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Bioethics-IntroductiontomoralphilosophyII
Threeclasses:1. 15February-Thechallengeofculturalrelativism;2. 17/19February-fromvirtuetheory(chapter13)toreligiousethics(chapter
4)tothesocialcontract(chapter10);3. 22February-HistoryofethicsII:consequentialismanddeontology.
ReferencetoRachels,J.2003.TheElementsofMoralPhilosophy.4thedition.McGrawHillInternationalEditions,NewYork(1sted.1986).
DavideVecchi-CentrodeFilosofiadasCiênciasdaUniversidadedeLisboa(CFCUL),FaculdadedeCiênciasdaUniversidadedeLisboa-4.3.16
Inthelastclasswesawthatculturalrelativismdeniestheexistenceofsuper-culturalmoralstandardsofevaluationofcoursesofaction.Weanalysedoneofitsarguments,showingthat:1.Logicallyspeaking,amoralargumentmustpossessatleastonemoralpremise,otherwiseitderivesamoralconclusionfromfactualpremises,whichisafallacy;2.Morallyspeaking,culturalrelativistargumentsarenotsoundiftheyderiveanegativeontologicalclaim(i.e.,thenon-existenceofsuper-culturalmoralstandards)fromaclaimaboutwhatpeoplebelieve;3.Intheend,beneathculturalvariation,thereexisttrans-culturalorevenmoralculturaluniversals,i.e.,super-culturalmoralstandardsofevaluationofcoursesofaction,suchastheevaluationofacourseofactionintermsofitseffectsorintermsofuniversalmaximsofconduct.
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Summinguplastclass
Thechallengeofculturalrelativismcanthusberesisted.Indeed,Rachelsarguesthatallethicaltheoriesandculturessharea“minimumconception”ofmorality(chapter1):1.Moraljudgementsmustbesupportedbygoodreasonsandsoundmoralprinciples;2.Moralargumentsrequiretheimpartialconsiderationofeachmoralagent’sinterests.Rachelsmightberight,butthisisirrelevantwhenweconsiderthatthedeeperprobleminethicsisthatthemoralprinciplesatthebasisofdifferentethicaltheoriesclash.Whatethicaltheoryshouldwechoosethen?Andwhy?
3
Summinguplastclass
TodayIshallbrieflyexposetherudimentsofthreeethicaltheories:religiousethics,virtuetheoryandcontractualism(i.e,socialcontracttheory).Ishallshow-moreorlessfollowingRachels’argument-thatthesethreetheoriesareeitherincoherentorsomehowincompleteandneedtobecomplementedbymoregeneralmoralprinciplessuchas,forinstance,thoseatthebasisofconsequentialism(e.g.,utilitarianism)ordeontology(e.g.,Kantianethics).Inthenextclassweshallgobacktoconsequentialismanddeontology,whichwehaveintroducedinclass1(slides5.1-5.4).
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Planforthisclass
Divinecommand’stheory(forananalysis,seesection4.2inRachels)Godhasgivenusaseriesofmoralrulesandstandards.Theserulesandstandardsareobjective.Whatisgood/rightandbad/wrongisdeterminedbyGod.Problem:iscourseofactionxrightbecauseGodcommandsitordoesGodcommanditbecausexisright?IfitisarguedthatacourseofactionxisrightbecauseGodcommandsit,thenGod’scommandsseemmorallyarbitrary.WhatifGodtoldustokillandlie?Killingandlyingwouldbecomegood/right.IfitisarguedthatGodcommandsacourseofactionxbecauseitisgood/right,thenweareacknowledgingthatthereisamoralstandardthatispriortoandindependentofGod’sjudgement.ItisbecauseofsuchimplicationsthatDivineCommandTheoryhasbeenlargelyabandoned. 5
1.1-Religiousethics
TheTheoryofNaturalLawElementsofthetheoryofNaturalLaw:1.Everythinginnaturehasapurpose.Natureisaarationalsystemwhereeverypartofit-everynaturalthingandobject-hasaspecificpurpose.Intheend,theultimatepurposeisanthropocentric.ThisviewhasitsrootsinAristotle(Rachelsp.54):
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1.2-Religiousethics
The difference is that Aristotle did not considerGod part of the picture(e.g.,hisethicsdoesnotmakeanyappealtoGod).ChrisjanityaddedGodthecreatoroftherajonalordertothispicture.
