Biologists have accumulated huge amounts of information about living organisms, and it would be easy to confuse students by teaching large numbers of seemingly unrelated facts

IB Environmental Systems and Societies

Syllabus Handbook

IB Environmental Systems and Societies at MMC

It is up to you to get things done!!

Throughout this course it is up to YOU to take charge of your OWN learning. It’s up to you to:

· make the most of the course

· prepare yourself for the exam

· complete all practical requirements

· enjoy yourself as you learn how environmental systems work

EXPECTATIONS FOR ESS STUDENTS:

1. You will mostly direct your own learning and use the available resources

2. You will keep track of your progress in the tables provided in your handouts

3. You will keep your notes in order so that you are able to find any topic at any time

4. You will check that your information is correct before you commit it to memory

5. You will ask when you need help

6. You will offer help to others

7. You will be on time and prepared to take an active role in the class

RESOURCES

· Student Text: IB Environmental systems and Societies Course Companion

· Class notes and handouts

· Class website

BY TAKING CHARGE OF YOUR OWN LEARNING, YOU WILL BE ABLE TO:

· Work in a way that suits YOU

· Work towards your personal goals

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

· IBO Environmental Systems and Societies Syllabus 2017

· Exam questions from IBO Question Bank CD: ESS

· Stephen Taylor, Bandung International School, Indonesia 2007 published on the Biology OCC.

Aims:

“The systems approach provides the core methodology of this course. It is amplified by other methodologies such as economic, historical, cultural, socio-political and scientific, to provide a holistic perspective on environmental issues.

The aims of this course are to:

1. acquire the knowledge and understandings of environmental systems at a variety of scales.

2. apply the knowledge, methodologies and skills to analyse environmental systems and issues at a variety of scales

3. appreciate the dynamic interconnectedness between environmental systems and societies

4. value the combination of personal, local and global perspectives in making informed decisions and taking responsible actions on environmental issues

5. be critically aware that resources are finite, and that these could be inequitably distributed and exploited, and that management of these inequities is the key to sustainability

6. develop awareness of the diversity of environmental value systems

7. develop critical awareness that environmental problems are caused and solved by decisions made by individuals and societies that are based on different areas of knowledge

8. engage with the controversies that surround a variety of environmental issues

9. create innovative solutions to environmental issues by engaging actively in local and global contexts.

Objectives:

These objectives reflect how the aims of the ESS course will be assessed. It is the intention of this course that students, in the context of environmental systems and related issues, are able to fulfil the following assessment objectives.

1. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of relevant:

· facts and concepts

· methodologies and techniques

· values and attitudes.

2. Apply this knowledge and understanding in the analysis of:

· explanations, concepts and theories

· data and models

· case studies in unfamiliar contexts

· arguments and value systems.

3. Evaluate, justify and synthesize, as appropriate:

· explanations, theories and models

· arguments and proposed solutions

· methods of fieldwork and investigation

· cultural viewpoints and value systems.

4. Engage with investigations of environmental and societal issues at the local and global level through:

· evaluating the political, economic and social contexts of issues

· selecting and applying the appropriate research and practical skills necessary to carry out investigations

· suggesting collaborative and innovative solutions that demonstrate awareness and respect for the cultural differences and value systems of others.

Big questions

The following big questions are intended as a guide to shape an overall concept-based approach to the delivery of this subject, and to encourage a holistic perspective on the relationship between human societies and natural systems. They have been designed to engender a vision of the overarching principles that are central to the course, and to encourage students to revisit central ideas in different contexts.

A. Which strengths and weaknesses of the systems approach and of the use of models have been revealed through this topic?

B. To what extent have the solutions emerging from this topic been directed at Preventing environmental impacts, limiting the extent of the environmental impacts or restoring systems in which environmental impacts have already occurred?

C. What value systems are at play in the causes and approaches to resolving the issues addressed in this topic?

D. How does your personal value system compare with the others you have encountered in the context of issues raised in this topic?

E. How are the issues addressed in this topic relevant to sustainability or sustainable development?

F. In which ways might the solutions explored in this topic alter your predictions for the state of human societies and the biosphere decades from now?

