Abstract Ground water table (g.w.t.) levels

were measured twice a month for 2 years in 50

observation wells installed inside and outside the

two 18-year-old and 350 m apart plantations of

Eucalyptus tereticornis (Mysure gum) at Dhob-

Bhali research plot located in Rohtak district of

Haryana state (north-west India). Throughout the

study, the g.w.t. underneath the plantations

remained lower than the g.w.t. in the adjacent

fields. The average g.w.t. in the plantations was

4.95 m and the average g.w.t. in the control

located in adjacent fields was 4.04 m. Interest-

ingly, the spatial extent of lowering of g.w.t. in the

adjacent fields was up to a distance of more than

730 m from the edge of a plantation. Drawdown

in the g.w.t. developed due to the effect of a

plantation was similar to the cone of depression

of a pumping well and the drawdown in the g.w.t.

developed due to the joint effect of both the

plantations was similar to the combined cone of

depression of two pumping wells. There was no

correlation between soil salinity and the g.w.t.

The fluctuations in g.w.t. caused fluctuations in

g.w.t. salinity in the plantation as well as in the

adjacent fields, but there was no net increase in

g.w.t. salinity underneath the plantation. Sinker

roots of Eucalyptus tree reached the zone of

capillary fringe up to a depth of 4.40 m, indicating

that the Eucalyptus trees were absorbing capillary

water of the g.w.t. Thus, in shallow g.w.t. areas of

semi-arid regions with alluvial sandy loam soils,

the plantations of E. tereticornis act as bio-pumps

and therefore, we recommend closely spaced

parallel strip plantations of this species for the

reclamation of waterlogged areas.

Keywords Semi-arid Æ Waterlogging Æ Salinity ÆCapillary fringe Æ Root zone Æ Bio-pumps

J. Ram (&)Forest Department, Hisar, Haryana, Indiae-mail: jeetramifs@yahoo.co.in

V. K. GargForest Department, Kurukshetra, Haryana, Indiae-mail: vkgarg@indiatimes.com

O. P. TokyForestry Department, CCS Haryana AgriculturalUniversity, Hisar, Haryana, Indiae-mail: optoky@yahoo.com

P. S. Minhas Æ O. S. Tomar Æ J. C. Dagar ÆS. K. KamraCentral Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal,Haryana, India

P. S. Minhase-mail: psminhas@cssri.ernet.in

O. S. Tomare-mail: ostomar@cssri.ernet.in

J. C. Dagare-mail: jcdagar@cssri.ernet.in

S. K. Kamrae-mail: skkamra@cssri.ernet.in

Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165

DOI 10.1007/s10457-006-9026-5

123

Biodrainage potential of Eucalyptus tereticornisfor reclamation of shallow water table areasin north-west India

J. Ram Æ V. K. Garg Æ O. P. Toky ÆP. S. Minhas Æ O. S. Tomar Æ J. C. Dagar ÆS. K. Kamra

Received: 19 August 2005 / Accepted: 14 September 2006 / Published online: 18 October 2006� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2006

Introduction

Problem

In arid and semi-arid regions, irrigation is an

essential input for sustaining the agricultural

production. But, introduction of canal irrigation

in such regions causes rise in ground water table

(g.w.t.) followed by waterlogging and secondary

salinisation of soils. Presently, about one-third of

the world’s irrigated area faces the threat of

waterlogging, about 60 million hectare (Mha) is

already waterlogged and 20 Mha is salt affected

(Heuperman et al. 2002). Ministry of Water

Resources, Govt. of India, reported that an area

of 2.46 Mha is waterlogged and an area of

3.30 Mha is salt affected in the command of major

and medium irrigation projects in the country

(MOWR 1991). In the predominantly agricultural

state of Haryana (north-west India), in which the

present study was carried out, nearly 50% area is

faced with rising g.w.t and salinity problems and

about 10% area has already become waterlogged

resulting in reduced crop yields and abandonment

of agriculture lands (Anonymous 1998).

Conventional solution

The conventional engineering based sub-surface

drainage techniques, although, are efficient in

combating the problems of waterlogging and

salinity in irrigated lands; but they are relatively

more expensive and cause environmental prob-

lems (Heuperman et al. 2002). As a result, the

very high annual rate of installation of sub-

surface drainage of the 1980s (300,000 ha/year)

has fallen to about 150,000 ha/year during the

1990s (Lesaffre and Zimmer 1995).

Biodrainage—an alternate solution

The limitations and shortcomings of the conven-

tional engineering based drainage techniques call

for alternative approaches to keep the agriculture

sustainable over the long term. Alternative tech-

niques must be effective, affordable, socially

acceptable, environment friendly and which do

not cause degradation of natural land and water

resources. Biodrainage, which relies on deep-

rooted vegetation, is one of these alternative

options (Heuperman et al. 2002).

Effectiveness of biodrainage plantations

Tiwari and Mathur (1983) and Tewari (1992)

advocated that Eucalyptus do not lower the g.w.t.

But, Heuperman et al. (1984), Travis and Heu-

perman (1994), Heuperman (1995), Chaudhry

et al. (2000), Holland (2001), Kapoor (2001) and

Heuperman et al. (2002) reported that Eucalyp-

tus lower the shallow g.w.t.

In biodrainage studies conducted in irrigated

lands in Australia (Heuperman et al. 1984; Travis

and Heuperman 1994; Heuperman 1995; Thor-

burn and George 1999) the spatial extent of

lowering of shallow g.w.t. underneath the adja-

cent fields was up to a maximum distance of 40 m

from the plantation boundary. But, in India,

Kapoor (2001) concluded that if plantations are

grown on sufficient large areas, the drawdown

effect on g.w.t. is not confined to areas immedi-

ately under the plantations but extends to dis-

tances of 500 m beyond the edge of the

plantation.

