Research, The Research Process, Research

MethodologyLECTURE 2 (BIOLOGY 199)

MARILEN M. PARUNGAO

RESEARCH

viewed as a problem-solving activity

follows a logical series of steps (research process) which makes it different from other problem-solving activities

Research Methodology (Leedy, 1997)

the core concept underlying the research process

the methodology controls the study itself and the processes needed to realize the study

the methodology controls and dictates the acquisition of data, arranges them in logical relationships, sets up a means of refining the raw data, contrives an approach so that meanings that lie below the surface of those data become manifest, and finally issues a conclusion or series of conclusions that lead to an expansion of knowledge

the entire process is a unified effort as well as an appreciation of its component parts

The Process of Research: Logical Steps

THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION (LOOKING FOR A TOPIC)

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM

RESEARCHABILITY OF THE PROBLEM

FORMULATION OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

THE HEART OF THE RESEARCH PROJECT

REQUIREMENT: TO STATE THE PROBLEM WITH UNWAVERING CLARITY, PRECISION

WHAT IF I SIMPLY CANNOT FIND A GOOD PROBLEM?

IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM

WHERE TO FIND INTERESTING PROBLEMS...

JOURNALS, BOOKS, ABSTRACTS (LIBRARY/TRUSTED LINKS)

RECOMMENDATION SECTIONS OF THESES AND DISSERTATIONS/JOURNAL ARTICLES

IDEAS FROM YOUR MENTOR OR PROFESSOR

IDEAS FROM SEMINARS, RESEARCH COLLOQUIA AND CONFERENCES

PERSONAL/FAMILY EXPERIENCES

RARE/INTERESTING OCCURRENCES WHICH NEEDS TO BE EXPLAINED

TOP TEN CAUSES OF MORTALITY/MORBIDITY IN YOUR LOCALITY

CHARACTERISTIC OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM

SHOULD BE OF GREAT INTEREST TO YOU

USEFUL FOR THE CONCERNED PEOPLE IN A PARTICULAR FIELD

POSSESS NOVELTY

LAYS FOUNDATION FOR FURTHER RESEARCH IN THE FIELD

CAN BE COMPLETED IN THE ALLOTTED TIME DESIRED

MUST USE APPROPRIATE AND UP-TO-DATE TECHNOOLOGY

DOES NOT CARRY ETHICAL OR MORAL IMPEDIMENTS

A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM SHOULD BE

SMARTSPECIFIC, MEASURABLE, ACHIEVABLE,

REALISTIC, TIME-BOUND

IS MY PROBLEM WORTHY OF RESEARCH?

EXTERNAL FACTORS

NOVELTY AND AVOIDANCE OF UNNECESSARY REPETITION

PRACTICAL VALUE OF THE PROBLEM

IS MY PROBLEM WORTHY OF RESEARCH?

PERSONAL FACTORS

TRAINING AND PERSONAL QUALIFICATIONS

TIME REQUIREMENTS

AVAILABILITY OF SUBJECTS AND EQUIPMENTS

SPECIALIZED WORKING CONDITIONS

HAZARDS TO BE ENCOUNTERED

RESEARCH FUNDS (COST)

STATING YOUR RESEARCH PROBLEM

THE RESEARCH PROBLEM MUST BE STATED IN A CLEAR AND COMPLETE GRAMMATICAL SENTENCE IN AS FEW WORDS AS POSSIBLE!

WHAT’S WRONG WITH THESE RESEARCH

BUSING OF SCHOOL CHILDREN

RETIREMENT PLANS OF ADULTS

EFFECT OF PHARMACEUTICALS ON EMBRYO

E. COLI AND WATER QUALITY

FORMULATION OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

REFLECT THE QUESTIONS WHOSE ANSWERS THE INVESTIGATOR WANTS TO STUDY YIELD TO

CAN BE EXPRESSED EITHER IN THE FORM OF A STATEMENT OR A QUESTION

SERVES AS THE STEERING WHEEL IN THE CONDUCT OF A RESEARCH PROJECT

SERVES A S AGUIDE IN SPECIFYING VARIABLES TILL INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

SAMPLE OBJECTIVES

TO DEVELOP AN OPTIMIZED PROTOCOL TO DETECT FLAVIVIRUSES IN SERUM SAMPLES USING PCR

TO DETERMINE THE EFFICACY OF ORAL ADMINISTRATION OF PROBIOTICS IN MANAGING OBESITY

TO ESTABLISH THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PLANT HEIGHT AND FERTILIZER CONCENTRATION IN CORN

IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVESPHRASED CLEARLY, UNAMBIGUOUSLY AND SPECIFICALLY

STATED IN MEASURABLE TERMS AND DO NOT INVOLVE VALUE JUDGEMENT

GENERAL VERSUS SPECIFIC

GENERAL OBJECTIVE

a generic statement which describes in broad terms what the study wishes to accomplish

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE

contain indicators on how to accomplish the stated objectives and therefore, gives direction to the research process; identifies in detail and measureable terms the aims of the research study

EXAMPLE

General Objectives:

To investigate the histological effects of neem seed kernel extract on mouse testis

Specific Objectives

To determine/identify the changes in testes histology due to neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) exposure

To determine the relationship between neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) and occurrence of abnormal sperm morphology

To provide a feasible physiological basis for the anti-libido property of neem extract

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

After the research problem has been identified and the objectives formulated, a review of related literature needs to be done.

Two Important Uses:

• To get acquainted with the existing studies related to the research to be conducted relative to:

- who have done the work on the problem area- what has been found- research design utilized- statistical analysis applied- problem met and how were they resolved

• To establish a rationale or a theoretical or conceptual framework based on previous research studies done.

SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

Researcher must be shrewd in narrowing the scope of his study without becoming concerned with a trivial problem

Assumptions, restrictions and limitation must be explicit with respect to the coverage of the study

Helps focus attention on valid objectives, & helps minimize the dangers of over generalization

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN DELIMITING THE PROBLEM

the scope of the problem

time allotted for the conduct of the study

cost and funding

cooperation/coordination needed from other institutions or researchers

availability of research subjects

availability of equipment needed

ethical considerations

EXAMPLE

Impact of continuing education for health workers

The effect of continuing education activities conducted by the Department of Health (DOH) for its staff on their performance

The effect of workshops/seminars conducted by the DOH for its staff on their ability to manage the different programs of the DOH in the field

To determine the effect of the Master Trainor’s Course conducted by the DOH on the capabilities of the participants to plan, implement, monitor, and evaluate the training programs they conduct in the field

FORMULATION OF A TESTABLE

HYPOTHESIS

DEFINITION

A tentative explanation for certain phenomena, or events which have occurred or will occur (Gay,1976)

States the researcher’s expectations concerning the relationship between two or more variables in the research problem

Testable statement of a potential relationship between two or more variables (McGuigan, 1978)

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS

Stated in declarative form

Stated in definite terms, the relationship between variables

Should reflect the theory or literature that it is based on

Should be brief and to the point

Should be testable

TWO TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

“RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS AND THE NULL HYPOTHESIS”

THE NULL HYPOTHESIS

Ho

Never true or established but can be possibly disproved in the course of the experimentation

No difference relationship between the variables we want to study

May act as a starting point and as a benchmark against which the researcher will measure the actual outcome of the study once the researcher has collected the data

RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

HA

Alternative hypothesis

Relationship is always positive

EXAMPLES

Ho : Vitamin C does not inhibit chromosomal lagging

HA : Vitamin C does inhibit chromosomal lagging by 50% compared to placebo

Ho : Cerebral artery bypass is as effective as standard medical therapy

HA : Cerebral artery bypass is more effective than standard medical therapy

TWO TYPES OF RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

Non-directional – reflects a difference between groups, but the direction of the difference (unequal) is NOT specified

Directional – reflects a difference between groups and the difference is specified

IDENTIFICATION OF RESEARCH VARIABLES

Variable – any trait/characteristic that manifest differences irrespective of whether the differences are qualitative or quantitative

Qualitative – eye color, shape of teeth, sex

Quantitative – weight, height, length, light intensity, temperature

TYPES OF VARIABLE

Independent – the treatment variable

variables in the course of an experiment in an effort to understand the effects of this manipulation on some outcome (which you know as the dependent variable)

the variable which is presumed to cause, effect, influence, or stimulate the outcome

Dependent – outcome variables in a research study

refers to the outcome or response variable

Extraneous Variable – by themselves produce changes which may be mistaken to be the effect of the independent variable being considered

Controlled, held constant or randomized – so the effects are neutralized, cancelled out or equated for all conditions

TRY THIS...

PROBLEM: the effect of carbon dioxide loading on plant morphology

Identify the:

Independent variable

Dependent variable

Intervening/extraneous variable

CONSTRUCTION OF A RESEARCH DESIGN

represents the “plan of attack” of the researcher

in answering the research objectives

in obtaining all the relevant data in relation to objectives and hypothesis

the specific areas of concern in the choice of a research design are the following

selection and number of subjects

control and manipulation of relevant variables

establishment of criteria to evaluate outcomes

instrumentation

maximization of internal and external validity

FACTORS TO CONSIDER

research objectives

feasibility

ethical considerations

economy and efficiency

internal and external validity

INTERNAL VALIDITY

refers to extent to which investigator is able to control the different biases affecting the study and in the end, measures what he really intends to measure

Did the experimental treatment really bring about a change in the dependent variable?

Did the independent variable make a significant difference?

EXTERNAL VALIDITY

refers to the extent to which the investigator is able to generalize the results of his study

Are the results applicable to groups and environment outside of experimental setting?

DESIGN THE TOOLS FOR DATA COLLECTION

Experimentation

Questionnaire

Interview schedule and forms

DESIGN THE PLAN FOR DATA ANALYSIS

A number of researchers think about data analysis only after all data has been collected

Consequences:

Some very important variables in study are either not measured at all or collected using a measurement scale which is inconsistent with desired mode of data analysis

Objectives are too ambitious or non-measurable, given the nature of the data that were collected

THE SOLUTION...

A good practice is to construct a dummy table

Dummy Tables – skeleton tables drawn to help the investigator conceptualize how the data is going to be organized and presented after it has been collected

COLLECTION OF DATA

Essential phase of the research process

Researcher employs specialized tools, instruments and procedures depending upon the method designed for such activity

DATA PROCESSING

Process the information gathered to prepare for and facilitate analysis and interpretation of data.

Editing of data collection forms and coding of responses are procedures usually done in this stage

DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

Involves quantification, description, and classification of data

Statistics play a major role

Researcher must be familiar with basic statistical concepts and procedures and must know their limitations as well as the areas where they may be appropriately applied

DRAWING CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Researcher summarizes the discussion on the research findings and make a clear concluding remarks

Researcher identifies major points that were not raised in the present study and could lay the framework for future undertakings

WRITING OF RESEARCH REPORT

Researcher prepares report of different activities he has undertaken together with his findings

Report must be well-organized and presented in proper form and style

The basic principles of technical report writing are followed

REPORT OF RESEARCH FINDINGS

Publish findings in scientific journals and news releases

Presentation of results in scientific meetings

SO...READY TO DO YOUR RESEARCH???