Index

Note: Page numbers followed by f indicate figures and t indicate tables.

AAgars, 215Airlift photobioreactors, 170Algae oils

algal fuel/biodiesel, 171–175, 177–179cellular biochemistry, lipid synthesis, 157–158microalgae (see Microalgae)transesterification, 175–177

Algal biofuelsbiodiesel (see Biodiesel, algal biofuels)biodiesel selling price, cultivation systems, 280, 280fbioethanol (see Bioethanol, algal biofuels)biomass and lipids productivity, 280bio-oil (see Bio-oil, algal biofuels)capital and operating cost, 281closed photobioreactors, 265–269commercial cultivation plants, technical assessment,

262–263conventional flocculants, 271co-product, carbohydrate, 279–280, 282dehydration/drying, slurry, 271–272EER, energy crops and algae, 263, 263tfossils, 261harvesting, algal biomass, 269–270, 270tland-based plants, 261–262LCAs, 262–263market potential and feasibility, 272open ponds (see Open pond systems, algal biofuels)phytonutrients and proteins, 279–280preliminary cost analysis, 278production, commercial scale, 278production cost, 279progressive R&D efforts, 278–279renewable and sustainable energy, 261solar drying, 272technical challenges, 262techno-economic feasibility, 278thickening methods, 270–271types, 261–262water consumption cost, 281

Algal biomasscarbohydrate profiles, 237–238

327

composition, 237harvesting (see Harvesting, algal biomass)harvesting of microalgae, 239microalgae/defatted microalgae, 238production systems, 239red seaweeds, 237–238

Algal fuel/biodieselpost-harvesting steps, 171–172preparation

cell disruption, 172–173extraction, algae oil (see Extraction, algae oil)

processing, 172fproperties

fatty acid composition, 179tmicroalgae biodiesel characterization, 178tphysical properties, 177–178pour point, 177–178

Alginates, 214

BBiochar, 211Biodieselalgal biofuels

heterogeneous catalyst, 273–274homogeneous catalyst, 273in situ transesterification, 274–275lipid extraction, 272–273

fatty acid alkyl esters, 211microalgae fuel production

acetyl CoA pools, 48–4916- and 18-carbon fatty acids, 48–49animal species, lipid droplet proteome, 52de novo biosynthesis, TAG, 51DGATs catalyzation, 49–51ectopic expression, WRI1 results, 51–52fatty acid assembly, ER and chloroplast, 51GPAT and LPAAT, 49lipid and TAG biosynthesis, 48lipid biosynthesis and fatty acid, 51–52lipid droplets/lipid bodies, 52malonyl-ACP by MCT synthesis, 48–49MLDP, 52

328 INDEX

Biodiesel (Continued)

mRNAs, 49–51nitrogen deficiency, 49–51nitrogen starvation, 51nutrient starvation, 48oleaginous green microalgae species, 48pathways and subcellular localizations, 48–49, 50fPDATs, 49

production, oilcake, 211Bioethanol, algal biofuels

bioethanol yield, 275–276, 276tcarbohydrate extraction, biomass, 275gasoline, 275high carbohydrate contents, algal strains, 275hydrolysis methods, 275–276supercritical CO2 extraction, lipids, 276

Biofertilizers, biomass applications, 19–20Biofuels. See also Cultivation, microalgae

biomass applications, 19low-value biomass production

advantages, microalgae, 321biogas value, 321–322closed photobioreactors, 322–323depreciation, 322design and operation optimization, open raceways,323–324

energy, 323–324hydrothermal liquefaction, 322microalgae-based, 321–322open raceways, scaled up to 600 tons/year, 322, 323fraceway reactors, 322third-generation biofuel source, 321wastewater and flue gases, 321–322, 321f

Biofuels production. See also Algal biofuelsalgal biomass

culture medium, 144energetic issue, 144market value, 145pyrolysis (see Pyrolysis)vinasse, 145zero carbon emissions, 143

spent biomassbiochar, 211biodiesel, 211bio-oil, 210–211ethanol, 209–210halogenated materials, 222–224hydrogen, 209lipid compounds, 218–220phenolic materials, 224pigment materials, 220–222polysaccharide material, 212–215proteinaceous compounds, 215–217

Biohydrogen, microalgae fuel productionadvantages, Chlamydomonas genetics, 56aerobic photosynthetic growth to anaerobic

physiology state, 52bioreactor design and operation, 195–197CEF, 55–56cells immobilization, solid surface, 57direct biophotolysis, 201economic evaluation, 198–199electron transport pathways, hydrogen production,

