16 countries: Czech Republic (IO), Denmark (2), France (5). Greece (2), Germany (l) , Japan (5), Netherlands (2), Norway (2), Poland (l), Russia (4), Slovakia (l), South Africa (l), Switzerland (2), U.K (7), USA (2) and Yugoslavia (1).

The main topics adressed by the workshop included: Iatitudinal and altitudinal adaptations; resistance to cold and drought; cold hardiness, and regulation of super cooling and ice nucleation in insects; temperature effects; respiratory metabolism in relation to environment; co2 effects; various stressors; and diapausejlife history strategies.

At the roundtable organized during the workshop, a proposa1 was made to adopt descriptive terminology that "retains the principles of freeze tolerance and avoidance. but then expands this classification to include new classes of cold hardy insects-freeze tolerant, freeze avoiding, chill tolerant, chill susceptible and opportunistic survival- thus form a continuum of distinct groups, which recognises the full range of cold hardiness responses by using terminologies that accurately describe the conditions which under a species will live or die".

Manuscripts will be published in a special issue of European Journal of Entomology.

J. Boulétreau-Merle Laboratoire de génétique des populations (URA2055)

Université Claude Bernard, LYON 1, 43 Bld du 11 Novembre 1945, 69622 Villeurbanne Cedex, France.

The 4th lnternational Congress of Comparative Physiology and Biochemistry

The 4th International Congress of Comparative Physiology and Biochemistry, was held on 6-11 August, 1995 at International Conference Centre, Birmingham, U.K., at the invitation of the Society for Experimental Biology, U.K., and the contribution of the Association des physiologistes, France; Deutsche Zoologische Gesselschaft; Amencan Society of Zoologists; the European Society of Comparative Physiology and Biochemistry; the Japanese Society for Comparative Physiology, and Biochemistry and the Canadian Society of Zoologists. The International Board of the Congress is chaired by Dr. M. C. Thomdyke, and the Local Organising Committee by Dr. P.J. Butler.

More than five hundred participants from 29 countries attended the Congress, with five countries (Canada, Germany, Japan, UK, USA) accounting for over 70% of the total number of participants.

After the opening ceremony and 6 plenary lectures on the first day, oral and posted communications were organized in symposia dealing with the following: Motile

Biology International N3 32 (Januaty 1996)

Systems and Movement (72); Comparative Physiology of Vomiting (8); Gas Exchange (112); Metabolic Adaptations (120); Neurobiology (83); and Iono and Osmoregulation (96).

Several communications by Le Bail, Rand and Weaver, Viljagan and mainly by Hirano have dealt with the hormonal control of growth and osmoregulation in fish, with salmon and tilapia as most common examples. Three closely related pituitary neuropeptides are involved, growth hormone (GH), prolactin (PRL) and somatolactin (SL). GH main binding site is the liver, and it promotes cartilage and bone growth through IGF 1 ; GH also controls osmoregulation at the giil level by decreasing the sodium concentration in the plasma during adaptation to sea water. During adaptation to freshwater, PRL decreases the membrane permeability, increases sodium uptake through the gills and kidney, which result in the production of hypotonic urine.

Neuropeptides of crustacean were descnbed by Van Herp and Chang. The structures of the crustacean hyperglycemic hormone (CHH)-molt inhibiting hormone (M1H)- gonad inhibiting hormone (GIH) family has been established in several species. Four isoforms of CHH are present in sinus glands of the studied Decapod crustaceans. The functions of these peptides are less known than their structure. CHH is involved in glycemia regulation, oocyte development and displays molt inhibition activity. GIH inhibits oocycte development. MIH inhibits 20-hydroxyecdysone production by Y organs. Terpenoids produced by mandibular organs promote production of ecdysteroids.

The structure and expression of vertebrate-related peptides was described in invertebrates by several authors including Smit, Van Kesteren, Schooley. For instance, insulin-, vasopressin-, oxytocin- related peptides have been determined in invertebrates, but their receptors are unknown. As a speaker said, "we have lots of peptides, but their functions are unknown".

Osmoregulation and excretion in crustaceans were presented by Pequeux, Greenaway, etc ... The cuticle permeability, the type of nitrogenous excretion and the ontogeny of osmoregulation were stressed as adaptative processes in developing and adult crustaceans.

Abstracts of oral presentations and posters have been published in Physiological Zoology, 1995, 68, p. 1-198.

Dr. G. Charmantier Laboratoire d'Ecophysiologie des Invertébrés

Université Montpellier II 34095 Montpellier Cedex 5 France

Biology International N" 31 (July 1995)

BIODIVERSITÉ ET ENVIRONNEMENT

Institut de France, Académie des Sciences. Rapport no 33, June 1995 (88 pages).