Shortcoming of biodrainage plantations

Travis and Heuperman (1994), Heuperman

(1999), Silberstein et al. (1999) and Archibald

et al. (2006) reported accumulation of salts under-

neath the Eucalyptus plantations raised on shallow

g.w.t. areas. But, no abnormal increase in salinity

levels of soils and ground water was observed

underneath the plantation in the Indira Gandhi

Nahar Project, Rajasthan, India (Kapoor 2001).

Objective of present study

Biodrainage is yet to be accepted and practised as

a planned drainage measure, in spite of the

encouraging experiences in countries like Aus-

tralia, USA, India and Pakistan where swampy

lands have been reclaimed for agriculture with

the help of plantations. Its main reason is non-

availability of accurate planting designs for dif-

ferent edaphic and climatic conditions on which

the effectiveness of this technique depends.

Therefore, it is necessary to carry out area specific

148 Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165

123

research and studies in different agro-climatic

regions of India (Anonymous 2003).

The main objective of the present study was to

quantify the effectiveness of tree plantation for

the reclamation of shallow g.w.t. areas of Haryana

state or elsewhere with similar agro-climatic

conditions and suggest models for large scale

application.

Material and methods

Site description

The present study was conducted at Dhob-Bhali

Research Plot (Fig. 1) located at a distance of

about 6 km from Rohtak city (longitude 76�35¢E,

latitude 28�55¢N) of Haryana state (north-west

India). Layout of the research plot was as shown

in Fig. 2. Rohtak-Bhiwani railway line and Roh-

tak-Bhiwani road, which run almost parallel to

each other, pass through the research plot.

The tract of Dhob-Bhali research plot was

plain and soil was alluvial sandy loam with

calcareous concretion in the sub-soil. In this

research plot, there were two plantations (plan-

tation-I and plantation-II) of Eucalyptus tereti-

cornis (Mysure gum). Barring western side of

plantation-I, these plantations were surrounded

by agricultural fields.

Though, the area on the western side of

plantation-I was a notified protected forest, but

this area could not be afforested with valuable

tree species, most probably, due to the presence

of high soil salinity (ECe) ranging up to 24.65 dS/

m. As a result, this area remained as a wasteland

under the bushes of Prosopis juliflora. This

species, though an exotic, has encroached upon

the non-cultivated lands due its profuse seeding,

germination and coppicing ability and tolerance

to waterlogging, salinity, drought and frost.

The natural tree species in the research plot

were the Acacia nilotica, A. leucophloea and

Prosopis cineraria, etc. The main crops grown

in the agricultural fields were wheat (Triticum

aestivum) and mustard/rapeseed (Brassica species)

during winter season and jowar (Sorghum bicolor),

bajra/pearlmillet (Pennisetum glaucum), Arhar/

pigeon pea/red gram (Cajanus cajan), cotton

(Gossypium species) and paddy/rice (Oryza sativa)

during the summer season. The roots of these crops

generally confine to upper 1.5 m soil depths.

Fig. 1 Location of (a) Haryana state in north-west India and (b) Dhob-Bhali research plot in Rohtak district of Haryanastate

Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165 149

123

The main source of irrigation was a canal

(Kahnour Distributory), which was located on the

western side of the research plot at a distance of

about 5 km. The capacity of this canal was 375 ft3/

s (cubic foot per second) and it used to run for

7 days a month. The canal irrigation was supple-

mented by shallow tube wells. The method of

irrigation was the flood method.

The climate of Rohtak district is semi-arid with

intensely hot summer and a cold winter. April and

May are usually the driest months and humidity

in the afternoon becomes less than 20%. The cold

season starts by the late November and extends

till about middle of March. This is followed by the

hot summer season, which continues till the end

of June when the southwest monsoon arrives. July

to September is the southwest monsoon season, in

which about 80% of the precipitation is received.

Post-monsoon period (October–November) con-

stitute a transition phase from monsoon to winter

conditions. Light showers are also experienced

during winter. Monsoon rains are erratic but

winter rains are more erratic.

The average annual rainfall (at Rohtak city)

during the years 1986–1987 to 2003–2004 was

492 mm with a minimum of 206 mm during

1987–1988 and maximum of 1,129 mm during

1995–1996. The annual rainfall during the years

2004–2005 and 2005–2006 was 475 and 537 mm,

respectively.

In Rohtak district, the average g.w.t. is shal-

low (within 5 m below the ground level) and it is

rising at an average rate of about 7 cm per

annum (during 1974–2004) due to seepage of

water from a large network of canals, brackish

ground water, topographical depressions and

absence of natural drainage. In addition to this,

the axis of topographical depression of Haryana

state passes through this district and causes

floods during heavy rainfall years. The rising

g.w.t., in this district, has caused waterlogging

followed by secondary salinisation of soils. The

historical fluctuations in g.w.t. during 1974–2004

were as shown in Fig. 3.

In waterlogged areas (g.w.t. within 3 m below

the ground level) of Rohtak district, the tradi-

tional cropping pattern has entirely changed to

wheat and paddy sequence of rotation. As per

requirement of crop, the paddy fields remained

sub-merged under surface water for 2–3 months

of rainy season, which is the time of tree

planting in this district. Second, most of the tree

Fig. 2 Layout of Dhob-Bhali research plot. Legend. (•) Observation well, ( ) road, ( ) railway line and( ) plantation

150 Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165

123

species cannot be planted with normal pit

planting technique in areas suffering from sur-

face as well as sub-surface waterlogging. As a

result, the waterlogged areas were devoid of tree

plantations suitable for biodrainage study.

Therefore, the area of Dhob-Bhali research plot

having shallow g.w.t. (within 4 m below the

ground level) and holding two mature planta-

tions of E. tereticornis was selected for the

present study.

