Biodiversitas vol. 13, no. 4, October 2012

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BIODIVERSITAS ISSN: 1412-033XVolume 13, Number 4, October 2012 E-ISSN: 2085-4722Pages: 161-171 DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d130401

Species diversity of critically endangered pristid sawfishes(Elasmobranchii: Pristidae) of Nusantara waters (Malay Archipelago)

SUTARNO1, AHMAD DWI SETYAWAN1,♥, IWAN SUYATNA2

1Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Sebelas Maret University. Jl. Ir. Sutami 36A 57 126 Surakarta, Central Java,Indonesia. Tel./Fax. +62-271-663375, email: [email protected]

2Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Mulawarman University, Kampus Gunung Kelua, Samarinda 75116, East Kalimantan, Indonesia.

Manuscript received: 20 August 2011. Revision accepted: 20 October 2012.

ABSTRACT

Sutarno, Setyawan AD, Suyatna I. 2012. Species diversity of critically endangered pristid sawfishes (Elasmobranchii: Pristidae) ofNusantara waters (Malay Archipelago). Biodiversitas 13: 161-171. The pristid sawfishes (Pristidae) are notable because of their saw-like rostrum and large body size (up to seven meters). All pristids are listed as critically endangered by IUCN, since decreasingpopulation; Nusantara is home for five pristid species, namely: Anoxypristis cuspidata Latham, 1794, Pristis clavata Garman, 1906,Pristis microdon Latham, 1794, Pristis zijsron Bleeker, 1851, and Pristis pectinata Latham, 1794. A. cuspidata differ from Pristid spp.by the presence of a very narrow rostral saw, with 16 to 29 pairs of teeth except for the part along the quarter of the rostral saw near thehead. P. microdon has a highly defined groove that runs along the entire posterior edge of the tooth into and beyond its confluence withthe rostrum. This groove is absent in juvenile of P. clavata and whilst it develops in larger individuals it rarely runs along the entireposterior edge of the tooth or reach its confluence with the rostrum. P. clavata possibly have been misidentified as P. pectinata, whosedistribution in the Indo-West Pacific is uncertain. P. clavata can be distinguished from P. pectinata and P. zijsron by the possession offewer rostral teeth (18 to 22 in P. clavata cf. 24 to 28 in P. zijsron and 24 to 34 in P. pectinata), and by its smaller body size (i.e. lessthan 250 cm TL in P. clavata). P. microdon indicates different sexes of the number of rostral teeth, i.e. 17-21 in female cf. 19-23 inmale, but in P. clavata, it can not be used to differentiate male from female, with both sexes possessing an average of 42 rostral teeth. InP. clavata the dorsal fin origin is opposite or slightly behind the pelvic fin origin, the rostum is relatively shorter (22-24% of TL), the lowercauda fin lobe is smaller.

Key words: Anoxypristis, pristid, Pristis, sawfish, Nusantara, Malay Archipelago.

INTRODUCTION

The pristids sawfishes (Family Pristidae Bonaparte, 1838;Greek: pristēs meaning a sawyer or a saw) are a group oficonic-benthic species of elasmobranchs that are notablebecause of their large body size (up to seven meters) andsaw-like projection of the upper jaw bearing lateral teeth-like denticles, termed as rostrum (Bigelow and Schroeder1953; Last and Stevens 2009), that is used to hunt and stunprey (Compagno 1977; Last and Stevens 2009). The rostralteeth grow continuously from the base and attach to therostrum via alveoli (Slaughter and Springer 1968; Compagnoand Last 1999). The peduncle is not expanded and thedentine cap is easily worn off (Slaughter and Springer 1968).

The taxonomy of the pristid family is chaotic and oneof the most problematic in the elasmobranch families(Ishihara et al. 1991; Compagno and Cook 1995; van Oijenet al. 2007; Wiley et al. 2008), with uncertainty regardingthe true number of species (Ishihara et al. 1991; Deynat2005). The single family Pristidae is divided into twogenera, Pristis Linck 1790 and Anoxypristis White & Moy-Thomas, 1941. The genus Pristis comprises six putativespecies; two species are distributed in the Atlantic EastPacific (AEP), i.e. Pristis pristis L, 1758 (Common

sawfish) and Pristis perotteti Muller & Henle, 1841 (Large-tooth sawfish); three species are distributed in the Indo WestPacific (IWP), i.e. Pristis clavata Garman, 1906 (Dwarfsawfish), Pristis microdon Latham, 1794 (Freshwatersawfish), and Pristis zijsron Bleeker, 1851 (Greensawfish); and one species Pristis pectinata Latham, 1794(Smalltooth sawfish) is distributed worldwide, althoughAEP is the main distribution area. The genus Anoxypristisis represented by a single IWP species, Anoxypristiscuspidata Latham, 1794 (Knifetooth sawfish) (Compagno1999; Compagno and Last 1999; McEachran and deCavarlho 2002). All IWP pristids have been identified inNusantara, although it is rarely found.

Pistids are rarely found and the whole body rarelycollected completely, since they have large body size, thena few description is based on parts of speciment. Speciesdescriptions of pristids based on isolated body parts havecaused confusion and often misidentification. P. zijsronwas described solely on the basis of its rostrum; Pristisdubius Bleeker 1852 (syn. P. zijsron) was described solelyon the basis of its caudal fin; and Pristis leichardti Whitley1945 (syn. P. microdon) was described only from a singlephotograph (Thorburn et al. 2003; van Oijen et al. 2007).The problems associated with the systematics of pristids

BIODIVERSITAS 13 (4): 161-171, October 2012162

may only be solved with genetic analyses, for some speciesmay be morphologically identical (Thorburn et al. 2003).Resolving this taxonomic uncertainty has been a majorproblem, since it is difficult to obtain tissue samples fromthese increasingly rare animals for taxonomic research.

Pristids have a large body size and are thought to havehigh longevity, late maturity, viviparous reproduction, andlow fecundity (Thorburn et al. 2007; Peverell 2008). On thebasis that they are large, mobile, and marine, adult pristidsseemingly have the potential to distribute over vastdistances. However, virtually all of the available data onpristid movements pertain to juveniles and sub-adultsfound in coastal or riverine nursery areas (e.g. Peverell2005; Thorburn et al. 2007; Whitty et al. 2009). There is asuggestion that the dispersal in elasmobranchs is oftendictated by individual or social behavior, and femalephilopatry appears to be common in species where adultand juvenile habitats are spatially removed (Feldheim et al.2001; Keeney et al. 2005).

Pristids occur inshore, in freshwater and in marineenvironments to a maximum depth of 122 m (McEachranand de Cavarlho 2002; Simpfendorfer 2006). P. microdonhas habitat partitioning in different life stages, withjuveniles utilising freshwaters as nursery grounds andpenetrating long distances into freshwater while adults usemarine waters (Taniuchi et al. 1991; Thorburn et al. 2003,2007; Peverell 2005). While P. clavata may adopt astrategy similar to that of P. microdon, where juvenilesremain within rivers and move offshore upon maturation(Thorburn et al. 2007). The juvenile of P. clavata appear toutilise estuarine waters only (Thorburn et al. 2008), andwas not encountered in freshwaters above the tidal limit(Morgan et al. 2004; Thorburn et al. 2004). Femalephilopatry coupled with male-dispersal is common inelasmobranch species in which adult and juvenile habitat isspatially removed (Springer 1967; Ebert 1996; Feldheim etal. 2001, 2004; Keeney et al. 2005).

The biology of P. zijsron, P. clavata, and P. microdonis generally believed to be similar with the exceptions ofadult size and juvenile habitat use. The adults of P. zijsronand P. microdon are both relatively large (up to sevenmeters) (Last and Stevens 2009), while those of P. clavataare smaller (up to at least three meters) (Peverell 2005; Lastand Stevens 2009). This size difference is potentiallyrelevant as it might influence the potential dispersal of thespecies (assuming that larger adults can traverse greaterdistances) and therefore the amount of metapopulation(Jenkins et al. 2007). The life cycles of P. zijsron and P.clavata are fairly typical of pristids because they arecompleted entirely in marine waters; the juveniles arepredominantly found in inshore waters and mangrove areas(Peverell 2005). In contrast, P. microdon are marine-estuarine as adults, but spend the juveniles in the upperreaches of estuaries and freshwater rivers (Thorburn et al.2007; Whitty et al. 2009). This life history strategy wouldmake them especially vulnerable to over-exploitation(Stobutzki et al. 2002). There is disparity in the size atmaturity of P. microdon suggesting there may be more thanone species. A two meters male P. microdon in a HongKong aquarium (collected from Australia) was sexually

mature, while a 3.7 m male specimen in a Paris aquariumwas immature (Stevens et al. 2005).

Sawfish populations have been declining worldwide(Stevens et al. 2000; Cavanagh et al. 2003), especially inthe Indo-West Pacific (Compagno and Cook 1995) and thesouthern hemisphere (Cavanagh et al. 2003). All pristidspecies have undergone dramatic declines in range andabundance in recent times. A range of factors contributes tothis vulnerability, including that pristids (i) have a relativelyslow rate of population growth (K-selected life history)(Simpfendorfer 2000; Compagno et al. 2006); (ii) areactively exploited for a range of reasons, including astrophies and decorations (Peverell 2005; Thorburn et al.2007; Siriraksophon 2012), aquarium and museum collections(Cook et al. 1995), cultural and spiritual purposes (Peverell2005; Berra 2006) as well as sport/ recreational fishing(Seitz and Poulakis 2002; Peverell 2005); (iii) are feature inthe by-catch of several fisheries and as a consequencesuffers significant amounts of mortality (Simpfendorfer2000; 2002; Pogonoski et al. 2002; Stobutzki et al. 2002;Gribble 2004), and (iv) have habitat degradation(Simpfendorfer 2000; 2002). Since the juveniles likelydepend on rivers for their survival, pristids are vulnerableto the effects of the degradation of freshwater systems, aswell as to the effects of coastal influences, and they aremore susceptible to be captured in rivers (Saunders et al.2002). A combination of their coastal shallow waterdistribution and their heavily toothed rostrum make allclasses of pristid vulnerable to be captured by net and longline fisheries (Peverell 2005). P. microdon, P. zijsron, andP. clavata were once broadly distributed in the Indo-WestPacific region (Last and Stevens 2009); but, these speciesare now restricted to northern Australia (Pogonoski et al.2002; Thorburn et al. 2003; Stevens et al. 2005; Last andStevens 2009). Although the number of pristids inAustralian have declined in recent times, these declines areprobably not as extreme as those happened in other regions,such as Indonesia (Thorson 1982; Simpfendorfer 2000).

All pristids are currently listed as critically endangeredworldwide by the World Conservation Union (IUCN 2010)and some of them are among the most endangered fishes(Stevens et al. 2000; Cavanagh et al. 2003). In the end ofthis year only four pristids species are listed in the RedList, namely A. cuspidata, P. clavata, P. pectinata and P.zijron (IUCN 2012). The taxonomic problem is the mainreason for deleting the list of other species (Scott J, IUCNRed List Unit, pers. com. 2012). Trading of pristidsawfishes are also banned. In June 2007, all pristids werelisted in Appendix I of CITES, except for P. microdon,which was listed in Appendix II; and has been annotated asfollows: “for the exclusive purpose of allowinginternational trade in live animals to appropriate andacceptable aquaria for primary conservation purposes”(CITES 2008). Long before that, in 1999, the Indonesiangovernment established that all species of pristid sawfishesare protected animals, then it is prohibited to hunt, to kill,to trade, and to consume (PP 7/1999). P. microdonbreeding efforts has been attempted in Indonesia, but didnot succeed due to lack of live fish as broodstock (Fahmiand Dharmadi 2005).

SUTARNO et al. – Pristid sawfishes of Nusantara 163

Pristids have been studied for a long time in Nusantara.One species, P. zijsron, was named and described after aspecimen collected from Banjarmasin, South Kalimantan.Unfortunately, this research was not continued due to rarityof the specimen collection (large body size is the reason).The main objective of this study was to assess taxonomicdiversity of Pristidae in Nusantara waters (Islands ofSoutheast Asia or Malay Archipelago, Malesia).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The research materials are preserved specimens ofpristid sawfishes (Pristidae) and data from previousresearch by literature review. Previous field studies havebeen conducted to trace the existence of pristids inNusantara. As we know, Nusantara (Malay Archipelago)includes all Indonesian Archipelago, the Malay Peninsula,the Philippines, and New Guinea. The study was conductedby interviewing the fishermen, fish traders, coastalcommunities, government officials and local officials of theMarine and Fisheries Department, and also the interviewswith fisheries experts, and did field surveys to sites knownas a pristids habitat.

The previous study was conducted on the western coastof West Sumatra and Mentawai Islands, the northern coastof Sumatra (Aceh), the eastern coast of Jambi, the westerncoast of West Kalimantan (Peniti River estuary andsurroundings), Barito River estuary and surroundings inSouth- and Central Kalimantan, Mahakam River estuary inEast Kalimantan, Lake Sentani in Papua, and the riverestuaries and coastal area of Merauke, South Papua.Information about the existence of pristids also be traced insome Fish Auction Place (TPI) in Java, particularly inJuwana and Pekalongan. Field studies show that pristidsever present at all of those sites. Around 20-25 years ago,fishermen still caught and sold. But, in mid 2012, when thestudy was conducted, the live pristids or fresh specimenswere not found anymore.

In this study, we successfully collected two pristidsrostrum, which is one of P. microdon of Lake Sentani,Papua (caught 6 years before), and one of Pristis sp. ofMerauke water, South Papua (caught one year before). Theonly information about the living pristids in the wild is inthe south coast of Merauke, but in this study the livespecimens were not captured. Information about thepreserved pristids specimen also be traced to the variousresearch centers and universities, but found only threespecimen of pristids, i.e. a juvenile P. microdon collectedby Bogor Zoological Museum (MZB) Cibinong, Bogor in1970s from Lake Sentani, Papua; and one pristid specimencollected by Office of Marine and Fisheries, KutaiKartanegara District in 1975/1976 from Mahakam RiverDelta, i.e. Sungai Meriam, Anggana, Kutai Kartanegara,East Kalimantan (similar specimen caught from MuaraBadak, Mahakan Delta has been lost).