Prepared by the Académie des Sciences following a request by the Minister of Research and Technology in France, this rcport aims at providing the French Government with the rationale and guidelines for establishing a national policy for biodiversity research and management. Also, the report recom- mends the establishment of a national co-ordination board for biodiversity, the set up of a network of observatories and of a national research programme on biodiversity, and the development of educational programmes and curricula for secondary and higher education sectors as well as cultural projects for the general public. It also proposes co- ord ina t ion mechanisms wi th international biodiversity convention and programmes

GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY ASSESSMENT

Coordinated by R.T. Watson (Chair), V.H. Heywood (Executive Editor), 1. Baste, B. Dias, R. Gamez, T. Janetos, W. Reid and G. Ruark. Published for the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) by Cambridge University Press. November 1995 (1 140 pages).

The Global Biodiversity Assessment (GBA) is an independent, peer reveiwed, scientific analysis and assessment of biological and socio-economic aspects of biodiversity. It was commissioned by (UNEP) and funded by the Global Environement Facility (GEF). GBA includes 13 Sections consisting of: (1) Introduction, aims, definition and coverage of GBA; (2) biodiversity characterisation; (3) magnitude and distribution; (4) generation, maintenance and loss; and ecosystem functioning: (5) basic principles and (6) ecosystem

analysis; (7) inventorying and monitoring; (8) the resource base for biodiversity assessments; (9) data and information management and communication; (10) biotechnology; (1 1) human influences on biodiversity; (12) the economic value of biodiversity; (13) measures for conservation of biodiversity and sustainable use of its components.

Also, a 46 page 'Summary for Policy Makers' has been prepared based on the information provided in the executive summaries of the different sections that make up the Global Biodiversity Assessment.

PROSPECTS IN BIODIVERSITY PROSPECTING

Edited by A. H. Zakri. Published by the Genetics Society of Malaysia and Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 1995 (287 pages).

With the adoption of the Convention on Biological Diversity at the Earth Summit in Rio, 1992, biodiversity prospecting, has become a major issue attracting the attention of the scientific community and policy makers, as well as the industrial and agricultural sectors.

The interest in biodiversity prospecting, Le., the search for wild species whose genes can yield new medicines and improved crops is focused on the so- called gene-rich countries, the majority of which are located in tropical regions of the world. This volume, which consists of the Proceedings of a Workshop held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia on 9-10 November, 1994, bnngs together the views of experts in various aspects of biodiversity prospecting, in particular, its relevance to Malaysia,. Emphasis has been put on Malaysian terrestrial and marine biodiversity; medicinal products and potential crops from the tropical rain forests of the Far East; economic valuation of genetic resources, genetic resources rights, and global cooperation

Biology International N" 32 (Januaty 1996)

in biodiversity prospecting and con- f u t u r e t a s k s f o r b iod ive r s i ty servation. conservation.

THE ECOLOGY OF THE THE GLOBAL HUMAN CHERNOBYL CATASTROPHE GENOME PROGRAMME Scientific Outlines of an International Programme of Published by OECD Megascience Forum. Collaborative Research Publications service, 2 rue André-Pascal,

75016 Paris, France. 1995 (75 pages)

By V.K. Savchenko, Published by UNESCO and The Parthenon Publishing Group, 1995 (200 pages)

This volume reviews eight years of study of the ecological impact of Chcrnobyl catastrophe on the environment, natural ecosystems, agro-ecosystems, human ecology, biological diversity, and genetic and socio-economic systcms, with each of seven chapters containing an ovcrvicw of present understanding, scientific h y p o t h e s e s a n d r e s e a r c h recommendations. A final chapter describes the setting up and aims of the multinational and multidimensional Chernobyl Ecological Science Nctwork.

This volume provides a useful source of information and refercnce to researchers and others concerned with the post- Chernobyl phenomenon, and more broadly with the large scale, multidimensional effects of hurnan technology.