Plantations

Plantation-I was raised over an area of 2.56 ha

(320 m · 80 m) in July–August 1986 at Dhob-

Bhali railway station yard located along Rohtak-

Bhiwani railway line by planting seedlings of

E. tereticornis at a spacing of 3 m · 3 m (1,100

seedlings per ha) by pit planting technique. In this

technique, pits of 45 cm length, 45 cm width and

45 cm depth were dug up manually at a spacing of

3 m · 3 m. One seedling was planted in each of the

pits by keeping about 10 cm top depth of the pit

empty for watering. Three hand waterings were

given to the plants in the first year (first at the time

of planting during monsoon season, second in post-

monsoon season and third in winter season) and

thereafter no irrigation was provided. During April

2004, the 18-year-old tree crop was enumerated;

the total trees in the area were 301 (with a density

of 118 trees/ha). Their average height was 24 m

and average girth at the breast height level was

100 cm.

Plantation-II was raised on either side of the

bye-pass of Dhob village over an area of

2.50 ha (1,560 m · 16 m). The year of planting,

species planted and the other operations were

the same as that of plantation-I. During April

2004, the total trees in the area were 807 (with

a density of 323 trees/ha). Their average height

was 23 m and average girth at the breast height

level was 102 cm.

The distance between plantation-I and planta-

tion-II was 350 m.

Observation wells

To measure the g.w.t. levels underneath the 18-

year-old plantations and adjacent areas, a total of

50 observation wells were installed (Fig. 2). Out

of these, 31 observation wells (Nos. 1–31) were

installed in a straight line over a length of 1,600 m

in the east-west transect of plantation-I and 19

observation wells (Nos. 32–50) were installed in a

straight line over a length of 1,100 m in the north-

south transect of both the plantations. The

running of trains on the railway track might be

influencing the porosity of soil underneath the

track. Keeping this point in view, the east-west

transect was laid parallel to the railway track so

that g.w.t. in each of the observation wells of this

transect is equally influenced.

Each observation well was consisted of a

galvanized iron (GI) pipe of 8.23 m in length

and 6.35 cm in inner diameter. The lower end of

the GI pipe was permanently closed by fixing a

cap. Perforations of 1 cm diameter were made in

the lower 2.13 m length of the GI pipe. The

perforated portion of the GI pipe was first

wrapped with two layers of polyester cloth and

then with one layer of synthetic mess to avoid

passage of even fine soil particles into the GI

Fig. 3 Fluctuations in g.w.t during 1974–2004 in Rohtak district. Legend. (–s–) June and (–D–) October

Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165 151

123

pipe. The observation well No. 41 was first

installed as a bench mark by putting the closed

end of GI pipe into the 10.16 cm diameter

borehole and keeping open end of GI pipe 1 m

above the ground level. To avoid blockage of

ground water into the observation well, the space

left between well casing (GI pipe) and the

borehole was filled with gravels up to a height

of 2.50 m from the lower end of GI pipe. The

upper portion was filled up with local soil and

then well pressed. To avoid passage of surface

water into the observation well, the uppermost

30 cm · 30 cm · 30 cm soil surface was sealed

with cement concrete.

Though the area of the research plot was flat,

but it was not 100% flat. Therefore, levelling of

observation wells was necessary so that bottom of

all the observation wells were placed to the same

elevation depth below the soil surface. For this, we

selected a simple but very accurate technique in

which a transparent rubber tube filled with clean

water was used. First of all, observation well No.

41 was installed as a bench mark by keeping its GI

pipe 1 m above the ground level. Thereafter,

observation well No. 42 was installed, but not

finally fixed. One end of the transparent rubber

tube filled with clean water was held by a person

along the GI pipe of observation well No. 41 and

other end of this tube was held by another person

along the GI pipe of observation well No. 42. The

GI pipe of observation well No. 42 was moved up

and down till the top of the GI pipes of both the

observation wells coincided with the water level in

the rubber tube. By getting this, the observation

well No. 42 was finally fixed. Similar procedure

was followed for observation well Nos. 42 and 43,

observation well Nos. 43 and 44 and so on. In

this way, all the 50 observation wells were finally

fixed.

Control observation wells

The observation wells Nos. 1, 31 and 32 (farthest

from the plantations) were taken as control

(Fig. 2). The observation wells No. 1 was sur-

rounded by wasteland and the observation wells

Nos. 31 and 32 were surrounded by agricultural

fields.

Measurement of ground water table

The levels of g.w.t. were measured twice a month

for 2 years (April 2004 to March 2006) in all the

50 observation wells with the help of a measuring

tape attached with a bell. The g.w.t. levels were

also measured twice a month during May 2006.

Ground water sampling

The g.w.t. samples were taken from all the 31

observation wells of east-west transect in May

2004, May 2005 and May 2006 and these samples

were tested for salinity.

Soil sampling

Soil sampling (0–0.15, 0.15–0.30, 0.30–0.60 m and

so on up to the depth of g.w.t.) from a point

adjacent to each of the observation well Nos. 1–31

was done in May 2004. These samples were tested

for soil salinity.

Root zone

To see the depth up to which Eucalyptus roots have

penetrated in the soil profile, an open well of 3 m

diameter and 5 m depth was manually dug up near

a representative Eucalyptus tree of plantation-I in

May 2006 and photographed in June 2006.

Capillary fringe

Due to surface tension, some water from the

g.w.t. rises in the finer pores of the soil. The zone

in which this water is stored is called the zone of

capillary fringe. In the dug up open well, the

depth of wet soil above the g.w.t. level was

measured in June 2006 to get an idea about the

zone of capillary fringe.

Statistical analysis

One-way analysis of variance, Post-Hoc analysis

and Duncan range test were carried out for g.w.t.

levels of 2004–2005 pertaining to observation well

Nos. 1–40, which were located in the east-west

transect and northern part of north-south transect.

152 Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165

123

Results

Ground water table in east-west transect

In the east-west transect, 1,478 observations of

g.w.t. levels were recorded during a period of

2 years (April 2004 to March 2006).

