Bioenergy and African transformation - Bioen Fapespbioenfapesp.org/gsb/lacaf/documents/bbio_bioenergy...with bioenergy in Africa offers evidence of social benefits and also some important

Lynd et al Biotechnology for Biofuels (2015) 818 DOI 101186s13068-014-0188-5

REVIEW Open Access

Bioenergy and African transformationLee R Lynd1dagger Mariam Sow2dagger Annie FA Chimphango3 Luis AB Cortez4 Carlos H Brito Cruz56 Mosad Elmissiry2Mark Laser1 Ibrahim A Mayaki2 Marcia AFD Moraes7 Luiz AH Nogueira4 Gideon M Wolfaardt89 Jeremy Woods10

and Willem H van Zyl8

Abstract

Among the worldrsquos continents Africa has the highest incidence of food insecurity and poverty and the highestrates of population growth Yet Africa also has the most arable land the lowest crop yields and by far the mostplentiful land resources relative to energy demand It is thus of interest to examine the potential of expandedmodern bioenergy production in Africa Here we consider bioenergy as an enabler for development and providean overview of modern bioenergy technologies with a comment on application in an Africa context Experiencewith bioenergy in Africa offers evidence of social benefits and also some important lessons In Brazil socialdevelopment agricultural development and food security and bioenergy development have been synergisticrather than antagonistic Realizing similar success in African countries will require clear vision good governanceand adaptation of technologies knowledge and business models to myriad local circumstances Strategies forintegrated production of food crops livestock and bioenergy are potentially attractive and offer an alternative to anagricultural model featuring specialized land use If done thoughtfully there is considerable evidence that foodsecurity and economic development in Africa can be addressed more effectively with modern bioenergy thanwithout it Modern bioenergy can be an agent of African transformation with potential social benefits accruing tomultiple sectors and extending well beyond energy supply per se Potential negative impacts also cut acrosssectors Thus institutionally inclusive multi-sector legislative structures will be more effective at maximizing thesocial benefits of bioenergy compared to institutionally exclusive single-sector structures

IntroductionUniversal access to affordable reliable and modern en-ergy services is and will increasingly be required forgrowth and development across Africa As such energyprovision will be a central pillar in national and regionalindustrialization policy and strategies In turn deliveringenergy services is a critical component of the advance-ment of agriculture as a basis for a broad and inclusivesocio-economic growth and development strategy Inthis regard bioenergy is already playing a central role infood production and provision and is considered in mostdeveloped countries as one among several routes fordiversification of energy sources Its role might be morecrucial in Sub-Saharan Africa where so many are entirelydependent on access to land and its products which in-clude traditional forms of bioenergy to survive

Correspondence whvzsunaczadaggerEqual contributors8Department of Microbiology University of Stellenbosch Stellenbosch SouthAfricaFull list of author information is available at the end of the article

copy 2015 Lynd et al licensee BioMed Central TCommons Attribution License (httpcreativecreproduction in any medium provided the orDedication waiver (httpcreativecommonsorunless otherwise stated

With annual gross domestic product (GDP) growthrates reaching 5 during the past decade more thantwice that of the 1980s and 1990s Africa has becomeone of the fastest growing continents However thisgrowth has not been equally distributed and despitesubstantial progress made in creating skills and jobspoverty and food insecurity are still widespread Accord-ing to the most recent estimates available 47 of thepopulation of Sub-Saharan Africa lives on less than$125 per day and 27 are hungry or undernourished[1] 43 of Africans have no access to electricity andthis percentage rises to 80 in rural areas [2] The situ-ation in some African countries is much worse Thechallenge of addressing these issues is further heightenedby population demographics featuring two-thirds of thepopulation below 25 years of age most of whom are un-employed According to the UN Population Divisionldquothe largest regional percentage increase in populationbetween 2013 and 2050 will be in Africa whose popula-tion can be expected to at least double and increase

his is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creativeommonsorglicensesby40) which permits unrestricted use distribution andiginal work is properly credited The Creative Commons Public Domaingpublicdomainzero10) applies to the data made available in this article

Lynd et al Biotechnology for Biofuels (2015) 818 Page 2 of 18

from 13 billion to about 23 billion with a further 18billion increase between 2050 and 2100 That projectionhowever depends on the assumption that sub-SaharanAfricarsquos total fertility rate (the average number of childrenper woman) will decline from 51 to approximately 30 by2050rdquo [3] which is yet to be supported by dataThe New Partnership for Africarsquos Development (NEPAD)

Agency along with regional organizations believes thatinnovative approaches beyond business-as-usual shouldbe undertaken to address Africarsquos multiple interconnectedchallenges Such approaches are adopted through thetransformation agenda designed and implemented by thecontinental and regional bodies and include amongothers 1) the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Develop-ment Programme (CAADP) Framework 2) the Programfor Infrastructure Development in Africa (PIDA) andmore recently 3) the Rural Futures Program [4] Theseprograms are about fostering transformation Such atransformation has been defined as ldquoa people-centered ap-proach based on equity and inclusiveness where rural menand women can develop their potential and reach their as-pirations including income security whilst securing envir-onmental sustainability and where all territories in acountry can express their development potential and noneof them are persistently marginalizedrdquo [4] This innovativeapproach is based on three basic principles economicprofitability social equity and environmental sustainabil-ity Well-designed and implemented bioenergy strategiescan contribute substantially to this transformation goal Inparticular modern bioenergy brings a distinctive set of at-tributes such that the range of development approachesand outcomes with bioenergy is substantially expandedand can in some cases be improved as compared to thecase without bioenergyIn considering the many intricacies and challenges as-

sociated with bioenergy and development in Africa it isimportant to not lose sight of the obvious bioenergyprovides a route for Africans from the most vulnerableto the wealthiest to obtain critically needed energy froma resource in which the continent is rich that is landTo equal the land area of Africa one can add that ofChina India Europe and the United States - which to-gether represent just under half the worldrsquos populationAfrica has the most arable land of any continent a sub-stantial fraction of land well suited for production ofrain-fed crops that is not currently cultivated and thelowest per hectare crop yields in the world [5] The po-tential to increase the production and harvest of biomassfor both food and energy is thus very large With landper capita above the global average and by far the lowestper capita primary energy use in the world Africarsquos landresources are uniquely plentiful relative to demand for en-ergy (Figure 1) Africarsquos singularly high ratio of bioenergypotential compared to current demand may of course

change somewhat in the course of future developmentand this will be important to considerTranslating this potential into reality requires that

daunting challenges be overcome including those thathave limited development in the agricultural sector fordecades such as widespread lack of agricultural exten-sion degraded soils poorly developed infrastructureconflict and poor governance and complications asso-ciated with land tenure Also critical is the availabilityof water resources and competing demands for landuse including food and fiber crops pasture timberand the whole range of forest products which consti-tute a substantial component of local populationsrsquo foodsecurity and well-being in terms of health Ultimatelybioenergy cannot solve Africarsquos longstanding problemsby itself and must be seen as one tool among many inthe context of a systemic approachBioenergy production requires land and is thus inex-

tricably linked with social development agriculture andenvironmental quality These linkages increase the com-plexity of analysis and deployment of bioenergy and canresult in undesirable consequences if managed poorly Ifmanaged well they also have potential to greatly multiplythe benefits beyond energy provision per se Illustrative ofthe potential for bioenergy to be a double-edged sword a2011 working paper prepared by Practical Action Consult-ing [9] observes that biofuels development has the poten-tial to produce a paradigm shift in agriculture industrialand rural development in Africa while simultaneouslyproviding opportunities to significantly increase energyself-sufficiency However the working paper also notesthat ineffective policies risk displacing indigenous popula-tions agricultural productivity and ecosystems for cropsthat may in some cases failThere is thus both a moral imperative to consider and

beneficially deploy bioenergy to address critical issues onthe African continent at the same time that there is poten-tial to deploy bioenergy in harmful ways Clear visionstrong policies and good governance will likely be essen-tial in order for the potential of bioenergy to be realizedand they represent an urgent need Our objective in writ-ing this paper is to be responsive to this need

Bioenergy as a potential enabler of developmentAs noted by the United Nations Development Program(sustainable energy) ldquoEnergy is central to sustainabledevelopment and poverty reduction efforts It affectsall aspects of development ndash social economic and en-vironmental ndash including livelihoods access to wateragricultural productivity health population levels educa-tion and gender-related issues None of the MillenniumDevelopment Goals (MDGs) can be met without majorimprovement in the quality and quantity of energy ser-vices in developing countriesrdquo [10]