Given the limited pristids specimen, the literature wasvery important in knowing taxonomy of Pristidae fromNusantara (Malay Archipelago). Some manuscripts were

very valuable, i.e. Compagno and Last (1999), Deynat (2005),van Oijen et al. (2007), and Last and Stevens (2009).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Pristidae Bonaparte, 1838Large to gigantic shark-like batoids (adults reaching

2.4 to 7 m total length (TL), placoid scales; no enlargeddenticles, thorns, or spines on dorsal surface of trunk ortail. Moderately depressed trunk, thick and shark-like.Moderately depressed precaudal tail, with lateral ridges onsides, tail which is not abruptly narrower than trunk, withno barbed sting (stinger or stinging spine) and no electricorgans in tail. Head narrow, but moderately depressed;snout supported by a stout rostral cartilage, greatlyelongated into a flat, rostral saw with a single row oflarge, transverse teeth on each side that grow continuouslyfrom their bases; saw is without small teeth or paireddermal barbels on its underside and without smaller teethbetween the large ones on its sides; posteriormost rostralteeth well anterior to nostrils. Five small gill slits are onunderside of front half of pectoral-fin bases, not visible inlateral view; no gill sieves or rakers on internal gill slits.Eyes are dorsolateral on head and well anterior tospiracles. Mouth is transverse and straight, without knobsand depressions. Nostrils are well anterior and completelyseparated from mouth, far apart from each other and notconnected to the mouth by nasoral grooves; short anteriornasal flaps, not connected with each other and notreaching mouth. Very small oral teeth, rounded-oval inshape and without cusps on their crowns, not laterallyexpanded and plate-like, similar in shape and in 60 or morerows in either jaw. Pectoral fins are small, starting frombehind mouth, attached to posterior part of head over gills,and ending with well anterior to pelvic-fin bases. No largeelectric organs at bases of pectoral fins. Pelvic fins areangular, and not divided into anterior and posterior lobes.Two large equal-size and widely separated dorsal finspresent. These have similar angular or rounded-angularshape with distinct apices, anterior, posterior, and innermargins, and well-developed free rear tips, varying inshape from triangular to strongly falcate. First dorsal-finbase is anterior and over junction between trunk and tail,over or partially in front of the pelvic fins. Caudal fin islarge, shark-like, strongly asymmetrical, with vertebralaxis raised above body axis; lower caudal lobe is strong toweak, or absent. Dorsal surface is yellowish, brownish orgrey-brown, or greenish above and on flanks, and whitebelow. there are no prominent markings on body or finsthough fins may be darker than body (Compagno and Last1999).

Keys of identificationKey to the species of sawfishes (Pristidae) occuring in

Nusantara waters, the Malay Archipelago (Compagno andLast 1999; Figure 1).


1a Posteriormost teeth on rostral saw well anterior to baseof saw; rostral teeth greatly flattened, blade-like, andtriangular, with single sharp anterior and posterior edgesin adults and a posterior barb in young; broad incurrentapertures; long nostrils, narrow, and between edges ofhead and nostril incurrent apertures; long nostrils,narrow, and diagonal, small and narrow anterior nasalflaps; narrow-based, high and short pectoral fins; firstdorsal fin with origin over or slightly posterior to pelvic-fin insertions; a secondary caudal keel below the firstone on the caudal-fin base; caudal fin with a shallowsubterminal notch and a long, prominent ventral lobe………………..……………………… Anoxypristis cuspidata

1b Posteriormost tooth on rostral saw just anterior to baseof saw; elongated, and peg or awl-like, moderatelyflattened rostral teeth, with rounded anterior edge anddouble posterior edges with a groove between them inadults of all species and in young of some species(Pristis microdon); no incurrent grooves on underside ofsnout between edges of head and nostril incurrentapertures; short, broad, and transverse nostrils, large andbroad anterior nasal flaps; broad-based, low, and longpectoral fins; first dorsal fin with anterior base, over ofsomewhat posterior to pelvic-fin bases but ahead ofpelvic-fin insertions; no secondary caudal keel below themain one on the caudal-fin base; caudal fin without asubterminal notch and with short ventral lobe or none.………………….. ………………………………… 2 (Pristis)

2a Caudal fin with a short but conspicuous ventral lobe;base of first dorsal fin considerably anterior to pelvic-fin.……………………………….... ….…… Pristis microdon

2b Caudal fin without definite ventral lobe; base of firstdorsal fin varies from over or slightly anterior to pelvic-fin, to slightly behind midbases of pelvic fins ……….. 3

3a Base of first dorsal fin over or anterior to pelvic-fin (20to 32, usually 25 or more, pairs of rostral teeth)...……………………………………………………. Pristis pectinata

3b Base of first dorsal fin behind pelvic-fin …………….… 44a First dorsal-fin base posterior to midbases of pelvic fins;

23 to 34 pairs to rostral teeth; size to 610 cm or more..…………………… …………………………..… Pristis zijsron

4b First dorsal-fin base anterior to the midbases of pelvicfins; 18 to 22 pairs of rostral teeth; size possibly to about140 cm. …………… ………………………… Pristis clavata

Description

Anoxypristis cuspidata Latham, 1794Synonym: *Pristis cuspidatus Latham, 1794;

*Anoxypristis cuspidate Latham, 1794; *Anoxypristiscuspidatus Latham, 1794; *Pristis cuspidate Latham, 1794;Squalus semisagittatus Shaw, 1804; Pristis semisagittatusShaw, 1804. Note: * = misspellings (Froese and Pauly 2011).

Common name: Knifetooth sawfish (Aust.), Narrowsawfish (FAO), Pointed sawfish.

Description: Maximum length 470 cm TL (max.lengths of up to 610 cm TL are based on unconfirmedreports). Length at first maturity 246-282 cm. Greyishabove, pale below; fins usually pale. shark-like body,distinct pectoral fins; flattened head, with a blade-likesnout bearing 18-22 pairs of lateral teeth; slender blade, nottapering distally. Nostrils are very narrow with small nasalflaps. Short rostral teeth, flattened, broadly triangular, lack

of groove along posterior margins; no teeth on basalquarter of blade. Adults are with widely spaced denticles,whilest young with naked skin (Compagno and Last 1999).

Ecology: A marine, euryhaline (moving between freshand salt water) or marginal (brackish water), these speciesare found from inshore in the intertidal waters to a depth of40 m, frequents river deltas and estuaries, and may goupstream in rivers. They are common in sheltered bayswith sandy bottoms. Feeds on small fish and cuttlefish(Compagno and Last 1999; Riede 2004). Though details ofits ecology are not precisely known, it probably spendsmost of its time on or near the bottom in the shallowcoastal waters and estuaries it inhabits. The sawfishes areall ovoviviparous (Dulvy and Reynolds 1997). Females ofthis species can be pregnant at 246 to 282 cm. Litters rangefrom 6 to 23 young. Age at maturity, longevity and averagegeneration time are unknown (Compagno et al. 2005, 2006,Last and Stevens 2009). Generally harmless but its saw-like snout may cause serious injury when it is caught: it isknown to thrash violently and vigorously (Compagno andLast 1999).

Distribution: This large sawfish was formerly distributedthrough much of the Indo-West Pacific region in shallowinshore coastal waters and estuaries, apparently decliningin some areas (Compagno et al. 2005). Historically, it is arelatively common euryhaline or marginal of the Indo-WestPacific. It has been reported in inshore and estuarineenvironments from the mouth of the Suez Canal,throughout the Red Sea, the Persian (Arabian) Gulf, thenorthern Indian Ocean, the Malay Archipelago to thenorthern Australia. In mainland Asia it was reported fromthe Gulf of Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, China to Koreaand out to the southern portion of Japan (Honshu), as wellas the north west of Taiwan (Compagno and Cook 1995a;Compagno and Last 1999; Compagno et al. 2006; Last andStevens 2009). Brackish water records have been reportedfrom the Oriomo River estuary, Papua-New Guinea(Taniuchi et al. 1991).

In Nusantara, it has been reported from Kalimantan:Kinabatangan River of Sabah (Fowler 2002), estuaries andinshore coastal waters of Sabah and Brunei (Manjaji 2002;Siriraksophon 2012); the Philippines; Malay Peninsula:Malacca, Pinang, and Singapore (Siriraksophon 2012; vanOijen et al. 2007); Java: Jakarta (Batavia) and Semarang insea waters (van Oijen et al. 2007); New Guinea: OriomoRiver of Papua New Guinea (Compagno 2002; Taniuchi2002; Fowler 2002), and somewhere in Indonesia(Siriraksophon 2012) (Figure 2A).

Conservation status: Critically Endangered (CR)(A2bcd+3cd+4bcd) (IUCN 2012); Appendix I (CITES2008); Protected (PP 7/1999).

Human uses: Commercial fisheries, caught for its fleshand liver (Last and Stevens 2009), gamefish.

Taxonomic note: A. cuspidata is distinguished fromsawfish of the genus Pristis by the presence of a verynarrow rostral saw, with 16 to 29 pairs of distinctivedagger-shaped teeth on the rostrum but no teeth along thequarter of the rostral saw nearest to the head . It has adistinct lower caudal lobe (Compagno et al. 2006).


Figure 1. The key identification of pristid sawfishes in Nusantara waters, the Malay Archipelago (after Daley et al. 2002; McAuley et al.2002; Thorburn 2006).

Teeth starting close to the head and spaced evenly or close to evenly

Pristis clavata Pristis microdon

Snout has 24-34 pairs of teeth Snout has less than 24 pairs of teeth

18-22 pairs ofteeth beginningSome distancefrom the head

Greyish

Pristis zijsron Anoxypristic cuspidataPristis pectinata

First dorsal finover or anterior

to pelvic-fin

Dark gray toblackish brown

PRISTID SAWFISHES SPECIES IDENTIFICATION

First dorsal finslightly behind

pelvic fins

Green/brown

First dorsal finbegins in front of

pelvic fins

Yellowish

First dorsalbegins behind

pelvic fin

Olive green

Lacking of agroove or it is notpresent along theentire length of

the tooth

Strong groovepresent along theposterior edge ofthe rostral teeth


A B C

D E

Figure 2. Species distribution of pristid sawfishes in Nusantara waters, the Malay Archipelago. A. A. cuspidata, B. P. clavata, C. P.microdon, D. P. pectinata and E. P. zijron. Note: grey area = formerly or potential area distribution of pristids (Compagno and Last1999); = pristids record.

Pristis clavata Garman, 1906Synonym: Misapplied name: Pristis pectinata (non

Latham, 1794) (Froese and Pauly 2011).Common name: Dwarf sawfish (Aust.), Queensland

sawfishDescription: Maximum length is 140 cm TL. Greenish

brown, rarely yellowish; ventrally white; paler fins. shark-like body, distinct pectoral fins; flattened head, with ablade-like snout bearing 18-22 pairs of lateral teeth; broadblade, not tapering distally. Broad nostrils with large nasalflaps. Slender rostral teeth, with a groove along posteriormargins; teeth reaching basal quarter of blade. Skin withdenticles (Compagno and Last 1999). Biology little known(Compagno and Last 1999).

Ecology: Inshore and intertidal species found inestuaries and on tidal mudflats. Ascends brackish areas ofrivers (Compagno and Last 1999). Coastal and estuarinehabitats in tropical Australia, particularly over mudflats inthe Gulf of Carpentaria (Pogonoski et al. 2002). It occurssome distance upriver, almost into freshwater (Last andStevens 2009). This relatively small sawfish may berestricted to the tropical coasts and estuaries of north andnorth-western Australia, or more widely distributedthrough the Indo-Pacific. Australian populations havedeclined significantly as a result of bycatch in commercialgillnet and trawl fisheries throughout this limited range andthis bycatch continues, in commercial and recreationalfisheries. When this sawfish occurs outside Australianwaters, these areas are fished even more intensive andpopulations over there are likely to be nearing extirpation(IUCN 2012). Ovoviviparous (Dulvy and Reynolds 1997).

Distribution: Confirmation comes from tropical coastaland estuarine habitats in Northern and NorthwesternAustralia. Other records are unconfirmed, but it may occuror have occurred more widely in Indo-West Pacific areas(IUCN 2012). A record of the occurence of P. clavata inthe Canary Islands may not be this species. The species islikely P. pristis that naturally spread in the eastern Atlantic.Both species are known similar and needs further researchto determine if the two species are distinct (Compagno andLast 1999).

In Nusantara, it was recorded from New Guinea: southcoast of Papua New Guinea (e.g. Macaraeg RA, 2002,blogroll/pers. com; need more confirmation) (Figure 2B).

Conservation status: Critically Endangered (CR)(A2bcd+3cd+4bcd ver 3.1 ) (IUCN 2012); Appendix I(CITES 2008); Protected (PP 7/1999)

Human uses: Flesh may be good to eat (Last andStevens 2009).

Taxonomic note: On the basis of rostral toothmorphology, P. clavata may be different from P. microdon,which possesses a similar number of rostral teeth. In P.microdon, a highly defined groove runs along the entireposterior edge of the tooth into and beyond its confluencewith the blade of the rostrum (Thorburn et al. 2007). Incontrast, this groove is absent in juvenile of P. clavata andwhilst it develops in larger individuals. It rarely runs alongthe entire posterior edge of the tooth or reachs itsconfluence with the rostrum. Furthermore, P. clavata canbe distinguished from P. pectinata and P. zijsron by thepossession of fewer rostral teeth (18 to 22 in P. clavata cf.24 to 28 in P. zijsron and 24 to 34 in P. pectinata)(Thorburn et al. 2007; Last and Stevens 2009), and by its


smaller size (i.e. less than 250 cm TL in P. clavata). In P.microdon different sexes can be indicated by the number ofrostral teeth, i.e. 17-21 in female cf. 19-23 in male, but inP. clavata, it can not be used to differentiate male fromfemale, for both sexes possesses an average of 42 rostralteeth (Thorburn et al. 2008). In P. clavata the dorsal finorigin is opposite or slightly behind the pelvic fin origin,the rostum is relatively shorter (22-24% of TL), the lowercauda fin lobe is smaller (Compagno and Last 1998).

Pristis microdon Latham, 1794Synonym: Misapplied name: Pristis antiquorum (non

Latham, 1794); Pristis perotteti (non Müller & Henle,1841); Pristis pristis (non Linneaus, 1758). Ambiguoussynonym: Pristiopsis leichhardti Whitley, 1945; Pristiszephyreus Jordan & Starks, 1895 (Froese and Pauly 2011),Pristis leichardti Whitley 1945.