TheTheoryofNaturalLawElementsofthetheoryofNaturalLaw:2.Therearelawsofnaturegoverningnaturalphenomena:everynaturalobjectbehavesinaccordancetoitspurpose.Therearealsomorallawsthat,ultimately,derivefromthelawsofnaturethatGodcreated.Somemoralbehavioursarethusnaturalandpurposeful,otherunnaturalandwithoutpurpose.3.GodcreatedarationalorderandwearecreaturesofGod,sowecanunderstandthemoralnaturalorder.Thismeansthatthecorrectcourseofactioncanberationallyevaluated(ineffectmakingmoralityindependentofreligion).St.ThomasAquinasinfactsaid,“TodisparagethedictateofreasonisequivalenttocondemningthecommandofGod”(Rachelsp.57).Thisrendersthetheoryofnaturallawpartiallyconsistentwiththeminimumconceptionofmorality(e.g.,theappealtogoodreasonsandsoundprinciples). 7
1.3-Religiousethics
Arethereanydistinctivelyreligiouspositionsonmajormoralissues?AsRachelsargues,religiousethicsiseitherlogicallyincoherent(DivineCommandtheory,slide1.1)orparasiticonindependentmoralconsiderationsandprinciples(NaturalLawtheory,slides1.2and1.3).Thismightbeperceivedasamisinterpretationofactualreligiouspractice,whichisbasedontheteachingsoftheScripturesandthedictatesofreligiousinstitutions.However,Rachels(p.58)askswhetherthereareany“distinctivelyreligiouspositionsonmajormoralissues”?Considerabortion.Isthereadistinctivelyreligiouspositiononthisissue?1.Religiouspracticesdiffer(JewishvsoldChristiantraditionvscontemporaryCatholicposition);2.ItisdifficulttofindsupportforthepositionoftheCatholicChurchintheBible;3.Religiouspositionshistoricallychange; 8
1.4-Religiousethics
Arethereanydistinctivelyreligiouspositionsonmajormoralissues?3.Religiouspositionshistoricallychange:“PopePiusIXchallengedthecanonicaltraditionaboutthebeginningofensouledlifesetbyPopeGregoryXIVin1591.Hebelievedthatwhileitmaynotbeknownwhenensoulmentoccurs,therewasthepossibilitythatithappensatconception.Believingitwasmorallysafertofollowthisconclusion,hethoughtalllifeshouldbeprotectedfromthestartofconception.In1869heremovedthelabelsof‘animated’fetusand‘unanimated’fetusandconcludedthatabortionsatanypointofgestationwerepunishablebyexcommunication.”Fromhttps://embryo.asu.edu/pages/pope-pius-ix-1792-1878
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1.5-Religiousethics
Arethereanydistinctivelyreligiouspositionsonmajormoralissues?3.Religiouspositionshistoricallychange:“PopePiusIXchallengedthecanonicaltraditionaboutthebeginningofensouledlifesetbyPopeGregoryXIVin1591.Hebelievedthatwhileitmaynotbeknownwhenensoulmentoccurs,therewasthepossibilitythatithappensatconception.Believingitwasmorallysafertofollowthisconclusion,hethoughtalllifeshouldbeprotectedfromthestartofconception.In1869heremovedthelabelsof‘aminated’fetusand‘unanimated’fetusandconcludedthatabortionsatanypointofgestationwerepunishablebyexcommunication.”Fromhttps://embryo.asu.edu/pages/pope-pius-ix-1792-18784.ThisalsoshowsthattheoriginalrationaleofthepositionoftheCatholicChurchtodaywasmotivatedbya-religiousmoralstandards,thatis,theadoptionoftheprecautionaryprinciple(i.e.,inthelightofabsenceofscientificevidencethatacertainirreversibledamagemightoccur,assumetheworsecasescenario). 10
1.5-Religiousethics
Arethereanydistinctivelyreligiouspositionsonmajormoralissues?Considerthe“appealtonature”arguments.Basicallytheirpointisthatwhatisnaturalisgood.Godisbenevolentandcreatednature,sonatureisgood.EveryhumansharesanaturegivenbyGod.Everyhumanmustbehaveinaccordancetowhatourcommonnaturerequires.Somebehavioursarethusnaturalandpurposeful,otherunnaturalandwithoutpurpose.Isthemoralprinciplethatwhatisnaturalisgoodsound?