To see the trend of g.w.t. during different

months of different climatic seasons, the monthly

values of g.w.t. levels of 2004–2005 were plotted

in Fig. 4, which clearly indicated that during

2004–2005, except some minor deviations in

observation wells Nos. 21–23, the g.w.t. under-

neath the plantation-I remained lower than the

g.w.t. underneath the adjacent fields.

Further, to see the mean trend of g.w.t. during the

years 2004–2005 and 2005–2006, the annual values

of g.w.t. levels were plotted in Fig. 5, which clearly

indicated that, during each of the years, the g.w.t.

underneath the plantation-I remained lower than

the g.w.t. underneath the adjacent fields. Second,

there was a rise in g.w.t. during 2005–2006 and this

was mainly due to running of canals for more than

the specified period to meet the water requirement

of drought prone southern districts of Haryana state

and partly due to relatively high rainfall and felling

of some trees from plantation-I.

Ground water table in north-south transect

In north-south transect, 910 observations of g.w.t.

levels were recorded during a period of 2 years.

Monthly values of g.w.t. levels of 2004–2005

were plotted in Fig. 6, which clearly indicated

that during 2004–2005, except some minor

deviations in observation wells No. 49, the

g.w.t. underneath both the plantations remained

lower than the g.w.t. underneath the adjacent

fields.

Annual values of g.w.t. levels of 2004–2005

and 2005–2006 were plotted in Fig. 7, which

clearly indicated that during each of the years,

Fig. 4 Trend of ground water table levels in the east-west transect of Dhob-Bhali research plot during (a) pre-monsoonseason, (b) monsoon season, (c) post-monsoon season and (d) winter season of 2004–2005

Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165 153

123

Fig. 5 Mean trend of ground water table levels in the east-west transect of Dhob-Bhali research plot during 2004–2005 and2005–2006

Fig. 6 Trend of ground water table levels in the north-south transect of Dhob-Bhali research plot during (a) pre-monsoonseason, (b) monsoon season, (c) post-monsoon season and (d) winter season of 2004–2005

154 Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165

123

barring some deviation in observation well No.

47 during 2005–2006, the g.w.t. underneath both

the plantations remained lower than the g.w.t.

underneath the adjacent fields. Second, there

was a rise in g.w.t. during 2005–2006 due to the

reasons as explained in the east-west transect.

Drawdown of ground water table underneath

the plantations

During the study period of 2 years, the average

g.w.t. underneath the plantations (in observation

wells Nos. 12–20, 40–41 and 47–48) was 4.95 m

and the average g.w.t. in the farthest observation

wells Nos. 1, 31 and 32 (taken as control) was

4.04 m. Thus the average drawdown of shallow

g.w.t. underneath the plantations was 0.91 m.

Further, the average g.w.t. underneath the

plantation-I (in observation wells Nos. 12–20

and 40–41) was 5.00 m and the average g.w.t.

underneath the plantation-II (in observation wells

Nos. 47–48) was 4.66 m. Therefore, the average

drawdown of shallow g.w.t. was 0.96 m under-

neath the plantation-I and 0.62 m underneath the

plantation-II. This difference in drawdown of

shallow g.w.t. was due to the difference in width

and density of two plantations. The drawdown of

shallow g.w.t. would be higher with higher width

and higher density of a plantation and vice versa.

The maximum depth up to which the shallow

g.w.t. was lowered was 5.63 m below the ground

level on 25th June 2005 in observation well No. 18

located in plantation-I.

Spatial extent of lowering of ground water

table underneath the adjacent fields

The limit of spatial extent of lowering of g.w.t. in

the adjacent fields may be at a point from which

onward the drawdown curve of g.w.t. becomes

horizontal. But the curves in Fig. 5 up to their end

points were still showing upward trend. It indi-

cated that the natural g.w.t. level in the east-west

transect was higher than 4.02 m (average of g.w.t.

in observation wells Nos. 1 and 31) and the limit

of spatial extent of lowering of g.w.t. in the

adjacent fields was beyond the observation wells

Nos. 1 and 31. Similar trend was observed in

Fig. 7. The exact spatial extent of lowering of

g.w.t. in the adjacent fields could be determined

by installing more observation wells beyond the

observation wells Nos. 1, 31, 32 and 50.

Thus, in Dhob-Bhali research plot, the spatial

extent of lowering of g.w.t. in the adjacent fields

Fig. 7 Mean trend of ground water table levels in the north-south transect of Dhob-Bhali research plot during 2004–2005and 2005–2006

Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165 155

123

was up to a distance of more than 730 m from the

eastern edge of plantation-I, up to a distance of

more than 550 m from the western and northern

edges of this plantation and up to distance of

more than 90 m from the southern edge of

plantation-II.

Drawdown of ground water table underneath

the adjacent fields located between two

plantations

The shape of drawdown curves of g.w.t. in the

northern side of plantation-I and in the southern

side of plantation-II of north-south transect was

oblique (Fig. 7) and similar to the drawdown

curves of g.w.t. of the east-west transect (Fig. 5).

But, the shape of drawdown curves of g.w.t.

underneath the adjacent fields located between

two 350 m apart plantations (Fig. 7) was curvi-

linear due to overlapping of drawdown curves of

both the plantations and provided better draw-

down (reclamation) environment in comparison

to single plantation.. The reason of flatness of

drawdown curve in between observation wells

Nos. 45–47 during 2005–2006 was not known.

Bio-pumping

Pumping from a well in a water table aquifer

(unconfined aquifer) develops a cone of depres-

sion in the g.w.t. by lowering the g.w.t. near the

well (Boonstra and Boehmer 1994). In the pres-

ent study, the drawdown curves of shallow g.w.t.

in the east-west transect developed due to the

effect of plantation-I (Fig. 5) during both the

years were similar to the cone of depression of a

pumping well.