Common name: Freshwater sawfish (Aust.),Largetooth sawfish (FAO), Leichhardt’s sawfish

Description: Maximum length is 700 cm TL (White etal. 2005); common length is 500 cm TL (Schneider 1990);max. published weight is 600 kg (Stehmann 1981); max.reported age is 30 years (Compagno and Last 1999) (up to44 years). Length at first maturity is 240-300 cm; slow tomature (about seven years) and has low fecundity (a littersize of 1-12 young) (Tanaka 1991; Thorburn et al. 2007). Aheavily-bodied sawfish with a short but massive saw whichis broad-based, strongly tapering and with 14-22-(23) verylarge teeth on each side; space between last 2 saw-teeth onsides less than 2 times space between first 2 teeth(Compagno et al. 1989). Interspace between the posteriorrostral teeth is once or twice greater than that between theanterior teeth. Origin of the first dorsal fin is in front oflevel of the origin pelvic fin. Caudal fin has a small butdistinct ventral lobe (Seret 2006). Pectoral fins are high andangular, first dorsal fin is mostly in front of pelvic fins, andcaudal fin with pronounced lower lobe (Compagno et al.1989). Greenish, grey or golden-brown above, cream below(Compagno et al. 1989).

Ecology: Inhabits sandy or muddy bottoms of shallowcoastal waters, estuaries, river mouths, and freshwaterrivers and lakes, until 10 m depth (Riede 2004); Reiner1996). Usually found in turbid channels of large rivers oversoft mud bottoms (Allen et al. 2002). Adults are usuallyfound in estuaries and coastal areas, and the juveniles infresh water. Most of the rivers in which it becomes into aseries of pools in the dry season, reducing its availablehabitat (Last 2002). Large adults can also be found in freshwater, but are rarely caught (Rainboth 1996). They are thebottom dweller of estuaries and large river systems. Feedson benthic animals and small schooling species.Ovoviviparous, producing 15-20 embryos (Dulvy andReynolds 1997). The saw is used for grubbing andattacking prey as well as for defense. The saws are sold astourist souvenirs (Skelton 1993). Occasionally, they arecaught by demersal tangle net and trawl fisheries in theArafura Sea; they possibly have been extinct in parts of theIndo-Pacific; they are highly susceptible to gill nets. Theyare utilized for the fins and meat (both are very expensive),and also their skin and cartilage (White et al. 2006).

Distribution: Indo-West Pacific, from East Africa toNew Guinea, north to the Philippines and Vietnam, southto Australia. Also Atlantic East Pacific, if Pristis perottetiand Pristis zephyreus are synonymized with P. microdon.The original description of P. microdon did not give furtherexplaination, but most authors have used the name Pristismicrodon for the Indo-West Pacific sawfishes of thisspecies group as contrasted from the Atlantic P. perottetiand the eastern Pacific P. zephyreus (Compagno and Last1999).

In Nusantara, its occurence has been reported fromSumatra: Indragiri River, Riau (Taniuchi 1979, 2002),Batanghari River, Jambi (Tan and Lim 1998); Kalimantan:Kinabatangan River, Sabah (Fowler 2002; Compagno2002), Kampong Batu Putih in Kinabatangan River,Kampong Tetabuan in Labuk Bay, Kampong Tomanggongin Segama, Sabah (Manjaji 2002), Brunei (Siriraksophon2012); Banjarmasin, South Kalimantan in river waters (vanOijen et al. 2007); somewhere in Indonesian Borneo(Compagno 2002); Sungai Meriam, Anggana, MahakanDelta, East Kalimantan (collection of Office of Marine andFisheries, Kutai Kartanegara District, but need molecularidentification, since it is only rostrum without teeth); thePhilippines: Luzon (Compagno and Last 1999); MalayPeninsula and Singapore (Siriraksophon 2012); Java:Jakarta (Batavia) and Gresik in sea waters, Surakarta inriver of Kali Pepe, caught in 1846 (van Oijen et al. 2007),somewhere in Java (Compagno and Last 1999), NewGuinea: Oriomo River (Papua New Guinea), Lake Murray(Papua New Guinea), Sepik River (Papua New Guinea)(Taniuchi 2002; Fowler 2002), Sentani Lake, Jayapura,Papua (our personal collection and MZB collection),Merauke, South Papua (our personal collection, but needmore investigation); somewhere in Papua New Guinea andIndonesia (Morgan et al. 2011) (Figure 2C).

Conservation status: Critically Endangered (CR)(A2bcd+3cd+4bcd ver 3.1 ) (IUCN 2012); Appendix II(CITES 2008); Protected (PP 7/1999)

Human uses: Minor commercial fisheries (marketedsalted); the saws are sold as tourist souvenirs (Skelton1993), gamefish.

Pristis pectinata Latham, 1794Synonym: Pristis acutirostris Duméril, 1865; Pristis

annandalei Chaudhuri, 1908; Pristis granulosa Bloch &Schneider, 1801; Pristis leptodon Duméril, 1865; Pristismegalodon Duméril, 1865; *Pristis pectinatus Latham,1794. Misapplied name: Pristis antiquorum (non Latham,1794); Pristis clavata (non Garman, 1906); Pristis zijsron(non Bleeker, 1851). Ambiguous synonym: *Pristisevermanni Fischer, 1884; Pristis occa (Duméril, 1865);Pristis serra Bloch & Schneider, 1801; Pristis woermanniFischer, 1884; Pristobatus occa Duméril, 1865. Note: * =misspellings name (Froese and Pauly 2011).

Common name: Smalltooth sawfish (FAO), Widesawfish

Description: Maximum length is 760 cm TL; commonlength is 550 cm TL (Last and Stevens 2009); max.published weight is 350 kg (Stehmann 1981). Long, flat,blade-like rostrum with (20)-24 to 32 pairs of teeth along


the edges. Interspace between the posterior rostral teeth is 2to 4 times greater than that between the anterior teeth. Baseof the first dorsal fin is at level of the pelvic fin base.Caudal fin is large and oblique without a distinct ventrallobe (Seret 2006). Dark gray to blackish brown above,paler along margins of fins. White to grayish white or paleyellow below (Bigelow et al. 1953). In Nusantara, itpresent has been reported from the Philippines.

Ecology: Inshore and intertidal species; in shallowbays, lagoons and estuaries, also in freshwater (Riede2004), until depth of 10 m (Stehmann 1990). it may crossdeep water to reach offshore islands; and swim up riversfor it can tolerate fresh water (Compagno and Last 1999). Itcommonly be seen in bays, lagoons, estuaries, and rivermouths. Also it can be found in rivers and lakes (Michael1993). Feeding on fishes and shellfishes (Vidthayanon2005). Ovoviviparous (Dulvy and Reynolds 1997). Usingits saw to stir the bottom when feeding on bottominvertebrates and to kill pelagic fishes (Compagno and Last1999). It is utilized as a food fish; its oil is used asmedicine, soap and in leather tanning (Last and Stevens2009). Adults stuffed is for decoration (Last and Stevens2009). It is reported to be aggressive towards sharks whenit is kept in tanks (Michael 1993). Because it grows slowly,it is believed to mature late and large individuals arethought to be very old. The four-generation period could be100 years or more. Bigelow and Schroeder (1953b) suggestthat large females produce between 15 and 20 young peryear; the young are born at 70 to 80 cm TL. Size atmaturity is estimated as 320 cm TL. Maximum life span isestimated to be 40 to 70 yrs and generation times areapproximately 27 yr. Annual rate of population increaseestimated as 0.08 to 0.13. (Adams and Williams 1995,Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Simpfendorfer 2000, 2002,Adams 2005). Juveniles are common in very shallowwaters, but adults occur to depths over 100 m (Poulakis andSeitz 2004, Simpfendorfer and Wiley 2005). They arethought to spend most time on or near the seabed, butoccasionally swim at the surface. There are many recordsfrom coastal lagoons, estuarine environments and thelower, brackish drainages of rivers (Yarrow 1877, Bigelowand Schroeder 1953b, Swingle 1971). The food of P.pectinata is primarily fish, but it also consumes crustaceansand other bottom dwelling organisms (Bigelow andSchroeder 1953b). Breder (1952) summarized the functionof the saw in the feeding strategy of P. pectinata, notingthat prey is impaled on the rostral teeth then scraped-off onthe bottom and consumed (Adam et al. 2006).

Distribution: It is known from tropical and warmtemperate nearshore ocean waters; circumglobal. It is inWestern Atlantic from North Carolina (USA), Caribbeanand northern Gulf of Mexico (Robins and Ray 1986) toArgentina (Menni and Lucifora 2007). It is in EasternAtlantic from Gibraltar to southern Angola (possiblynorthern Namibia), it is possibly in the Mediterranean Sea.It can be found in Indo-West Pacific from the Red Sea andEast Africa to the Philippines, and south to the tropicalAustralia. Possibly, it occurrs in the eastern Pacific(Compagno and Last 1999). This large, widely distributedsawfish has been wholly or nearly extirpated from large

areas of its former range in the North Atlantic(Mediterranean, US Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico) and theSouthwest Atlantic coast due to fishing and habitatchanges. The remaining populations are now small,fragmented and critically endangered globally. It isapparently extinct in the Mediterranean and likely also theNortheast Atlantic. Reports of this species outside theAtlantic are now considered to have beenmisidentifications of other Pristis species.

In Nusantara: the Philippines (Compagno and Last1999; Siriraksophon 2012) (Figure 2D).


Human uses: Minor commercial fisheriy; gamefish;remedies for Asthma, rheumatism, arthritis (Alves andRosa 2006; Alves et al. 2007; Alves and Rosa 2007)

Taxonomic note: P. clavata possibly have beenmisidentified as P. pectinata, whose distribution in theIndo-Pacific is uncertain (Thorburn et al. 2007).

Pristis zijsron Bleeker, 1851Synonym: Pristis granulosa Schneider & Bloch 1801;

Pristis occa Duméril 1865; Pristis woermanni Fischer 1884;*Pristis zyrson Bleeker, 1851; *Pristis zysron Bleeker,1851; *Pristis zysross Bleeker, 1851; Misapplied name:Pristis antiquorum Latham 1794; Pristis clavata Garman1906; *Pristis zisron Bleeker, 1851; Pristis pectinata (nonLatham, 1794); Pristis pectinatus Latham 1794. Note: * =misspellings name (Froese and Pauly 2011), Pristis dubiusBleeker 1852 (van Oijen et al. 2007).

Common name: Green sawfish (Aust.), Longcombsawfish (FAO), Narrowsnout sawfish

Description: Maximum length 730 cm TL (Compagnoet al. 1989); common length 550 cm TL. Length at firstmaturity 430 cm (Last and Stevens 2009). It isovoviviparous (Dulvy and Reynolds 1997), giving birth tolarge young. Grant (1978) suggested that adult males usetheir saws during mating battles. Sawfishes generally feedon slow-moving shoaling fish such as mullet, which arestunned by sideswipes of the snout. Molluscs and smallcrustaceans are also swept out of the sand and mud by thesaw (Allen 1982, Cliff and Wilson 1994). A male capturedas a juvenile survived 35 years in captivity. Dark grey toblackish brown on above part, white to yellowish on belowpart (Heemstra 1995).

Ecology: Inshore and intertidal species are known toenter freshwater in some areas (Compagno and Last 1999).They are found in shallow (demersal) bays, estuaries, andlagoons, with depth range of 5 m (Heemstra 1995;Compagno and Last 1999). They inhabits muddy bottomhabitats and enters estuaries (Allen 1997). Often on thebottom, they lay with their saw elevated at an angle to thebody axis (Compagno and Last 1999). Feeds on fishes andshellfishes (Vidthayanon 2005). It has been recorded ininshore marine waters to at least 40 m depth, in brackishwater (estuaries and coastal lakes) and in rivers. Its habitatis heavily fished and often also subject to pollution, leadingto habitat loss and degradation from coastal, riverine andcatchment developments. A very large, formerly common,


Indo-West Pacific sawfish is recorded mainly in inshoremarine habitats, also reported from freshwater. Like allsawfishes, it is extremely vulnerable to capture by targetand bycatch fishing throughout its range, which hascontracted significantly as a result. All populations are nowvery seriously depleted, with records having becomeextremely infrequent over the last 30 to 40 years (Froeseand Pauly 2011).

Distribution: Indo-West Pacific from South Africa tothe Persian Gulf, and eastwards to southern China, PapuaNew Guinea, south to New South Wales, Australia (Lastand Stevens 2009).

In Nusantara, it has been reported from Kalimantan:Kampong Tetabuan in Labuk Bay, Sabah (Manjaji 2002),Brunei (Siriraksophon 2012); Banjarmasin (Banjermassing),South Kalimantan (van Oijen et al. 2007); Malay Peninsulaand Singapore (Siriraksophon 2012); Java (Compagno2002); Moluccas: Ternate (Compagno 2002), Ambon (vanOijen et al. 2007) (Figure 2E).


Human uses: commercial fishery; gamefishTaxonomic notes: P. zijsron is a member of the Pristis

pectinata complex, probably also containing P. clavata,with narrow-based, less tapered, lighter rostral saws, withmore numerous (usually over 23), smaller teeth thanspecies of the Pristis pristis complex. (Compagno et al.2006).

CONCLUSION

Five pristids species were found in Nusantara, namely:Anoxypristis cuspidata Latham, 1794, Pristis clavataGarman, 1906, Pristis microdon Latham, 1794, Pistiszijsron Bleeker 1851, and Pristis pectinata Latham, 1794.A. cuspidata differs from Pristid spp. by the presence of avery narrow rostral saw, with 16 to 29 pairs of teeth but noteeth along the quarter of the rostral saw nearest to thehead. P. microdon has a highly defined groove runs alongthe entire posterior edge of the tooth into and beyond itsconfluence with the rostrum. This groove is absent injuvenile of P. clavata and whilst in larger individuals, itdevelops, and it rarely runs along the entire posterior edgeof the tooth or reach its confluence with the rostrum. P.clavata possibly have been misidentified as P. pectinata,whose distribution in the Indo-West Pacific is uncertain. P.clavata can be distinguished from P. pectinata and P.zijsron by the possession of fewer rostral teeth (18 to 22 inP. clavata cf. 24 to 28 in P. zijsron and 24 to 34 in P.pectinata), and by its smaller body size (i.e. less than 250cm TL in P. clavata). P. microdon indicate different sexesof the number of rostral teeth, i.e. 17-21 in female cf. 19-23in male, but in P. clavata, it can not be used to differentiatemale from female, with both sexes possessing an averageof 42 rostral teeth. In P. clavata the dorsal fin origin isopposite or slightly behind the pelvic fin origin, the rostum isrelatively shorter (22-24% of TL), the lower cauda fin lobe issmaller.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors thank to Dr. Dewi Roesma (AndalasUniversity, Padang), Dr. Muchlisin ZA (Syiah KualaUniversity, Banda Aceh), Dr. Bambang Sulistiyarso(Christian University of Palangkaraya), Dr. Sri WilujengCendrawasih University, Jayapura), Haryono (MuseumZoologicum Bogor), Fahmi (Research Center forOceanography, Jakarta), and Duto Nugroho and Dharmadi(Agency for Marine and Fisheries Research andDevelopment, Jakarta), who inform the existence of pristidsawfishes in all over Indonesian waters. Funding providedby “The Foreign Collaborative Research and InternationalPublication", Directorate General of Higher Education,Ministry of Education and Culture, Indonesia to the firstauthor.

