BIOLOGY 20 CHAPTER 11 BLOOD AND IMMUNE SYSTEM

Nelson Pages 348 – 375

Dividing the cell into its parts (or fractions) is called cell

fractionation and is achieved by the process of centrifugation using a

centrifuge.

Average 70 kg person has about 5 L of blood

Blood

55 % fluid or plasma

45 % blood cells

Plasma

90 % H2O

Also:

Proteins, glucose, vitamins, minerals, dissolved gases, and waste products of metabolism

Types Functions

•Albumins •Osmotic balance – maintain H2O levels

•Globulins

(immunoglobulins)

•Antibodies, immunity

•Fibrinogen •Blood clotting

Red blood cells or RBC’s

Transport O2

Packed with hemoglobin

Greatly increases capacity of RBC to

carry O2, by 70 X

Heme – iron containing pigment

Globin – protein structure

Oxyhemoglobin - gives blood its red

color

RBC’s

Are biconcave

Greater surface area for gas exchange

Are enucleated (no nucleus) when

mature

More room for cell to carry hemoglobin

Are made in bone marrow –

erythropoieses

Are broken down by spleen and liver

Heme is transformed into bile pigments

Iron returns to liver for storage and bone

marrow for reuse

RBC’s and low O2 levels

Exercise, high altitude, hemorrhage

Lowers O2 levels in blood kidneys release REF RBC production in bone marrow

Anemia

Reduction in blood O2 due to low levels of hemoglobin or poor RBC production

Causes: hemorrhage, dietary deficiency in iron

http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/index_tj.asp?objid=AP14604

White blood cells or WBC’s

Outnumbered by RBC’s

Have a nucleus

Types of WBC’s

a.) Granulocytes – small

cytoplasmic granules are

visible, when stained

Produced in bone marrow

b.) Agranulocytes – do not

have granular cytoplasm

Produced in bone marrow but

are modified in lymph nodes

Phagocytes Destroy invading microbes by

phagocytosis

Diapedesis – move like an amoeba

• Lysosomes release digestive enzymes

Digests microbe as well as itself

• Pus forms – fragments of WBC and invader

A colored scanning electron micrograph of a macrophage engulfing a parasite of the Leishmania genus. To defend the body, macrophages will surround a foreign invader, bring it inside the cell, then use enzymes to digest the material.

Types of Phagocytes:

a.) Neutrophils:

Toxins, hemorrhage, fever, burns

b.) Eosinophils:

Allergies and parasitic worms

c.) Basophils:

Damage to tissues

http://www.wisc-

online.com/objects/index_tj.asp?objid=AP1

4704

Other WBC’s form antibodies which interfere with invading microbes

Neutrophils are very active in phagocyting bacteria and are present in large amount in the pus of wounds.

12

Eosinophils attack parasites and phagocyte antigen-antibody complexes.

13

Basophil secrete anti-coagulant and vasodilatory substances as histamines and serotonin. Even if they have a phagocytory capability, their main function is secreting substances which mediate the hypersensitivity reaction.

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The lymphocytes are the main constituents of the immune system which is a defense against the attack of pathogenic micro-organisms such as viruses, bacteria, fungi and protista. Lymphocytes yield antibodies and arrange them on their membrane.

15 Two types: B and T lymphocytes

Monocytes are the precursors of macrophages. After attaining maturity in the bone marrow, enter the blood circulation. Then they migrate into the connective tissue, where they become macrophages and move within the tissues. In the presence of an inflammation site, monocytes quickly migrate from the blood vessel and start an intense phagocytory activity.