Further, if the cones of depression of two

pumping wells overlap, then it is said to be well

interference. If these wells are operated simulta-

neously, they develop a combined cone of

depression. In the present study, the drawdown

curve of shallow g.w.t in the north-south transect

(Fig. 7) developed due to the combined effect of

two plantations (plantation-I and plantation-II)

during the year 2004–2005 was similar to the

combined cone of depression of two pumping

wells. During 2005–2006 also, barring minor

deviation in observation well No. 47, the draw-

down curve was similar to the combined cone of

depression of two pumping wells.

Thus, in Dhob-Bhali research plot, both the

plantations were working as bio-pumps.

Salinity and ground water table

The values of g.w.t. salinity and g.w.t levels, soil

salinity (ECe) and g.w.t. levels and soil salinity

(ECe) of the zone of capillary fringe (up to

2.20 m above the g.w.t. levels) and the g.w.t.

levels of May 2004 of east-west transect were

plotted in Fig. 8, which clearly indicated that

there was no correlation between g.w.t. salinity

and g.w.t. levels, soil salinity and g.w.t. levels and

soil salinity of the zone of capillary fringe and

g.w.t. levels. Further, the g.w.t. salinity, soil

salinity and soil salinity of the zone of capillary

fringe decreased from western to eastern side.

Distribution of salts in the soil profiles

The mean values of soil salinity (ECe) at different

depths of 11 soil profiles located in the western

fields (pertaining to observation wells Nos. 1–11),

9 soil profiles located inside the plantation-I

(pertaining to observation well Nos. 12–20) and

11 soil profiles located in the eastern fields

(pertaining to observation well Nos. 21–31) were

plotted in Fig. 9, which clearly indicated that the

soil salinity at different depths decreased from

western to eastern side in the east-west transect.

Change in salinity

Mean values of g.w.t. levels and g.w.t. salinity

underneath the western fields, plantation-I and

eastern fields of east-west transect for the months

of May 2004, May 2005 and May 2006 (Table 1)

were plotted in Fig. 10.

Figure 10 clearly indicated that the fall in g.w.t.

in May 2005 with respect to May 2004 caused rise

in g.w.t. salinity underneath the plantation-I as

well as underneath the eastern and western fields.

As is evident in Table 1, during May 2005, there

was a fall in g.w.t. by 0.29 m underneath the

western fields, 0.19 m underneath the plantation-I

156 Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165

123

and 0.37 m underneath the eastern fields and this

caused increase in g.w.t. salinity by 1.96 dS/m

underneath the western fields, 0.23 dS/m under-

neath the plantation-I and 0.29 dS/m underneath

the eastern fields.

Further, Fig. 10 clearly indicated that the rise

in g.w.t. in May 2006 with respect to May 2005

caused fall in g.w.t. salinity underneath the

plantation-I as well as underneath the eastern

and western fields. As is evident in Table 1,

there was a rise in g.w.t. by 1.08 m underneath

the western fields, 1.07 m underneath the plan-

tation-I and 0.77 m underneath the eastern fields

and this caused decrease in g.w.t. salinity by

1.56 dS/m underneath the western fields, 0.29 dS/

m underneath the plantation-I and 0.72 dS/m

underneath the eastern fields.

During a period of 2 years (May 2004 to May

2006), there was a net rise in g.w.t. by 0.79 m

underneath the western fields, 0.88 m underneath

the plantation-I and 0.40 m underneath the east-

ern fields and it caused a net increase in g.w.t.

salinity by 0.40 dS/m underneath the western

fields, but net decrease in g.w.t salinity by

0.06 dS/m underneath the plantation-I and

0.43 dS/m underneath the eastern fields.

Fig. 8 Trend of (a)ground water tablesalinity and ground watertable levels, (b) soilsalinity and ground watertable levels and (c) soilsalinity of the zone ofcapillary fringe andground water table levelsduring May 2004 in theeast-west transect. (d)Ground water table and(m) Salinity

Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165 157

123

From above, it is very clear that the fluctu-

ations in g.w.t. caused fluctuations in g.w.t.

salinity in the plantation as well as in adjacent

fields. But there was no net increase in g.w.t.

salinity underneath the plantation.

Zone of capillary fringe

Observation taken in a dug up open well (Fig. 11)

showed that the soil was almost dry up to a depth of

2.50 m below the ground level. Further, the soil was

wet and the wetness increased with increase in depth

and it was the maximum near the g.w.t. (4.70 m).

Thus, the zone of capillary fringe above the g.w.t.

was 2.20 m within the depths of 2.50 and 4.70 m.

Root zone

The g.w.t. and a sinker root (of a 20-year-old

Eucalyptus tree) above the g.w.t. in a dug up open

well was as shown in Fig. 11, which clearly

indicated that the sinker root reached up to a

depth of 4.40 m below the ground level.

Uptake of water

In the dug up open well, the depth of g.w.t. was

4.70 m below the ground level in June 2006, zone

of capillary fringe above the g.w.t. was 2.20 m

within the depths of 2.50 and 4.70 m and the

sinker root reached the zone of capillary fringe up

to a depth of 4.40 m. It clearly indicated that the

Fig. 9 Distribution of salts in the soil profiles. Legend.(–·–) Soil salinity in adjacent fields located in eastern sideof plantation-I, (–e–)Soil salinity inside the plantation-Iand (–¤–) Soil salinity in adjacent fields located inwestern side of plantation-I

Table 1 Ground water table (g.w.t.) and g.w.t. salinity (EC) during May of 2004, 2005 and 2006

Location 2004 2005 2006 Diff. of 2005–2004a Diff. of 2006–2005a Diff. of 2006–2004a

Fields in west g.w.t. 4.58 4.87 3.79 0.29 –1.08 –0.79EC 11.43 13.39 11.83 1.96 –1.56 0.40

Plantation-I g.w.t 5.23 5.42 4.35 0.19 –1.07 –0.88EC 2.86 3.09 2.80 0.23 –0.29 –0.06

Fields in east g.w.t 4.69 5.06 4.29 0.37 –0.77 –0.40EC 1.76 2.05 1.33 0.29 –0.72 –0.43

a g.w.t. (–) rise and (+) Fall in m; EC (–) decrease and (+) increase in dS/m

Fig. 10 Fluctuations in g.w.t and g.w.t salinity during Mayof 2004, 2005 and 2006. Legend. ( ) May 2005, (j) May2005 and (h) May 2006

158 Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165

123

Eucalyptus tree was absorbing capillary water of

the g.w.t.