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Species diversity of Rhizophora in Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea,Indonesia

AHMAD DWI SETYAWAN1,♥, YAYA IHYA ULUMUDDIN2

1Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Sebelas Maret University. Jl. Ir. Sutami 36A 57 126 Surakarta, Central Java,Indonesia. Tel./Fax. +62-271-663375, email: [email protected].

2Research Center for Oceanography, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (PPO-LIPI), East Ancol, North Jakarta 14430, Indonesia.

Manuscript received: 16 April 2012. Revision accepted: 17 October 2012.

ABSTRACT

Setyawan AD, Ulumuddin YI. 2012. Species diversity of Rhizophora in Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 13: 172-177. Research on diversity and distribution of mangroves on the small remote islands are rarely performed than on the coastal area andestuaries. Tambelan Islands is a cluster of small islands isolated in the Natuna Sea, Indonesia. On the island there are four species ofRhizophora, namely R. apiculata, R. stylosa, R. mucronata, and hybrid species R. x lamarckii. Rhizophora stylosa and R. apiculata arethe most common species found. R. mucronata only found in certain places (i.e. Durian River), R. x lamarckii rare, usually grows instands that also covered by the two parental, R. stylosa and R. apiculata. All Rhizophora species were found to have thorn on the leaftip, and spotted brown on the underneath leaf. R. apiculata has a petal without woolly feathers, inflorescence have short stalks and cork.R. stylosa and R. mucronata are sibling species, both of them have a long-stalks and dichotomy inflorescence, but the style of R.mucronata very short (<2.5 mm), whereas in R. stylosa longer (> 2.5 mm). R. x lamarckii has characters between R. apiculata and R.stylosa.

Key words: Rhizophora, diversity, Tambelan, Natuna Sea

Stilt mangroves are widespread throughout mosttropical coastal areas of Indo-Malaya, from the east Africato western Pacific (Duke 2006; Giesen et al. 2006). Thisgroup of the genus Rhizophora consists of three species, R.mucronata, R. stylosa (two being closely allied or siblingspecies) and R. apiculata, and two hybrids, R. × lamarckii(from R. apiculata x R. stylosa) and R. × annamalayana(from R. apiculata x R. mucronata) (Duke 2006). The fivespecies can be found in Indonesia. R. apiculata and R.stylosa is the most common species found. R. mucronatarelatively rare, although its global distribution much widerthan the two other Rhizophora species (Hou 1992; Duke2006; Duke et al. 2010a,b,c). R. x lamarckii rarely found,only in locations where both parents present. R. ×annamalayana Kathiresan (Kathiresan 1995; 1999) onlyonce recorded in Indonesia, i.e. in Lombok Island, WestNusa Tenggara, and originally named R. lombokensis Baba& Hayashi (Baba 1994). The main distribution of thishybrid is the east coast of India (Pichavaram, Tamil Nadu),Sri Lanka and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Ragavanet al. 2011; Dahdouh-Guebas 2012).

Tambelan Islands is a group of small islands located inthe Natuna Sea, Indonesia between Kalimantan, Sumatraand the Malay Peninsula, with the coordinates of 0o2"-1o25” N and 106o50"-107o40" E (IOTA 2007). TambelanIslands consist of 77 islands; but the exact number isdebatable, since some small islands rise and submerged bythe tide, about 20 islands are inhabited or used foragricultural field. The total area of land is 169.42 acres,

while the ocean is 58993.42 acres, with a population ofabout 4738 inhabitants (BPS Bintan 2008). The two largestislands and inhabited by majority population are Tambelan(Tambelan Besar) and Benua. Uwi is important for naturalconservation, since it is the main spawning spot turtles onthe islands. The Tambelan Islands have hilly topography.At the last glacial maximum period, this region is themountain peaks near the North Sunda super-river thatempties into the Natuna Sea (Steinke et al. 2008). Marinewaters of Tambelan Islands have about 0.5 to 2 m waveheight (Bull Meteor 2009). Based on the satellite imagedata processing ALOS AVNIR-2 (earth.esa.int), in 2010,the mangrove ecosystem of these islands covered an area of478.2 hectares (data not shown). Setyawan and Ulumuddin(2012) noted the existence of two species of Bruguiera, ieB. cylindrica and B. sexangula in the islands.

In Tambelan Islands, there is no major river; themangrove ecosystem is marine type with relatively highlevels of salinity. Stilt mangroves grow on various types ofsubstrates, such as fertile mud sediments, white sand, andcorals. Typically, these mangroves are common in the mid-inter-tidal zone, and particularly along the seaward marginof mangrove stands, especially for R. apiculata and R.stylosa. Stilt mangroves are known to play a vital role inshoreline protection, enhancement of water quality innearshore environments (including coral reefs), and insupporting food chains. This tree is often harvested forfirewood, and sometimes is used for building materials.Stilt mangroves are very well known by the Tambelan

SETYAWAN & ULUMUDDIN – Rhizophora of Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea 173

population, generally named “bakau”. The Malays, as themajor populations, recognize R. apiculata as bakau minyak,R. stylosa as bakau (pasir) and R. mucronata as bakaukurap; although it is sometimes confusing.

This study aims to determine the diversity ofRhizophora species in the Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea,Indonesia.


Area studySeveral series of survey had been conducted within two

weeks in the end of 2010 in Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea,Indonesia. A total of 23 islands was explored, namely Uwi,Sedulang Besar, Sedulang Kecil, Sedua Besar, SeduaKecil, Bungin, Tambelan (Tambelan Besar), Genting,Mundaga, Lintang, Panjang, Tamban, Ibul, Nibung,Nangka, Lesuh, Benua, Bedua (incl. Untup Darat), Jelak(incl. Burung), Selentang, Betung, Lipih, KepalaTambelan, Menggirang, and Menggirang Kecil. On thequite large Tambelan Island, the exploration was conductedat four locations, namely: Suak (canal) Dadu and SuakGanja located in the Tambelan Bay, and Durian River andTelukkupang River (incl. Kera Island) in the northwestern

part of Tambelan. The list of exploration sites had beenpreviously set based on the satellite imagery of ALOSAVNIR-2 in 2010, topographic maps of the TambelanIslands with the scale of 1: 75,000, and a preliminary studyof a few months before.

Based on satellite imaginery and field surveys, as manyas seven islands were covered with mangrove ecosystemcharacterized by a group of mangrove tree habitat (>100ha), namely Bedua, Benua, Burung, Ibul, Menggirang,Selentang, Tambelan (in four locations). Based on fieldsurvey, mangroves are also present in many other islands,but the quantity is very limited (Figure 1).

ProceduresField surveys. Mangrove habitat is entered from theseaward using rubber boats. Further searching was donealong the edge of the mangrove forest, followed by walkingthrough the canals in the mangrove forest or directlythrough the pneumatophore to know the conditions in theforest. At the locations where the water was deep enoughand the trunks were too tight to pass such as in thesurrounding of the Durian River and Telukkupang River,the exploration was done only by boat; the crocodiles thatinhabited those places were also a consideration in itself.

Figure 1. The distribution of mangrove ecosystems in Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea, Indonesia


On small islands, the exploration was done along thecoastal areas as far as possible, even in some small islandssuch as Lipih, the exploration was done by walking aroundthe island beaches, while on the island with a steep andwavy coastline such as Sedulang Kecil, the exploration wasdone by boat around the island. The exploration wasexpected to represent all parts of the island potentiallycovered with mangroves.

Sample observations. Each species of Rhizophora wasfound in every location sampled as many as 2-5 specimensand each sample was supposed to have flowers andhypocotyls. Samples were observed directly on the sites ina fresh condition and documented, then dried and madeinto herbarium and again observed in the laboratory. Thepreparation of dried herbarium samples was carried outaccording to Lawrence (1951). Herbarium specimens werestored at the Research Center for Oceanography,Indonesian Institute of Sciences (PPO-LIPI), Jakarta.Further herbarium samples were observed with reference toRifai (1976) and de Vogell (1987), i.e. the samples weregrouped according to morphological similarities and eachspecies was observed for the first 10 samples, then theidentification key was made, after that all remainingsamples were observed, and described by adding thecharacter as fresh specimens. The identification was doneby referring to Backer and Bakhuizen v.d. Brink (1968),Tomlison (1986), Ng and Sivasothi (1999), Giesen et al.(2006), and Duke (2006), Qin and Boufford (2007). Theecological characteristic and others were also referred toGiesen et al. (2006), and Duke et al. (2010a,b,c). Theconservation status was referred to IUCN (2012).


Keys of identification

Rhizophora Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 1: 443. 1753Trees are with stilt roots, usually branching and several

metres from the trunk. Stem internodes are hollow. Stipulesare reddish, sessile, leaflike, interpetiolar, lanceolate.Leaves are opposite or distichous, cauline, leathery,petiolate, simple. Leaf blades are glabrous, entire; elliptic,or obovate (usually elliptic to obovate); pinnately veined(midrib extended into a caducous point); margin is entire orserrulate near apex. Inflorescences axillary, dense cymes(simple or di- or trichasial); pedunculate. Flowers areebracteate; bracteoles forming a cup just below flower;usually 4 or 5 merous. Perianth is with distinct calyx andcorolla; 6-32; 2 -whorled; isomerous. Calyx tube is ovate(to narrowly ovate), adnate to ovary, persistent; lobes 5-8.Petals are 4, ovate; sessile, alternating with the calyx,lanceolate; blunt-lobed; valvate; tubular; regular;commonly fleshy (or leathery); persistent. Stamens are 8-12; filaments are much shorter than anthers or absent; freeof one another; anthers are connivent; dorsifixed; dehiscingby longitudinal valves, introrse, locules many, dehiscing byan adaxial valve. Ovary is inferior, 2-loculed, apically

partly surrounded by a disk, free part elongating afteranthesis; style 1, sometimes very short; stigmas are 4. Fruitis brown, ovoid, ovoid- conic, or pyriform. Fertile seed is 1per fruit; germination viviparous; hypocotyl protruding to78 cm before propagule falls (Ko 1983; Gathe and Watson2008).

Eight or nine species: tropics and subtropics; fivespecies in Indonesia; four species in Tambelan Islands.

1a. Peduncle is shorter than petiole, thick, on leafless stems;flowers are 2 per inflorescence; bracteoles united, cup-shaped; petals are glabrous; stamen is 9-15.

2a. Bracts are corky brown, flower are hairless .. R. apiculata2b. Bracts are smooth green ………………… R. x lamarckii

1b. Peduncle is usually as long as (or greater than) petiole,slender, in leaf axil; flowers are more than 2 perinflorescence; bracteoles are united at base; petals arepubescent; stamen is 6-8.

3a. Style is 0.5-1.5 mm (less than 2.5 mm); anthersare sessile ........ ...................................... R. mucronata

3b. Style is 4-6 mm (greater than 2.5 mm); anthersare on a short but distinct filament ............. R. stylosa

Description

Rhizophora apiculata Blume, Enum. Pl. Javae 1: 91.1827

Synonyms. Mangium candelarium Rumph.,Rhizophora candelaria Candolle, Rhizophora conjugata(non Linné) Arn., Rhizophora lamarckii, Rhizophoramangle (non Linné).

Local name. Bakau minyak, bakau tandok, bakau akik,bakau puteh, akik (Mal.); Bakau, bakau minyak, bangkaminyak, donggo akit, jankar, abat, bangkita, bangkitabaruang, kalumagus, kailau, parai (Ind.).

Description. Trees are erect, 3-6 (-30) m tall, and 50cm d.b.h. Stilt-roots are up to 5 m up the stem. Bark is darkgrey and chequered, usually with vertical fissures. Stipulesare 4-(6)-8 cm, dropped early. Leaves are crowded at twigtips, opposite, simple, penni-veined but venation barelyvisible, glabrous, narrowly elliptic, leathery; are dark greenwith a distinct light green zone along the midrib, tingedreddish underneath. Petiole is 1.5-3.5 cm, usually tingedreddish; and is flanked by leaflets at its base, 4-8 cm. Leafblade is elliptic-oblong to sublanceolate, 7-19 × 3-8 cm,abaxial midvein reddish, base broadly cuneate, apex acuteto apiculate. Inflorescences are 2-flowered cymes;peduncle is 0.7-10 mm. Flowers ca. are 2 cm diam., sessile,yellow-red, placed in axillary bundles, stalk 1.4 cm long.Calyx lobes are ovate, concave, 1-1.4 cm, apex acute.Sepals are 4,yellow-red, persistent, in a recurved form onthe end of the fruit. Petals are lanceolate, flat, 6-8 mm,membranace- ous, glabrous, white. Petals are 4, yellow-white, membranous, flat, hairless, 9-11 mm long. Stamensare mostly 12, 4 adnate to base of petals, 8 adnate to sepals,6-7.5 mm; anthers are nearly sessile, apex apiculate. Ovaryis largely enclosed by disk, free part 1.5-2.5 mm; style isca. 0.8-1 mm. Fruit ca. is 2.5 × 1.5 cm, apical half


narrower, contain one fertile seed. Hypocotyl is cylindric-clavate, green with purple, club shaped, ca. 1.8-3.8 × 1-2cm, ± blunt before falling.

Ecology. Occurs on deep, soft, muddy soils that areflooded by normal high tides. Avoids are firmer substratesmixed with sand. Dominant: may form up to 90% of thevegetation at a site (Giesen et al. 2006).

Distribution. From Sri Lanka throughout SoutheastAsia to Australia and the western Pacific Islands. InTambelan Islands found in nine coastal regions namely:Tambelan (Suak Dadu, Suak Ganja, Telukkupang River,Durian River), Benua, Ibul, and Uwi Islands.