Figure 1 Comparative land resources and energy demand Sources population [6] energy [7] land [8]

Several potential contributions of bioenergy to devel-opment are listed by Lynd and Woods [11] includingemployment development of marketable and transfer-able skills for the rural population introduction ofagricultural infrastructure and know-how improvedbalance of payments and currency valuation energydemocratization self-sufficiency and availability foragricultural machinery and processing and an eco-nomically rewarding way to regenerate Africarsquos vastareas of degraded land A substantial literature pointsto disproportionately large benefits to the rural poorfrom agricultural development as compared to otherkinds of development [12-14]A comprehensive study of 15 small-scale bioenergy

projects in 12 countries 5 from Africa [15] drew prelim-inary lessons and conclusions as follows

Natural resource efficiency is possible in small-scalebioenergy initiatives

Local and productive energy end uses developvirtuous circles

Where fossil energy prices dominate partialinsulation is an option

Longer term planning and regulation has a crucialrole if small-scale bioenergy projects are to succeed

Flexibility and diversity can also reduce producer risk Collaboration in the market chain is key at start-up Long local market chains spread out the benefits Moving bioenergy resources up the energy ladder

adds value Any new activity raising demand will raise prices

even those for wastes Cases do not appear to show local staple food

security to be affected

Small-scale bioenergy initiatives can offer newchoices in rural communities

Experience with bioenergy in Africa including positiveas well as cautionary examples is presented in the sectionentitled Experience with bioenergy in Africa As consid-ered in more detail in the section entitled The Brazilianexperience Brazil provides a prominent example of simul-taneous and apparently synergistic advancement of large-scale bioenergy production food security and economicwell-beingAs a consequence of the continentrsquos very large land

area some of the most remote places on earth are inAfrica African agricultural producers far from portsand trade centers face the ldquodouble penaltyrdquo of lowerprices for their products and higher costs for fuel andother inputs In the 40 years preceding 2010 per capitaworld food production grew 17 while in Africa it fell10 as population growth outstripped agriculturaloutput [16] One of the big problems faced by Africanfarmers is the steep cost of transport which meansthat African farmers pay two to six times the globalcost of fertilizers [16] Local production of bioenergy(heat electricity and biofuels for transport) to powerfarm machinery dry and safely store crops and enabletransportation of goods to market could substantiallyalleviate this double penalty It is notable in this contextthat diesel engines used in tractors and trucks can be pow-ered by established biofuels including not only biodieselbut also ethanol in the form of ldquoE95rdquo (personal communi-cation Jonas Stomborg Scania)Losses in the food supply chain both in quantity and

quality exacerbate chronic food insecurity and malnutritionin Africa The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

[17] estimates close to one-third of the world food supplyto be lost in the supply chain These losses occur at everystep of the food supply chain including harvesting process-ing preservation storage transportation and cooking Pooraccess to energy is among the most important factors re-sponsible for these limitations By improving such accessbioenergy development could play a crucial role in prevent-ing crop and food lossesA multitude of factors conspire to make it difficult for

African farmers to sell crops competitively into worldmarkets as elaborated in compelling detail by Thurowand Kilman [18] North America and Europe exportlarge amounts of subsidized food at prices difficult forAfrican farmers to compete with However these regionsdo not export biofuels and are unlikely to do so in thefuture and exporting heat and electricity is not feasibleThus energy provides a potential catalyst for socio-economic advancement in Africa that is largely inde-pendent of several important factors that have made thisdifficult in the case of food productionGovernment subsidies international trade agreements

and other factors have led to relatively stable markets forproducers and supply for consumers in developed coun-tries The consumer in the developed world where dis-tance between producer and the table has little impactseldom notices regional droughts and transient de-creases in production In contrast their counterparts inthe developing world are much more vulnerable to evenslight fluctuations in weather patterns or factors such asthe availability of transport fuel and electricity Typic-ally in years of abundance they do not have sufficientmarkets for their produce nor the means to store theirproduce consequently leading to widespread spoilageand falling producer prices But on multiple occasionsoversupply has been followed by famine and skyrocket-ing prices in less than a year with Ethiopia in 2003 and2004 a notable example [18]The precarious nature of food supply in Africa has

often led to dependence on foreign aid Yet the driversfor transformation on the African continent cannot bebased on policies and regulations designed for themarket-based Western economies They also cannot bedictated by the food versus fuel debate that takes placein countries where food waste occurs not because of lackof transport infrastructure or storage facilities but be-cause of excess and consumer preferences thus primar-ily at the retail and consumer levelAny bioenergy strategy must be reconciled with the

potential for collision between bioenergy feedstocks andfood on a continent where an alarming fraction of thepopulation is undernourished Advancing bioenergy atthe expense of food security is an unacceptably badtrade for Africa There is increasing acceptance thatbioenergy production and food security need not be in

competition and could be complementary [1119-24]but that is not the same as saying that food-fuel compe-tition will not happen Commenting on biofuels andlocal food security in developing countries Locke andHenley [25] observe that

Few studies use or attempt to measure the balanceof all four pillars of availability access utilizationand stability of food

Available evidence does not provide a robust basisfor a strong statement about the impact of biofuelprojects on local food security in developingcountries

The impact of biofuel feedstocks on food securitymay be similar to that of other commercial crops Itis not necessarily the fact that it is a biofuelfeedstock that matters What seems to matter is theproduction model used the timing of impactmeasurement the profitability of production andthe terms and conditions under which entitlementsto land wages and prices are defined andproductivity is raised

Evaluating the effect of bioenergy on indicators of foodsecurity is somewhat different from evaluating the im-pacts of bioenergy on the causal factors that give rise tofood insecurity which include poverty lack of economicdevelopment and also physical institutional and marketinfrastructure [26] Both evaluative frameworks are im-portant with the potential benefits of bioenergy likelymore apparent in the latterBioenergy is prominently featured in low-carbon glo-

bal energy scenarios for example representing an aver-age of 25 of primary energy supply in five scenarioscompiled by Dale et al [27] Africa today a smallcontributor to greenhouse gas emissions has in manylocations abundant resources to develop low-carbonbioenergy without having to compete with an establishedfossil energy infrastructure Being the last continent todevelop an economy based on fossil resources is unlikelyto be a wise strategy for Africa If unwisely deployedbioenergy could make adaptive responses to climatechange more difficult in Africa and elsewhere [28] How-ever bioenergy can be an asset for such responses ifwisely deployed At a continental scale substantive im-pacts from climate change are expected on Africarsquos crop-ping systems with severe high temperature episodes andincreasing frequency and severity of droughts and floodspotentially causing catastrophic failures in production[29] Indeed yields in many important staple crops suchas maize rice and wheat in Africa are increasingly vola-tile and in a number of cases in decline [30] At a locallevel predicting the consequences of climate change re-mains highly uncertain [29] Bioenergy systems should

therefore be deployed in ways that support resilience(economic and climatic) in African food cropping by forexample enabling economically productive novel croprotations and cropping patterns to combat increasinglevels of pests and diseases in both food crops and for-estry systems [3132] and alternative markets duringtimes of oversupply [26]UNEP has estimated that more than a quarter of the

African continent is at present in the process of becominguseless for cultivation due to degradation [33] Cultivationof perennial grasses which are potential bioenergy feed-stocks is well established as a means to increase soil car-bon stocks and restore degraded land [34-36] Howeverthis subject has in general received more study in temper-ate climates than under conditions typical in AfricaIn pursuit of maximizing the development benefits of

bioenergy it is important to consider the entire bioe-nergy supply chain At the front end the availability ofland and means by which land is accessed are critical[25] At the back end the extent to which bioenergyproducts are - or are not - aligned with and used to ad-dress high-priority social needs is equally important Wenote in this context that electricity cooking fuel andfuel for agricultural machinery are key needs in manyparts of Africa whereas the need for fuel for light-dutyvehicles is often less critical In situations where bioe-nergy can provide previously missing links that enablenew value chains there is potential for large and indeedtransformative development benefits

Bioenergy overviewThere are a substantial number of bioenergy feedstocksconversion processes and products as summarized inTables 1 and 2 and reviewed in more detail elsewhere[3738] Established combinations include

