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Biodiversity and Evolution
Chapter 4
4-1 What Is Biodiversity and Why Is It Important?
Concept 4-1 The biodiversity found in genes, species, ecosystems, and ecosystem processes is vital to sustaining life on earth.
Natural Capital: Major Components of the Earth’s Biodiversity
Fig 4.2
Why Should We Care About Biodiversity?
• Aesthetic pleasure• Ecological: (environmental monitor, ecological
balance – keystone species)• Educational• Historical or cultural • Natural Services: (air and water purification, soil
fertility, waste disposal,)• Recreational• Medicine• Agriculture: (biological pest control, food
source, commercial product – wood)• Moral or ethics
4-2 Where Do Species Come From?
Concept 4-2A The scientific theory of evolution explains how life on earth changes over time through changes in the genes of populations.
Concept 4-2B Populations evolve when genes mutate and give some individuals genetic traits that enhance their abilities to survive and to produce offspring with these traits (natural selection).
ORIGINS OF LIFE
1 billion years of chemical change to form the first cells, followed by about 3.7 billion years of biological change.
Biological Evolution
This has led to the variety of species we find on the earth today.
Figure 4-2Figure 4-2
Animation: Evolutionary Tree of Life
PLAYANIMATION
Six Major Kingdoms of Species as a Result of Natural Selection
Fig 4.3
How Do We Know Which Organisms Lived in the Past?
Our knowledge about past life comes from fossils, chemical analysis, cores drilled out of buried ice, and DNA analysis.
Figure 4-4Figure 4-4
The Genetic Makeup of a Population Can Change
Populations evolve by becoming genetically different
Genetic variations• First step in biological evolution• Occurs through mutations in reproductive cells• Mutations: random changes in the structure or
number of DNA molecules in a cell that can be inherited by offspring.
Individuals in Populations with Beneficial Genetic Traits Can Leave More Offspring
Natural selection: acts on individuals• Second step in biological evolution• Adaptation may lead to differential reproduction• Genetic resistance
When environmental conditions change, populations• Adapt• Migrate• Become extinct
Natural Selection and Adaptation: Leaving More Offspring With Beneficial Traits
Three conditions are necessary for biological evolution:• Genetic variability, traits must be heritable, trait
must lead to differential reproduction. An adaptive trait is any heritable trait that
enables an organism to survive through natural selection and reproduce better under prevailing environmental conditions.
Evolution by Natural Selection
Fig 4.5
Three Common Myths about Evolution through Natural Selection
“Survival of the fittest” is not “survival of the strongest”
Organisms do not develop traits out of need or want
No grand plan of nature for perfect adaptation
Animation: Disruptive Selection
PLAYANIMATION
Animation: Stabilizing Selection
PLAYANIMATION
Animation: Evolutionary Tree Diagrams
PLAYANIMATION
Coevolution: A Biological Arms Race
Interacting species can engage in a back and forth genetic contest in which each gains a temporary genetic advantage over the other.• This often happens between predators and prey
species.
4-3 How Do Geological Processes and Climate Change Affect Evolution?
Concept 4-3 Tectonic plate movements, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and climate change have shifted wildlife habitats, wiped out large numbers of species, and created opportunities for the evolution of new species.
Movement of the Earth’s Continents over Millions of Years
Fig 4.6
Changes in Ice Coverage in the Northern Hemisphere During the last 18,000 Years
Fig 4.7
4-4 How Do Speciation, Extinction, and Human Activities Affect Biodiversity?
Concept 4-4A As environmental conditions change, the balance between formation of new species and extinction of existing species determines the earth’s biodiversity.
Concept 4-4B Human activities can decrease biodiversity by causing the premature extinction of species and by destroying or degrading habitats needed for the development of new species.
Tertiary
Bar width represents relative number of living speciesEra Period
Species and families experiencing
mass extinction
Millions ofyears ago
Ordovician: 50% of animal families, including many trilobites.
Devonian: 30% of animal families, including agnathan and placoderm fishes and many trilobites.
500
345
Cambrian
Ordovician
Silurian
Devonian
Extinction
Extinction
Pal
eozo
icM
eso
zoic
Cen
ozo
ic
Triassic: 35% of animal families, including many reptiles and marine mollusks.