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1.6-Religiousethics
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1.Homosexualbehaviourcanbeobservedinnatureandalsointhehumanpopulajon(factualpremise);
2.Humanhomosexualbehaviouris,however,stajsjcallyuncommon(factualpremise);
3.Humanhomosexualbehaviourisnotreproducjvelyadvantageousandhencenotadapjve(factualpremise);
4.Thereisnogenejcbasisforhomosexualbehaviourbecauseitreducesfitness(factualpremise);
5.Whatisnotnaturalisbad(MORALpremise);
Hence,homosexualbehaviourisimmoral(MORALconclusion)RELIGIOUSETHICSRATIONALE:Humanhomosexualbehaviourisunnatural
becauseuncommon,contrarytofixedhumannatureandwithoutreproducWvepurpose.
MORALLY JUSTIFIED JUMP ?
1.7-Religiousethics
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1.Homosexualbehaviourcanbeobservedinthecaseofmanyanimals,includingbonobos,thespeciesphylogenejcallynearesttous(factualpremise);
2.Thereisagenejcbasisforhomosexualbehaviourbecauseitincreasesthefitnessofthesocialgroup(factualpremise);
3.Homosexualbehaviourisnatural(factualpremise);4.Whatisnaturalisgood(MORALpremise);
Hence,homosexualbehaviourisgoodandmoral(MORALconclusion)ALTERNATIVERATIONALE:Thereisnofixedhumannature,notallbehaviours
evolvebecauseofreproducWveadvantageandsexualreproducWonisnottheonlypurposeofsex.
MORALLY JUSTIFIED JUMP ?
1.8-Religiousethics
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1.Rapingbehaviourcanbeobservedinthecaseofmanyanimals(factualpremise);2.ThereisagenejcbasisforrapingbehaviourbecauseitincreasesDarwinian
fitness(factualpremise);3.Rapingbehaviourisnatural(factualpremise);4.Whatisnaturalisgood(MORALpremise);
Hence,rapingbehaviourisgoodandmoral(MORALconclusion)
(SeeThornhill,R.&Palmer.2000insecondaryliterature)
MORALLY JUSTIFIED JUMP ?
1.9-Religiousethics
Giventhat it ispossibletoconcoctavarietyofargumentswith incoherentand counterintuiWvemoral conclusions from the applicaWon of themoralprinciplethatwhatisnaturalisgood,theprincipleisnotsound.Intheend,thereisnotadisWncWvelyreligiousposiWononmajormoralissues.
Virtuetheoryis-withcontractualism,utilitarianismandKantianethics-oneofthefourmajoroptionsincurrentmoralphilosophy(Rachels2003,p.155).Aristotle“NicomacheanEthics”:centralethicalquestionconcernscharacter,i.e.,whatisavirtuousperson?Whattraitsofcharactermakeoneagoodperson?Virtuouslifeisinseparablefromthelifeofreason.Inthissense,virtueethicssharespartiallythefirstcommitmentwiththeminimumconceptionofmorality(i.e.,moraljudgementsmustbesupportedbygoodreasons).GoddoesnotplayaroleinAristotelianethics.Incontrastwiththeethicaltheoriestryingtoanswerthequestionofwhatmakesacourseofactiongood.
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2.1-Virtueethics
Whatisavirtue?Aristotle:atraitofcharactermanifestedinhabitualaction.Virtuesarenotmanifestedonanoccasionalbasis,butalways.Butevenvicesmightbetraitsofcharactermanifestedinhabitualaction.Sowhatdistinguishesvirtuefromvice?Wecanasaconsequencedefineavirtueasatraitofcharacter,manifestedinhabitualaction,thatitisgoodforapersontohave.Butthenthequestionofwhatmakesthevirtuegoodremainspending(slide1.5).
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2.2-Virtueethics
Whichcharactertraitsarevirtues?