Conservation status. Least Concern ver 3.1.Uses. The roots are sometimes used as anchors. The

wood is used as fire-wood, for construction and forcharcoal making.

Taxonomic note. The species ephitet “apiculata”means “pointed out”. It differs from R. mucronata and R.stylosa in possessing short, stout, dark grey inflorescencestalks (vs. long, slender, yellow).

Rhizophora x lamarckii Montrouz. Mém. Acad. Roy.Sci. Lyon, Sect. Sci. sér. 2, 10:201. 1860

Rhizophora x lamarckii is a hybrid of R. apiculata andR. stylosa. This species has many similarities with itsparents.

Local name. UnknownDescription. It has erect trees and shrubs up to ca. 25

m, often with several trunks; bark is light brown, smooth todark grey, rough, and often horizontally fissured. Stilt rootsextend to 2(-6) m above the ground, extend downwardsfrom branches. Stem base is diminished below the stiltroots. Leaves are simple, opposite, obovate-elliptic toelliptic, bright yellowish-green, waxy above and dullbelow, 7-15 cm long, 3-8 cm wide, yellow-green, with apointed apex and mucronate spike to 6 mm long, and arenot evenly spotted below (but old leaves are often liberallywound-spotted); petiole is 1-4 cm long. Inflorescence isaxillary, 2-4-flowered (occasionally 1), borne within theleafy shoot; yellow-green or cream flowers which are heldwithin leaf clusters; peduncle is 1-3 cm long, green,smooth;bracteoles are partly united, smooth, yellow-green except abrown crenulate rim. Flowers have 4 calyx lobes and 4slightly hairy white petals. Petals c. are 10 mm long;margins slightly incurved, sparsely hairy. Stamens arevariable, usually 9-11; anthers sessile. Upper part of ovaryis shallowly conical; style c. are 2.5 mm long; stigmaminutely 2-lobed. Fruit is rarely found beyond theimmature fruit stage. Fruit is shiny, brown-olive, invertedpear-shape, pyriform, 2.5-3 cm long. Hypocotyl is rarelydeveloped, smooth, green, 14-28 cm long, narrowly club-shaped, rounded at apex.

Ecology. Occurs in locations that are found bothparents (R. apiculata and R. stylosa), both deep, soft,muddy soils that are flooded by normal high tides andfirmer substrates are mixed with sand. Dominant: relativelyrare, but spreading evenly; rarely produces fertilepropagules, but it is capable of asexual reproduction bydividing and spreading over large areas.

Distribution. Its distribution is overlapping to itsparents. From India throughout Islands of Southeast Asia totropical Australia. In Tambelan Islands, it is found in fourcoastal regions namely: Tambelan (Durian River), Benua,Ibul, and Uwi Islands.

Conservation status. This hybrid species has not yetbeen assessed for the IUCN Red List.

Uses. The wood is used as fire-wood, for constructionand for charcoal making.

Taxonomic note. The species ephitet “lamarckii” isnamed in honour of Jean Baptiste Antoine Pierre deMonnet de Lamarck (1744-1829), the French botanistfamous for his theory of acquired traits in evolution.

Rhizophora mucronata Lamarck ex Poiret, Encycl. 6:189. 1804

Sinonyms. Mangium candelarium Rumphius,Rhizophora candelaria Wight & Arn., Rhizophora latifoliaMiq., Rhizophora longissima Blanco, Rhizophoramacrorrhiza Griff., Rhizophora mangle (non Linné) Roxb.,Rhizophora mucronata var. typica Schimp.

Local name. Bakau kurap, Bakau belukap, Bakaugelukap, Bakau jankar, Bakau hitam, (Mal.) Bangka Itam,Dongoh Korap, Bakau Hitam, Bakau Korap, Bakau Merah,Jankar, Lenggayong, Belukap, Lolaro (Ind.).

Description. It has erect trees and shrubs, and is up to27(-30) m, d.b.h. is up to 70 cm in diam; bark is dark toalmost black, horizontally fissured. It has both stilt rootsand aerial roots growing from lower branches. Stipules are5.5-8.5 cm. Petiole is 2.5-4 cm. Leaf blade is broadlyelliptic to oblong, 8.5-23 × 5-13 cm, leathery, base cuneate,apex ± blunt to ± acute. Leaf stalk is green, 2.5-5.5 cmlong, leaflets are at the base of leaf stalk 5.5-8.5 cm.Inflorescences are forked 2-3 times, 2-5(-12)-floweredcymes; peduncle is 2.5-5 cm. Flowers are sessile. Calyxlobes are ovate, 9-14 × 5-7 mm, deeply lobed, pale yellow.Petals are lanceolate, 7-9 mm, fleshy, partly embracingstamens, margins pilose (densely hairy margins). Stamensare 8, 4 borne on base of petals, 4 borne on sepals, 6-8 mm;anthers sessile. Ovary emerges far beyond disk, free partelongate-conic, 2-3 mm; style is 0.5-1.5 mm. Fruit is dull,brownish green, elongate-ovoid, 5-7 × 2.5-3.5 cm, basallyoften tuberculate, apically slightly contracted. Hypocotyl iscylindric, 30-65 cm long, up to 2 cm wide.

Ecology. They are found in similar localities as R.apiculata but more tolerant to sandy and firmer bottoms.

Distribution. From East Africa throughout SouthwestAsia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, East Asia, tropicalAustralia, to Western Pacific Islands. In Tambelan Islandsis only found in Tambelan (Durian River).

Conservation status. Least Concern ver 3.1.Uses. The timber is used for firewood and charcoal-

making.Taxonomic note. The species ephitet “mucronate”

means “leaf apex usually broad, terminated by a short stiffpoint called a mucro”. The Malay name refers to their fruit,kurap means "warty". R. mucronata differs from R.apiculata in possessing long, slender, yellow inflorescencestalks (vs. short, stout, dark grey) and from R. stylosa in the0.5-1.5 mm long style in the flower (vs. 4-6 mm long).


Figure 2. Diagnostic characters of Rhizophora on Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea, Indonesia. Inflorescense: A. R. apiculata, B. R. xlamarckii, C. R.mucronata, D. R. stylosa; Flowers: E. R. apiculata, F. R. x lamarckii, G. R.mucronata, H. R. stylosa (photo: manysources)

Rhizophora stylosa Griffith, Not. Pl. Asiat. 4: 665. 1854Synonyms. Rhizphora lamarckii, Rhizophora

mucronata Lamarck var. stylosa (Griffith) Schimper.Local name. Generally the same names as for

Rhizophora mucronata (Bakau in Indonesia and Malaysia);well known as Bakau pasir in Singapore.

Description. It has multi- or single-trunked erect smalltrees or shrubs, often less than 8 m up to 10 m tall. Bark isreddish or pale gray, smooth to rough, fissured; it is 10-15cm at d.b.h.; stilt-roots are up to 3 m long, and aerial rootsemerge from the lower branches. Leaves are broadlyelliptic,; leaf blade is obovate, 6.5-12.5 × 3-4(-5.5-7.5) cm,base broadly cuneate, apex mucronate, leathery, with aregularly-spotted lower surface and a pointed tip. Petiole is1-3.5 cm, with 4-6 cm long leaflets at its base.Inflorescences are axillary, flowers are forked 3-5 times,with 2- to many (up to 32) flowered; peduncle is 1-5 cm.Pedicel 5-10 mm, terete; bracteoles are brown, connate.Calyx lobes are pale-yellow, still present on the fruit, butare then recurved, lanceolate to oblong- lanceolate, 9-12 ×3-5 mm. Petals are white-yellow, 0.8-1.2 cm, involute,margin densely villous/woolly. Stamens are usually 8;filaments are short but distinct; anthers are 5-6 mm. Ovaryis emerging beyond disk, free part and shallowly conic andless than 1.5 mm; style is 4-6 mm; stigma lobes are 2. Fruitis green-brown, conic, pear-shaped, 2.5-4 × ca. 2 cm.Hypocotyl is cylindric (often mistaken for the ‘fruit’), 20-40 cm, apex acute. Flowers and fruits are producedthroughout the year.

Ecology. It grows in a variety of tidal habitats on mud,sands, coarse grits and rock, pioneering in coastalenvironments or on landward margins of mangroves. Onetypical niche is in the fringing mangroves of small `coral'islands, growing on coral substrate.

Distribution. From Sri Lanka, Southeast Asiathroughout South China, Ryukyu Islands to tropicalAustralia and the western Pacific Islands. In TambelanIslands, it is found in nine coastal regions namely:Tambelan (Suak Ganja, Telukkupang River, Durian River),Burung, Benua, Lipih, Ibul, and Uwi Islands.

Conservation status. Least Concern ver 3.1.Uses. The timber is used for fire-wood, for construction

and for charcoal making.Taxonomic note. The species ephitet “stylosa” is Latin

and comes from ‘stylos’ which means 'pillar' and refers tothe long style of this species. R. mucronata and R. stylosa,the sibling species, are distinguished by short styles (<2.5mm long) in R. mucronata, while R. stylosa has long styles(>2.5 mm long). According to Duke et al. (2002) bothspecies are genetically and morphologically similar.

Note. The only mangrove species of Indo-Malayanregion that is not found in Tambelan is R. annamalayana, ahybrid species between R. apiculata and R. mucronata. Themain distribution of this hybrid is the east coast of India,Sri Lanka and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Thewestern distribution of R. stylosa is not reaching theseregions, except for a little stand in Orissa and Andaman

A B C D

E F G H


and Nicobar states (Ellison et al. 2012), so thathybridization occurs only between R. apiculata and R.mucronata. Meanwhile, in Nusantara (Malesia), there areplenty of R. stylosa that density is often higher than R.mucronata, so more frequent hybridization between R.apiculata and R. stylosa generate R. x lamarckii. The naturestyle of R. stylosa is much longer than the style of R.mucronata, and it is thought to increase the success ofhybridization between R. stylosa and R. apiculata.However, in Nusantara there are also notes about thepresence of R. annamalayana, in Merbok, Malay Peninsula(Chan 1996) and Lombok, West Nusa Tenggara, originallynamed R. lombokensis (Baba 1994).

CONCLUSION

On Tambelan islands, there are four species ofRhizophora, namely R. apiculata, R. stylosa, R. mucronata,and hybrid species R. x lamarckii. Rhizophora stylosa andR. apiculata are the most common species found. R.mucronata is only found in certain places (i.e. DurianRiver), R. x lamarckii is rare, and it usually grows in standsthat are also covered by the two parental species, i.e. R.stylosa and R. apiculata. All Rhizophora species werefound to have thorn on the leaf tip, and spotted brown onthe underneath leaf. R. apiculata has a petal without woollyfeathers, inflorescence has short stalks and cork. R. stylosaand R. mucronata are sibling species, both of them have along-stalks and dichotomy inflorescence, but the style of R.mucronata is very short (<2.5 mm), whereas R. stylosa islonger (> 2.5 mm). R. x lamarckii has mixed charactersbetween R. apiculata and R. stylosa.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The research was funded through the Research Project"Natuna Sea Expedition - 2010" in collaboration with theDirectorate General of Higher Education, Ministry ofNational Education, GoI and the Research Center forOceanography of Indonesian Institute of Science (PPO-LIPI) Jakarta. The author would like to thank Dr.Dirhamsyah as the chairman of the project, Fahmi as thecoordinator of field researchers, Daniel Irham as captain ofthe Research Ship of Baruna Jaya VIII, and Murtadavillage chief of Kampung Melayu who acting as field guideand informant.

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Impact of forest disturbance on the structure and composition ofvegetation in tropical rainforest of Central Sulawesi, Indonesia

RAMADHANIL PITOPANG♥

Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Tadulako University. Kampus Bumi Tadulako, Tondo, Palu 94118, CentralSulawesi. Tel. +62-451-422611, Fax. +62-451 422844, ♥email: [email protected]

Manuscript received: 1 October 2012. Revision accepted: 25 October 2012.

ABSTRACT

Pitopang R. 2012. Impact of forest disturbance on the structure and composition of vegetation in tropical rainforest of Central Sulawesi,Indonesia. Biodiversitas 13: 178-189. We presented the structure and composition of vegetation in four (4) different land use typesnamely undisturbed primary forest, lightly disturbed primary forest, selectively logged forest, and cacao forest garden in tropicalrainforest margin of the Lore Lindu National Park, Central Sulawesi Indonesia. Individually all big trees (dbh > 10 cm) was numberedwith tree tags and their position in the plot mapped, crown diameter and dbh measured, whereas trunk as well as total height measuredby Vertex. Additionally, overstorey plants (dbh 2- 9.9 cm) were also surveyed in all land use types. Identification of vouchers andadditional herbarium specimens was done in the field as well as at Herbarium Celebense (CEB), Tadulako University, and NationaalHerbarium of Netherland (L) Leiden branch, the Netherland. The result showed that the structure and composition of vegetation instudied are was different. Tree species richness was decreased from primary undisturbed forest to cacao plantation, whereas treediversity and its composition were significantly different among four (4) land use types. Palaquium obovatum, Chionanthus laxiflorus,Castanopsis acuminatissima, Lithocarpus celebicus, Canarium hirsutum, Euonymus acuminifolius and Sarcosperma paniculatum beingpredominant in land use type A, B and C and Coffea robusta, Theobroma cacao, Erythrina subumbrans, Gliricidia sepium, Arengapinnata, and Syzygium aromaticum in the cacao plantation. At the family level, undisturbed natural forest was dominated by Fagaceaeand Sapotaceae disturbed forest by Moraceae, Sapotaceae, Rubiaceae, and agroforestry systems by Sterculiaceae and Fabaceae.

Key words: tree diversity, land use types, tropical forest, Lore Lindu National Park, Sulawesi, Indonesia

INTRODUCTION

Sulawesi which was formerly known as Celebes, is oneof the big island in Indonesia. The island is the importantisland in the Wallacea subregion, situated in the centre ofthe Indonesian archipelago, between Borneo (Kalimantan)and the Moluccan islands. Van Steenis (1979) revealed thatphytogeography of Sulawesi is part of the Malesianfloristic unit; its flora is reportedly related to thePhilippines, New Guinea, and Borneo and belongs to theEastern Malesian. The Scientific knowledge of Sulawesi’sflora both taxonomically and ecologically is still limiteddue to lack botanical research and publication on thissubject (Bass et al. 1990; Keßler 2002), for example theamount of botanical expedition in Sumatra 20 times thanSulawesi (Veldkamp and Rifai 1977) but Sulawesi hasrecently been identified as one of the world’s biodiversityhotspots, especially rich in species found nowhere else inthe world and under major threat from widespreaddeforestation (Pitopang and Gradstein 2003).