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A.k.a thrombocytes Do not contain a nucleus

Produced in bone marrow

Move through blood vessels and initiate blood clotting reactions

Prevent blood loss

Process:

Microbes cannot enter but WBC’s can

wraps around cut and seals it

converted into fibrin

splices fibrinogen

becomes thrombin

Ca 2+ and thromboplastin activates prothrombin

platelet breaks apart and

releases thrombo-plastin

Platelet strikes a

torn blood vessel

Thrombus – blocks a blood vessel

Types: Coronary

Cerebral – stroke

If a blood clot moves or dislodges, it becomes an embolus Types of embolisms:

Pulmonary, coronary, cerebral

http://www.nucleusinc.com/medical-animations.php?page_no=3&show_anim=dvt.swf

Hemophilia

An inherited defect in the clotting process

Fluosol

Allows one to avoid blood transfusions

Provides a 5 day temporary period in which one’s bone

marrow may replenish RBCs

Contains fluorine

Requires no blood matching

May be frozen for long periods of time

Does not carry human viruses

Does not initiate blood clotting nor provide immunity

May be provided to patients who undergo multiple transfusions, due to disease

Read Section 11.1 in your textbook – Pages 348-353

Complete Section 11.1 Questions – Page 356 #’s 1, 3, 5-

7, 10-18

Blood micro-viewer activity

Fill in any unlabeled boxes for blood diagrams in your

workbook

Experiments with blood transfusions, the transfer of

blood or blood components into a person's blood

stream, have been carried out for hundreds of years.

Many patients have died and it was not until 1901,

when the Austrian Karl Landsteiner discovered

human blood groups, that blood transfusions became

safer.

Mixing blood from two individuals can lead to blood

clumping or agglutination. This can have fatal

consequences. Karl Landsteiner discovered that

blood clumping was an immunological reaction which

occurs when the receiver of a blood transfusion has

antibodies against the donor blood cells.

Karl Landsteiner's work made it possible to determine

blood types and thus paved the way for blood

transfusions to be carried out safely. For this

discovery he was awarded the Nobel Prize in

Physiology or Medicine in 1930.

IMPORTANT TERMS

Antigen

Molecules that cause the

synthesis of antibodies

when injected into another

organism

Antibody

Proteins found in blood that

attack and neutralize

substances that are foreign

to the body

The differences in human blood are due to the presence or

absence of certain protein molecules called antigens

(agglutinogens) and antibodies (agglutinins). The antigens are

located on the surface of the red blood cells and the

antibodies are in the blood plasma.

Individuals have different types and combinations of these

molecules. The blood group you belong to depends on what

you have inherited from your parents.

According to the AB0 blood typing system there

are four different kinds of blood types: A, B, AB

or 0

Blood group A

If you belong to the blood group A, you have A

antigens on the surface of your red blood cells

and B antibodies in your blood plasma.

Blood group B

If you belong to the blood group B, you have B

antigens on the surface of your red blood cells

and A antibodies in your blood plasma.

Blood group AB

If you belong to the blood group AB, you

have both A and B antigens on the surface

of your red blood cells and no A or B

antibodies at all in your blood plasma.

Blood group 0

If you belong to the blood group 0, you

have neither A or B antigens on the surface

of your red blood cells but you have both A

and B antibodies in your blood plasma.

ABO BLOOD TYPE SUMMARY:

AGGLUTINATION REACTION

According to above blood grouping systems, you can belong to

either of following 8 blood groups:

A Rh+

(34%)

B Rh+

(9%)

AB Rh+

(3%)

0 Rh+

(38%)

A Rh-

(6%)

B Rh-

(2%)

AB Rh-

(1%)

0 Rh-

(7%)

1. You mix the blood with three different reagents including either of the

three different antibodies, A, B or Rh antibodies.

2. Then you take a look at what has happened. In which mixtures has

agglutination occurred? The agglutination indicates that the blood has

reacted with a certain antibody and therefore is not compatible with blood

containing that kind of antibody. If the blood does not agglutinate, it

indicates that the blood does not have the antigens binding the special

antibody in the reagent.

3.If you know which antigens are in the person's blood, it's easy to figure out

which blood group he or she belongs to!

http://nobelprize.org/medicine/educational/

landsteiner/index.html

Try your luck with the Blood typing game!!!