Statistical analysis

One-way analysis of variance was conducted to

examine the significance of difference in g.w.t.

levels of 2004–2005 across the east-west transect

Fig. 11 Close view of (a)a dug up open well, (b)sinker root of Eucalyptusat 4 m below the groundlevel and (c) sinker rootof Eucalyptus above theg.w.t at Dhob-Bhaliresearch plot

Table 2 One-way analysis of variance: ANOVA

Sum ofsquares

df Meansquare

F Sig.

Betweengroups

137.776 39 3.533 320.722 0.000

Withingroups

10.134 920 1.101

Total 147.910 959

Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165 159

123

and northern part of the north-south transect of

Dhob-Bhali research plot and the results of this

test were as given in Table 2. It is evident from

this table that, there existed a significant differ-

ence in g.w.t. levels across the different observa-

tion wells of both transects of the Dhob-Bhali

research plot.

Post-Hoc analysis has further highlighted the

results. It was found that the g.w.t. in observa-

tion well No. 1 differed significantly (p < 0.05)

from g.w.t. in all other observation wells except

that in observation wells No 31 and 32. Simi-

larly, g.w.t. in observation well No. 2 differed

significantly from g.w.t. in all other observation

wells except that in observation wells Nos. 30

and 32; g.w.t. in observation well No. 3 differed

significantly from g.w.t. in all other observation

wells except that in observation wells Nos. 4, 29

and 33 and g.w.t. in observation well No. 4

differed significantly from g.w.t. in all other

observation wells except that in observation

wells Nos. 3, 5, 29, 33 and 34 and so on.

Duncan range test has further confirmed the

above results.

Discussion

Drawdown of ground water table underneath

the plantations

It is well established for long (Burvill 1947; Wilde

et al. 1953) that tree species influence the g.w.t.

But, in spite of this, Tiwari and Mathur (1983)

advocated that there is no scientific basis in the

popular fallacy that Eucalyptus lowers the g.w.t.

(Mr. K. M. Tiwari was the then President, Forest

Research Institute, Dehra Dun, India). Tewari

(1992), the then Director General, Indian Council

of Forestry Research and Education, Dehra Dun,

India, has also advocated that the controversy

that Eucalyptus lowers the g.w.t. was not true and

this controversy has its origin from the historical

fact that in the early nineteenth century Eucalyp-

tus were planted in the Pontine Marshes near

Rome and these marshes subsequently dried and

reclaimed.

Heuperman et al. (1984), Poore and Fries

(1985), Travis and Heuperman (1994), Heuper-

man (1995), Chaudhry et al. (2000), Holland

(2001), Kapoor (2001) and Heuperman et al.

(2002) reported that Eucalyptus lower the shallow

g.w.t. In the present study also, a clear impact of

Eucalyptus plantations on the shallow g.w.t. was

observed and the g.w.t. underneath the Eucalyp-

tus plantations was found significantly (p < 0.05)

lower than the g.w.t. underneath the adjacent

fields without plantation.

In the earlier works on biodrainage (Heuper-

man et al. 1984; Travis and Heuperman 1994;

Heuperman 1995; Holland 2001; Kapoor 2001;

Heuperman et al. 2002) the observation wells

were generally installed either on one side or on

two sides of a plantation. As a result, the trend of

g.w.t. on the remaining sides was not known. This

shortcoming was removed in the present study by

installing observation wells on all the four sides of

plantation-I and the g.w.t. underneath this plan-

tation was found lower than the g.w.t. underneath

the adjacent fields located on all the four sides of

this plantation.

Spatial extent of lowering of ground water

table underneath the adjacent fields

The spatial extent of lowering of g.w.t. under-

neath the adjacent fields is a controversial issue.

Thorburn and George (1999) reported that tree

plantations (big or small in size) in areas of

shallow g.w.t. affect the g.w.t. of adjacent area

up to a maximum distance of 10–30 m from the

edge of plantation. In a block plantation of

uniform density at Kyabram in northern Victo-

ria (Australia), the spatial extent of lowering of

g.w.t. in the adjacent areas was limited to 40 m

from the plantation boundary (Heuperman

1995). In Goulburn valley in northern Australia,

a 23-year-old single row planting on heavy soil

had shown pronounced effect on g.w.t. levels

but this effect was limited to a small strip under

the trees (Travis and Heuperman 1994). In

contrast to these findings, Kapoor (2001) con-

cluded that if plantations are grown on suffi-

cient large areas, the drawdown effect on g.w.t.

extends to distances of 500 m beyond the edge

of the plantation. In the present study, the

spatial extent of lowering of g.w.t. in the

adjacent fields was found up to a distance of

160 Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165

123

more than 730 m from the edge of a small sized

(2.5 ha) plantation of E. tereticornis.

Accumulation of salts underneath the

plantations

The question of salt accumulation under grow-

ing trees in an area requires major work, both

at the theoretical and the field level. There is a

concurrence among scientists that because trees

usually exclude sodium and chloride ions from

the transpiration stream, therefore, these ions

become concentrated in the soil (George 2000).