53, 54fFDXs, 55[FeFe]-hydrogenases catalyzation, 53genetically modified microorganisms, 201genetic and metabolic engineering approaches, 54–55hexose uptake protein, Chlorella kessleri, 55–56hydrogenase, 199hydrogen production (see Hydrogen production,

biophotolysis)integration, biology and engineering, 57low hydrogen yield and production rate, 200metabolic engineering/biotechnology strategies, 52mutant algae, 200mutants defective, D1 protein, 55Nac2 gene, 56photo-fermentation-based and dark-fermentation-

based H2 production units, 57reduced FDX, 53sequential mutagenesis, 56–57spectroscopy analysis, 56–57starch accumulation, 54starch metabolism, H2 evolution, 53sulfur deprivation enhancement, 53–55truncated chlorophyll antenna size, photosystems,

200–201Biomass

applications

biofertilizers, 19–20biofuels, 19biopigments, 18biopolymers, 18–19drugs, 18food, 17–18

harvesting processcentrifugation, 14electrophoresis, 15filtration, 14–15flocculation, 14flotation, 15removal of biomass, culture medium, 13sedimentation, gravity, 14selection, 13techniques, 13

329INDEX

Bio-oilalgal biofuels

bioethanol production, 277heterogeneous catalysts, 277–278hydrothermal liquefaction, 276–277lignocellulosic biomass, 276–277poor quality, 276–277pyrolysis, 276–277wet algal slurry, 277

productionDunaliella tertiolecta, 210–211microalgal spent biomass, 210Microcystis viridis, 210–211pyrolysis, 210thermochemical liquefaction, 210

Biopigments, biomass applications, 18Biopolymers, biomass applications, 18–19Bioreactor

biohydrogen production

algal photobioreactors, 196flat panel reactors, 196hythane, 197multistage bioreactors, 197, 197fmutant algae, 195–196open-pond culture systems and enclosed bioreactor

facilities, 195photobioreactors, 195single-stage, 197truncated chlorophyll antenna size, 195–196tubular photobioreactors, 196–197

design and operationairlift reactors, 32–33closed vs. open systems, 29

Bioremediationcarbon dioxide sequestering, 224wastewater treatment, 225

Botryococcus braunii, CO2 fixationbotryococcenes, 77exopolyssaccharides synthesis, 77hydrocarbon accumulation, 77phosphorus and nitrogen, 77photosynthetic organism, 77strain SAG 30.81, 77

Bubble column PBRs, 170–171

CCarbondioxide (CO2)

biofixation/sequestration, microalgae, 156fixation (see CO2 fixation)sequestering, 224

Carbon market, microalgalcap-and-trade system, 81credits, 81

domestic and industrial wastes, 82energy-use policies, 81fossil sources, 81Kyoto Protocol, 81trades, carbon papers, 81–82

Carbon sources, microalgae cultivation systems, 24Carrageenans, 214CCM. See CO2-concentrating mechanisms (CCM)CEF. See Cyclic electron flow (CEF)Cell disruption, algae cellsbead-beating method, 173expeller press method, 172–173

Cell recycling, continuous cultivationalgal species/strains, 129cell bleeding, 129glucose mass supply and volumetric perfusion rate,

127–129, 128fgrowth and glucose consumption, 127–129, 128fperfusion culture, 127–129time course, growth and glucose consumption,

127–129, 128fCentrifugation, algal biomass harvestingalgae separation, 101analogous to sedimentation tanks, 101hydrocyclone, 101nozzle-type centrifuge, 102solid-bowl decanter centrifuge, 101–102solid-ejecting disc centrifuge, 102

CERs. See Certified emission reductions (CERs)Certified emission reductions (CERs), 106Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB)algal removal efficiency, 100surfactants, 99–100

Chlorella

B vitamins, 8chlorophyll and photosynthetic capacity, 7classification, 7compounds, nutritional benefits to human health, 8description, 7protein content, 8

Chlorella protothecoides, heterotrophic algal oilsclassification and species, 129–130description, 129downstream processes, 130–133oil production, 130, 131t, 132trRNA-based phylogenic approach, 129–130

Chlorella vulgaris, CO2 fixationconcentration, 76description, 76enzyme carbonic anhydrase, 76

Closed photobioreactorsactive compounds, 318algal biofuels

330 INDEX

Closed photobioreactors (Continued)

airlift tubular photobioreactor, 266–269biological and physiological characteristics, 266CO2 transfer and mixing, 266–269cultivation cycles, 266energy consumption, algal culture systems,266–269, 269t