While these big questions do not in themselves add to the required syllabus content, they identify an approach that will be reflected in more open-ended examination questions. Table 3 shows which big questions have been identified as having particular relevance to each of the topics. This table is not intended to be comprehensive and teachers may find other selections more appropriate.

Big question

Possible relevant topics

A.

1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8

B.

3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8

C.

1, 3, 7, 8

D.

1, 3, 7, 8

E.

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8

F.

3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8

Nature of the Subject

ESS is an interdisciplinary group 3 and 4 course that is offered only at standard level (SL). As an interdisciplinary course, ESS is designed to combine the methodology, techniques and knowledge associated with group 4 (sciences) with those associated with group 3 (individuals and societies). Because it is an interdisciplinary course, students can study ESS and have it count as either a group 3 or a group 4 course, or as both. If students choose the latter option, this leaves the opportunity to study an additional subject from any other group, including an additional group 3 or group 4 subject.

ESS is a complex course, requiring a diverse set of skills from its students. It is firmly grounded in both a scientific exploration of environmental systems in their structure and function and in the exploration of cultural, economic, ethical, political, and social interactions of societies with the environment. As a result of studying this course, students will become equipped with the ability to recognize and evaluate the impact of our complex system of societies on the natural world. The interdisciplinary nature of the course requires a broad skill set from students and includes the ability to perform research and investigations and to participate in philosophical discussion. The course requires a systems approach to environmental understanding and problem-solving, and promotes holistic thinking about environmental issues. It is recognized that to understand the environmental issues of the 21st century and suggest suitable management solutions, both the human and environmental aspects must be understood. Students should be encouraged to develop solutions from a personal to a community and to a global scale.

Through the exploration of cause and effect, the course investigates how values interact with choices and actions, resulting in a range of environmental impacts. Students develop an understanding that the connections between environmental systems and societies are diverse, varied and dynamic. The complexity of these interactions challenges those working towards understanding the actions required for effective guardianship of the planet and sustainable and equitable use of shared resources.

International Dimension

Although the ESS course requires the study of environmental systems and societies at a range of scales, from local to global, the teaching of the course should be firmly grounded in the local environment. The syllabus contains many references to “local examples”, and fieldwork may be based on local ecosystems.

On a broader scale, the course also leads students to an appreciation of the nature of the international dimension of ESS, since the resolution of the major environmental issues rests heavily upon international relationships and agreements. On an organizational level, many international bodies exist, such as the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO); the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP); and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). In addition, there are many international bodies representing every branch of environmental science. ESS teachers and students are encouraged to access the extensive websites and databases of these international organizations and bodies to enhance their appreciation of the international dimension.

It is widely accepted that many environmental problems are international in nature and this has led to a global approach to research in many areas such as climate change, biodiversity and population dynamics. The data from such research is shared worldwide and much of this is freely available to students.

The power of scientific knowledge to transform societies is unparalleled. It has the potential to produce great universal benefits, or to reinforce inequalities and cause harm to people and the environment. In line with the IB mission statement, ESS students need to be aware of the moral responsibility to ensure that scientific knowledge and data are available to all countries on an equitable basis, and that countries have the capacity to use this for developing sustainable societies.

Students’ attention should be drawn to sections of the syllabus with links to international-mindedness. Examples of issues relating to international-mindedness are given within sub-topics in the “Syllabus content” section of the guide. Teachers could also use resources found on the teacher resource exchange.

Environmental scientists work internationally at all levels. In this course, students may share data collected with those in other ib diploma programme schools on other continents just as professional scientists pool their data. Students taking this course should thus become more aware of the diversity of cultural perspectives on the environment (aim 4) and appreciate that environmental issues may be controversial as they cross geographical and cultural boundaries (aim 7).

Syllabus Overview

Syllabus component

Recommended teaching hours

Core content

Topic 1—Foundations of environmental systems and societies

Topic 2—Ecosystems and ecology

Topic 3—Biodiversity and conservation

Topic 4—Water and aquatic food production systems and societies

Topic 5—Soil systems and terrestrial food production systems and societies

Topic 6—Atmospheric systems and societies

Topic 7—Climate change and energy production

Topic 8—Human systems and resource use

120

16

25

13

15

12

10

13

16

Practical scheme of work

Practical activities

Individual investigation

30

20

10

Total teaching hours

150

Syllabus Details

THIS SECTION OUTLINES THE ASSESSMENT STATEMENTS SET BY THE IBO:

· Work through the progress tracker to keep track on how you are going

· Make sure you are keeping up with your notes and cover any statements that may be missing from your class or homework.