In a tree lines experiment in irrigated pastures

of Goulburn valley in northern Australia, the

soil profile underneath the 23-year-old tree line

on heavy soil showed a clear g.w.t. drawdown in

combination with salt accumulation (Travis and

Heuperman 1994). In a Eucalyptus plantation

raised in August 1976 on heavy soil over an

area of 2.4 ha at Kyabram in northern Victoria

(Australia), the salinity inside and outside of

this plantation was similar in November 1982,

the year up to which this plantation was

irrigated. But the salinity measured in this

plantation in 1993 had clearly shown accumula-

tion of salts in the top of the g.w.t. and the

capillary fringe above the g.w.t. (Heuperman

1999). Silberstein et al. (1999) modelled the

effect of soil moisture and solute conditions

on long term tree growth and water use and

they concluded that the largest g.w.t impact of

the tree plantation occurred about 10 years

after establishment, after which time the g.w.t.

began to rise and salt started to accumulate.

Tree performance and salt accumulation were

assessed by Archibald et al. (2006) in three

experimental plantations established adjacent to

saline discharge areas in the Narrogin region of

Western Australia and they reported that the

soil salinity was doubled between 1980 and

2001.

According to above studies, the uptake of

ground water by the trees caused increase in

salinity underneath the plantations only. But this

is contrary to the results of present study. In the

present study, the fluctuations in g.w.t. caused

fluctuations in the g.w.t. salinity underneath the

plantation as well as in the adjacent fields. The

fall in g.w.t. in May 2005 with respect to May 2004

caused increase in g.w.t. salinity underneath the

plantation as well as in the adjacent fields

(Table 1). Similarly, the rise in g.w.t. in May

2006 with respect to May 2005 caused decrease in

g.w.t. salinity underneath the plantation as well as

in the adjacent fields. During a period of 2 years

(May 2004 to May 2006), there was a net rise in

g.w.t. in the plantation as well in the adjacent

fields, but it caused a net increase in g.w.t salinity

in the western fields and a net decrease in g.w.t.

salinity in the plantation as well as in the eastern

fields. The exact reason of increase in g.w.t.

salinity in the western fields in spite of the rise in

g.w.t. was not known.

In tree lines experiment in irrigated pastures of

Goulburn valley in northern Australia, the soil

profile underneath the 23-year-old tree line on

light soil has neither shown drawdown of g.w.t.

nor accumulation of salt (Travis and Heuperman

1994). According to Kapoor (2001), there was a

fall in g.w.t. by about 14 m underneath the 6-year-

old plantation in the Indira Gandhi Nahar Project

(IGNP), Rajasthan (India) without any abnormal

increase in salinity levels of soils and ground

water under the plantation. Another study carried

out in the similar agro-climatic conditions in India

concluded that the concentration of salts below

the canopy of Eucalyptus trees was lowered

(Kumar et al. 1998). In the present study also,

there was no net increase in g.w.t. salinity

underneath the 18-year-old Eucalyptus plantation

during a period of 2 years.

Further, in the present study, no correlation

between the g.w.t. levels and salinity (g.w.t.

salinity, soil salinity and soil salinity in the zone

of capillary fringe above the g.w.t.) was observed

(Fig. 8). The salinity was the maximum under-

neath the western fields, medium underneath the

plantation-I and minimum underneath the east-

ern fields and hence decreased from west to east

in the east-west transect. It seems that the salinity

in the above order was already present in the

east-west transect and due to high salinity in the

western fields the Haryana Forest Department

could not raise plantation of Eucalyptus or of

some other valuable species on western fields. As

a result, bushes of Prosopis juliflora (a species

with profuse seeding, germination and coppicing

Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165 161

123

ability and tolerance to waterlogging, salinity,

drought and frost) has encroached upon these

non-cultivated western fields.

Root zone of Eucalyptus

Stibbe (1975) reported that the root zone of

E. occidentalis groove in a desert area in Israel

was about 2 m. Prasad et al. (1984) excavated the

root system of 5-year-old and 15-year-old trees of

E. camaldulensis at Jabalpur (mean annual rain

fall 1,447 mm) in Madhya Pradesh (India) and

found their tap root up to a maximum depth of 1.6

and 2.9 m, respectively. Mathur et al. (1984)

reported that during the excavation of root

system of E. globulus trees of ages up to 20 years

at Nilgiri Hills (India), the root system of these

trees was found confined to the upper 3 m of the

soil. Dabral et al. (1986) excavated the root

systems of a number of trees in a 16-year-old

plantation of E. tereticornis and they observed

that roots had not been able to penetrate the soil

beyond a depth of about 3.75 m. Similarly, Toky

and Bisht (1992) excavated the root systems of 12

species of 6-year-old trees in an arid region of

north-western India and found that all species had

most of their roots in the top soil up to 50 cm

except roots of E. tereticornis which reached the

depth of 2.3 m. The root zone of 6-year-old

Eucalyptus trees in an agroforestry drainage

management project in California, USA was up

to a maximum depth of 2.1 m (Karejah and Tanji

1994; Karejah et al. 1994). The above studies have

clearly indicated that Eucalyptus roots could not

penetrate in the soil beyond a depth of 3.75 m

below the ground levels, which is contrary to the

results of present study.

There are some examples of deep root system

of Eucalyptus. Dye (1996) studied the root

system of 9-year-old E. grandis trees in the

Mpumalanga province of South Africa by deep

drilling and found live roots at 28 m below the

surface. According to Dhyani et al. (1996), in

deep soil of Doon Valley in Uttranchal (India),

Eucalyptus seedling quickly develops a long

stout tap root, which reaches to a depth of

1.20 m by the end of first season, 2.85 m in

16 months and 4.15 m in 30 months. Vertessy

et al. (2000) examined the root system of more

than 20-year-old Eucalyptus trees at Kyabram

site in northern Victoria (Australia) and found

live roots at least up to a depth of 10 m. Kapoor

(2001) studied the root system of E. camaldul-

ensis at IGNP site in Rajasthan (India) by

digging an open well, near the embankment of

the canal, up to a depth of 10 m and they

observed the roots extending up to the exca-

vated depth. In the present research study, the

roots of 20-year-old tree of E. tereticornis

reached up to a depth of 4.40 m.