PBRs designs, 266, 267tanalysis, production costs, 319–320, 320fbiomass productivity, 319–321Chlorella biomass, 319comparison, microalgae production, 16, 16tdescription, 16flat panels/open raceways, 320–321functional food, human and animals, 318homogeneity, medium and mass transfer, 16labor reduction, 320marine strains, 318–319photosynthetic efficiency and higher production,

biomass, 2production, Scenedesmus almeriensis dry biomass, 319,

319fClosed systems, microalgae cultivation systems

advantages, 31flat plate photobioreactors, 33–34horizontal tubular photobioreactors, 34–35photobioreactors, 31prospects and limitations, culture systems, 31, 32trequirements, GMP guidelines, 31types, 31vertical column photobioreactors, 31–33

Coagulation-flocculation, algal biomass harvestingadsorption and bridging model, 92algae-harvesting technologies, 91alkaline flocculants, 91–92anionic polyelectrolytes, 92autoflocculation, 93commercial product, chitosan, 92–93fungi pelletization-assisted bioflocculation process,

93–94inorganic, 91lime treatment, 93long-chain organic, 92marine environment, polyelectrolytes, 92monovalent and divalent bases, 91–92optimal coagulant dosages, 93satisfactory treatment, algal pond effluent, 91settled algal cells, 92–93

CO2-concentrating mechanisms (CCM), 166–167CO2 fixation

biological mitigation, 68carbon market, microalgal technologies (see Carbon

market, microalgal)

chemical reaction-based CO2 mitigation approach, 68conservation, direct and indirect mitigation

techniques, 67evaluation, nutrient needs, 68existence, microalgae, 68mass cultivation (see Mass cultivation, CO2 fixation)mass-cultivation techniques, 68microalgae (see Microalgae, CO2 fixation)microalgal metabolism, 67–73open pond systemsengineering, photobioreactor, 11gas absorption, reactions, 11horizontal/airlift photobioreactors, 11microalgal cultivation, 11open tanks, 11production, biomass, 11reduction in pH, 11

photosynthesis (see Photosynthesis, CO2 fixation)rate, carbon uptake, 68reducing/absorbing GhG, 67relocation, 67

Commercialization. See Algal biofuelsContinuous cultivation

algal growth, TFA andDHAproduction, 125–126, 127fwith cell recycling, 127–129continuous, perfusion and perfusion-bleeding culture

systems, 125–126, 126fdescription, 125–126

Cost analysis, microalgae biomass productionequipments and equipment size, 314exponential law, 315–316labor, 315materials, 315steps, 314–315, 315fwater, 315

Cross-flow ultrafiltration, 96CTAB. See Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB)Cultivation, microalgae

advantages and disadvantages, open and closed algalplants, 28–29, 29t

AGS system, 36–40algae biomass, 36Algenol’s Direct to Ethanol�, 36, 37t, 40fcarbon sources, 24closed cultivation systems (see Photobioreactors

(PBRs))closed systems (see Closed systems, microalgae

cultivation systems)comparison, biofuel companies, 36, 37tdescription, 168emissions to environment, 299–300flexible plastic film photobioreactors, Algenol, 36, 41fand growth medium, 294–296

331INDEX

light supply, 25–26limitations, 36nitrogen source, 24–25open pond systemscategories, 169Chlorella, 7–8Dunaliella, 8drawbacks, 169parameters, 6–7Spirulina, 7types of bioreactors, 6

operating conditions, 296–297PBR designs, 29pH, 26–27physiological and growth characteristics, 29production, biofuels, 28production, high-value products, 29quantity and quality, CO2, 298–299salinity, 27sapphire’s green crude farm, raceway open ponds, 40,

42fseambiotic’s pilot plant, 40, 42fSolazyme’s heterotrophic algae cultivation platform,

40–41, 43fSolix Lumian�, AGS4000 system, 36–40, 42ftemperature, 26

Cyclic electron flow (CEF)ATP/NADPH ratio, 55–56moc1 mutant, 55–56optimal photosynthetic activity, 55–56

DDark/heterotrophic fermentation, 193–195Deep-bed filtration

algal cells separation, pond effluent, 96description, 96intermittent sand filtration, 96

Defatted microalgae, 238Dewatering

algae cultivation, harvesting and processing, 86, 86fcoagulation-flocculation and gravity sedimentation,

105downstream processing, 89electrical approaches to algae, 102–103plate-and-frame filter press filtration, 94–95

DGATs. See Diacylglycerol acyltransferases (DGATs)Diacylglycerol acyltransferases (DGATs)

acyl-CoA, 49overexpression, arabidopsis, 49–51

Dietary fibersantitumor and antiherpetitic bioactivity, 212, 213tedible marine macroalgae, 212