Woody cellulosic biomass undergoes combustion toproduce electricity and heat

Starch- and sugar-rich crops undergo fermentationto produce ethanol

Oil seeds undergo pressing and transesterification toproduce biodiesel

Processes based on grains sugarcane or palm oilachieve rather high per hectare fuel productivity How-ever this parameter is generally lower for fuels from oilseeds which are in many cases coproducts of animalfeed production Fossil fuel displacement ratios as wellas greenhouse gas emission reductions are generallyhigh for processes based on sugarcane cellulosic feed-stocks and oil-rich crops and positive but moderate forbioenergy production from grains Processes based oncellulosic feedstocks offer broad site range potential forhigh per hectare yields and low feedstock purchase cost

In addition there is well-documented potential for envir-onmental benefits from incorporating perennial grassesinto agricultural landscapes with respect to soil fertilityand land reclamation water quality and wildlife habitat[343556-58] While cellulosic feedstocks are widelythought to offer great promise for the future conversiontechnology to liquid fuels is still under development andis not yet widely appliedThe potential of drought-resistant plants in regions

with lower precipitation should also be considered Forexample agave plants are drawing attention as a pro-spective feedstock for biofuel production because oftheir ability to grow in dry climates high biomass yieldand high concentrations of soluble sugar content [59] Arecent life cycle analysis of the potential of these succu-lent plants as a feedstock for first-generation biofuel pro-duction suggests that they show much promise withminimal impact on food production or pressure onwater resources [60] Traditionally agaves are commer-cially cultivated primarily as a fiber source often in aridwarm regions some can tolerate temperatures of up to65degC [61] and are therefore a good feedstock candidatefor second-generation biofuels in an African contextwhere residues could potentially be further processed insmall-scale operations for heat or electricity generationAnother intriguing aspect of some of the agaves is theirresponse to increases in CO2 concentration Grahamand Nobel [62] performed long-term experiments thatshowed a greater than 100 increase in water-use effi-ciency and a significant increase in dry mass productionwhen the CO2 concentration was doubledCompounding new technology risks with risks likely

inherent in many African applications - for examplethose involving infrastructure business models and gov-ernance - is unlikely to be a good strategy As a result astrong argument can be made for deploying establishedbioenergy technology in an African context At the sametime improvements in technology for both biomass pro-duction and conversion may make possible more benefi-cial and widespread application in the future Consideringthese two factors together it is important to employmeritorious current bioenergy technologies in waysthat enable rather than impede deployment of futuretechnologies and to develop and deploy future processesin ways that expand rather than contract opportunities forearly adopters and investors [63]An illustrative and potentially important example is

the possible progression from established processing ofsugarcane to not-yet-established cellulosic biofuel technol-ogy Sugarcane processing to ethanol often accompaniedby electricity andor sugar produces fuel competitive withglobal petroleum prices has a very positive ratio of fossilfuel displacement fossil fuel input high fuel yields perhectare and generally positive sustainability metrics

Table 1 Bioenergy feedstocks

Crop category Example Industry status Land environment and energy

Starch-rich1 Maize wheat sorghum About 50 billion L ethanol in the USbased on maize

Typically grown on high-quality cropland with substantialfertilizer input Fossil energy displacement ratio 13 to 174000 L ethanolha in the US

Sugar-rich2 Sugarcane sugar beets About 23 billion L ethanol in Brazilbased on sugarcane

Grown primarily on former pastureland in Brazil Agrichemicalinputs less than maize Fossil energy displacement ratio about8 to 10 6700 Lha in Brazil today could be substantially higherwith conversion of cellulosics energy cane

Oil-rich3 Rapeseed soy sunflowerpalm oil

About 23 billion L produced worldwidemost in the EU US and Brazil

Rapeseed soy generally grown on cropland Most palm oilplantations are on former forests Fossil energy displacementratio 2 to 25 for rapeseed and soy about 4 to 8 for palm530 Lha for soy in Argentina 3600 Lha for palm in Malaysia

Cellulosic4 Grass trees various wastes 331 TWh electricity globally Liquid fuelcapacity about 175 million L worldwide

Could in principle grow on land unsuitable for crops Potentialenvironmental benefits when incorporated into agriculturallandscapes Fossil energy displacement ratio somewhatspeculative for liquid fuel production but expected to besimilar to sugarcane Over 7500 Lha based on miscanthusyields in the US (25 tonnesha) 75 US galton

1Starch-rich crops annual production [39] fossil energy displacement [40] corn yield [41] dry mill yield [42]2Sugar-rich crops annual production [43] fossil energy displacement and ethanol land yield [44]3Oil-rich crops annual production [7] fossil energy displacement [4546] soy oil yield [47] palm oil yield [48]4Cellulosic crops global electricity [49] global cellulosic biofuel capacity [37] current miscanthus yields [50]

[6465] Lignocellulose is present in sugarcane in abouta 21 ratio relative to sugar Converting the lignocelluloseas well as the sucrose fractions in sugarcane would sub-stantially increase yields of energy and revenue per tonand growing ldquoenergy canerdquo with reduced sugar contentwould have the multiplicative effect of increasing tons perhectare Once conversion of the lignocellulose component

Table 2 Modern bioenergy conversion technology summary

Category Products

Non-biological

Combustion1 Electricity heat

Gasification2 Electricity (via gas turbines) orgasoline and diesel (eg Fische

Pyrolysis3 ldquoBiocruderdquo a mixture of liquid-

Pressing and transesterification4 Biodiesel from oil-rich crops

Biological

Fermentation of starch and sugars Ethanol potentially many othe

Anaerobic digestion Methane

Lignocellulose hydrolysis and fermentation Ethanol potentially many othe

1Combustion capital costs [51]2Gasification capital costs [52]3Pyrolysis capital costs [53]4Biodiesel capital costs [54]5Sugarcane ethanol capital costs [55]

of sugarcane is established this would enable conversionof other cellulosic crops for example those with a highertolerance to drought that could be grown where sugar-cane cannot Thus there is a continuous and potentiallyadvantageous path from fermenting only the solublesugars present in cane to also fermenting cellulosic resi-dues once the required conversion technology is available

Technology

Mature Electricity generation rather capital intensive(about $1900 - $4300installed kW)

syntheticr-Tropsch)

Limited commercial application Often highly capitalintensive (about $375L annual capacity for coalliquefaction in South Africa)

phase organics Limited commercial application $2L annual capacityfor production of naptha and diesel

Mature Relatively simple low capital ($033L installedcapacity for biodiesel in Europe)

r molecules Mature for ethanol production Capital cost5 about$120L installed capacity for ethanol with cogenerationin Brazil about $2L installed capacity for maize ethanolin the US

Rather mature Can be applied to both liquid and solidwastes Many thousand small-scale digesters operativeparticularly in China and Germany

r molecules Not mature Hydrolysis can be accomplished via acidor enzymes Several fermentation options andconfigurations

Bioenergy can and is being produced over a broadrange of scales from village-scale digesters and biodieselrefining operations to industrial-scale facilities whichproduce up to a half billion liters per year of fuel andprocess up to over five thousand dry metric tons per dayof feedstock Large-scale facilities require large landareas as well as technological expertise and capital notavailable within many African communities At the sametime high efficiency and financial viability are often easierto achieve at a larger scale as compared to smaller scaleand scattered markets with low purchasing power of thepopulations This conundrum remains to be resolved andis likely to be fertile ground for creative approaches thatare tailored to location-specific circumstances and willlikely evolve over time The Brazilian experience suggests(see the section later in the paper) that broadly distributedsocial benefits and large-scale efficient bioenergy produc-tion need not be mutually exclusive

Experience with bioenergy in AfricaIn 1990 Africarsquos primary energy consumption had reached16 EJ less than 5 of the global energy demand of whichbioenergy provided 60 By 2010 its primary energy con-sumption had risen to 28 EJ slightly more than 5 of theglobal demand with bioenergy providing about half of thisfor the continent as a whole and much larger shares insome regions [66] Africarsquos dependence on traditionalforms of biomass for energy has not diminished and is notpredicted to do so in the foreseeable future (Figure 2)Biomass has been and remains the main source of

energy for many people in Africa both in rural and inurban areas For Sub-Saharan Africa (excluding SouthAfrica) over 80 of the total energy supply for heatingcooking and processing of agricultural produce is de-rived from biomass such as fuel wood and agricultural