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2.3-Virtueethics
Rachelsp.176
Whatdovirtuesconsistin?Aristotle:virtuesarethemeanbetweentwocharactertraits,excessanddeficiency.Inmediostatvirtus.Courageisbetweentheextremesofrecklessnessandcowardice.Generosityisbetweentheextremesofextravaganceandstinginess.Honestyisbetweentheextremesofnaivetyanddeception.Loyaltyisbetweengeneralisedbenevolenceandbetrayal.(Notethatloyaltytofriendsandfamilyseemstocontravenetherequirementofimpartialityoftheminimumconceptionofmorality,Rachelsp.186-7).
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2.4-Virtueethics
Whyarevirtuesgoodforapersontohave?
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2.5-Virtueethics
Aristotle:thereissomethinggeneralaboutthesevirtues:theyareneededtoliveasuccessfullife.Giventhekindsofsociallifeweliveashumans,thevirtuesareallqualijesneededtobesuccessfulinlife.Thevirtuouspersonwillfarebeperinlife.
Arevirtuesuniversal?Isasinglesetofvirtuesapplicabletoallpersonsinalllifecircumstances,inallsocietiesandallcultures?Shouldwespeakofthevirtuouspersonas“thegoodperson”?Aristotlewasmakingageneralclaimaboutthekindofsociallifeweliveashumans.Isthisclaimjustified?Ontheonehand,itmightbesaidthathewasmerelytalkingaboutthelifeofaphilosopherinclassicalAthens,averypeculiarkindoflife.Ontheother,Aristotlewasproposinganargumentagainstculturalrelativism:themajorvirtues(i.e.,courage,generosity,honesty,loyalty)willbeneededbyallpeopleatalltimesandthusarenotmeresocialconventionsorculturalvalues,butbasicfactsaboutourcommonhumancondition.
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2.6-Virtueethics
LimitsofvirtuetheoryHowdoesvirtuetheoryapproachthequestionofwhatmakesacourseofactiongoodandhowshouldwebehave?Moral(especiallybioethical)problemsareoftenaboutwhatweshoulddo:shouldIabort?ShouldIrelievemyillfatherfromsuffering?ShouldIprescribepubertyblockerstochildren?ShouldIbecomevegan?Etc.Theanswerofvirtuetheoryisthatthecorrectcourseofactionistheoneavirtuouspersonwouldchoose.Doesthishelp?Consideramoralconflictcase.
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2.7-Virtueethics
LimitsofvirtuetheoryConsiderthiscase:myfatherisextremelyillandhisconditionisgettingworsebytheday.Heisinextremepainandthedoctorssaythathecannotimprove.Heisalsosemi-consciousanditisalmostimpossibletocommunicatewithhim.However,inthepasthetoldmethatheharboursstrongfeelingsagainsteuthanasia.ShouldIrelievehimfromhispainandactcourageouslyorshouldIactloyallybyupholdinghisbeliefsagainsteuthanasia?Whatwouldavirtuouspersondoincasethevirtuesofcourageandloyaltyclash?AsRachels(2003,p.189)argues“Theadmonitiontoactvirtuouslydoesnot,byitself,offermuchhelp”incasesofconflict.
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2.8-Virtueethics
LimitsofvirtuetheoryWhatwouldavirtuouspersondoincasethevirtuesofcourageandloyaltyclash?AsRachels(2003,p.189)argues“Theadmonitiontoactvirtuouslydoesnot,byitself,offermuchhelp”incasesofconflict.Virtueethicsis,atbest,incomplete.Consequentialismanddeontologyoffermoralguidanceinthiscase.Consequentialism:relievingmyfatherfrompainwillhave,inthiscase,anetpositiveeffectonthemoralcommunity,thusactingcourageouslyisthemoralcourseofaction.Deontology:respectingtherationality,dignity,autonomyandfreedomtochooseofhumansisadutyanduniversalmaximofconduct,thusactingloyallytowardsmyfatheristhemoralcourseofaction.
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2.9-Virtueethics
Supposewestartourethicalanalysisfromastandpointthatisoppositetothatofreligiousethics.Moreprecisely:1.fromtheontologicalassumptionthatthereisnoGodanddivinesourceofmorality;2.andfromaparticularhypothesisabouthumannature:humansarenaturallyself-interestedandaltruismiswishfulthinking(i.e.,psychologicalegoism,cf.chapter5Rachels).WheredoesmoralitycomefromifthereisnoGodandifweareselfish?Fromthesocialcontractthatself-interestedhumanbeingssigninordertosolveapracticalproblem:avoidingthestateofnatureandliveapeacefulandcooperativeexistence.