· KEEP ALL YOUR NOTES AND WORKSHEETS IN A FOLDER SO YOU KNOW WHERE TO LOCATE ANY TOPIC AT ANY TIME.

· Pay attention to the command terms and the objectives in each statement. Often, the exam question is identical to the assessment statement.

TRACK YOUR PROGESS THROUGH THE SYLLABUS:

· As you cover an assessment statement in class or as part of an assignment, highlight it with a marker and tick the “class” box.

· Once you have revised the work, put a tick under the “home” column.

· If you are 100% sure that you could walk into an exam and answer a question on that statement (remember the command term and objective), stick a check or a smiley face under “I’m confident”.

· It’s a simple, visual way to track your progress, but it just might work for you.

· TRY IT....

Objective

Statement

1.1. …

Covered the notes

Revised in class

I’m confident

Knowledge and

Understanding

1. Significant historical influences on the development of the environmental movement have come from literature, the media, major environmental disasters, international agreements and technological developments

2. An EVS is a worldview or paradigm that shapes the way an individual, or group of people, perceives and evaluates environmental issues, influenced by cultural, religious, economic and socio-political contexts

Assessment

Your IB mark is derived from the following. However, your class mark is derived from class work as well. More information on each of these will be provided throughout the course.

Assessment component

Weighting (%)

Approximate weighting of objectives in each component (%)

Duration (hours)

1 and 2

3

Paper 1 (case study)

25

50

50

1

Paper 2 (short answers and structured essays)

50

50

50

2

Internal assessment

(individual investigation)

25

Covers objectives 1, 2, 3 and 4

10

Mathematical Requirements

All Diploma Programme environmental systems and societies students should be able to:

· perform the basic arithmetic functions: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division

· use simple descriptive statistics: mean, median, mode, range, frequency, percentages, ratios, approximations and reciprocals

· use standard notation (for example, 3.6 × 106)

· use direct and inverse proportion

· interpret frequency data in the form of bar charts, column graphs and histograms, and interpret pie charts

· understand the significance of the standard deviation of a set of data

· plot and sketch graphs (with suitable scales and axes)

· interpret graphs, including the significance of gradients, changes in gradients, intercepts and areas

Command Terms

These command terms indicate the depth of treatment required for a given assessment statement. These command terms will be used in examination questions, so it is important that students are familiar with the following definitions. They are used throughout the syllabus to let you know what you are expected to do with each piece of information. PLEASE learn them early and get a head-start!

EXAM TIPIf you know the meanings of all the command terms, then you know what the examiner expects you to do – no more, no less. Pay attention to the number of marks available for that question and make at least that many relevant points (better to try to make >2 extra points)

Objective 1

Define

Give the precise meaning of a word, phrase, concept or physical quantity.

Draw

Represent by means of a labelled, accurate diagram or graph, using a pencil. A ruler (straight edge) should be used for straight lines. Diagrams should be drawn to scale. Graphs should have points correctly plotted (if appropriate) and joined in a straight line or smooth curve.

Label

Add labels to a diagram.

List

Give a sequence of brief answers with no explanation.

Measure

Obtain a value for a quantity.

State

Give a specific name, value or other brief answer without explanation or calculation.

Objective 2

Annotate

Add brief notes to a diagram or graph.

Apply

Use an idea, equation, principle, theory or law in relation to a given problem or issue.

Calculate

Obtain a numerical answer showing the relevant stages of working.

Describe

Give a detailed account.

Distinguish

Make clear the differences between two or more concepts or items.

Estimate

Obtain an approximate value.

Identify

Provide an answer from a number of possibilities.

Interpret

Use knowledge and understanding to recognize trends and draw conclusions from given information.

Outline

Give a brief account or summary.

Objectives 3 and 4

Analyse

Break down in order to bring out the essential elements or structure.

Comment

Give a judgment based on a given statement or result of a calculation.