Direct hydrothermal liquefaction (DIRHTL), 253–254

Direct photolysis, hydrogen productioncyanobacteria, 190–191description, 190hydrogenase-mediated, 190, 191fmerits, 191plastoquinone, 190

DIRHTL. See Direct hydrothermal liquefaction(DIRHTL)

Dispersed-air flotationclasses, reagents, 100CTAB and SIDS, 99–100froth-flotation method, 99–100harvesting algae, dilute suspensions, 99pH level, 100removal efficiency, live and dead algae, 100selectivity, air-bubble attachment, 100

Dissolved-air flotationliquid stream saturation, 98production, fine air bubbles, 98–99solids concentration, harvested slurry, 99

Downstream process, Chlorella protothecoidescell-wall disruption, 133cultures, 130–133harvest and drying, 130–133transesterification, 133

Dryingalgae cultivation, harvesting and processing, 86, 86fbiomass

methods, 16production, low-cost commodities and high-value

products, 15–16downstream processing, 89and oil extraction, 104

Dunaliella

biological activities, 8CO2 fixation, 78eukaryotic green algae, 8natural source, b-carotene, 8saline stress, NaCl concentration, 8salinity with optimal growth, 8

EEER. See Energy-efficiency ratio (EER)Electroflotation, 99Endogenous substrate catabolism, 193, 199–200Energy-efficiency ratio (EER)algal biodiesel, 263–265defined, 263energy conversion efficiency, 263energy crops and algae, 263t

Energy, LCAsclimate change and endpoint impacts, electric mixes,

293–294, 293f

332 INDEX

Energy, LCAs (Continued)EcoInvent database and ReCiPe impact assessment

method, 293–294sources, biomass and biofuels, 291–293, 293t

Environmental impact assessment, LCAscoproducts issue, 303–304description, 303energy balance, 305environmental impacts, 305–306

Ethanol production, 209–210Expeller pressing, 172–173Extraction, algae oil

enzymatic treatment, 175hydrothermal liquefaction, 174osmotic shock, 175PEF processing, 175SC-CO2, 174solvent extraction, 173Soxhlet extraction, 173–174ultrasonic extraction, 174wet lipid extraction process, 174

FFast pyrolysis

condenser effluent gases, 148fluidized bed reactor, 147heating, 147incondensable gases combustion, 148low moisture content, 149probable mechanisms, 149, 149freactor temperature, 147–148residence time, 148, 149steps and reactions, 149system, 147unit, 148f

FDXs. See Ferredoxins (FDXs)Fed-batch cultivation

algal cultures and cells build up, 124growth and glucose consumption and lipid

production, 124, 125fheterotrophic oil production, C. zofingiensis, 124substrates, 124

Feed, spent biomassanimal feed, 226fertilizer (plant feed), 225

Ferredoxins (FDXs)and CEF, 55–56[FeFe]-hydrogenases, 55photosynthetic electron transport chain, 53

Filtration, algal biomass harvestingadvantages, 94cross-flow ultrafiltration, 96deep-bed, 96

forcing algal suspension,medium to suction pump, 94frequent backwashing, 94magnetic, 96pressure, 94–95problems, 94surface/deep-bed, 94vacuum, 95

Flat panel photobioreactors, 171Flat plate photobioreactors

advantages, photoautotrophic microorganisms, 33–34hydrodynamic stress, microalgae cells, 33–34plate-type, microalgae cultivation, 33–34, 34f

Flocculation, biomass harvesting process, 14Flocculation-sedimentation, 97Flotation

advantages, 98classification and separation process, 98description, 15, 98dispersed-air, 99–100dissolved-air, 98–99divisions, 102–103electroflotation, 99flocculation-flotation process, 98limited algae biomass, 98ozone, 100–101variations, 98

FU. See Functional unit (FU)Fuel production, microalgae

biodiesel (see Biodiesel, microalgae fuel production)biofuel feedstocks, 47biohydrogen (see Biohydrogen, microalgae fuel

production)custom-made molecular toolkits, 59economics, microalgae-based, 59–60elucidation, molecular mechanisms, 59green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, 47–48integrated omics approaches, 59LCE (see Light conversion efficiency (LCE))microalgal biology, 47–48recycling and recovery, co-products, 58–59

Functional unit (FU)biomass transformation, 290, 292fdescription, 289–290input, biomass production and conditioning, 290, 292fLHV/HHV, 290and perimeters, selected studies, 290, 291tstudies/technological options, 289–290vectors, bioenergy, 290