People with blood group 0 are called "universal donors" and people with

blood group AB are called "universal receivers."

Universal Donors!

Universal Recipients!

Many people also have a so called Rh factor on the red blood

cell's surface.

This is also an antigen and those who have it are called Rh+.

Those who haven't are called Rh-. A person with Rh- blood does

not have Rh antibodies naturally in the blood plasma. But a

person with Rh- blood can develop Rh antibodies in the blood

plasma if he or she receives blood from a person with Rh+

blood, whose Rh antigens can trigger the production of Rh

antibodies. A person with Rh+ blood can receive blood from a

person with Rh- blood without any problems.

First studied in rhesus monkeys

Types

Rh positive: Have these antigens present on surface of RBCs

Rh negative: Do not have these antigens present

Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN)

Mother produces anti-Rh antibodies that cross placenta and cause agglutination and hemolysis of fetal RBCs

ERYTHROBLASTOSIS FETALIS

Type and crossmatch

Blood typing determines the ABO

and Rh blood groups of a blood

sample. A crossmatch tests for

agglutination reactions between

donor and recipient blood

•Complete blood count……The complete blood count

consists of the following: red blood cell count,

hemoglobin measurement (grams of hemoglobin per

100mL of blood), hematocrit measurement (percent

volume of red blood cells), and white blood cell count

Differential White blood count

It determines the percentage of

each type of white blood cell

Clotting

Platelet count and prothrombin

time measures the ability of the

blood to clot

•Blood chemistry….The composition of materials

dissolved or suspended in plasma (e.g. glucose, urea,

nitrogen, bilirubin and cholesterol) can be used to

assess the functioning and status of the body’s

system

A B AB O

A

B

AB

O

DO

NA

R

RECIPIENT

BLOOD COMPATIBILITY CHART:

= ANTIGEN of donor = ANTIBODY of recipient

Read Pages 354-355 in textbook

Complete Section 11.1 Questions – Page 356

#’s 1, 3, 5-7, 10-18

Blood micro-viewer activity

Fill in any unlabeled boxes for blood diagrams

in your workbook

11.2 THE BODY’S LINE OF DEFENSE

PAGES 357 - 366

Biology 20 Unit D

11.2 THE BODY’S LINE OF DEFENCE

Pathogen: an organism causing disease

An infectious disease may be caused by:

Viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, flatworms and

roundworms

Staphylococcus aureus can be pathogen in the right conditions on the surface of the

skin (causing impetigo and other skin conditions)

Parasites Malaria: Single-

celled protozoan

parasites of the

genus Plasmodium.

Four species infect

humans by entering

the bloodstream.

Head Lice

(adult stage)

Giardia: a fungi that

infects the intestines of

animals causing

“beaver fever”. People

most often get it from

drinking contaminated

water

TAPEWORMS, RINGWORMS, AND OTHER PATHOGENS

VIRUSES

Influenza Virus (Flu)

Human Immunodeficiency

Virus (AIDS)

BACTERIA

Salmonella typhimurium

(Food Poisoning)

Syphilis- is an infectious venereal disease

caused by the spirochete Treponema

pallidum

Elephantitis

I.) FIRST LINE OF DEFENCE: NONSPECIFIC AND EXTERNAL (P357)

Skin – protective

Acidic secretions (pH of 3 – 5)

Respiratory tract (windpipe) – mucus

and cilia sweep foreign material away

from lung

Stomach – acids and protein

digesting enzymes destroy microbes

Tears, saliva, mucous secretions –

lysozyme (enzyme) destroys bacterial

cell walls

II.) SECOND LINE OF DEFENCE – NONSPECIFIC AND INTERNAL (P357)

A. Phagocytes (WBC’s) destroy microbes

TYPES OF PHAGOCYTES

Phagocytosis Ingestion of invading microbes

by certain WBCs

Pus - remaining fragments of protein, dead WBCs,

digested invader

B. INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE

Tissue damage due to physical injury Initiates an inflammatory

response

Nonspecific response that results in swelling, heat, and pain

Clues to second line of defence:

Pus

Inflammation

Neutrophils and macrophages

digest invaders

Release chemicals

Reach hypothalamus

Reset body temperature

to about 40OC

Fever makes it difficult for

harmful bacteria to survive

Fevers 40OC can be unsafe

Enzymes start to denature

D. PROTECTIVE PROTEINS

- prevent multiplication of bacteria and viruses

i) complement active against bacteria

once activated, some complements form pores in

bacterial cell walls and membranes

pores allow salts and fluids to enter bacterial cell

bacterium expands until it bursts

E. INTERFERON

active against viruses

tissue cells infected by viruses

produce and secrete interferon

chemical binds to uninfected cells

these cells now produce

substances that interfere with viral

replication

slower, but more specific

white blood cells and lymph system are involved

WBC respond to antigens: any substance recognized as foreign to the body

often antigens are part of a bacterial cell wall, viral coat, or foreign cell membrane

CELLS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM OVERVIEW:

BONE MARROW

RBCStay and Mature

WBC

AGRANULAR: GRANULAR

1. Monocytes:-mature into macrophages

2. Lymphocytes

1. Basophils

2. Neutrophils

3. Eosinophils

mature in Thymus Gland

mature in Bone Marrow

T- cells B - cells

migrate to lymph nodes and spleen

circulate in blood and lymph

Called antibody mediated

immunity: antibodies move

thru blood and lymph

called cell-mediated immunity:

cells move thru blood and lymph

Immune system detects an antigen

T-cells multiply which attack

the invader directly

B-cells multiply which

produce antibodies

target: bacteria,

viruses, etc. that have toxins infected

host cells; cancer cells, implanted

tissues

target: free bacteria,

viruses, and in body fluids

1. CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY

a macrophage engulfs a bacterium, then the bacterial antigen, along with an identification protein, will be displayed on the macrophage membrane

appropriate T-cell and its receptor is presented with the antigen, and is now activated

T-cell then grows and divides into the following:

a) Helper T-cell

directly stimulates a B-cell by presenting an antigen to it

b) Killer T-cell

release a chemical which forms a pore in foreign cell membrane bearing an antigen; cell swells and bursts

c) Suppressor T-cells

number increases slowly

suppress immune response

d) Memory T-cells

recognizes original invading antigen; can last a life-time

lymphokines: chemicals which stimulate immune cells to divide

2. ANTIBODY-MEDIATED IMMUNITY

B-cells produce antibodies: proteins which combine with and inactivate antigens

antigen binds to membrane-bound

antibody on B-cell

many plasma cells

which produce and

release antibodies

into blood and lymph

memory B-cells that remain in

bloodstream

antibody level increases,

and antigens disappear from body

B-cell divides into:

SUMMARY OF 3RD LINE OF DEFENCE

KILLER T-CELLS (CYTOTOXIC T CELL) DESTROY INFECTED HOST CELLS…KILL THE VIRUS WHERE IT’S MADE!

http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp18/1

802004.html

http://highered.mcgraw-

hill.com/olc/dl/120110/micro33.swf

TASKS TO BE COMPLETED:

Read section 11.2 in your Textbook –

Pages 357-366

Section 11.2 Questions: 4, 6-8

Case Study: Bovine Spongiform

Encephalopathy (BSE) – Pages 361-363,

Questions 1-12.

Label the diagrams in the workbook

Biology 20 Unit D

Directions: READ Section 11.3 In the

TEXTBOOK and complete your own notes using

the following slides as a guide.