Compare and contrast

Give an account of similarities and differences between two (or more) items or situations, referring to both (all) of them throughout.

Construct

Display information in a diagrammatic or logical form.

Deduce

Reach a conclusion from the information given.

Demonstrate

Make clear by reasoning or evidence, illustrating with examples or practical application.

Derive

Manipulate a mathematical relationship to give a new equation or relationship.

Design

Produce a plan, simulation or model.

Determine

Obtain the only possible answer.

Discuss

Offer a considered and balanced review that includes a range of arguments, factors or hypotheses. Opinions or conclusions should be presented clearly and supported by appropriate evidence.

Evaluate

Make an appraisal by weighing up the strengths and limitations.

Explain

Give a detailed account, including reasons or causes.

Examine

Consider an argument or concept in a way that uncovers the assumptions and interrelationships of the issue.

Justify

Provide evidence to support or defend a choice, decision, strategy or course of action.

Predict

Give an expected result.

Sketch

Represent by means of a diagram or graph (labelled as appropriate). The sketch should give a general idea of the required shape or relationship, and should include relevant features.

Suggest

Propose a solution, hypothesis or other possible answer.

To what extent

Consider the merits or otherwise of an argument or concept. Opinions and conclusions should be presented clearly and supported with appropriate evidence and sound argument.

Top tips for Exam Success!

1. Practice, practice, practice, practice, practice, practice, practice, practice, practice,

2. Learn the Command Terms!

3. Revise well ahead of time

4. Check that you are happy with all the relevant sections in the syllabus. Can you give them a ‘(’?

5. Start your revision with the bits you DON’T like – then you can fill in the gaps before you start going over all the stuff you already know

6. Practice some more. Ask for more practice. And then do more practice. There are only so many questions the examiners can think of, so if you master them all, you can’t go wrong!

In The Exam

1. Read the paper through once completely before you even write anything down. It will help you judge the time.

2. Read every question carefully. Avoid silly mistakes

3. Highlight the Command Terms as you go through – it will help you focus on what the examiner wants to read

4. If the question is worth one mark, write one point. If it is worth five marks, they are looking for five bits of information. If possible write six or seven relevant points. Pay attention to the marks!

5. Of course, CHECK YOUR ANSWERS.

Strategies for Data-based Questions:

· Questions will ask you to read the data or draw conclusions from it.

· Check the marks for each question. The examiner will compare your answer to the accepted answer. You can write as much as you like as long as you don’t contradict yourself. If you write something wrong, no marks are deducted, BUT if you contradict yourself, you will receive no marks.

· You are expected to use the data within the question

· Become familiar with units - kJm-2yr-1

· If asked to calculate , you must show working

· Compare – clearly relate BOTH similarities and differences between 2 sets of data, usually involves numeric data and MUST include units. Do a full comparison and be sure to state whether any difference is an increase or decrease.

· Use a RULER to draw lines on graph to help you increase your chance of being within the tolerance allowed by mark scheme.

Strategy for Open-ended Questions

· You MUST be familiar with Command terms. Discuss, explain, describe and outline – give the facts, not an opinion or theory.

· Explain – relate mechanism of how something works, usually requires a long response. There are no penalties for writing too much. Check the marks.

· Discuss – make sure you present at least two alternate views. Eg. Imagine there is a discussion question on conserving the rainforest. You must give opposing views why the rain forest should and should not be conserved.

· List – you must give the EXACT number of things asked. Eg. If asked to list 3 factors which affect distribution of plant species – only list 3. If you list 4, the fourth answer will not be marked.

Things to Remember

1. The examiner does not know you. You must communicate fully what you know and not expect the examiner to “fill in the blanks” for information that you do not relate.

2. State the obvious in your answers. Many of the items in the mark scheme will be information that is very basic in relation to the question.

3. Do not use abbreviations that may be unfamiliar to someone else. Be clear and concise with your choice of words

4. If you have handwriting which is very small or not clear, PRINT your response. If the examiner cannot read your writing, you will get NO MARKS.

Choosing and Using Graphs

Graphs can help you to:

· Understand what is happening in your data (analysis).

· See trends in different variables (interpretation).