40 000

35 000

30 000

25 000

20 000

15 000

10 000

01990 2008 2015 2020

Figure 2 Total primary energy demand for energy sources on the Afr

residues [6667] In most of this regionrsquos cities where thepopulation is still booming the majority of householdsare dependent on wood energy more than on any othersources for such purposes Cooking on open fires ishighly energy inefficient and also poses a major publichealth problem an estimated four thousand Africans dieprematurely every day from household smoke pollution[6768] Demand for wood for cooking particularly whenconverted to charcoal to sell into urban markets can ex-ceed supply resulting in environmental degradation inaddition to serious health impacts [6768] By contrastmodern bioenergy involves using higher efficiency tech-nology to produce fuels electricity and heatAfrica is looking for more efficient and affordable

household energy sources that can enhance rural devel-opment and reduce the burden on women to providethe energy needs of their households while combatingdeforestation land degradation and desertification Inthis context there have been various bioenergy initiativesimplemented to increase access of rural and peri-urbanpopulations to clean and sustainable energy and modernbioenergy sources These initiatives have targeted both thedemand and supply sides Projects can be categorized asfollows

1 Increasing access to traditional sources of energy suchas wood and charcoal in a more sustainable mannerthrough reforestation and investments in energyproduction plantations while increasing diversificationof products and income opportunities on the end-userside and the use of efficient conversion technologiessuch as improved cookstoves Examples includeprojects funded by the World Bank in the DemocraticRepublic of Congo and in Malawi with the JatrophaNeem and Moringa project [676970]

2025 2030 2035

Other renewables

Biomass and waste

Nuclear

Natural gas

ican continent 1990 to 2035 [66]

2 Using agricultural residues municipal waste andnon-food crops hence avoiding competition withfood crops Such energy sources are not fullydeveloped and constitute a promising avenue asdemonstrated through several experiences in variousregions of the continent Country-specific projectsinclude those in Senegal Ghana Kenya UgandaTanzania and Malawi as presented in Table 3

3 Using liquid biofuels such as ethanol and biodieseland the corresponding technologies for conversionand utilization to substitute the traditional sourcesand conversion technologies This is the case in theEthiopian government-led project but also in severalother Southern and East Africa countries includingMadagascar Mauritius South Africa Zambia andMalawi to name a few Examples of these optionsand related initiatives are summarized in Table 3

Diaz-Chavez [20] reported a detailed study of biofueldevelopment and potential in African countries selectedto represent different regions Senegal Mali KenyaTanzania Mozambique and Zambia This study con-cluded that Africa has potential to meet both its foodand fuel needs from biomass neither of which occurstoday and that biofuel production could help unlockSouthern Africarsquos latent potential and positively increasefood production if it brings investment in land infra-structure and human resources Further conclusions il-lustrative of both potential and challenges included thefollowing

Yields of currently cultivated land in the lessdeveloped countries could be tripled by usingimproved management practices potentially freeingup more land for biofuel production

It is estimated that the area under sugarcane in theregion could be doubled without reducing food ordestroying valuable habitats

Mozambique has immense agricultural potentialwith an estimated 36 million ha of arable land ofwhich only 10 is presently in productive use

Negative impacts have occurred in some areas(not whole countries) such as displacement andthese should not only be avoided but legally penalized

The capacity to implement and monitor neededpolicies is limited in some countries

Bioenergy projects in Africa have not been withoutchallenges related to feedstock production technologyand social factors such as consumer preferences andinstitutional coordination In particular

There is a constraint of reliable feedstock supplyunder circumstances that achieve low agriculturalyields today Given the low andor volatile level ofyield for many crops - most of which are rain fed

with low access to quality inputs and equipment -bioenergy projects have suffered from irregularfeedstock provision in terms of quality and quantitymaking the availability of bioenergy productsunstable and unpredictable When feedstocks arederived from non-food crops for which a researchgap remains to be filled for example jatropha or othertree crops the situation has often been particularlychallenging Under such circumstances price stabilityand confidence of consumers are easily eroded and thenew adopters shift back very quickly to traditionalbiomass sources of energy and equipment for whichsources of supply are well established The myth thatsome favored new crops such as jatropha would beimmediately commercially productive on marginal landis now realized to be predominantly false [9]

Consumer preferences are difficult to shift to newtechnologies in cases where the energy density andefficiency of new biomass-derived products is lowerthan that of well-established products On the otherhand ease of handling including safety and cleanlinesshave been found to be a significant factor for adoptingliquid-based biofuels such as ethanol for cooking [74]

Experience in many African countries reveals thatprice incentives have not been sufficient foradoption of biofuels given the lower energy densityof the new product (briquettes for instance)compared to charcoal Under such circumstancesmore research is needed in order to improve theefficiency of these new technologies

Isolated projects even those with tangible outcomeshave in some cases not proved sustainable orconducive to a qualitative transformation processThis has been the case in a number of projectsconducted by external partners with weakinvolvement of government and nationalstakeholders Furthermore many projects still needto be scaled up for a real impact on a large fractionof the population

Institutional constraints must also be faced in termsof coordination and synergies to be built amonggovernment units Agriculture environment andenergy departments rarely work together to discussand design bioenergy strategy frameworks andharmonized policies and regulations Private sectorparticipation is also at its early stage as mostprojects are initiated by non-governmentalorganizations (NGOs) and international partners

Although modern bioenergy industries are emergingin several African countries in particular where an in-centive exists for blending ethanol with gasoline most ofthem still lack the capacity to develop an economicallyviable and sustainable bioenergy industry However

Table 3 Examples of bioenergy initivatives in Africa

Country Initiative Opportunitiescomments

Ethiopia National biogas program which plans to build 14000domestic biogas digesters [71] A 5 blending of petroland ethanol since 2008

Under the national biomass program a 4-yeardemonstration project has demonstrated notablebenefits of replacing fuelwood (currently 29) andkerosene (42) with ethanol stoves notably reducedforeign exchange to import kerosene reduced distancetraveled to collect firewood by 73 and improvedindoor air quality [15]

Ghana Jatropha oil for mixing with diesel (70 plant oil30diesel) to fuel butter processing equipment and as akerosene substitute for use in lanterns [72]

Village-level biofuel production Note Jatropha hasbeen planted in a number of other African countriessuch as Malawi and Mozambique (see below) as wellas Mali [15] In South Africa currently only allowed forexperimentation [73]

Kenya Tanzania and Uganda Afforestation for sustainable charcoal production [74] Charcoal making supports about 500000 full-time andpart-time charcoal producers Wood fuel demand isdouble the supply with forest cover decrease by 2annually thus incentive for tree planting Charcoalremains preferred choice over briquettes despitehigher price and more pollution Note See alsoinitiatives in Senegal [15]

Madagascar Ethanol as a household fuel and alternative sources ofenergy to relieve the pressure on forest resources andreduce childhood mortality [75]

Identified need for a regulation Government supportand optimization identified as key requirements forsuccess

Gel fuel to replace charcoal as a cooking fuel in urbanareas [69]

Identified need for economic sustainability

Malawi Restoration and commercial use of tree crops includingmarginal lands [70]

Potential for integrating various tree species to increasecrop yield rehabilitate degraded land and improve thesoil fertility Products are used as bio fertilizer and greencharcoal

Mauritius Cogeneration primarily using bagasse renders sugarindustry electricity self-sufficient with estimates thatexcess bagasse-derived power accounts for 30 oftotal electricity demand in the country [76]

Life cycle analysis shows that despite potential negativeconsequences such as high water consumption andeutrophication benefits include lower GHG emissionsand acidification probably the only stable alternative to100 coal imports

Mozambique Initiated in 2004 biofuel production originally dominatedby small-scale farmers now by foreign commercialinvestors [77]

Originally the focus was primarily on jatropha biodieselnow there is increased emphasis on bioethanol derivedfrom sugarcane and sorghum

South Africa Mandatory blending of petrol and diesel with biofuelsas follows 5 minimum concentration for biodieselblending and permitted range for bioethanol blendingfrom 2 to 10 vv [78] Target date of 1 October 2015

South African Airways plans 50 use of aviation biofuelsby 2020 Energy crops include sweet sorghum andsugarcane [7980] Renewable energy feed-in tariffimplemented to establish energy prices includinga profit margin to attract developers to invest [81]

Tanzania Sisal biogas Conventionally only 4 of the plant (fiber)has been used to make items such as ropes and carpetsTwo projects to date resulted in improved efficiency forbiogas and biofertilizer production current electricityoutput is150 kW with plans to expand to other estatesfor a total of 6 MW [15]

A private company without external support leads thisinitiative which led to an 80 increase in the numberof children attending school while access to healthcare also improved as a result of the energy suppliedto schools and hospitals

Zimbabwe Planned current 5 blending of ethanol in petrol to15 [82]

The technical feasibility and potential were demonstratedwhen the commercial producer reached maximumgeneration capacity of 18 MWe About 8 MWe is usedfor sugarcane ethanol leaving 10 MWe surplus