Section 11.3: Malfunctions of the

Immune System – Pages 367-370

11.3 MALFUNCTIONS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

Can cause two types of problems:

1. Immunodeficiency diseases

Caused by: Virus (HIV)

Hereditary condition (severe combined immunodeficiency) SCID

Gene mutation

Inability to produce T and B cells

Exposure to cancer therapy or use of anti – inflammatory

drugs

1. Inappropriate attacks of immune system against non – threatening agents

Allergies

Autoimmune disorders

I.) ALLERGIES

Immune system mistakes harmless cells as harmful

Symptoms:

Tissue swelling

Mucus secretion

Constricted air passages

Severe allergic reactions may cause anaphylactic reactions

Hives, itching, swelling

Cells that “believe” they are in danger release bradykinin Stimulates release of histamine

Produced by basophils (WBCs) and mast cells

•Increases permeability of cells of capillaries

Causes reddening

•PROTEINS AND WBCS LEAVE CAPILLARY IN SEARCH OF MICROBE

•Hypertonic, thus, water follows by diffusion

Reactions may be brought on by:

Medications, vaccines, foods

Anaphylactic shock can occur quickly

Weakness, sweating, difficulty breathing

Nausea, diarrhoea, drop in blood pressure

Treatments or prevention:

Antihistamines

Medical alert bracelet or necklace

Read labels

II.) AUTOIMMUNE DISORDERS

Immune system mistakenly attacks own cells of body

Renegade lymphocytes treat body’s cells as foreign and attack own body’s cells

Usually held in check

Mutated T and B cells

Theory: suppressors secrete a substance that tells macrophage to engulf renegade cells

Failure of suppressor T cells to control renegade lymphocytes

Rheumatoid arthritis

Against connective tissue of joints

Rheumatic fever

Scars heart muscle

Type I diabetes

Against insulin – producing cells of pancreas

Lupus

Accumulation of antigen – antibody complexes that build up on walls of blood vessels, kidneys, joints, and skin

Multiple sclerosis

Against myelin sheath of nerve cells

III.) ORGAN TRANSPLANT REJECTION Main challenge is immune system’s ability to

distinguish “self” from “nonself”

Donor organ is identified by distinctive protein markers on its cell membranes

Major histocompatability complex (MHC)

Unique to each individual

Organ recipient makes antibodies designed to destroy foreign invader

Attempts are made to match MHC of the tissues of donors and recipients as closely as possible

Close relatives

Recently deceased donors

To reduce rejection, immunosuppressant drugs are administered

Also reduces immune system’s ability to fight off invading microbes

Place patients at risk for infections

ORGAN TRANSPLANTS IN ALBERTA

Alberta’s Capital Health Regional Transplant Program

At the U of A Hospital and Stollery Children’s Hospital

HOPE (human organ procurement and exchange)

Coordination, recovery, and distribution of organs in Alberta

Tissues include: eyes (cornea and sclera), skin, heart valves, and bone

IV.) STEM CELL RESEARCH

Stem cells

Are pluripotent

Can give rise to different types of body cells

Can replace pancreatic islet cells that have been damaged

Can repair damaged cartilage or cardiac tissue

Exist in adult skin stems cells as multipotent stem cells

Can be directed to become neurons or muscle cells

Weakening of suppressor T cells:

Drugs or serious infections

Decline with age

Some people are born with defective suppressor T cells

Treatment

Immune suppressing drugs

Reduce intensity of renegade cells

Autoimmune disease

Immune system mistakenly attacks own cells of body

Mutated T and B cells

Failure of suppressor T cells

Attempts are made to match MHC of the tissues of donors and recipients as closely as possible

Close relatives

Recently deceased donors

To reduce rejection, immunosuppressant drugs are administered

Also reduces immune system’s ability to fight off invading microbes

Place patients at risk for infections

TASKS TO BE COMPLETED:

Read Section 11.3 in the Textbook- Pages 367-

370

Complete your own notes for this section

Complete Section 11.3 Questions: Page 370 #1,

4, 6

Prepare for Unit Exam:

Read over your notes! Highlight the key ideas!

Complete the fill in the blanks review for chapter

10-11 in your workbook

Try the Chapter 11 Review Questions: Page 374 # 1-

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