· See how one factor affects another (correlation).

· Communicate information to other people.

Basic Terms

Data – is information that you collect when you measure or count objects (e.g. lengths of antennae on grasshoppers).

Variable – is the aspect or fact that you are taking measurements or counts of (e.g. eye colours, heights of individuals).

Continuous data – this is data which is obtained by taking measurements (e.g. height, temperature, and heart rate). Continuous data always has units (e.g. °C, mm, beats/minute).

Discrete data – this is data which is collected by counting individual objects rather than by taking measurements. Discrete data has no units (e.g. number of each plant species in a lawn area).

Categories – are square classes into which individuals can be grouped (e.g. male/female).

Size categories – this is when data is obtained by measuring (e.g. heights) and then individuals are placed into class size intervals (e.g. 1 to 5 mm/6 to 10mm/11 to 15mm) and counted up.

Constructing an Effective Graph

GRAPH CHECKLIST

1. Use graph paper

2. Use a pencil and ruler

3. Make your graph a good size

4. Draw in the two axes with a ruler

5. Put the INDEPENDENT variable (if there is one) on the HORIZONTAL axis

6. Scales on each axis should go up evenly (but not necessarily have to start at zero).

7. Scales increase upwards and from left to right

8. Adjust the scale to fit the range of data (so that it covers the highest and lowest values)

9. Give your graph a title which explains what it is about (try to include the variables)

10. Plot the points accurately with a small ‘x’

11. Label both axes with the name of the variable and units (use abbreviations for scientific units)

12. Use a key with plotting symbols if you plot several lines

Types of Graphs

Interpreting Graphs

In many scientific investigations you are trying to find out if there is any connection or relationship between two factors or variables. Interpreting graphs involves identifying patterns and trends. If a trend is present then it suggests some kind of relationship or connection between the two variables; and there are a variety of different kinds of relationships possible.

EXAMPLES

Animal Metabolic

Human Weight/Height

Rate and Weight

Human IQ and Head Size

Height

Metabolic

I.Q.

(cm)

rate

Weight (kg)

Animal weight (kg) Head circumference (cm)

There are also some statistical tests that can be done to determine the strength of correlation between two variables (e.g. the “Coefficient of linear Correlation” test).

Example: (for a line graph about photosynthesis with the variables being light intensity and the number of bubbles of oxygen given off per minute)

“As light intensity increased, the rate of photosynthesis (as shown by the oxygen given off) increased rapidly initially but then levelled off to a constant value”

Thanks to Rod Murphy from Bandung International School, Indonesia

ESS Extra Reading Book List

To increase higher-level thinking and environmental philosophy in this course, students are encouraged to read a novel or two from the list below.

Reading List

Ishmael, by David Quinn

Breakfast for Biodiversity, by John Vandermeer and Ivette Perfecto

Song for the Blue Ocean, by Carl Safina

A Sand County Almanac, by Aldo Leopold

Walden Pond, by Henry Thoreau

A Civil Action, by Jonathan Hair

Earth in Balance, by Al Gore

Deception Point, by Dan Brown

A Silent Spring, by Rachael Carson

Other choices are possible with instructor approval.

Television Documentaries and current affairs programs are informative and broaden our understanding and perspectives on environmental issues. Students should watch various programs, as appropriate, and are encouraged to journal their reflections about their viewing.

Environmental Systems and Societies Glossary

Abiotic factor A non‑living, physical factor that may influence an organism or ecosystem; for example, temperature, sunlight, pH, salinity, precipitation.

Biochemical oxygen demand

(BOD)A measure of the amount of dissolved oxygen required to break down the organic material in a given volume of water through aerobic biological activity.

Biodegradable Capable of being broken down by natural biological processes; for example, the activities of decomposer organisms.

Biodiversity The amount of biological or living diversity per unit area. It includes the concepts of species diversity, habitat diversity and genetic diversity.

Biomass The mass of organic material in organisms or ecosystems, usually per unit area. Sometimes the term “dry weight biomass” is used where mass is measured after the removal of water. Water is not organic material and inorganic material is usually relatively insignificant in terms of mass.

Biome A collection of ecosystems sharing similar climatic conditions; for example, tundra, tropical rainforest, desert.