Total species richness and endemism of Sulawesi arecomparable to those of Sumatra, Java, Borneo and NewGuinea, in spite of the very different geological history ofSulawesi and the greater distance of the island to themainland (Roos et al. 2004). Whereas the islands ofBorneo, Sumatra and Java had terrestrial connections tomainland Asia in the past, Sulawesi was always isolated

from these islands as well as from New Guinea by deepmaritime straits as shown by Hall (1995) and Moss andWilson (1998). Approximately 15% of the knownflowering plant species of Sulawesi are endemic (Whittenet al. 1987). Van Balgooy et al. (1996) recognized 933indigenous plant species on Sulawesi and of these 112 wereendemic to the island. Endemism varies among groups,however, and is very high in orchids and palms which total817 orchid species (128 genera) including 493 endemicones (Thomas and Schuiteman 2002).

Tropical deforestation has become a major concern forthe world community. Whole regions in South and CentralAmerica, Africa and Southeast Asia already completelylost their forest or are expected to become deforested in thenear future (Jepson et al. 2001; Laurence et al. 2001).Based on recent mapping of the forest cover in Indonesia,Ministry of Forestry (MoF) has revealed that the rate of thedeforestation in Indonesia approximately doubled between1985 and 1997, from less than 1.0 million ha to at least 1.7million ha each year; whereas Sulawesi lost 20% of itsforest cover in this period (Holmes 2002).

Many studies document the loss of biodiversity causedby modification or clearing of tropical rain forest whereHuman activity is one of the most direct causes of wildbiodiversity loss (WCMC 1992) and may also negativelyaffect biotic interactions and ecosystem stability (Steffan-Dewenter and Tscharntke 1999). Introduction of exotic

RAMADHANIL – Disturbance on tropical rainforest of Central Sulawesi 179

species, overexploitation of biological resources, habitatreduction by land use change, pastoral overgrazing,expansion of cultivation, and other human activities arecommon factors and primary agents contributing to the vastendangerments and extinctions occurring in the past and inthe foreseeable future (Kerr and Currie 1995; Pimm et al.1995; Tilman 1999; Palomares 2001; Raffaello 2001).

Human exploitation also causes major changes in thebiodiversity of these forests, even though research on thissubject has been limited and results were oftencontroversial (Whitmore and Sayer 1992; Turner 1996;Kessler 2005). Some studies reveal conspicuously reducedspecies richness in secondary or degraded rainforests(Parthasarathy 1999; Pitopang et al. 2002), even in over100 years old regrown forest (Turner et al. 1997), localextinction of plants (Benitez-Melvido and Martinez-Ramos2003) in other studies is increased (Kappelle 1995;Fujisaka et al. 1998). Area size is a crucial factor

determining the changes in biodiversity due to humanimpact. Loss of diversity generally decreases when largerareas are considered; therefore the impact of humanactivities on plant diversity thus must be interpreted withcaution (Mooney et al. 1995).

This research focused on the structure and compositionof four land use types differing use intensity at the LoreLindu National Park. The main objective was to determinethe taxonomic composition and forest structure of four landuse types.


Study sitesThe study area was located in the surroundings of Toro,

a village at the western margin of Lore Lindu NP about 100km south of Palu, the Capital of Central Sulawesi (Figure

1). The data of research was collected fromAugust 2007-March 2009. Detailedinformation on the climate and soilconditions of this part of Central Sulawesiis not yet available (see Whitten et al.1987). Gravenhorst et al. (2005) reportedthat mean annual rainfall in the study areais varied from 1,500 and 3,000 mm, meanrelative humidity is 85.17%, monthly meantemperature is 23.40° C. Administratively,this village belong to Kulawi sub-district,Donggala District. This village isaccessible by car, truck, motorbike andpublic car from Palu. As our study area,the margin of the National Park ischaracterized in many parts by a mosaic ofprimary forest, primary less disturbedforest, primary more disturbed forest,secondary forests, and several land-usesystems with cacao, coffee, maize, andpaddy (rice) as the dominating crops(Gerold et al. 2002). The elevation of theselected sites is between 800 m and 1100m, therefore covering an altitudinal rangethat belongs to the submontane forest zone(Whitten et al. 1987).

Tree diversity was studied in four (4)different land use types with four replicatesas follows: (i) Land use type A:undisturbed rain forest. (ii) Land use typeB: lightly disturbed rain forest. Naturalforest with rattan extraction, rattan palmremoved. (iii) Land use type C moderatelydisturbed rain forest. Selectively loggedforest, containing small to medium sizedgaps, disturbed ground vegetation andincreased abundance of lianas followingthe selective removal of canopy trees andrattan. (iv) Land use type D; Cacao forestgarden, Cacao cultivated under naturalshade trees (= remaining forest cover) inthe forest margin (Table 1).

Figure 1. Map of study area, Ngata Toro at the western margin of the Lore LinduNational Park, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia


Table 1. Analyses of structural plant diversity; geographic position (measured by GPS Garmin 12), altitude and descriptions of each plot

Plot Plot Coordinates Altitude Exposi-tion

Incli-nation

Canopycover

Code Locality Longitute (S) Latitude (E) m deg deg Upper%

Total%

Description and remarks

Land use type A (undisturbed rain forest)A1 Bulu Kalabui 010 30’. 589 1200 02'. 730 950 SE 30 80 80 Many large trees; on eastern slope of Bulu

Kalabui but close to ridge; very sparseunderstorey and variable exposition

A2 Bulu Lonca 010 29’. 518 1200 01'. 596 1080 ESE 25 75 75 Many large trees are reaching a height ofapproximately 35m, rattan dominatingunderstory, bamboo on lower edge

A3 Buku Kalabui 010 30’. 714 1200 02'. 750 950 W 20 80 80 Understory rattan dominated; fairly gentleslope; more slender and lower trees than otherplots, even canopy structure; very close to ridge

A4 Kawumbu 010 29’. 486 1200 03'. 054 1010 280 < 25 75 80 Single large trees are reaching a height ofapproximately 35m. Probably colluvium due tovariable slope and micro relief. Large rocks onthe soil surface. Spring inside plot, canopy veryheterogeneous with some extremely large figs,understory relatively dense

Land use type B ( lightly disturbed rainforest)B1 Bulu Kuku 010 30’. 053 1200 01'. 653 1050 90 30-40 60-

7085 One of the highest plots. Very dense

understorey with much Pandanus; steep andlarge tree fall gap on lower edge; some smallergaps already detectable

B2 Bulu Kalabui 010 30’. 558 1200 02'. 967 840 ESE 25 80 60-70

Natural forest with very sparse understorey,close to open plantation for precipitation gauge

B3 Bulu KukuNorth

010 29’. 400 1200 01'. 607 1080 30 30 60-70

80 Highest and tallest B type. Variable understoreywith obvious timber and rotan extraction

B4 Kolewuri 010 29’. 202 1200 02'. 821 1000 270 35 80 80 Steep with light understorey. Fairly moist withtall and slender trees but only little rotan

Land use type C ( moderately disturbed rain forest)C1 Bulu Lonca 010 29’. 490 1200 01'.738 1000 200 30 40 60 One large older treefall gap and smaller gaps

from extracted timber. Variable relief andunderstorey

C2 Kolewuri 010 29’. 721 1200 02'.802 990 30 20-40 30 60 There are some big tree such as Anthocephalussp, Pterospermum sp, variable in relief, denseunderstory with also treefall gaps and moist soil

C3 Above DusunTujuh

010 30’. 441 1200 01'.373 1000 SSW 30-40 50 60 Soil very rocky and dry. On upper slope belowclear cut (precipitation gauge?); Understoreydense, extremely steep and far from Toro corearea

C4 Bulu Kamonua 010 22’. 525 1200 02'.170 1040 E 25 40 60 Evenly spaced gaps from timber extraction,understorey not too dense, little rattan

Land use type D ( Cacao forest garden)D1 Foot of Lonca 010 29’. 649 1200 02'.134 840 NE 25-40 10 30 Owned by Pak Berwin; worst plot, large gap on

lower side without cocoa; steep slope beneathplot towards creek with secondary vegetation.Sparsely spread cocoa, high degree of grasscover, few shade trees, very steep. Northernborder transition into E-type plantation.

D2 Kaha 010 30’. 072 1200 01'.761 920 E 0-20 15 50 Owned by Pak Abia; flattest type at highestelevation; one large gap of shade trees in center,trees very tall and at upper boundary; variableground cover

D3 Kauboga 010 29’. 900 1200 01'.821 840 10 30-35 35-40

65 Owned by Pak Penga; evenly spaced cocoatrees with few gaps and partly dense herbalundergrowth on even slope. Situated on loweredge of forest. Nearby opening as chance forprecipitation gauge

D4 Foot of BuluKalabui

010 31. 047’ 1200 01'.986 815 200 30-40 50-60

75 Owned by Pak Ambi; steep with thick leaf litterlayer and very little herbal undergrowth, highestshade tree cover with small gaps (some shadetrees already ringed, some planted orsecondary?) cocoa densely planted (< 80%)especially on lower slope


Sampling protocolPlots size and sampling designed according to

standardized protocols (Wright et al. 1997; Milliken 1998;Srinivas and Parthasarathy 2000; Kessler et al. 2005; Smallet al. 2004). Plot size was determined by the minimum areacurve (Suryanegara and Wirawan, 1986) and was 50 x 50m with four (4) replicates. Each plot was subdivided into25 subplots of 10 x 10 m² each and all trees dbh > 10 cmwere recorded. In these subplots (recording units),individually all big trees (dbh > 10 cm) was numbered withaluminum tags and their position in the plot mapped, crownbase crown diameter and dbh measured, and trunk as wellas total height estimated. Furthermore, profile diagram offorest both vertical and horizontal was made by using“Hand drawing methods” (Laumonier 1997).

All recognizable morphospecies of trees were collectedin sets of at least seven duplicates. Plant collecting wasaccording to the “Schweinfurth method” (Bridson andForman 1999). Additional voucher specimens of plantmaterial with flowers or fruits were collected foridentification purposes. Processing of the specimens wasconducted at Herbarium Celebense (CEB), University ofTadulako, Palu. Identification was done in the field, inCEB, and the Herbarium Bogoriense (BO), Bogor.Vouchers were deposited in CEB, with duplicates in BO,GOET, L and BIOT.

Data analysesBasal Area (BA), Relative Density (RD), Relative

Frequency (RF), Relative Dominance (RDo.), andimportance value indices (IVI) were calculated andanalyzed according to the formulae Dumbois-Muller andEllenberg (Soerianegara and Indrawan 1988; Setiadi et al.2001).

Basal area (m²) is the area occupied by a cross-sectionof stem at breast height (1.3 m) = [3.14 x (dbh/2)²]

Absolute values so obtained may be transcribed torelative values:

No. of individuals of a speciesRelative density (%) = -------------------------------------- X 100

Total no. of individuals in sample

Basal area of a speciesRelative dominance (%) = -------------------------------------- X 100

Total basal area in sample

Sampling units containing a speciesRelative frequency (%) = -------------------------------------- X 100

Sum of all frequencies

Importance Value Index (IVI) for a species is the sumof its relative density, relative dominance, and relativefrequency (Soerianegara and Indrawan 1988; Setiadi et al.2001).


Species diversityStatistically, the averages of number of species, genera,

families, Shanon diversity index (H’), native species,timber tree, stem and basal area of tree did not differamong land use type A, B and C but was significantlydifferent with D. The mean species number of tree washighest in land use type B (58.0±8), followed by land usetype A (55.8±5.5) and type C (48.3±4.0). Cacaoplantations, however, had significantly lower speciesnumbers, with 20.8±7.8 tree species in cacao forestgardens.

Roughly one third of the tree species in the forest plots(15-20 spp.) were of economic importance as commercialtimber trees; of these, 4-5 were major timber species andthe rest minor ones. Timber diversity was little affected bymoderate human use of the forest but was significantlyreduced in cacao forest gardens and dropped to near zero incacao plantations.

Taxonomic compositionTree species at land use type A are mainly dominated

by Palaquium quercifolium (Sapotaceae) and followed byCastanopsis acuminatissima and Lithocarpus celebicus(both Fagaceae), Ficus trachypison, Chionanthus laxiflorus(Oleaceae) and Dysoxylum densiflorum (Meliaceae), Aglaiaargentea (Meliaceae), Horsfieldia costulata(Myristicaceae), Meliosma sumatrana (Sabiaceae), andDysoxylum alliaceum (Meliaceae). Sapling species arepresented by Capparis pubiflora (Capparidaceae),Castanopsis accuminatisima, Horsfieldia costulata, Ardisiacelebica etc At the family level the forest was dominatedby Fagaceae, Sapotaceae, Meliaceae and Lauraceae. At theland use type B tree species mostly dominated byNeonauclea intercontinentalis, Palaquium quercifolium, P.obovatum, Pandanus sarasinorum, Meliosma sumatranaetc. Whereas, sapling species is dominated by Pandanussarasinorum, Pinanga aurantiaca, Horsfieldia costulata,Areca vestiaria etc. The predominant species in moderatelydisturbed forest (type C) were Oreocnide rubescens(Urticaceae), Castanopsis accuminatisima, Lithocarpuscelebicus, Pandanus sarasinorum, Neonuclea interconti-nentalis and Canarium hirsutum (Burseraceae). Saplingspecies are Lithocarpus celebicus, Oreocnide rubescens,Castanopsis accuminatisima, Dysoxylum nutans,Dysoxylum alliaceum etc.

Tree species in cacao forest garden (type D) mainlyrepresented by Theobroma cacao (Sterculiaceae), Coffearobusta (Rubiaceae.), Turpinia sphaerocarpa (Staphylia-ceae), Horsfieldia costulata (Myristicaceae), Arengapinnata (Arecaceae), Meliosma sumatrana, Melicope cf.confusa (Rutaceae) and Oreocnide rubescens.

At the family level, the taxonomic composition of thehabitat types showed major differences. Undisturbednatural forest (land use type A) was dominated bySapotaceae, Fagaceae, Meliaceae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae,Moraceae, Rubiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Arecaceae andOleaceae while Moraceae, Sapotaceae, Rubiaceae,Euphorbiaceae, Meliaceae, Lauraceae and Annonaceae


were the most common tree families in disturbed forest(land use types B and C). In the cacao forest garden withmoderate use intensity (D) was dominated bySterculiaceae, Moraceae, Rubiaceae, Staphyleaceae,Euphorbiaceae, Cunoniaceae and Myristicaceae.