Jatropha cultivation for biodiesel [83] Objective is to produce biodiesel to meet 10 importsubstitution (approximately 100 million L per year) fromjatropha using an existing facility operating on cottonand sunflower seeds

opportunities exist as several regional economic com-munities have defined very clear strategies that needsubstantial support to be adapted and implemented ina comprehensive manner at the national level This is

the case for example of the West African Economicand Monetary Union which has adopted a bioenergystrategy since 2008 [84] One of the main drivers ofbioenergy development in this region resides in reversing

the trend of desertification and land degradation and de-veloping sustainable energy sources for cooking heatingand food processing Therefore the key strategies aimedat providing alternative fuels can be expected to benefitfrom reliance on a combination of feedstocks providedthrough reforestation with fast-growing and adapted spe-cies that can be harvested sustainably and processed intocleaner fuels In areas where reforestation is not possiblebioenergy development has been encouraged throughmulticropping systems and careful management of waterresources [84]

The Brazilian experienceBrazilrsquos modern bioenergy industry one of the two lar-gest in the world in absolute terms is by far the largestin terms of fractional energy supply and is the foremostexample of bioenergy deployed in a developing countrycontext Soils and climates in much of Africa have simi-larities to those in Brazil and Africa and South Americaare widely recognized as the continents with the greatestpotential to increase modern bioenergy production [85]Over the last three decades Brazil saw marked increasesin social development (minimum wage increase povertyand hunger reduction) went from being a small playerin international agriculture to the largest exporter in theworld (number one in soybeans beef chicken orangesand coffee) and became energy independent with a largecontribution from modern bioenergy (Table 4) There issubstantial evidence that the emergence of Brazilrsquos bioe-nergy industry positively impacted simultaneous advancesin social development and agriculture Brazilrsquos bioenergyexperience is thus of distinctive relevance to AfricaHowever we acknowledge at the outset the tremen-

dous diversity of circumstances on the African contin-ent and that the Brazilian bioenergy model will in mostcases require some adaptation to these circumstancesWe note that development of bioenergy in Brazil hasuntil recently targeted national markets which for someAfrican countries are small andor otherwise impracticalto rely on As well the expansion of Brazilian bioenergyproduction seen since 1980 began with already established

Table 4 Summary of Brazilrsquos advances in social agricultural a

Sector Social Agr

Index Minimum wage(US$2010month)

Population outof poverty ()

Global hungerIndex (GHI)a

Exp(mi

[86] [87] [8889] [90]

1980 207 67 104 (1981) 247

2010 298 90 40 (2011) 621aThe Global Hunger Index is used to evaluate the hunger situation by countries copopulation b) the prevalence of underweight children under the age of 5 and c) thbetween 5 and 99 reflect ldquomoderate hungerrdquo and values between 10 and 199 indto Burundi and the Democratic Republic of Congo with scores of 379 and 39 respbThe share of renewable energy supply remained about constant but shifted fromtransportation sector In this period the total energy supply increased 234 (115 to

industrial production of both sugar and ethanol therebyproviding a foundation of expertise and purchasing powerthat are present in some but by no means all AfricancountriesSugarcane has been cultivated in Brazil since the six-

teenth century and has always represented an importanteconomic activity In 1931 aiming to reduce dependenceon imported liquid fuels and absorb the excess produc-tion of the sugar industry the Brazilian government im-plemented a compulsory blend of at least 5 anhydrousethanol in gasoline During the period from 1931 to1975 an average of 75 of gasoline demand was met byethanol In order to further reduce oil imports and in-crease energy security the Brazilian government createdthe National Alcohol Program (Proaacutelcool) in 1975 Thisprogram has evolved since then with ethanol reachingprice parity with gasoline on a BTU basis in about 2005[65] A particularly significant development was the intro-duction of flex-fuel cars able to use any blend of gasoline(E25) and hydrous ethanol Flex-fuel cars currently repre-sent 95 of sales of new cars and pure ethanol can beused by 127 million Brazilian vehicles representing 47 ofthe national fleet [92] Ethanol currently provides about50 of light-duty fuel and 25 of total road transport fuelin Brazil with biodiesel production about one-tenth thatof ethanol [91] However the growth of ethanol produc-tion in Brazil has stalled in recent years due to govern-ment policies that maintain lower-than-market gasolineprices [93] Ethanol production as practiced today inBrazil has generally positive sustainability indicatorsnotably including life cycle greenhouse gas emissions onthe order of 10 of a gasoline base case [94]As in many other countries Brazilian mills processing

sugarcane use bagasse to produceheat and electricity In-creasingly surplus electricity is sold to the grid Todaybagasse is the second leading source of energy for elec-tricity generation in Brazil after hydropower [91] Theprogressive introduction of more efficient cogenerationsystems allowed surplus electricity per ton of sugarcaneprocessed to increase from approximately 20 kWh to upto 140 kWh in the most efficient mills with room for

nd energy sectors 1980 to 2010

icultural Energy

ortsllion US$2010)

Net imported( supply)

Renewable( supply)b

Biofuels ( liquidfuel supply)

00 42 46 8

00 10 47 27

nsidering a) the undernourished population as a percentage of the totale under-5 mortality rate Values less than 49 reflect ldquolow hungerrdquo valuesicate ldquoserious hungerrdquo The worst global hunger scores in 2011 were ascribedectivelywood fuel used in households for cooking to liquid biofuels used in the269 Mtoe) [91]

further improvement to reach to about 200 kWh via in-tegrated biomass gasification and combined cycles [95]The electricity produced in Brazil from bagasse in 201225 TWh represents 56 of the electricity consumptionin Brazil [96] The installed power generating capacity ofcogeneration systems in Brazilian mills 93 GW is a thirdof the 28 GW of installed capacity in the 47 Sub-SaharanAfrican countries excluding South Africa [97] Develop-ment of electrical generating capacity from bagasse inBrazil is a relatively recent event occurring entirely withinthe last decade As previously mentioned in Table 3 co-generation from bagasse in Mauritius is extensiveIt is interesting to stress the relevance of yields im-

provement and densification to reduce the land require-ment for agriculture including bioenergy production inBrazil [98] In recent decades the sugarcane yield (tonshectare) grew at a cumulative average annual rate of14 and the process yield (liters ethanolton) grew at anaverage rate of 16 resulting in an average annualincrease of 31 in ethanol production per hectareThanks to these gains the area currently dedicated tothe cultivation of sugarcane for ethanol production is38 of the area that would have been required to obtainsuch production with the yields observed when Proaacutelcoolbegan Almost all of the 48 Mha used to produce ethanolin Brazil representing about 13 of the total area of ruralproperties is former pasture land Over the lifetime of theProaacutelcool program pasture land devoted to beef produc-tion has decreased by 10 but beef production has morethan tripled as a result of both higher stocking densities(headha) as well as higher animal performance (kg beefheadyear) Roughly threefold yield gains have also beenobserved over this period for grains and maize [99] Asshown in Figure 3 Brazil has achieved both food andgasoline independence whereas substantial reliance onimports is observed for several African countries with sub-stantial land resourcesThere are about 400000 direct jobs specifically related

to ethanol production in Brazil excluding the workersassociated with sugar production [100] Under currentconditions the production of bioethanol per unit ofenergy produced compared with mineral carbonhydroelectricity and oil requires respectively 38 50and 152 times more human labor [44] About 814 ofthe employees work under a formal labor contractcompared to about 40 in the Brazilian agriculturalsector as a whole Formal work relations assure legisla-tively mandated rights such as retirement and annualpaid vacations unemployment insurance extra monthlywages per year health programs and improved workconditions Cooperative relations with workersrsquo unionswhere sugarcane mills operate has fostered amongother benefits reduction of illiteracy and increase ofyears attending school and a reduction in underage

workers (from 153 in 1981 to less than 03 in 2009[100]In a detailed analysis of the socio-economic impacts