Biosphere That part of the Earth inhabited by organisms, that is, the narrow zone (a few kilometres in thickness) in which plants and animals exist. It extends from the upper part of the atmosphere (where birds, insects and windblown pollen may be found) down to the deepest part of the Earth’s crust to which living organisms venture.

Biotic factorA living, biological factor that may influence an organism or ecosystem; for example, predation, parasitism, disease, competition.

Carrying capacity The maximum number of a species or “load” that can be sustainably supported by a given environment.

Climax community A community of organisms that is more or less stable, and that is in equilibrium with natural environmental conditions such as climate; the end point of ecological succession.

Community A group of populations living and interacting with each other in a common habitat.

Competition A common demand by two or more organisms upon a limited supply of a resource; for example, food, water, light, space, mates, nesting sites. It may be intraspecific or interspecific.

Correlation A measure of the association between two variables. If two variables tend to move up or down together, they are said to be positively correlated. If they tend to move in opposite directions, they are said to be negatively correlated.

Crude birth rateThe number of births per thousand individuals in a population per year.

Crude death rate The number of deaths per thousand individuals in a population per year.

Demographic transition A general model describing the changing levels of fertility and mortality in a human population over time. It was developed with reference to the transition experienced as developed countries (for example, those of North America, Europe, Australasia) passed through the processes of industrialization and urbanization.

Diversity A generic term for heterogeneity. The scientific meaning of diversity becomes clear from the context in which it is used; it may refer to heterogeneity of species or habitat, or to genetic heterogeneity.

Diversity, genetic The range of genetic material present in a gene pool or population of a species.

Diversity, habitatThe range of different habitats or number of ecological niches per unit area in an ecosystem, community or biome. Conservation of habitat diversity usually leads to the conservation of species and genetic diversity.

Diversity index A numerical measure of species diversity that is derived from both the number of species (variety) and their proportional abundance.

Diversity, species The variety of species per unit area. This includes both the number of species present and their relative abundance.

Doubling timeThe number of years it would take a population to double its size at its current growth rate. A natural increase rate of 1% will enable a human population to double in 70 years. Other doubling times can then be calculated proportionately, that is, the doubling time for any human population is equal to 70 divided by the natural increase rate.

Ecological footprint The area of land and water required to support a defined human population at a given standard of living. The measure takes account of the area required to provide all the resources needed by the population, and the assimilation of all wastes. (A method of calculation is provided in 3.8.2.)

Ecosystem A community of interdependent organisms and the physical environment they inhabit.

EntropyA measure of the amount of disorder, chaos or randomness in a system; the greater the disorder, the higher the level of entropy.

Environmental impact

assessment (EIA)A method of detailed survey required, in many countries, before a major development. Ideally it should be independent of, but paid for by, the developer. Such a survey should include a baseline study to measure environmental conditions before development commences, and to identify areas and species of conservation importance. The report produced is known as an environmental impact statement (EIS) or environmental management review in some countries. The monitoring should continue for some time after the development.

Equilibrium A state of balance among the components of a system.

Eutrophication The natural or artificial enrichment of a body of water, particularly with respect to nitrates and phosphates, that results in depletion of the oxygen content of the water. Eutrophication is accelerated by human activities that add detergents, sewage or agricultural fertilizers to bodies of water.

Evolution The cumulative, gradual change in the genetic characteristics of successive generations of a species or race of an organism, ultimately giving rise to species or races different from the common ancestor. Evolution reflects changes in the genetic composition of a population over time.

Feedback The return of part of the output from a system as input, so as to affect succeeding outputs.

Feedback, negative Feedback that tends to damp down, neutralize or counteract any deviation from an equilibrium, and promotes stability.

Feedback, positiveFeedback that amplifies or increases change; it leads to exponential deviation away from an equilibrium.

Fertility In the context of human populations, this refers to the potential for reproduction exhibited in a population. It may be measured as fertility rate, which is the number of births per thousand women of child‑bearing age. Alternatively it may be measured as total fertility, which is simply the average number of children a woman has in her lifetime.

Gaia The Gaia hypothesis (developed by James Lovelock and named after an ancient Greek Earth goddess) compares the Earth to a living organism in which feedback mechanisms maintain equilibrium.