Forest structure and profile diagramForest structure and profile diagram of these studied

land use types were provided in Figures 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7The analyses of forest structure revealed considerabledifferences in canopy height where tree species with height>30 m (emergent/top canopy species) was greater at theundisturbed rain forest (11.22%) and then followed by landuse type B (8.7%) and C (3.9%). On the other side, only afew tree species > 30 m in height at the land use type D(0.9%), the middle canopy species (height 20.1-30 m) washigher at land use type B (16.35%) and C (13.8%) andfollowed by A (11.11%), D (7.4%). Contrary to the topcanopy species, the undergrowth species (<10 m in height)was lower at the land use type A (undisturbed rain forest)and gradually increased from type B to D. The greater treeheight in undisturbed rain forest (type A) and type B reflectthat many originally top canopy trees persisted in theseland use type.

At the land use type A (undisturbed natural rain forest),we recorded some top canopy tree species (with >30 m inheight) such as Palaquium quercifolium, Palaquiumobovatum, Castanopsis accuminatisima, Lithocarpuscelebicus, Bischofia javanica, Octomeles sumatrana,Cinnamomum parthenoxylon, Pangium edule,Pterospermum celebicum, Aglaia argentea, Dysoxylum sp,Chionanthus ramiflorus, Ficus sp. and Polyscias nodosa.Palaquium quercifolium is one of tree species widelydistributed at the land use type A, B and C which several

individuals of this species can be reach up to 40 m inheight.

At the land use type B (lightly disturbed forest)recorded the other top canopy species such as Neonucleaintercontinentalis, Artocarpus elasticus, Elmerrillia ovalis,and Magnolia champaca. Contrary to two forest types asmentioned before that there was no any emergent/ topcanopy tree species founded at the land use type C(moderate use intensity), but only Palaquium quercifolium,Castanopsis accuminatisima, Canarium hirsutum, and astrangler Ficus sp with height not more than 30 m.

The middle canopy species (>20 dbh <30 m) whichfound at the forests (type A, B and C) are mostly presentedby Artocarpus vriesiana, Cryptocarya crassinerviopsis,Knema celebica, Goniothalamus brevicuspis, Aglaiaargentea, Horsfieldia costulata, Chionanthus laxiflorus,Semecarpus forstenii, Sarcosperma paniculata, Litseaformanii, Castanopsis accuminatisima, Syzygiumaccuminatisima, Dysoxylum alliaceum, Pandanuspolycephalus, Litsea densiflora, Trema orientalis,Broussonetia papyrifera and Mangifera foetida, Gironnierasubaequalis, Astronia macrophylla, Ficus miquelii,Nauclea ventricosa, Acer laurinum, Santiria laevigata,Lithocarpus celebicus and Dracontomelon mangiferum.

The lower canopy species were mainly composed byOrophea celebica, Mitrephora celebica, Baccaureatetrandra, Goniothalamus brevicuspis, Meliosmasumatrana, Gnetum gnemon, Siphonodon celastrineus,Antidesma celebica, Dracaena arborea, Dracaenaangustifolia, Aglaia silvestris, Geunsia sp., Sterculiaoblongata, Macadamia hildebrandii, Goniothalamusmacrophyllus, Arenga pinnata, Picrasma javanica,Calophyllum soulatrii and Macaranga hispida.

Figure 2. Relative distribution of height class among trees in the four studied Land use types. Error bars indicated + standard error.Notes: > 30 m = Top canopy species 20.1-30 m = meddle canopy species, 10.1- 20 m = lower canopy species, <10 m = undergrowthspecies.

Figure 3.Relative distribution of diameter class among trees in the six studied land use types. Error bars indicated + standard error.


Figure 4. Profile diagram of land use type A (presented by column 5A to 5E of plot A2). Goniothalamus brevicuspis (122), Palaquiumquercifolium (200, 201, 208), Beilschmiedia gigantocarpa (123), Baccaurea tetrandra (124), Meliosma sumatrana (125), Antidesmacelebicum (126), Semecarpus forstenii (127, 194, 205, 2012, 2022), Macadamia hildebrandii (128), Myristica kjellbergii (129, 215,217), Pinanga aurantiaca (130,132, 216), Arytera littoralis (131), Castanopsis accuminatisima (121, 213, 214, 2025, 2026), Artocarpusvriesiana (196), Litsea sp (197), Pometia pinnata (198), Dysoxylum parasiticum (199), Chionanthus laxiflorus (202), Horsfieldiacostulata (203, 210, 268), Ficus sp (204, 270), Ficus variegata (207), Pandanus lauterbachii (209), Litsea ferruginea (211), Sterculialongifolia (212), Ardisia celebica (218), Elaeocarpus sp (269), Calophyllum soulatrii (271), Litsea formanii (2021), Pisonia umbellifera(2028), Aglaia sp (2024).


Figure 5. Profile diagram of land use type B (presented by column 5A to 5E of plot B1 at Bulu kuku). Elaeocarpus angustifolius ( 454,577, 663, 670, 671, 674, 680, 685), Garcinia dulcis (455,575), Antidesma stipulare (457), Chionanthus laxiflorus (458), Pterospermumcelebicum (459), Macaranga tanarius (460, 461, 462, 682, 683), Sterculia oblongata (464), Horsfieldia costulata (465, 466, 568, 687),Pandanus sarasinorum ( 467, 468, 469, 561, 562, 565, 566, 569, 662, 688), Koordersiodendron pinnatum (560), Neonauclea lanceolata(563), Elmerrillia ovalis (564), Artocarpus vriesiana (567), Ficus sp (570,676), Meliosma sumatrana (571, 574), Dysoxylum alliaceum(576, 580, 665, 669), Goniothalamus brevicuspis (578), Aglaia silvestris (579), Dracaena angustifolia (581), Litsea formanii (664, 668,686), Litsea oppositifolia (666), Gouia sp. (673), Neonauclea intercontinentalis (677), Picrasma javanica (678), Baccaurea tetrandra(679), Polyalthia glauca (681), Dehaasia celebica (689) and Litsea ferruginea (668, 690).


Figure 6. Profile diagram of land use type C (presented by column 2A to 2E of plot C4). Macadamia hildebrandii (2A-1), Aglaia exelca(2A-2), Cryptocarya crassinerviopsis (2A-3, 2B-2), Mitrephora celebica (2A-4, 478), Aglaia silvestris (2A-5), Lithocarpus celebicus(2A-6, 2A-9, 2A-12, 2A-13), 491, 492, 493), Litsea albayana (2B-1), Dysoxylum alliaceum (2B-4, 6, 7, 479), Acer laurinum (2B-5),Castanopsis accuminatisima (476, 477, 475, 494, 495, 496), Elaeocarpus sp (490), Horsfieldia costulata (474), Pandanus sarasinorum(441), Sterculia oblongata (432), Pisonia umbellifera (436), Phaleria costata (487), Picrasma javanica (438).


Figure 7. Profile diagram of land use type D which is presented by column 1A to 1E of plot D4. Ae = Artocarpus elasticus, Tc =Theobroma cacao, Av = Artocarpus vriesiana, Ge = Geunsia sp., Cr = Coffea robusta, Ml = Melicope latifolia, To = Trema orientalis,Ap = Aphanamixis polystachya, Da = Dracaena arborea, Hc = Horsfieldia costulata.


The small tree/ treelet or undergrowth species (<10 cmin height) are composed by Timonius minahassae, Ardisiacelebica, Dehaasia celebica, Pinanga caesea, Arecavestiaria, Pinanga aurantifolia, Caryota mytis, Oreocniderubescens, Dendrocnide stimulant, Dysoxylum nutans,Antidesma stipulare, Lasianthus sp, Arenga undulatifolia,Eurya accuminata, Capparis pubiflora, Ficus gul, Garciniaparviflora, Fagraea racemosa, Tabernaemontanasphaerocarpa, Euonymus javanicus, Homalium javanicumand one tree fern species is Cyathea amboinensis.

In contrast to the land use type A, We were not foundany emergent/top canopy species at three cacao plantations.For example, at the land use type D (cacao cultivated undernatural shade trees) there were only some big tree speciessuch as Turpinia sphaerocarpa, Trema orientalis,Artocarpus teysmanii, Artocarpus vriesiana, Bischofiajavanica, Ficus variegata, Astronia macrophylla andLithocarpus celebicus but they can not reach more than 30m in height.

DiscussionThe analyses of forest structure revealed considerable

differences in canopy height (Figure 2 and 3) where treespecies with height >30 m (emergent/top canopy species)was greater at the undisturbed rain forest (11.22%) andthen followed by land use type B (8.7%) and C (3.9%).Structure and composition of Sulawesi’s forest is ratherdifferent to other islands (Keßler 2002). The investigatedundisturbed rain forests around Toro, the emergent treespecies were composed by Palaquium quercifolium,Palaquium obovatum, Castanopsis accuminatisima,Lithocarpus celebicus, Bischofia javanica, Octomelessumatrana, Pangium edule, Pterospermum celebicum,Aglaia argentea, Chionanthus ramiflorus, and Polysciasnodosa. Laumonier (1997) reported the emergent treespecies in the lowland forest of Jambi (Sumatra) mainlyrepresented by fifteen dipterocarp species, threeAnacardiaceae species and one species of Apocynaceae.Some of them are Anisoptera costata, Anisoptera laevis,Anisoptera marginata, Dipterocarpus crinitus, Hopeadryobalanoides, Shorea acuminate, Shorea ovalis,Mangifera rigida, Mangifera torquenda, Pentaspadonvelutinus and Dyera costulata.

The timber volume was highest in land use type A(undisturbed rain forest) and gradually decreased withincreased forest disturbance, and again towards forestgardens and was lowest in plantations. This result indicatedthat there were many large tree species in the land use typeA than other land use type. Some of tree species in land usetype A are mainly belong to mayor commercial timber such asPalaquium quercifolium, Palaquium obovatum (Sapotaceae)known as “nyatoh” or “nantu” (“trade name”), Pterospermumcelebicum (Sterculiaceae) or “bayur”, Dysoxylum spp.(Meliaceae) or “tahiti”, Madhuca sp. (Sapotaceae), Aglaiakorthalsii, Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae) or “pulai”,Calophyllum soulatrii (Clusiaceae), beside that there weretree species as minor timber such as Elmerrillia ovalis(Magnoliaceae) or “cempaka”, Bischofia javanica(Euphorbiaceae) “balintunga or pepolo”, Mussaendopsiscelebica (Rubiaceae), Ailanthus sp. (Rubiaceae),

Alseodaphne sp. (Lauraceae), Artocarpus teysmanii or “teauru”, Artocarpus elasticus or “tea” (Moraceae), Artocarpusinteger, (Moraceae), Beilschmiedia gigantocarpa(Lauraceae), Canarium hirsutum (Burseraceae), Canariumbalsamiferum (Burseraceae), Cinnamomum parthenoxylon(Lauraceae), Cryptocarya crassinerviopsis (Lauraceae),Lithocarpus grandifolius (Fagaceae), Dracontomelon dao(Anacardiaceae), Fragraea racemosa (Loganiaceae),Gymnacranthera sp. (Myristicaceae), Lithocarpuscelebicus (Fagaceae), Litsea spp (Lauraceae), Myristicafatua (Myristicaceae), Octomeles sumatrana (Datiscaceae),Sterculia oblongata (Sterculiaceae), Santiria laevigata(Burseraceae), etc. Generally, the timber tree species wasfound at the research site of Toro, LLNP mainly belong tothe important non Dipterocarp trees (Soerianegara andLemmens 1993; Lemmens et al. 1995; Sosef et al. 1998).Besides that, both Neonauclea spp and Mussaendopsiscelebica (Rubiaceae) “pawa”, were two economic treespecies with heavy and good in quality which have beenused locally for long time by the local people forconstruction, whereas Cacao, coffee and other fruit treesowned by many families at Toro as their cash income,besides collection of sap from the Arenga pinnata (“arenpalm”) is an important source of income for some families.The sap is collected in bamboo pole and a single tappedtree can produce up to 6 liters a day. The sap can be drunkdirectly but more often is boiled down to make palm sugaror fermented to produce palm wine (saguer).

Taxonomically, the investigated forests (types A-C)around Toro were mainly dominated by Palaquiumquercifolium, P. obovatum, Castanopsis acuminatissima,Lithocarpus celebicus, and Neonauclea intercontinentalis.According to Keβler et al. (2002) and Keßler (2002) thegenus Palaquium is represented by eight species inSulawesi. Palaquium obovatum is common and widespreadthroughout Sulawesi but P. quercifolium is rare in Sulawesiand was previously only recorded from the southernprovince. Both Palaquium species appear to be common inLore Lindu National Park where they form tall trees up to40 m high. Castanopsis acuminatissima is common andwidespread in Sulawesi and is one of two chestnut speciesknown from the island, the other one being Castanopsisburuana. Lithocarpus celebicus is endemic to Sulawesi andwidespread in the island, including Lore Lindu NationalPark. Neonauclea intercontinentalis, finally, seems to becommon in Sulawesi (Keβler et al. 2002) and is one ofabout 20 timber species of the large family Rubiaceae (ca.600 genera, 10.000 species) in Sulawesi. Other importanttimber species of Rubiaceae recorded in the forest nearToro include Anthocephalus macrophyllus andMussaendopsis celebica. The latter two are endemicspecies of Sulawesi and are representatives of the easternMalesian element in the island.

The number of endemic species is different among allland use types where endemic trees were best representedin the three forest types with 6-10 species per plot, anddeclined strongly in the three cacao agroforestry systemswith 0-6 species per plot. This pattern was partly a result ofthe lower overall native tree diversity in the cacaoagroforestry systems. When the percentage of endemic


species was considered, then the cacao forest gardens didnot differ significantly (0-20% endemic species) from thethree forest types (10-20%), and only the two cacaosystems with planted trees had significantly reducedpercentages of endemic trees (0-13%). Endemic species areof considerable conservation concern and represent about15% of the tree flora of Sulawesi (Keßler et al. 2002). Thisoverall value is in good accordance with the percentagesrecorded by us at the plot level, with 10-20% of the nativetree species recorded in the three forest types and the cacaoforest gardens being endemic to the island. Therepresentation of endemic species declined strongly to 0-13% in the two types of cacao plantations, however,showing that endemic species are more susceptible tosevere habitat disturbances than widespread taxa. This is inaccordance with general hypotheses on the vulnerability ofendemic plants to habitat modifications (Kruckeberg andRabinovitz 1985).