Permian: 90% of animal families, including over 95% of marine species; many trees, amphibians, most bryozoans and brachiopods, all trilobites.Carboniferous
Permian
Current extinction crisis causedby human activities. Many speciesare expected to become extinctwithin the next 50–100 years.Cretaceous: up to 80% of ruling reptiles (dinosaurs); many marine species including manyforaminiferans and mollusks.
Extinction
Extinction
Triassic
Jurassic
Cretaceous
250
180
65Extinction
ExtinctionQuaternary Today
Geographic Isolation Can Lead to Reproductive Isolation
Fig 4.8
GENETIC ENGINEERING AND THE FUTURE OF EVOLUTION
We have used artificial selection to change the genetic characteristics of populations with similar genes through selective breeding.
We have used genetic engineering to transfer genes from one species to another.
Figure 4-AFigure 4-A
Genetic Engineering: Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO)
GMOs use recombinant DNA • genes or portions
of genes from different organisms.
4-5 What Is Species Diversity and Why Is It Important?
Concept 4-5 Species diversity is a major component of biodiversity and tends to increase the sustainability of ecosystems.
Why Should We Care About Biodiversity?
• Aesthetic pleasure• Ecological: (environmental monitor, ecological
balance – keystone species)• Educational• Historical or cultural • Natural Services: (air and water purification, soil
fertility, waste disposal,)• Recreational• Medicine• Agriculture: (biological pest control, food
source, commercial product – wood)• Moral or ethics
Variations in Species Richness and Species Evenness
Species-Rich Ecosystems Tend to Be Productive and Sustainable
Species richness seems to increase productivity and stability or sustainability
How much species richness is needed is debatable
Animation: Speciation on an Archipelago
PLAYANIMATION
Evolutionary Divergence
Each species has a beak specialized to take advantage of certain types of food resource.
4-6 What Roles Do Species Play in Ecosystems?
Concept 4-6A Each species plays a specific ecological role called its niche.
Concept 4-6B Any given species may play one or more of five important roles—native, nonnative, indicator, keystone, or foundation roles—in a particular ecosystem.
Each Species Plays a Unique Role in Its Ecosystem
Ecological niche, niche• Pattern of living
Generalist species• Broad niche
Specialist species • Narrow niche
ECOLOGICAL NICHES AND ADAPTATION
Each species in an ecosystem has a specific role or way of life.• Fundamental niche: the full potential range of
physical, chemical, and biological conditions and resources a species could theoretically use.
• Realized niche: to survive and avoid competition, a species usually occupies only part of its fundamental niche.
Specialist Species and Generalist Species Niches
Fig 4.11
Specialized Feeding Niches
Resource partitioning reduces competition and allows sharing of limited resources.
Figure 4-13Figure 4-13
Niches Can Be Occupied by Native and Nonnative Species
Native species
Nonnative species; invasive, alien, or exotic species• May spread rapidly• Not all are villains
Indicator Species Serve as Biological Smoke Alarms
Indicator species• Can monitor environmental quality • Trout• Birds• Butterflies• Frogs
Case Study: Why Are Amphibians Vanishing? (1)
Habitat loss and fragmentation
Prolonged drought
Pollution
Increase in UV radiation
Parasites
Viral and fungal diseases
Climate change
Overhunting
Nonnative predators and competitors
Case Study: Why Are Amphibians Vanishing? (2)
Importance of amphibians• Sensitive biological indicators of environmental
changes• Adult amphibians• Important ecological roles in biological
communities
• Genetic storehouse of pharmaceutical products waiting to be discovered
Life Cycle of a Frog
Fig 4.14
Keystone, Foundation Species Determine Structure, Function of Their Ecosystems
Keystone species • Pollinators• Top predator
Foundation species• Create or enhance their habitats, which benefit
others • Elephants• Beavers
Why Should We Care About Biodiversity?
• Aesthetic pleasure• Ecological: (environmental monitor, ecological
balance – keystone species)• Educational• Historical or cultural • Natural Services: (air and water purification, soil
fertility, waste disposal,)• Recreational• Medicine• Agriculture: (biological pest control, food
source, commercial product – wood)• Moral or ethics