Morphology of Eucalyptus root system

Jacobs (1955) observed that most of the Euca-

lyptus species growing in savanna woodlands in

Australia have ‘‘dimorphic’’ root systems, with a

layer of shallow roots which spreads out possibly

30 m from the trunk in sandy soils, and deep tap

roots which enable the tree to survive in dry

seasons. Ashton (1975) measured the root devel-

opment of E. regnans trees in natural forests at a

wide range of ages. He found that E. regnans

develops a strong tap root early and then

produces a system of lateral roots. In the sapling

stage at about 7–10 years, the root system

changes from a ‘‘juvenile’’ type to an ‘‘adult’’

type by development of ‘‘sinker’’ roots down-

wards from the laterals. Later the sinker roots

become branched and the tap root dies back. In

the present study also, the sinker roots of 20-year-

old tree of E. tereticornis were clearly visible up to

a depth of 4.40 m in a dug up open well.

Bio-pumping

The term biodrainage is relatively new, although

the use of vegetation to dry out soil profiles has

been known for a long time. The first documented

use of the term biodrainage can be attributed to

Gafni (1994). Prior to that date Heuperman

(1992) used the term bio-pumping to describe

the use of trees for water table control. But the

earlier studies could not show the drawdown

curve of g.w.t. similar to the cone of depression of

a pumping well.

In the present study, the drawdown curve of

g.w.t. due to the effect of plantation-I was similar

162 Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165

123

to the cone of depression of a pumping well.

Similarly, the drawdown curve of g.w.t. due to the

combined effect of two 350 m apart plantations

was similar to the combined cone of depression of

two pumping wells. Further, the sinker roots

reached the zone of capillary fringe, clearly

indicating that the Eucalyptus trees were absorb-

ing capillary water of the g.w.t. On the basis of

these facts, it can be easily said that the 20-year-

old plantations of E. tereticornis were working as

bio-pumps.

Conclusions

Our field observations pertaining to the effect

of two 18-year-old and 350 m apart plantations

of E. tereticornis on the shallow g.w.t. of semi-

arid region with alluvial sandy loam soil

revealed that:

1. Throughout the study of 2 years, the g.w.t.

underneath the plantations remained lower

than the g.w.t. in the adjacent fields without

plantation.

2. The average g.w.t. in the plantations was

4.95 m and the average g.w.t. in the

control located in the adjacent fields was

4.04 m and hence, the drawdown of g.w.t.

was 0.91 m.

3. The g.w.t. in the plantations was lowered up

to a maximum depth of 5.63 m below the

ground level.

4. The spatial extent of lowering of g.w.t. in the

adjacent fields was up to a distance of more

than 730 m from the edge of a plantation.

5. The drawdown in the g.w.t. developed due

to the effect of a plantation was similar to

the cone of depression of a pumping well.

6. The drawdown in the g.w.t. developed due

to the joint effect of two plantations was

similar to the combined cone of depression

of two pumping wells.

7. The drawdown curve of g.w.t. underneath

the fields located between two plantations

was curvilinear due to overlapping of draw-

down curves of two plantations.

8. There was no correlation between soil

salinity and the g.w.t. levels.

9. The fluctuations in g.w.t. caused fluctuations

in g.w.t. salinity underneath the plantation

as well as in the adjacent fields.

10. There was no net increase in g.w.t. salinity

underneath the plantation.

11. The zone of capillary fringe above the g.w.t.

was 2.20 m within the depths of 2.50 and

4.70 m.

12. The sinker roots reached the zone of capil-

lary fringe up to a depth of 4.40 m clearly

indicating that the Eucalyptus trees were

absorbing capillary water of the g.w.t.

Thus, in shallow g.w.t areas of semi-arid region

with alluvial sandy loam soil, the plantations of E.

tereticornis act as bio-pumps and the fluctuations in

g.w.t. cause fluctuations in g.w.t salinity under-

neath the plantation as well as in the adjacent fields.

Recommendations

Evaporation from g.w.t. takes place if the g.w.t is

within 4.50 m below the ground level (Thorburn

1999) and in semi-arid regions with brackish

ground water it causes secondary salinisation of

soils. Therefore, in such regions, the g.w.t. must

be kept below 4.50 m. This can be done by raising

block plantations. The block plantation will cause

sufficient drawdown in g.w.t near the plantation,

but the drawdown will gradually decrease with

the increase in spatial distance from the edge of

plantation and hence the drawdown in g.w.t will

not be the same in the entire area. This short-

coming can be minimized by raising closely

spaced parallel strip plantations of E. tereticornis.

It is very difficult to raise successful tree

plantations by ‘‘pit planting’’ technique in areas

suffering from surface as well as sub-surface

waterlogging. For such areas, the ‘‘ridge planting’’

is a suitable technique and this technique is being

applied by the Haryana Forest Department suc-

cessfully since 1982.

In Haryana state, the standard unit of land with

field bunds on its all the four sides is an acre

(0.4 ha) of about 66 m length in east-west direc-

tion and 60 m width in north-south direction.

Keeping above points in view, we recommend

parallel strip plantations (66 m apart and two

Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165 163

123

rows of plants in each strip) of E. tereticornis by

the use of ridge planting technique for the

reclamation of agricultural waterlogged areas of

Haryana state or elsewhere with similar agro-

climatic conditions.

Acknowledgements The authors are highly thankful toMr. Kuldeep Singh, Forest Range Officer, Rohtak and hisstaff for valuable help rendered in the installation ofobservation wells, measurement of g.w.t levels, soil andground water sampling and enumeration of growing stockof Eucalyptus plantations etc. Thanks are due to Mr. BrijMohan, Technician of CSSRI, Karnal for soil and wateranalysis. Our sincere thanks are due to Dr. (Late) PKSardhana, CCS HAU, Hisar, Haryana for statisticalanalysis. The authors gratefully acknowledge thevaluable guidance and critical suggestions given by theanonymous reviewer.

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