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3.1-Thesocialcontract
Thestateofnatureisafictioninaway.Butitremainsanimportantanalyticaltool(Rachelsp.156-7).ThomasHobbes(Leviathan,1651)asksustothinkwhatitwouldbelikeiftherewerenosocialcontractandnosocialinstitutions(nogovernmentwithitslaws,policeandcourts).Hobbesnonethelessbasedhisfictiononhistoricalconsiderations:whatwouldhappenifaviralinfectionwithahighmortalityrateengendersapandemic?ThisthoughtexperimentleadsHobbestopostulatetheexistenceofastateofnature,asituationinwhichthereis:“….continualfear,anddangerofviolentdeath;andthelifeofman,solitary,poor,nasty,brutish,andshort”(Rachelsp.142).
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3.2-Thesocialcontract
TherationaleofHobbesargumentisthefollowing:1.Equalityofneed:allhumansneedthesameresourcestosurvive;2.Scarcityofresources:theresourcesarescarce;3.Essentialequalityofhumanpower:nohumanissuperiortoeveryoneelse;4.Limitedaltruism:wecannotcountonspontaneouscharityandgenerositybecausepeopleareessentiallyself-interested.Scarcityofresourcesandequalityofneedmeansthathumanswillbeincontinuouscompetitionfortheacquisitionofresources;butgiventhatweareessentiallyequalandthatnoonewilleverprevailinthecompetition,andgiventhatself-interestandlimitedaltruismcannotbeabasisforsocialcooperation,thenthestateofnatureisastateof“constantwar,ofonewithall”(Rachelsp.143).
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3.3-Thesocialcontract
Thesocialcontractisthustheinstrumenttoescapethestateofnature.Thesocialcontractisbasedon:1.rulesguaranteeingthathumanswillnotharmoneanother;2.rulesthatenforcecooperationandtherespectoftheiragreements.Hobbes’mainpointisthatonlyGovernmentanditssocialinstitutions(itssystemoflaws,itspolicingauthorityanditsjudiciary)canestablishandensurethatthesekindsofrulesarerespected.Itisonlywithinthecontextofthesocialcontractthatwecanbecomealtruists,cooperative,beneficentor,asRousseauputit“differentkindsofcreatures”(Rachelsp.144-5).
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3.4-Thesocialcontract
ThesocialcontractexplainstheroleoftheGovernmentandalsowhatmoralityconsistsin,namely,thesetofrules,governinghowpeoplearetotreatoneanother,thatrationalpeoplewillagreetoaccept,fortheirmutualbenefit,ontheconditionthatothersfollowthoserulesaswell(principleofreciprocity).Contractualismthusmakessenseofmoralbehaviourandconduct:1.WhatmoralrulesshouldIfollow?Thosethatarenecessaryforsocialliving;2.Whyarethesemoralrulesjustified?Becauseotherwisetherewouldbenopossiblecooperationwithotherhumans;3.Whyisitreasonabletofollowthesemoralrules?Becauseitistoourownadvantageand,afortiori,mutuallybeneficialtoallmembersofsociety;4.Doesmoralityhaveanobjectivebasis?No“special”factsbutobjectivebasis:agreementbetweenrationalpeopleformutualbenefit.
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3.5-Thesocialcontract
Hence,contractualismhasseveraladvantages.Italsopartiallysharesthecommitmentsoftheminimumconceptionofmorality:1.Moraljudgementsmustbesupportedbygoodreasons(thesocialcontractisanagreementbetweenrationalpeople)andsoundmoralprinciples(justifiedwithintheframeworkofthesocialcontract);Butconsidertheothercommitment:2.Moralargumentsrequiretheimpartialconsiderationofeachmoralagent’sinterests(Rachels-2003,pp.157-9-arguesthatcontractualismisflawedbecauseitdoesnotcomplywiththisprinciple).Hobbesstartedfromtheassumptionthatallhumansareequalintermsofneedandpower(slide3.3).Butweknowthat,historicallyspeaking,notallhumanshavebeenandareconsideredequalmoralagents.Thehistoryofhumanityisahistoryofdiscrimination.