THE FLORA AND FAUNA OF THE KOREAN PENINSULA AND THE CONSERVATION OF ITS BIODIVERSITY

Edited by B-H Lee. Joint publication of the Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Hungary and Korca Science and Engineering Foundation. 1994 (146 Pages)

This is the proceedings of a joint . seminar organised by the Hungarian

Academy of Sciences and the Korea Science and Enginecring Foundation on 6-12 February, 1994, in Budapest, Hungary. Focusing on the collaboration between the two countries, this volume includes 16 presentations dealing with biological surveys in South Korea, with pa r t i cu la r a t tent ion o n animal Systematics and floristic siudies and their

The OECD Megascience Forum aims to identify the stakes and new problems raised by global cooperation for large programmes that raise issues for common research directions, as weli as by the increased use of powerful computing tools and networks. This report presents a detailed analytical report, aimed at policy dccision makers, especial ly those responsible for promoting international cooperation andlor coordination on the situation of human gcnome research. It shows the status of this new rcscarch area, the importance of the means devoted to it, and the diff icult ics involved in cooperation. It also raises the question of h o 6 well this field fits the concept of megascience.

MICROBIAL DIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM FUNCTION

Edited by D. Allsopp, R.R. Colwell and D. L. Hawksworth. Published by UNEP and CAB International, U.K. 1995 (482 Pages)

Microorganisms are key components in the functioning of ecosystems and the importance of their role is being incrcasingly recognised. This book, which is based on papers presented at an IUBSIIUMS workshop on Micro- . organisms and the Maintenance of Bio- diversitv within the-framework of the DIVERSITAS Programme, provides an up-to-date review of the concepts and concerns in this important area of biodiversity studies. It includes more than thirty contributions covering a. wide range of topics: the extent of microbial diversity; the impact of microorganisms on global ecology and nutrient cycling: micro-organisms and ecosystem maintenance; microorganisms in extreme environments; inventory and monitoring


micororganisms and thc microbial rcsource base.

IMMUNOLOGY The Making of a Modern Science

By R.B. Gallagher, J. Gilder, G.J.V. Nossal and G. Salvatore. Published by Academic Press Ltd. 1995 (246 Pages)

Immunology has progrcssed in spectacular fashion in the last four dccades, attracting a continuous strcam of the brightcst thcoretical and experimental scicntists.

This book conveys the philosophies and approaches of sixtccn of the most successful of thcsc scicntists in the form of a series of narratives that dcscribe the circumstances that lcd to a major discovery in immunology. Comprising a serics of passionatcly biographical, persona1 essays that providc an unusually, this volume will bc esscnlial reading for al1 thosc with an iiiicrest in immunology, and in life scicnces in general.

NORWEGIAN RESEARCH PROJECTS RELATED TO BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

Edited by Thomas Hanstccn. Publishcd by the Research Council of Norway. Aîicr Rio Series Rcport No 4. 1995 (226 pages).

As a follow-up to the Convcntion on Biological Diversity (Rio 1992), the Norwegian authoritics are devcloping a National Action Plan on Biological Divcrsity. Part of the contribution of the Research Council of Norway made to this plan, this report consists of an overview of national rcsearch programmes related to biodiversity. It is based on a survey of 217 projects, involving 21 Norwegian rcsearch institutions and divided into 7 categories: Agriculture (12), Botany (31), Ecology (65), Freshwater Biology (IO), Zoology (38) and othcr fields such as economics, sociology and psychology etc. (15).

TRENDS IN MICROBIAL ECQLOGY

Edited by R. Guerrcro & C. Pedros-Alio. Publishcd by the Spanish Society for Microbiology, 1993 (717 pages).

This volume consists of the Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Microbial Ecology held on 6-11 Scptcmbcr, 1992, in Barcelona, Spain. Thc contents (143 contributions) are arranged from gencral to specific topics, closely related to both basic and applied microbiology. They present the resulls of the application of differcnt methods and approachcs to the analysis of the slructure and function microbial assemblages in the different natural environments. They also aim to contribute to the improvement of the environment and human well-being.

THE BIOLOGY AND FERTIEITY OF TROPICAL SOILS: Bibliography and Abstracts

Compiled by P.L. Woomer, N. Wangari, M.W. Kinyanjui and A. Ndung'u, Published by TSBF and UNESCO-ROSTA Nairobi, October 1995 (158 pages).

This bibliography was compiled by the staff of the Tropical Soi1 Biology and Fertility Programme of UNESCO and IUBS in response to its African Network scientists' identified nced for improved access to international literature. Contained within this compilation are 568 full citations and abstracts addressing plant nutrient relations, soil organic matter, soil biota, agricultural resource integration, rural development and the global significance of soil and land use change. This volume is intcnded as a desk top reference to the recent literature for agricultural and natural resource scientists, land use planncrs and university students.

Documents

BIOLOGY INTERNATIONAL · Biology International N" 32 (January 1996) Biodiversity The Implications for Human Health by HRH Princess Chulabhorn Didyasarin Mahidol, Thailand A lecture