GGlycerol-3-phosphateacyltransferase (GPAT)

lipid metabolism and catabolism, 52and LPAAT, 49

333INDEX

Glycolipids, 219GMP. See Good manufacturing practice (GMP)

guidelinesGood manufacturing practice (GMP) guidelines, 31GPAT. See Glycerol-3-phosphateacyltransferase (GPAT)Gravity sedimentation, algal biomass harvesting

algae separation, 97clarification, simple tanks/ponds, 97description, 96flocculation-sedimentation, 97lamella-type sedimentation tanks, 97

HHaematococcus sp., CO2 fixation, 78–79Halogenated materials

bioactivities, polyphenol and halogenatedcompounds, 223–224, 223t

iodine, 222–223Harvesting, algal biomass

anaerobic digestion, waste oilcakes, 106aquatic photosynthetic organisms, 85–86biofuel production, 86, 86fcentrifugation (see Centrifugation, algal biomass

harvesting)CERs, 106coagulation-flocculation (see Coagulation-

flocculation, algal biomass harvesting)coal-firedpowerplants/sewage treatment facilities, 106cultivation and nutrients, 86definition, 89disadvantages, 105electroflocculation techniques, 102–103electrophoresis and electroflotation, 102–103energy-efficient and cost-effective harvesting, 104expensive culture systems and cost of harvesting, 104filtration (see Filtration, algal biomass harvesting)flotation (see Flotation)fossil fuels, 85gravity sedimentation (see Gravity sedimentation,

algal biomass harvesting)high production yields, microalgae, 105LCA, 105–106mechanisms, carbon dioxide fixation, 85–86in microalgae, 105processes and techniques, 89production, 85screening (see Screening, algal biomass harvesting)solar energy into chemical energy, 86stability and separability, microalgae, 86–89techno-economic analysis, 106ultrasonic methods (see Ultrasonic methods, algal

biomass harvesting)water content, 89

Helical-type photobioreactors, 171Heterotrophic algal oilsacetyl-CoA synthetase, 120–121Achnanthes brevipes and Tetraselmis spp, 122–123advantages, 113–116algae reported, growth, 112–113, 114tautotrophic growth, open ponds, 111–112biomass and oil productivities, 113–116, 117fcarbon, 120carbon and energy source, microalgae, 112–113cell factory, Chlorella (see Chlorella protothecoides,

heterotrophic algal oils)central carbon metabolism, microalgae, 113, 115fcentral metabolic network, glucose, 113, 115tChlamydomonas, 134–135Chlorella protothecoides, 113–116circular ponds, 111–112contents, 119continuous cultivation, 125–126, 127–129EMP and PP pathways, 113environmental factors, 123enzymes up-regulation, lipid biosynthesis,

121–122fatty acid profiles, C. zofingiensis, 116–118fed-batch cultivation, 124fermentation system, 133–134flat plate PBR, 112growth, lipid content and lipid composition,

C. zofingiensis, 120, 121fhexose/Hþ symport system, 113high cell density, 124industrial-scale processes, 118–119integrated production, biofuels, 134, 134flow-cost sources, 133low temperature, unsaturated fatty acids, 123mass cultivation, microalgae, 111–112nitrogen, 121–122oil content, 116–118, 117tone-at-a-time and statistical methods, 123–124organic carbon sources, 119PBR design, 112petroleum fuels, 111plant oil-derived biodiesel, 111production, cultures, 119raceway ponds, 112rigorous sterilization and aseptic operation, 119strain improvement, genetic engineering,

134–135sugars utilization, biomass, 133–134uptake, ammonia, 122

Heterotrophism, 163HHV. See High heating value (HHV)High heating value (HHV), 290

334 INDEX

High-value carotenoidsastaxanthin and beta-carotene, 316cost analysis data, 316–317Haematococcus pluvialis, 316process, production, 316–317, 317freduction, power consumption, 317–318tubular and raceway reactors, 317, 318f

Horizontal tubular photobioreactorscoil-type systems, 35commercial production, 34–35improvement, air-residence time, 35for microalgae cultivation, 34–35, 35f

Hybrid photobioreactorsdescription, 17a-shaped reactor, 17

Hydrocolloidsagars, 215alginates, 214carrageenans, 214

Hydrogen productionbiogas production, 209biophotolysis

dark fermentation, 193–195direct photolysis, 190–191endogenous substrate catabolism, 193indirect photolysis, 191–193

Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, 209lipid-free residue, 209pyrolysis, 209

Hydrothermal carbonization, algae, 254Hydrothermal gasification, algae, 254Hydrothermal liquefaction, algae upgradation

algae, catalytic hydrothermal upgradation, 252macroalgae, 252–253microalgae, 248–251model compounds, 247–248two-step sequential, 253–254