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3.6-Thesocialcontract
Considerasituationinwhichagroupofmoralagentsisdiscriminatedorisnotevenconsideredasapartofthecontract,aspartofthemoralcommunity.Arethemembersofsuchgroupsallowedtobreaktherulesofthecontract?Oneansweristhatthiswouldbeallowedwhenreciprocityisviolated.ReciprocityinthissensemeansthatIacceptthemoralrulesofthesocialcontract(henceforthacceptinglimitationstomyfreedom)ontheconditionthatothersdothesame.Forinstance,wepunishcriminalsbecausetheyviolatethereciprocityrule.Anotheransweristhateventheviolationofreciprocityisinsufficientforcivildisobedience.
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3.7-Thesocialcontract
A-CivildisobedienceismoralWithintheframeworkofthesocialcontractracialsegregationruleshavebeenformulated.Thereisaninfringementoftheimpartialitycommitmentoftheminimumconceptionofmoralitybecausesomegroupsofpeoplearediscriminated.Thesepeopledonotenjoythesamebenefitsofthesocialcontractasothers.Thetermsofthesocialcontractarenotbeinghonouredbecausereciprocityisnotrespected.Hence,civildisobedienceandbreakingracialsegregationlawsisallowed.
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3.8-Thesocialcontract
B-CivildisobedienceisimmoralWithintheframeworkofthesocialcontractracialsegregationruleshavebeenformulated.Moralitymeanscomplyingwiththerulesofthesocialcontractindependentlyoftheirobjectionablenature.Legalisequivalenttomoral.Allmoralagents,eventhosewithlessrights,shouldthusobeyalllawsandcannotpickandchoose.Otherwisethesocialcontractwouldbedestroyedfromwithinandwewouldbebacktothestateofnature.Hence,civildisobedienceandbreakingracialsegregationlawsisneverallowed.
Thepossibilityofdiscriminationposesageneralproblemforcontractualism:whatisthebasisforthemoraljustificationoftherulesofthecontract?Forinstance,howcandiscriminationlegislationbemorallyjustified?Ifitisdonebyreferringtotheinternalstandardsofthesocialcontract,it’sequivalenttoculturalrelativism.Toarguethatwhatislegalismoralseemsanabomination.Legislationcanbeasarbitraryanddiscriminatoryasyouwishanditwillinevitablybejustified.Thus,theonlyalternativeisthatlegislationisjustifiedbyreferringtomoralstandardsthatareexternaltothecontract.Butifthisisthecase,thenthesocialcontractisanethicaltheorywithlimitationsbecauseitmakesreferencetomoregeneralmoralstandards.
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3.9-Thesocialcontract
Considerthisexample:privateeducationisaconsistentfeatureofmanynationaleducationalsystems.Someprivateeducationinstitutions(Eton,UK,establishedin1440;annualfeeover£40,000)areolderthantheUniversityofPorto(establishedin1836)and,moregenerally,predatetheStateeducationsystem.Supposethesocialcontractallowsprivateeducation.Supposealsothatgovernmentpossessesevidencethatprivateeducationcreatessocialfragmentationandclassinequality.Shouldgovernmentchangethetermsofthesocialcontractandbanishprivateeducation?Whatisthebasisforthemoraljustificationofthedecisiontheytake?Anyideas?
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3.10-Thesocialcontract
Primaryresources:
1.Rachels,J.2003.TheElementsofMoralPhilosophy.4thedition.McGrawHillInternationalEditions,NewYork(1sted.1986).Chapters4,11and13.
2.Rachels,J.2004.ElementosdeFilosofiaMoral,Gradiva,Lisboa.Capítulos4,11e13.
Secondaryresources
1.Fromhttps://embryo.asu.edu/pages/pope-pius-ix-1792-1878
2.Rachels,J.2003.TheElementsofMoralPhilosophy.4thedition.McGrawHillInternationalEditions,NewYork(1sted.1986).Chapters5.
3.Thornhill,R.&Palmer,C.T.2000.ANaturalHistoryofRape:BiologicalBasesofSexualCoercion.MITPressThornhill,R.&Palmer.2000.WhyMenRape?https://www.csus.edu/indiv/m/merlinos/thornhill.html
4.OnHobbesandthesocialcontractseeforinstance:https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hobbes-moral/#StaNatTheStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophyisanexcellentresourcefordeepeningyourknowledgeandunderstandingofphilosophyandethics.
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