Global warming An increase in average temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere.

GNPGross National Product, the current value of all goods and services produced in a country per year.

Greenhouse gases Those atmospheric gases which absorb infrared radiation, causing world temperatures to be warmer than they would otherwise be. This process is sometimes known as “radiation trapping”. The natural greenhouse effect is caused mainly by water and carbon dioxide. Human activities have led to an increase in the levels of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide (dinitrogen oxide, N2O) in the atmosphere, and there are fears that this may lead to global warming.

Habitat The environment in which a species normally lives.

Halogenated organic gases Usually known as halocarbons and first identified as depleting the ozone layer in the stratosphere. Now known to be potent greenhouse gases. The most well known are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).

Isolation The process by which two populations become separated by geographical, behavioural, genetic or reproductive factors. If gene flow between the two subpopulations is prevented, new species may evolve. See evolution.

K-strategist Species that usually concentrate their reproductive investment in a small number of offspring, thus increasing their survival rate and adapting them for living in long‑term climax communities.

Latitude The angular distance from the equator (that is, north or south of it) as measured from the centre of the Earth (usually in degrees).

LEDC Less economically developed country: a country with low to moderate industrialization and low to moderate average GNP per capita.

MEDCMore economically developed country: a highly industrialized country with high average GNP per capita.

Model A simplified description designed to show the structure or workings of an object, system or concept.

Mutualism A relationship between individuals of two or more species in which all benefit and none suffer.(The term symbiosis will not be used.)

Natural capital A term sometimes used by economists for natural resources that, if appropriately managed, can produce a “natural income” of goods and services. The natural capital of a forest might provide a continuing natural income of timber, game, water and recreation.

Natural capital,

non-renewableNatural resources that cannot be replenished within a timescale of the same order as that at which they are taken from the environment and used; for example, fossil fuels.

Natural capital, renewable Natural resources that have a sustainable yield or harvest equal to or less than their natural productivity; for example, food crops, timber.

Natural capital, replenishable Non‑living natural resources that depend on the energy of the Sun for their replenishment; for example, groundwater.

Natural increase, rate of The form in which human population growth rates are usually expressed: Inward and outward migration is ignored.

NicheA species’ share of a habitat and the resources in it. An organism’s ecological niche depends not only on where it lives but also on what it does.

Parasitism A relationship between two species in which one species (the parasite) lives in or on another (the host), gaining all or much (in the case of partial parasite) of its food from it.

Plate tectonics The movement of the eight major and several minor internally rigid plates of the Earth’s lithosphere in relation to each other and to the partially mobile asthenosphere below.

Pollution The addition to an environment of a substance or an agent (such as heat) by human activity, at a rate greater than that at which it can be rendered harmless by the environment, and which has an appreciable effect on the organisms within it.

Pollution, non-point source The release of pollutants from numerous, widely dispersed origins; for example, gases from the exhaust systems of vehicles.

Pollution, point source The release of pollutants from a single, clearly identifiable site; for example, a factory chimney or the waste disposal pipe of a factory into a river.

Population A group of organisms of the same species living in the same area at the same time, and which are capable of interbreeding.

Productivity, gross (GP) The total gain in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time, which could be through photosynthesis in primary producers or absorption in consumers.

Productivity, gross primary

(GPP)The total gain in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time fixed by photosynthesis in green plants.

Productivity, gross secondary

(GSP)The total gain by consumers in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time through absorption.

Productivity, net (NP)The gain in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time remaining after allowing for respiratory losses (R). Other metabolic losses may take place, but these may be ignored when calculating and defining net productivity for the purpose of this course.

Productivity, net primary

(NPP)The gain by producers in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time remaining after allowing for respiratory losses (R). This is potentially available to consumers in an ecosystem.

Productivity, net secondary

(NSP)The gain by consumers in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time remaining after allowing for respiratory losses (R).

Productivity, primary The gain by producers in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time. This term could refer to either gross or net primary productivity.

Productivity, secondaryThe biomass gained by heterotrophic organisms, through feeding and absorption, measured in units of mass or energy per unit area per unit time.

r-strategistSpecies that tend to spread their reproductive investment among a large number of offspring so that they are well adapted to colonize new habitats rapidly and make opportunistic use of short-lived resources.