Hydrothermal upgradation (HTU)algae upgradation, 247–254algae utilization, 237algal biomass, 237–239biofuel production, 235catalysts, 245commercialization, 255conventional gasification technologies, 256definition, 241heterogeneous catalysts, 246–247homogeneous, 245–246hydrothermal chemistry, 242–244lignocellulosic biomass and algal biomass,

236–237, 236fmacroalgae, 239–240post-extraction byproducts, 255

reaction media, 241–242reactors, 245TCC (see Thermochemical conversion (TCC))

IIndirect photolysis, hydrogen production

algal bioreactors, 191–192cyanobacterium gloeocapsa alpicola, 192mutant algae, 192–193protein biosynthesis, 191–192sulfur deprivation, 191–192

Inventory data, microalgaeculture

biomass transformation, 308description, 308mature and emerging technologies, 309

description, 308emissions to environment, 309input, 308

LLamella-type sedimentation tanks, 97LCAs. See Life-cycle assessments (LCAs)LCE. See Light conversion efficiency (LCE)LEDs. See Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)LHCI. See Light harvest complex I (LHCI)LHV. See Lower heating value (LHV)Life-cycle assessments (LCAs)

algal-based bioenergy production systems, 288algal biofuel production, 105–106, 262–263assumptions and system boundaries, 263climate change and biogenic carbon, 309–310cultivation, microalgae (see Cultivation, microalgae)depletion and environmental impacts, fossil

energies, 287energetic balance and environmental impacts, 105energy (see Energy, LCAs)energy balance, 310environmental impact assessment, 303–306environmental impacts, 310first-and second-generation biofuels, 287–288FU (see Functional unit (FU))harvesting and conditioning, biomass, 300, 301tharvesting and drying algal biomass, 270–271input category, 291inventory data (see Inventory data, microalgae)ISO method, 288microalgae culture/transformation, inventory

data, 290microalgal biomass transformation, 300–303nutrients (see Nutrients, LCAs)peer-reviewed scientific journals, 288perimeter and functional units, 307

335INDEX

production systems, 288raceway ponds and airlift tubular closed

photobioreactors, 266–269third-generation biofuels, 288

Light conversion efficiency (LCE)culture productivity, 58defined, 58LHCI and LHCII, 58light-harvesting chlorophyll antenna sizes, 58uneven distribution, light, 58

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs), 28Light harvest complex I (LHCI), 58Lipid compounds

glycolipids, 219n-3 fatty acids, human health, 218PLs, 219sterols, 219–220

Lipid synthesisacetyl-CoA/malonyl-CoA formation, 158algal-based, photoautotrophic mechanism, 157, 157fde novo synthesis, fatty acids, 157glucose accumulation, inside cell, 158higher fatty acids synthesis, 160–161palmitic acid synthesis, 159–160

Lower heating value (LHV), 290LPAAT. See Lysophosphatidic acid acyltransferase

(LPAAT)Lysophosphatidic acid acyltransferase (LPAAT)

and GPAT, 49lipid metabolism and catabolism, 52

MMacroalgae

description, 205–206, 239production systems, 239–240red, green, and brown macroalgae habitats, 240sugars, 206

Magnetic filtration, 96Major lipid droplet protein (MLDP), 52Malonyl-CoA:ACPtransacylase (MCT), 48–49Mass cultivation, CO2 fixation

cultivation vessels, 79light diffusion, 79–80mixing, 80

MCT. See Malonyl-CoA:ACPtransacylase (MCT)Metabolic engineering, microalgae. See Fuel production,

microalgaeMicroalgae. See also Cultivation, microalgae: Economics,

microalgae biomass production: Fuel production,microalgae

biohydrogen production (see Biohydrogen,microalgae fuel production)

and biotechnology

advantages, 2–3aquatic and terrestrial, 2–3biotransformation, 2cyanobacteria, 2description, 2growth conditions and bioreactors, 2industrial importance, ramifications, 2

bryophytes, 238CO2 fixation

biomass productivity and CO2 fixation rate, 75, 76tbioreactors, 72Botryococcus braunii, 77carbon and DIC transport, 72Chlorella vulgaris, 76development, media, 72Dunaliella sp., 78gas phase analysis, 75, 75fglobal rates determination, 74–75Haematococcus sp., 78–79mineralization and extracellular products, 74nutritional requirements, 72PBRs (see Photobioreactors (PBRs), CO2 fixation)Spirulina platensis, 77–78systems, 72therapeutical compounds, 72utilization, complex media, 73

cultivation, 168–171description, 238energy-dense bio-oil, 250–251harvesting, 239hydrothermal liquefaction, 248–251nutritional mode, 161–166production systems, 239substrates, growth and lipid production, 166–168