caused by the expansion of sugarcane cultivation Assatoand Moraes [101] studied the results of establishingsugarcane processing plants in two municipalities NovaAlvorada do Sul and Rio Brilhante They found an in-crease in the aggregate income which boosted local mar-kets as evidenced by an increase in the number of shopsand services as well as a more active real estate sectorThey also noted that jobs which derived from the expan-sion of the sugarcane industry and from other industriesrelated to this activity have played a key role in retainingand attracting residents thus reducing rural exodus andcontributing to increased population in the two townsthey analyzed These towns feature a large number ofsurrounding rural settlements in which crops are culti-vated that existed before the arrival of the sugarcane in-dustry Assato and Moraes observed that the income(often subsistence initially) of family farms in thesesettlements was supplemented with the wages from thejobs created by the sugarcane industry either in the etha-nol plants or in the sugarcane fields A significant por-tion of family farmers reported improvement in theirquality of life due to the social programs offered by thesugarcane industry-related companies and due to oppor-tunities for (re)training employment and educationespecially for children Data collected from interviewsindicated improved education during the period afterthe installation of the sugarcane industry The authorsconclude that introduction of sugarcane culture createdjobs that led to an increase in aggregate income of themunicipalities and through multiplier effects enabledimproved indicators of health education and quality oflifeThe question of how the Brazilian agricultural sector

would have developed without the simultaneous rapidgrowth of the bioenergy industry is complex and wouldlikely benefit from more study Although bioenergydevelopment was not a primary cause of the growth ofBrazilrsquos agricultural sector it has likely been an accelerat-ing factor in light of contributions to the development ofrural communities and human resources together withimprovements in logistics and trading infrastructureSocial development agricultural development and foodsecurity and bioenergy development in Brazil have beensynergistic rather than antagonisticImportant lessons from the Brazilian bioenergy experi-

ence of potential relevance in the African context includethe following

1 It is valuable for bioenergy feedstocks to bewell known in agricultural terms taking intoconsideration regional factors Support by

Food Independence ampGasoline Dependence

Food amp Gasoline Independence

Food amp Gasoline Dependence

Energy (In)Dependence - Gasoline (Export - Import) Consumption

Food Dependence amp Gasoline Independence

Pasture and Prairie Land

Brazil 196 Mha (Year 2008)

South Africa 84 Mha

Zambia 20 Mha

Kenya 21 MhaMozambique 44 Mha

Ghana 8 Mha

Senegal 6 Mha

Tanzania 24 MhaAg

-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150

Figure 3 Agriculture (in)dependence and gasoline (in)dependence and pasturesprairies area [8991]

breeding programs built on a foundation of goodgerm plasm is essential

2 Selling into multiple product markets (for examplefood fuel electricity) has been advantageous inBrazil

3 Bioenergy production chains should score well interms of life cycle indicators which are generallyfostered by efficient use of land water and energy

4 The state and its agencies have fundamental roles infostering sound biofuel programs by assessingcreatingmonitoringenforcing the conditions forproductionuse preferentially within a clear legaland normative framework Important tasks includedefining fuel (and blends) specifications settingmandatory blending levels and implementing theprogram and establishing a balanced tax regimetaking into account appropriate externalities Thesetasks are complex and demand both a technicalbackground and negotiation among stakeholderswho frequently present contradictory perceptionsand aims

5 Social benefits should be explicitly considered withinan integrated framework that also considerscommercial viability and are generally fostered byefficient production chains (point 3)

The evolution of African agricultureVan Kuelen and Schiere [102] suggest a scheme for theevolution of agriculture focusing on mixed farming sys-tems Borrowing heavily from the four-stage progressionthey outline we adapt this scheme here to describe agri-culture in general and present attributes of each develop-mental stage

As depicted in Figure 4 increasing population and re-source pressure drives agriculture through a progressionof modes from expansivelong fallow to low external in-puthighly integrated to high external inputspecializedto new conservation agriculture featuring extensive inte-gration and high knowledge intensity Agricultural inte-gration involving the exchange of material and energybetween various agricultural activities and in particularcrop and livestock production plays a central role in thisprogressionMost of Africa is supported by low input agriculture

Integration is practiced widely in some locations for ex-ample raising animals and crops on the same land indifferent parts of the year However the scope for inte-gration can be restricted somewhat by very small farmsizes for example one or two hectares Although muchof the worldrsquos effort to increase food productivity is fo-cused on specialized agriculture with high inputs 50 ofthe worldrsquos food production and 70 of the worldrsquospeople are supported by mixed crop-livestock agricul-tural systems featuring a significant level of integrationand much of this agriculture involves low inputs [103]Just as cell phones proliferated within Africa bypassingthe need to build a network of wires and poles we seepotential - and many benefits - to Africa progressingfrom the low external input often integrated mode to anAfrican brand of new conservation agriculture bypassingsome aspects of the high inputspecialized mode Realiz-ing this potential is a challenge for policy makers as wepartially address in the section entitled Future directionsMuch has been written about bioenergy production

from food crops grown outside of Africa leading to higherfood prices and compromised food security [104-106]

Figure 4 Evolution of agriculture

Considerably less attention has been given to impacts ofmodern bioenergy production in Africa and in particularthe potential benefits of such production with respect tofood security In fact very few African examples of mod-ern bioenergy production have been in existence at eithersmall or large commercial scales over a long enoughduration for sufficient data to be available to draw robustconclusions In the Scurlock et al [107] analysis of therelatively large-scale Triangle sugarcane ethanol plant inZimbabwe mainly benign and positive impacts on sugar-cane production and productivity were found by the im-plementation of an ethanol plant annexed to a sugar millPerhaps more speculatively (and we acknowledge con-

troversially) it is possible to foresee an important rolefor biofuels in supporting resilience in food cropping asopposed to the competitive outcome with food provisionand access that is most often assumed Here we specu-late what might have happened over the last decade ifZambia and indeed South Africa had implemented alarge-scale biofuel production program based on the useof maize as the primary feedstock Crop production inSub-Saharan Africa can be described as a boom butunder-supply cycle that can lead to bouts of severeundernourishment For example in Zambia during 2010and 2011 as a result of adverse climate conditions themaize crop failed and Jayne [108] states that rdquothe gov-ernment of Zambia spent 2-3 of GDP stabilising foodprices In 2012 better climatic conditions returned and a15 million tonne maize surplus was generated Howeveras the country only had the capacity to export 70 000

tonnes per month to other countries it would havetaken lsquo20 months to export the surplus by which time(as a result of a lack of storage infrastructure) mostwould be unsuitable for human consumption ldquoSimilarcycles are seen throughout the continent And yet ifZambia had a biofuel industry capable of using all orpart of the grain surplus an economic take-off wouldhave been available supporting the development of theproduction and storage infrastructure and during timesof crop failure the remaining crop could be divertedback to human food markets In this way the maize sup-ply chain could become more resilient to climate shocks

Future directionsModern bioenergy can be an agent of African transform-ation with potential social benefits accruing to multiplesectors and extending well beyond energy supply per sePotential negative impacts also cut across sectors Thusinstitutionally inclusive multi-sector legislative structureswill be more effective at maximizing the social benefits ofbioenergy compared to institutionally exclusive single-sector structures This critical point is articulated well bythe 2011 Practical Action working paper [9]

ldquothe role of government is to provide stimulus forprivate investment and initiatives as well as promoteeffective regulation monitoring and coordination of thebiofuels sector The particular multifaceted opportunitythat liquid biofuels offers for Africa demands a new typeof public private and governmental engagement and

integration which may be very beneficial for Africarsquosoverall growth and development Given the complexityof the different policy objectives and the manyunknowns the industry is still more likely to succeedwithin a purpose built legislative structure than withinthe current inadequate andor conflicting frameworksSubsequently working with all relevant ministries andaligning policy within a clear dedicated biofuels policyis the best way to achieve sustainable resultsrdquo

Conceptual models for modern bioenergy deploy-ment in Africa may be thought of along an axis de-fined by the extent of social engagement At one endof this axis which we term the ldquolow social engage-ment modelrdquo bioenergy feedstock production can beimagined in areas that are unoccupied and unused ornearly so hence destined to consumers located out-side of the area that is urban regional or exportmarkets At the other end termed here the ldquohigh so-cial engagement modelrdquo feedstock production can beimagined in areas that are occupied and used to aconsiderable extent In this case the business modelcan be either a cash feedstock crop or a local feed-stock for local bioenergy developmentPursuing deployment according to the low social en-

gagement model is certainly simpler may be beneficialin some instances and could be a step in a sequence ofactions leading to realization of development objectivesHowever the potential development benefits of the highsocial engagement model are likely to be substantiallygreater We note that occupied areas capable of growingenergy crops are far more plentiful in Africa comparedto unoccupied areas which are in most cases degradeddry andor landlocked and remote Although difficult toquantify objectively we offer the impression that consid-erably more effort has gone into analysis along the linesof ldquoHow much bioenergy could be produced once foodneeds were provided forrdquo as compared to ldquoHow muchmore food security and other social benefits could be re-alized with bioenergy than without itrdquo In the context ofAfrican development we find the latter question to beconsiderably more compellingAlthough there is widespread awareness of a stunning

gap between the actual and potential output of Africarsquosland resources [14] and some important initial explor-ation has occurred (see the section Experience withbioenergy in Africa) there is much more to be done inthe area of analyzing integrated scenarios featuringincreased production of food and bioenergy Table 5presents a framework wherein the ldquoWhat isrdquo and ldquoWhatcould berdquo questions are examined from the point ofview of geography land management society environ-ment and synthesis culminating in a vision for multiplybeneficial land use