Sere The set of communities that succeed one another over the course of succession at a given location.

Smog The term now used for any haziness in the atmosphere caused by air pollutants. Photochemical smog is produced through the effect of ultraviolet light on the products of internal combustion engines. It may contain ozone and is damaging to the human respiratory system and eyes.

Society An arbitrary group of individuals who share some common characteristic such as geographical location, cultural background, historical timeframe, religious perspective, value system, and so on.

Soil A mixture of mineral particles and organic material that covers the land, and in which terrestrial plants grow.

Soil profileA vertical section through a soil, from the surface down to the parent material, revealing the soil layers or horizons.

Speciation The process through which new species form. See also evolution.

SpeciesA group of organisms that interbreed and produce fertile offspring.

Stable equilibrium The condition of a system in which there is a tendency for it to return to a previous equilibrium condition following disturbance.

Standing crop See biomass.

Steady‑state equilibrium The condition of an open system in which there are no changes over the longer term, but in which there may be oscillations in the very short term. There are continuing inputs and outputs of matter and energy, but the system as a whole remains in a more or less constant state (for example, a climax ecosystem).

Succession The orderly process of change over time in a community. Changes in the community of organisms frequently cause changes in the physical environment that allow another community to become established and replace the former through competition. Often, but not inevitably, the later communities in such a sequence or sere are more complex than those that appear earlier.

Sustainability Use of global resources at a rate that allows natural regeneration and minimizes damage to the environment. For example, a system of harvesting renewable resources at a rate that will be replaced by natural growth might be considered to demonstrate sustainability.

System An assemblage of parts and the relationships between them, which together constitute an entity or whole.

System, closedA system in which energy, but not matter, is exchanged with its surroundings.

System, isolated A system that exchanges neither matter nor energy with it surroundings.

System, open A system in which both matter and energy are exchanged with its surroundings (for example, natural ecosystems).

Trophic level The position that an organism occupies in a food chain, or a group of organisms in a community that occupy the same position in food chains.

Zonation The arrangement or patterning of plant communities or ecosystems into parallel or sub‑parallel bands in response to change, over a distance, in some environmental factor. The main biomes display zonation in relation to latitude and climate. Plant communities may also display zonation with altitude on a mountain, or around the edge of a pond in relation to soil moisture.

Name : …………………………………………………

Always use a pencil and ruler to draw graphs.

Some types of graph can have colour added after the basic graph is completed.

Pie graphs are circles divided up into pieces or segments. The area of each segment represents the percentage of individuals which fall into a particular category.

Pie graphs should only be used with discrete grouped in categories and then converted into percentages of the total number.

Bar graphs and column graphs have the data displayed in either vertical columns or horizontal bars.

The height of the column or the length of the bar represents the number of individual objects in a particular category.

Bar and column graphs should be used when the data is discrete and is grouped into separate categories (e.g. blood types).

A histogram has columns which touch each other. The width of each column represents a class size interval (e.g. 5 to 10 mm in length)./ The height usually indicates the number of individuals (or %) which fall into each class interval.

Histograms should only be used with data grouped into class size intervals rather than data sorted into distinct categories.

A Line graph consists of a series of points plotted on the grid and then connected together by a line or curve.

Line graphs are only used when both variables are continuous. They are very useful for showing how changing one variable (e.g. light intensity) affects another (e.g. rate of photosynthesis).

With a scatter graph the points are plotted on the grid but they are usually not joined with a line or curve.

Scatter graphs are only used when both variables are continuous.

These graphs are useful for showing if a relationship exists between two variables (e.g. a relationship between antennae length and number of body segments) especially when it is not possible to alter either of the variables involved.

. : . .

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. . .

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(c) No correlation – people with larger heads do not necessarily have higher IQ.

(a) Positive correlation – heavier people tend to be taller and lighter people tend to be shorter.

(b) Negative correlation – heavier animals have a lower metabolic rate.

Some terms and phrases that could be useful when describing trends in a line graph are :

rapidlyslowlyregularlyunevenly erraticallysmoothly

became constantreached a peakfluctuatedlevelled off

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