Microalgae biomass productionanalysis, 314continuous-discontinuous combinations, 313–314cost analysis (see Cost analysis, microalgae biomass

production)downstream schemes, 313–314, 314ffine chemicals and pharmaceuticals, 313high-value biomass (see Closed photobioreactors)high-value carotenoids, 316–318large-scale markets, 313low-value biomass (see Biofuels)

Microalgal biomass transformation, LCAsbiodiesel production, 302biogas production, 302–303electricity production, 302energy carriers, 300

Microalgal metabolismdescription, 68–69eukaryotic autotrophic microorganisms, 68–69

336 INDEX

Microalgal metabolism (Continued)

organic pigments, harvesting light energy, 69photoautotrophic cultures, 69

Microstrainingbiological fine screen, 90–91with 6 mm and 1 mm meshes, 90–91Micractinium and Scenedesmus, 90problems, 90rotary drums, 90sewage effluents and water supply, 90unit costs, 90

Mixotrophism, 165–166MLDP. See Major lipid droplet protein (MLDP)

NNitrogen source, microalgae cultivation systems, 24–25Nozzle-type centrifuge, 102Nutrients, LCAs

chemical fertilizers, 294climate change and endpoint impacts, fertilizers, 294,

296flipid/carbohydrate storage, 294

Nutritional mode, microalgaeautotrophic and heterotrophic organisms, 161–162heterotrophic mechanism, 163–164living organisms, divisions, 161–162mixotrophic mechanism, 164–166photoautotrophic mechanism, 162–163photohetrotrophic metabolic process, 161–162, 161f

OOpen pond systems

advantages and disadvantages, 2algal biofuels

advantages, limitations and factors, 265phototrophic cultivation, 265raceway, 265–266requirements, cultivation system, 265

applications, biomass (see Biomass, applications)biotechnology and microalgae, 2–3Chlorella vulgaris, 1closed photobioreactors (see Closed photobioreactors)commercial production, 3company Olson Microalgae with commercial

production, Spirulina capsules, 4, 5fconstruction, tanks, 3cultivation, Spirulina, 4, 4f, 5fdescription, 1–2development, cultivation systems, 1drying, biomass (see Drying process, biomass)environmental variations, 3fixation, carbon dioxide (CO2), 11Haematococcus pluvialis, 4

harvest, biomass (see Biomass, harvesting process)hybrid photobioreactors, 17hydrodynamics, 10industrial scale, companies, 3–4light spectrum and intensity, 9–10microalga cultivation, vinasse and carbon dioxide,

6, 6fmicroalgae cultivation systemsclassification, 30limitations, 30raceway, 30–31simple, 30

microalgal biotechnology, 1photobioreactors, 3pH values, 12–13raceway, shallow big/circular forms, 3reactor design (see Photobioreactors (PBRs), open

pond systems)sterility, cultivation, 13temperature (see Temperature, open pond systems)

Ozone flotation, 100–101

PPalmitic acid synthesis, 159–160PBRs. See Photobioreactors (PBRs)PDATs. See Phospholipid:diacylglycerolacyltransferases

(PDATs)PEF processing. See Pulsed electric field (PEF)

processingPeptides, 216–217Perimeter and functional units

allocation/substitution, 307energy content, intermediate product, 307technologies/energy production pathways, 307

Phospholipid:diacylglycerolacyltransferases (PDATs)lipid metabolism and catabolism, 52synthesis, TAG, 49

Phospholipids (PLs), 219Photobioreactors (PBRs)

airlift, 170biofuels production and biorefineries, 23–24biomass productivity, 27–28bubble column, 170–171cell concentration, 27CO2 fixation

gas–liquid mass transfer, 73gas to aqueous phase, 73high CO2-resistant strains, 73isolation and selection, strains, 74process, HCO3

�, 74sources, 73storage and pH, 73uncatalyzed reaction paths, 73

337INDEX

commercialization, microalgae-based products, 23–24commercial-scale processes, 28design and operation, microalgae cultivation

systems, 27flat panel, 171helical-type, 171high mass transfer, 169–170LEDs, 28limitation, light energy, 27–28microalgae cultivation and biofuels (see Cultivation,

microalgae)microorganisms/alien microalgae species, 27open pond systemsbiofilms, 9glass, fiberglass and PVC, 9materials, construction, 9

outdoor microalgae cultivation system, 28sequestration, CO2, 169–170stirred-tank, 171vertical tubular, 170