The spatial scale chosen for analysis will impact theexecution and outcome of efforts to develop a vision formultiply beneficial land use featuring production of bothfood and energy from the land Analysis at the national ormulti-national level will be informative with respect to op-erative federal policies and regulation aggregated impactsand consideration of integrated strategies and benefits at ahigh level Analysis at the level of the feedstock catchmentarea for a single potential production facility will be par-ticularly informative with respect to local circumstancesobjectives and benefits and will be more relevant to po-tential projects For many purposes analysis at both levelswill be needed Visions developed in different locationswill likely have some features in common but will also re-flect the tremendous diversity of circumstances across theAfrican continentOnce a vision for multiply beneficial land use is devel-

oped regardless of scale the next step is to ask ldquoWhatneeds to be done to close the gap between what is andwhat could berdquo The answers will in general belocation-specific and will usually involve a variety ofplayers including communities companies federal andlocal governments and NGOs In many cases it will beuseful to target the simultaneous realization of twogoals 1) sustainable and widely distributed social benefitsand 2) commercial viability Given this duality there issignificant scope for creative partnerships between thepublic private and NGO sectors The impetus for suchpartnerships can be expected to result from further ana-lysis of multiply beneficial land usePursuing social benefits and commercial viability

within the context of the high social engagement modelfor African bioenergy development might proceed viathe following steps

1 Develop a multiply beneficial land use vision andstrategy along with appropriate and inclusive landtenure systems (see above)

2 Provide - either by government companies orpublic-private partnerships - adequate incentives interms of facilitating access to input and outputmarkets and mitigating investment risk for smallholderfarmers to increase food and non-food crop yieldsNote that several-fold increases have been observed toresult from simple extension measures [109110]

3 Investment would be gathered - by a companyco-op or public-private partnership - to build abioenergy conversion facility with bioenergyfeedstocks planted on land made available byand fostered by an enabling environment andadequate incentives

4 Monitor and optimize social benefits andenvironmental impact

5 Share best practices within and across regions

Table 5 Framework for development of a vision for multiply beneficial land use

Domain What is What could be

a Society Wealth generationdistribution and access to capitalsupply and demand of food water fodder and energyland ownership and occupation

Define needs and aspirations based on community andstakeholder input at relevant scales

b Geography Precipitation temperature soil texture irrigation potential Define potential yields of food crops pasture and energycrops

c Land management Land cover use and disturbances current crop yields Define how management would have to optimize thepotential defined in domain b based on the needs andaspirations defined in domain a

d Environment Inventory C and N Flows ecosystem services soil andair quality water quality and access

Evaluate the changes in domain c with respect toenvironmental objectives propose strategies to mitigateany conflicts

e Synthesis Considering all aspects develop a vision for multiply beneficialland use responsive to social and economic priorities featuringproduction of food and bioenergy without compromising waterand other natural resources and catalyzed by responsible investment

As elaborated conceptually in the section Bioenergy asa potential enabler of development and supported byexperience in both Africa and Brazil as we have discussedwe see strong evidence that the benefits of proceeding tostep 4 can be substantially greater than those achieved bystopping at step 2 That is we think it is very likely thatmeasures to advance food security and bioenergy develop-ment can be a substantially more effective developmentstrategy when pursued together than either can aloneIn many examples of bioenergy deployment in devel-

oping countries social consequences have been an after-thought rather than an integral part of project planningEven when pursued in this mode it appears that impactsof bioenergy on food security and economic develop-ment have in some cases been demonstrably positivewith the experience in Brazil being a prominent ex-ample Still some projects are more beneficial thanothers there are examples of projects that have hadnegative impacts and even projects with positive im-pacts for a majority are likely to have negative impactson a minority that would be desirable to mitigate [25]To the extent that development objectives become inte-gral to project planning the magnitude probability anddistribution of anticipated social benefits from bioenergyrise markedly Developing and implementing policiesand institutional structures that foster such integrationis challenging and very much a work in progress Not-withstanding the potential of bioenergy to positively im-pact Africarsquos pressing challenges requires that it beurgently considered and advanced

ConclusionsAfrica has the highest incidence of food insecurity andpoverty and the highest rates of population growth butit also has the most arable land the lowest crop yieldsand by far the most plentiful land resources relative toenergy demand In Brazil social development agricultural

development and food security and the development ofmodern bioenergy have been synergistic rather than an-tagonistic Achieving such synergies in African countrieswill require clear vision good governance and adaptationof technologies knowledge and business models to myr-iad local circumstances Strategies for integrated produc-tion of food crops livestock and bioenergy are potentiallyattractive and offer an alternative to an agricultural modelfeaturing specialized land use Modern bioenergy can bean agent of African transformation with potential socialbenefits accruing to multiple sectors and extending wellbeyond energy supply per se Potential negative impactsalso cut across sectors Thus institutionally inclusivemulti-sector legislative structures will be more effective atmaximizing the social benefits of bioenergy compared toinstitutionally exclusive single-sector structures Innova-tive business models (such as public-private partnerships)aimed at maximizing social benefits are also promising Ifdone thoughtfully there is considerable evidence that foodsecurity and economic development in Africa can be ad-dressed more effectively with modern bioenergy thanwithout it This review is relevant to economic develop-ment and in particular rural development in Africancountries and poor countries elsewhere Our findings aresignificant because they point to opportunities for devel-opment that are not fully realized and because theyhighlight potential positive outcomes in domains whereinthe impact of bioenergy has often been assumed to benegative

AbbreviationsBTU British thermal unit C carbon CAADP Comprehensive AfricaAgriculture Development Programme (framework) CO2 carbon dioxideE25 blend of 25 ethanol and 75 gasoline EJ exajoule EU EuropeanUnion FAO Food and Agriculture Organization (United Nations) gal gallonGDP gross domestic product GHG greenhouse gas GHI Global HungerIndex GW gigawatt ha hectare kW kilowatt kWh kilowatt-hour L literMha million hectare MDGs Millenium Development Goals Mtoe megatonoil equivalent MW megawatt MWe megawatts of electricity N nitrogen

NEPAD New Partnership for Africarsquos Development NGO non-governmentalorganization PIDA Program for Infrastructure Development in AfricaTWh terawatt-hour vv volume per volume UN United Nations US UnitedStates

Competing interestsLRL and WHVZ are involved with private sector activities in the biofuelsector All other authors declare that they have no competing interests

Authorsrsquo contributionsLRL was the primary author of the manuscript and had lead responsibility fordeveloping Figures 1 and 4 and Table 5 MS was an active coauthor playeda lead role in providing information and perspectives on development inAfrica and played a co-lead role in editing the manuscript AC had co-leadresponsibility for developing Table 3 and provided information and perspectiveson bioenergy deployment in Africa and its relationship to development LABCand CHBC provided information and perspectives on bioenergy deployment inBrazil and its relationship to development and also played a lead role indiscussions leading to initiation of this manuscript ME and IM providedinformation and perspectives on bioenergy deployment in Africa and itsrelationship to development ML had lead responsibility for developing Tables 1and 2 MAFDM had primary responsibility for the text discussing the socialimpacts of bioenergy in the section on the Brazilian experience LAHN had leadresponsibility for developing Table 4 and Figure 3 as well as much of the textin the section on the Brazilian experience GMW contributed a discussion ofwater-efficient crops had co-lead responsibility for developing Table 3 andprovided information and perspectives on bioenergy deployment in Africa JWcontributed a discussion of climate change provided information andperspectives on bioenergy deployment in Africa including potential forenhancing the resilience of food supplies and played a co-lead role inediting the manuscript WHVZ provided information and perspectives onbioenergy deployment in Africa and played a lead role in discussions leading toinitiation of this manuscript All coauthors reviewed the manuscript andresponses to reviewer comments All authors read and approved the finalmanuscript

AcknowledgementPartial support was provided by grant 201200282-3 from the Sao PauloResearch Foundation the NEPAD-FAO project under the EU-FAO GlobalGovernance for Hunger Reduction Programme and the Link Foundation(support for LRL)