Photosynthesisautotrophs, 158carbon sequestration mechanism, 156CO2 fixation

ATP and NADPH, 69Calvin-Benson-Bassham cycle, 70dark process, CO2 capture and transformation,

70–71, 70fdefined, 69different forms, water, 70, 70fhydrogen addition, carbohydrates ([CH2O]n), 69–70light and dark reactions, 69light reaction, 70nitrogen source, microalgae cultivation, 71phases, 71photorespiration, 71

Pigment materialscarotenoids, 220–222chlorophylls, 220phycobiliproteins, 222

PLs. See Phospholipids (PLs)Polysaccharide material

algal polysaccharides, 212description, 212dietary fibers, 212–213hydrocolloids, 214–215macroalgae, 212

Pressure filtrationchemical conditioners, 94–95designs and types, 95plate-and-frame presses/vessels, 94–95

Proteinaceous compoundsalgal proteins, 215

bioactive peptides, 215free amino-acids, 217peptides, 216–217proteins, 215–216

Proteins, 215–216Pulsed electric field (PEF) processing, 175Pyrolysischaracteristics, 147tdescription, 145–146fast, 147–149proportion of gas, liquid and solid product, 146, 147treactions, 146residence time, 146yields and characteristics

algal biomass, 151taverage cost, 152conditions, fast, 150elemental analysis, 151tequipment, 151flower heating value (LHV), 152topen ponds, 150, 150f

RRaceway pond systemsalgal cultivation, 265, 265fbiomass productivity and yield, 266Chlorella, Spirulina and D. salina, 266description, 30–31, 265drawbacks, 31limitations, 266

SSC-CO2. See Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction

(SC-CO2)Screening, algal biomass harvestingdescription, 90microstraining, 90–91vibrating screens, 91

SEQHTL. See Sequential hydrothermal liquefaction(SEQHTL)

Sequential hydrothermal liquefaction (SEQHTL),253–254

SIDS. See Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SIDS)Simple ponds, 30Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SIDS)poor algal removal, 99–100surfactants, 99–100

Solid-bowl decanter centrifuges, 101–102Solid-ejecting disc centrifuge, 102Solix Lumian�, AGS4000 system, 36–40, 42fSpent biomassalga-based processing, 208tbiofuel production, 207–211

338 INDEX

Spent biomass (Continued)bioremediation, 224–225feed, 225–226fine chemical production, 212–224macroalgae, 205–206secondary biofuel production, 207f

Spirulina

definition, 7hormogonia, 7inhabitation medias, 7life cycle, 7morphology and taxonomy, 7supply of nutrients, 7

Spirulina platensis, CO2 fixationhabitats, 78optimum pH, 78proteins and potassium, 78Spirulina and Arthrospira, 77

Stability and separability, microalgaeAOM, 87–88cell dimensions, 89commercial polymers, 88description, 86–87destabilization and flocculation, 89DLVO theory, colloid stability, 88ionogenic functional groups, 88mechanisms, enhanced coagulation, 87NOM, 87settling velocity, planktonic algae, 88–89treatment methods, 87

Sterols, 219–220Stirred-tank photobioreactors, 171Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction (SC-CO2), 174

TTCC. See Thermochemical conversion (TCC)Temperature, open pond systems

cell morphology and physiology, 11closed photobioreactors, 12high temperatures, 11–12raceway-type photobioreactors, 12solubility, O2 and CO2, 12

Thermochemical conversion (TCC)liquefaction, 240product profile, 241fpyrolysis, 240

Thickeningalgae cultivation, harvesting and processing, 86, 86ffor microalgae, 89

Transesterification processacid-catalyzed, 176–177alcohols, 175–176base-catalyzed, 177biodiesel, 175–176direct, 176enzyme-catalyzed, 177triacyl glycerides conversion, 176f

UUltrasonic methods, algal biomass harvesting

advantages, 104algae separation process, 103biofilter, 104coagulation, Microcystis aeruginosa, 104“nuclei” and “bubble crush” period, 104

VVacuum filtration

algal harvests with moisture contents, 95capital costs, 95eucalyptus and pine-crafts fibers, 95types, 95

Vertical column photobioreactorsairlift reactors, 32–33bubble column reactors, 32description, 31–32prospects and limitations, culture systems,

31–32, 32tsparger’s design, 32

Vertical tubular photobioreactors, 170Vibrating screens, 91Vinasse, 145

WWastewater

acid-rich effluents, fermentative hydrogen-producingreactor, 168

biodiesel production, 167–168ecological water bodies, 167macro/micronutrients, 168microalgae, 167