Author details1Thayer School of Engineering Dartmouth College Hanover NH USA 2NewPartnership for Africarsquos Development (NEPAD) Johannesburg South Africa3Department of Process Engineering University of StellenboschStellenbosch South Africa 4Faculty of Agricultural Engineering University ofCampinas Campinas Brazil 5Satildeo Paulo Research Foundation Satildeo Paulo SatildeoPaulo Brazil 6Physics Institute University of Campinas Campinas Brazil7Department of Applied Economics University of Satildeo Paulo ESALQPiracicaba Brazil 8Department of Microbiology University of StellenboschStellenbosch South Africa 9Water Institute University of StellenboschStellenbosch South Africa 10Centre for Environmental Policy ImperialCollege London London UK

Received 14 May 2014 Accepted 15 December 2014

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20122 International Energy Agency World energy outlook 2011 Paris IEA

Publishing 20113 Haub C Fact sheet world population trends Washington DC Population

Reference Bureau 20124 New Partnership for Africarsquos Development (NEPAD) NEPAD programmes

httpwwwnepadorgnepad-programmes5 Bank W World Development Report 2008 Agriculture for development

Washington DC 20076 United States Census Bureau International Programs httpwwwcensus

govpopulationinternational

7 United States Energy Information Administration (EIA) International EnergyStatistics httpwwweiagovcfappsipdbprojectIEDIndex3cfmtid=44amppid=44ampaid=2

8 Graphic Maps World atlas httpwwwworldatlascom9 Practical Action Consulting in selected African countries Policy Innovation

Systems for Clean Energy Security Research for Development (R4D)Edinburgh 2011

10 UNDP United Nations Development Programme Sustainable energy httpwwwundporgcontentundpenhomeourworkenvironmentandenergyfocus_areassustainable-energyhtml

11 Lynd LR Woods J A new hope for Africa Nature 2011474S20ndash112 Christaensen L Demery L The evolving role of agriculture in poverty

reduction an empirical perspective J Dev Econ 201196239ndash5413 Ligon E Sadoulet E Estimating the effects of aggregate agricultural growth

on the distribution of expenditures Background paper for the WorldDevelopment Report 2008 2007

14 United Nations Development Project (UNDP) African human developmentreport 2012 towards a food secure future New York USA United NationsPublication 2012

15 Practical Action Consulting Small-scale bioenergy initiatives brief descriptionand preliminary lessons on livelihood impacts from case studies in Asia LatinAmerica and Africa Rome PISCES and FAO 2009

16 Accenture 2013 Food for thought unlocking the economic potential ofsub-Saharan Africa by addressing food security httpwwwaccenturecomza-enPagesinsight-unlocking-sub-saharan-africa-food-securityaspxAccessed 18 March 2014

17 Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) Global food losses and foodwaste extent causes and prevention 2011 httpwwwfaoorgdocrep014mb060emb060e00pdf Accessed 21 March 2014

18 Thurow R Kilman S Enough why the worldrsquos poor starve in an age ofplenty New York US Public Affairs 2009

19 Achterbosch T Meijerink G Slingerland M Smeets E 2013 Combiningbioenergy production and food security NL Agency Ministry of EconomicAffairs httpedepotwurnl260061

20 Diaz-Chavez R Mapping food and bioenergy in Africa a report prepared forFARA Ghana Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa 2010

21 Hamelinck C Biofuels and food risks and opportunities httpwwwecofyscomfilesfilesecofys-2013-biofuels-and-food-securitypdf

22 Langeveld JWA Dixon J van Keulen H Quist-Wessel PMF Analyzing the effectof biofuel expansion on land use in major producing countries evidence ofincreased multiple cropping Biofuels Bioprod Bioref 20148(1)49ndash58

23 Lotze C von Lampe HM Kyle P Fujimori S Havlik P van Meijl H et alImpacts of increased bioenergy demand on global food markets an AgMIPeconomic model intercomparison Agric Econ 2014451ndash14

24 Rosillo-Calle F Johnson F Food versus fuel London ZED Books 201025 Locke A Henley G Biofuels and food security what does the evidence say

Overseas Development Institute 2014 httpwwwodiorgukpublications7485-biofuels-food-security-food-prices-evidence

26 Osseweijer P Watson HK Johnson FX Batistella M Cortez LAB Lynd LRet al Bioenergy and food security In Bioenergy bridging the gaps ParisFrance SCOPE In press

27 Dale BE Anderson JE Brown RC Csonka S Dale VH Herwick G et al Take acloser look biofuels can support environmental economic and social goalsEnviron Sci Technol 2014487200ndash3

28 Smith P Bustamante M Ahammad H Clark H Dong H Elsiddig EA et alIPCC Bioenergy climate effects mitigation options potential andsustainability implications Appendix to Chapter 11 (AFOLU) Final Draft IPCCWGIII AR5 Geneva 2014

29 Porter JR et al Food security and food production systems In WGII AR5IPCC Chap 7 2014

30 Ray DK Ramankutty N Mueller ND West PC Foley JA Recent patterns ofcrop yield growth and stagnation Nature Commun 2012 3

31 Long SP Karp A Buckeridge MS Davis SC Moore PH Moose SP et al Cropfeedstocks for biofuels and bioenergy vol 2 Paris France Bioenergybridging the gaps SCOPE In press

32 Woods J Lynd LR Laser M Batistella M de Castro VD Kline K et al Landand bioenergy In Bioenergy bridging the gaps vol 9 Paris FranceSCOPE In press

33 FAO Land and environmental degradation and desertification in Africa FAOCorporate Document Repository httpwwwfaoorgdocrepx5318ex5318e00HTM

34 Anderson-Teixeira KJ Masters MD Black CK Zeri M Hussain MZ BernacchiCJ et al Altered below ground carbon cycling following land use changeto perennial energy crops Ecosystems 2013 doi101007s10021-012-9628-x

35 Jordan N Boody G Broussard W Glover JD Keeney D McCown BH et alSustainable development of the agricultural bio-economy Science20073161570ndash1

36 Lal R Soil carbon sequestration impacts on global climate change and foodsecurity Science 2004304(5677)1623ndash7

37 Biofuels for transportation global potential and implications for sustainableagriculture and energy in the 21st century World Watch InstituteWashington DC 2006

38 International Energy Agency Status of advanced biofuels demonstrationfacilities in 2012 A report to Bioenergy Task 39 httpdemoplantsbioenergy2020eufilesDemoplants_Report_Finalpdf

39 Renewable Fuels Association Statistics httpwwwethanolrfaorgpagesstatistics

40 Hammerschlag R Ethanolrsquos energy return on investment a survey of theliterature 1990 - present Environ Sci Technol 2006401744ndash50

41 National Agricultural Statistics Service Statistics by subject httpwwwnassusdagovStatistics_by_Subjectindexphp

42 Mueller S National dry mill corn ethanol survey Biotechnol Lett20082010(32)1261ndash4

43 UNICA (Sugar Cane Industry Association) UNICA data httpwwwunicadatacombr

44 Goldemberg J The Brazilian biofuels industry Biotechnology for Biofuels200811ndash7

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analysis of biomass fast pyrolysis to transportation fuels Golden CONational Renewable Energy Laboratory 2010 httpwwwnrelgovdocsfy11osti46586pdf

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concentration on the CAM species Agave deserti J Exp Bot 19964761ndash963 Lynd L Aziz R Cruz C Chimphango A Cortez L Faaij A et al A global

conversation about energy from biomass the continental conventions ofthe global sustainable bioenergy project Interface Focus 20111271ndash9

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80 Biofuels Digest South Africarsquos FEampAP plans $373 M investment in sweetsorghum ethanol 2012mdashthis reference is an internet article not a journalarticle so publisher location is not applicable Suggest citing httpwwwbiofuelsdigestcombdigest20120126south-africasfeap-plans-373m-investment-in-sweet-sorghum-ethanol as URL with date of access andBiofuels Digest as the publisher

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WBSITEEXTERNALCOUNTRIESAFRICAEXTEXTAFRREGTOPENERGY0menuPK717332~pagePK51065911~piPK64171006~theSitePK71730600html

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Zimbabwe Nairobi Kenya ACTS Press 1991

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Abstract

Introduction

Bioenergy as a potential enabler of development

Bioenergy overview

Experience with bioenergy in Africa

The Brazilian experience

The evolution of African agriculture

Future directions

Conclusions

Abbreviations

Competing interests

Authorsrsquo contributions

Acknowledgement

Author details

References