Secondary forests, regenerating after clear-felling, werenot included in the present study but were treated byPitopang et al. (2002). These forests stand out by their totallack of large trees and the abundance of thin-stemmedtrees. The high richness of trees 5 cm in secondary forestsshowed that this forest type has the potential to recover aconsiderable richness, if allowed to mature. In terms oftaxonomic composition, the abundance of Meliaceae,Lauraceae, and Moraceae appeared to be considerablyreduced in secondary forests relative to primary forests,whereas in Euphorbiaceae, Urticaceae and Ulmaceae it wasincreased. The latter families are typical fast-growingpioneer taxa of early successional stages throughout thetropics (Turner 2001; Slik 1998) that are of little economicinterest.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, we found that moderate human use of theforest ecosystems by rattan and selected timber extractiondid not result in significant decreases of tree biodiversity,but the forest structure and its composition were differamong land use type. Number of endemism of treespecies was higher in primary forest and it was stronglyreduced to cacao forest garden, although percentageendemism did not decline significantly in cacao forestgardens. Roughly one third of tree species in the forestplots were of economic importance as commercial timbertrees; timber diversity was little affected by moderatehuman use of the forest but was significantly reduced incacao forest gardens.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Fieldwork was kindly supported by Department ofNational Education Republic of Indonesia through theBPPS Scholarship was provided by Directorate General ofHigher Education and Collaborative Research Centre 552at the University of Gottingen, funded by German ResearchFoundation (DFG). R. Pitopang expresses his gratitude and

appreciation to Prof. Stephan R. Gradstein (Paris Museum,France), H. Sahabuddin Mustapa (RIP), formerly theRector of Universitas Tadulako Palu. Finally I would liketo thank an anonymous reviewer for the critical andsuggestion on this manuscript.

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Plants and animals diversity in Buqaty Mountain Area (BMA) inHamadan Province, Iran

MAHDI REYAHI-KHORAM1,♥, MAJEED JAFARY1, MOSTAFA BAYATI1, REIHANEH REYAHI-KHORAM2

1Department of Environment, Hamadan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Hamadan, Iran, P.O.BOX: 65138-734, Professor Mosivand st., Hamadan,Iran Tel: +988114494170, Fax: +988114494170, ♥ email: [email protected]

2Department of Agricultural Engineering Food Industries, Qazvin Branch, Islamic Azad University, Qazvin, Iran.

Manuscript received: 17 June 2012. Revision accepted: 6 September 2012.

ABSTRACT

Reyahi-Khoram M, Jafary M, Bayati M, Reyahi-Khoram R. 2012. Plants and animals diversity in Buqaty Mountain Area (BMA) inHamadan Province, Iran. Biodiversitas 14: 190-194. Buqaty Mountain Area (BMA) is regarded as one of the genetic reserves ofHamadan province in Iran. BMA is highly important regarding variety of plant and animal species, but limited research work has beenperformed in this area in the field of biodiversity. Identifying the unique ecologic talents and capabilities and aesthetics of BMA is themost important objective of this study. This research was conducted during 2010 through 2011 in BMA to identify various plant andanimal species through documentary and also direct field observations. With direct referring to the various regions of the studied area,plant samples were collected from different slope position and transported to field laboratory units. Sampling was made for every 20meters increase in the height of area. Animal species of the area were identified too. Based on the results, about 44 valuable plantspecies, 45 species of birds as well as 7 species of mammals have been identified in BMA. It is recommended that the area be declaredan A prohibited hunting area by Department of Environment (DoE) of Iran for the conservation of flora and fauna in the study area.

Key words: biodiversity, ecotourism, environment, habitat, pasture

INTRODUCTION

Hamadan province with a long history and record intraditional medicine was shown as one of the main centersof production and supply of herbal plants in Iran. The tombof eminent Iranian scientist and medicine, Avicenna (IbnSina), is located in the heart of Hamadan city. The provincecovering 19,493 square kilometers and is located in thewest of Iran, 320 km far from Tehran with a population of1.7 million, has varied pastures and natural resources(Reyahi-Khoram and Karami-Nour 2010). Based on theavailable information, the flora of Hamadan provinceincludes 6000 species of which 315 species related to 71families and 209 genus are valuable plant drug, of which159 species have traditional usage in the province and 156species are out of traditional and indigenous use but theyare called medicinal plants in drug resources (Kalvandi etal. 2007). Medicinal plants are widely used by theindigenous people in the treatment of various diseases(Russell-Smith 2006; Suneetha 2006; Mirutse-Giday 2009;Rihawy 2010; Tilahun-Teklehaymanot 2010; Nadembega2011). In Iran, Medicinal plants are as a basic element ofmedical system. In the other word, medicinal plants are asource for a wide variety of natural antioxidants. Theseresources are usually regarded as part of cultural traditionalknowledge (Shahidi 2004; Bouayed 2007; Koochak 2010;Mosaddegh 2012).

The acceptance of traditional medicine as an alternativeform of health care and the development of microbialresistance to the classical antibiotics led researchers toinvestigate the antimicrobial activity of several medicinalplants (Ulukanli and Akkaya 2011). Also, demand fortraditional food plants has increased significantly overrecent years, particularly so over the past decade. Manyspecies of traditional food plants have been utilized bynative people of the world. Hamadan province with a rangeof these plant species has the potential to provide avaluable source of Traditional food plants in the area.These traditional vegetables have the potential to provide avaluable source of nutrition in areas with hot or dryclimates. They could fill a valuable niche in the productionof food in rural areas where the climate is not favorable tothe production of vegetables. But, most of the exoticvegetables require large amounts of water for successfulproduction. In areas where people have to walk longdistances to collect their water, most water is used fordomestic purposes and there is very little available for useon a vegetable garden.

Buqaty Mountain Area (BMA) is regarded as one of thegenetic reserves of the province, and has a special status inthis regard. Although BMA is highly important regardingvariety of plant and animal species, but limited researchwork has been performed in this area in the field ofbiodiversity. Therefore, it is necessary to identifying andintroducing various plant and animal species and theimportance of mentioned region. Identifying the unique

REYAHI-KHORAM et al. – Biodiversity of Buqaty Mountain Area, Iran 191

ecologic talents and capabilities and aesthetics of BMA isthe most important objective of this study. Other objectivesinclude introducing plant and animal species of this area.The said research may provide a means of identifying thethreatened species and critically endangered species andalso determine the effective causes of protecting andsurvival of the said species and may contribute toimprovement of the programming and management overallstudy area.


This research was conducted during 2010 through 2011in Buqaty Mountain Area (BMA) to identify various plantand animal species through documentary, extensive fieldvisits and also direct field observations during the years ofstudy. Through the period, using the map, GlobalPositioning System (GPS) and in some cases through afootsurveying or using car, the geographical location of BMAwas identified. To evaluate the climatology status of thearea, data of meteorology organization was used. Means,the data of the nearest meteorology stations to the BMAincluding Khomigan and Nojeh Meteorology Stations wereused. The analyses are based on the 21 years of availablemeteorological records of Khomigan and Nojeh stations.For general identification of the area, digital maps andGeographic Information System (GIS) were used and onthis basis, the topological status of the area was identified

(Demers 2009). With direct referring to the various regionsof the studied area, plant samples were collected fromdifferent slope position and packaged and transported tofield laboratory unit. Sampling was made for every 20meters increase in the height of area. Rectangular samplingor quadrate sampler unit was taken with a 100 squaremeters (10m x 10m). Plant samples were collected in fullform including stem, root, leave, and fruit and also seedparts of plants. Before sampling, the ecology and biologyform of every species was recorded directly. Plants wereidentified according to the appearance of stem, flower andor leaf. Then the collected species were compared to thescientific literature available and every species wereidentified separately. Key methods for identifying variousplant species in this area including the color of flower, thesize of leaf, the time of flowering, species more or lessprickly, existence or non-existence of fuzz in the leaves orstem and right or branched vertical roots (Mozaffarian2006). Animal species of the area were identified by directobservation, using the viewpoints of native people and alsoexperts of Kabodarahang City Environment ProtectionDepartment (Mansoori 2001). Regarding that the said areais not under management of Department of Environment(DoE), Iran the native people and tourists appearedextensively in the area. This caused improper enumerationof animal species by the team members in the process ofidentification and this is one of the major constraints of thisresearch.

Figure 1. Location of the study area, A. Hamadan Province, Iran, B. Razan Township, C. Buqaty mountain area

Zarivar Wetland

Iran, Islamic Republic

Hamadan Province

RazanTownship

A

B 15 km C

Buqaty Mountain Area(BMA)



Geographical status of the areaBMA with a maximum height of 2800 meters above sea

level is located in north of Hamadan Province and in thenorthwest of Razan Township. This area has an area ofabout 12,000 hectares and is one of the most valuablepastures of Iran with diverse plant coverage. BMA is amountainous area with moderate climate and full of a widerange of herbal medicinal plant species in the area. The

highest point in the said area is located in 48°,41', 30.48" eastern longitude and 35°, 32',49.20" northern latitude. The general height ofthe area is reduced toward the south and is thenled to Kabodarahang plain (Figure 1). Based onthe data gathered from the nearest meteorologystations, the average annual precipitation in thementioned area is about 302 mm per year, theannual average of air temperature is 10.7°C, themaximum average is 18.4°C, the minimumaverage is 3.4°C, and the average annualevaporation is 1682 mm. There are severalnatural springs dispersed among the mountainsand has caused massive amount tourists choseBMA as their favorite holidays.

Diversity of plant species in the areaBased on the results and observations, about

44 valuable plant species in BMA have beenidentified. Asteraceae, Labiatae andPapilionaceae families had the highest numberof species (Figure 2). Some of these plants havepharmaceutical properties, some are used asforage crops and many of the said species havean important role in preserving water, preventflood flowing and also preventing soil erosionon slops. Plant species diversity of the studiedarea is presented in table 1. The plant species ofBMA, which concerning plant coverage, is oneof the most original and diverse areas of Iran.Every year in spring season, thousands ofpeople from local areas and other provincestravel to BMA and harvest their desiredtraditional plants species using initial tools.Many species of Lamiaceae family plant havemedical property and have been widely used intraditional medicine and the said species plantsgrow at different heights of the mentioned area.Among aromatic plants belonging toLamiaceae family, the most popular ones areSalvia aethiopis, Satureja laxiflora andSatureja macrantha.

Diversity of animal species in the areaRegarding the ecological characteristics of

the area and also according to pasturemanagement which is applied relatively often,BMA is highly talented for growth andmultiplication of various animal species

including mammals and numerous birds. Based on theresults, 45 bird species and 7 mammal species in BMAhave been identified. Accipitridae and Turdidae familieshad the highest number of bird species (Figure 3). Animalspecies diversity of the studied area as birds and mammalsis presented in Table 2 and 3. Also, unplanned presence ofsome tourists produced insecurity in many parts of WildlifeHabitats in the study area. On the other side, all of thesehave caused migration of Wildlife from their naturalhabitats to other areas.

Table 1. List of plant species in BMA

UsesFamilySpecies

Medical plantAsteraceae (Compositae)Achillea tenuifoliaMedical plantMalvaceaeAlcea ficifoliaMedical plantBoraginaceaeAlkanna bracteosaFood plantLiliaceaeAllium haemanthoidesPasture plantPapilionaceaeAstragalus michauxiiPasture plantPapilionaceaeAstragalus onobrychisPasture plantPapilionaceaeAstragalus senilisFood plantUmbelliferaeChaerophyllum aureumFood plantAsteraceae (Compositae)Chamaemelum nobileFood plantAsteraceae (Compositae)Cirsium osseticumMedical plantAsteraceae (Compositae)Erigeron acerMedical plantAsteraceae (Compositae)Francoeuria undulataOrnamental plantGeraniaceaeGeranium collinumMedical plantAsteraceae (Compositae)Gundelia tournefortiiPasture plantGramineaeHordeum bulbosumMedical plantPapaveraceaeHypecoum pendulumMedical plantAsteraceae (Compositae)Inula oculus-christiiPastore plantAmaryllidaceaeIxiolirion tataricumPastore plantGramineaeLeucopoa sclerophyllaPastore plantChenopodiaceaeLondesia erianthaMedical plantAsteraceae (Compositae)Matricaria recutitaPasture plantLiliaceaeMuscari neglectumPastore plantGramineaePhalaris paradoxaMedical plantLabiataePhlomis pungensFood PlantLabiataePhlomis rigidaMedical plantAspleniaceaePhyllitis scolopendriumMedical plantPlantaginaceaePlantago mediaPasture plantUmbelliferaPrangos ferulacea*Medical plantPolygonaceaeRheum ribes*Pasture plantLabiataeSalvia aethiopisMedical plantLabiataeSatureja laxifloraMedical plantLabiataeSatureja macranthaFood PlantAsteraceae (Compositae)Scorzonera cinereaOrnamental plantAsteraceae (Compositae)Senecio cinerariaMedical plantCaryophyllaceaeSilene conoideaMedical plantCruciferaeSisymbrium irioPasture plantCruciferaeSisymbrium loeselii*Medical plantLabiataeStachys lavandulifoliaOrnamental plantAsteraceae (Compositae)Taraxacum syriacumMedical plantPapilionaceaeTrifolium repensPasture plantUmbelliferaeTrigonosciadium

brachytaenium*Pasture plantGramineaeTrisetum flavescensPasture plantPapilionaceaeVicia hyrcanicaPasture plantPapilionaceaeVicia pseudocassubica

Note: * = endemic plant of Iran

REYAHI-KHORAM et al. – Biodiversity of Buqaty Mountain Area, Iran 193

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Astera

ceae

(Com

posit

ae)

Amaryll

idace

ae

Asplen

iacea

e

Borag

inace

ae

Caryo

phyll

acea

e

Cheno

podia

ceae

Crucif

erae

Geran

iacea

e

Labia

tae

Liliac

eae

Malvac

eae

Papav

erac

eae

Papilio

nace

ae

Plantag

inace

ae

Polygo

nace

ae

Umbellif

erae

Families

Sp

ecie

s N

um

ber

Figure 2. Number of species in each family of plants in BMA

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Accipi

terida

e

Alaudid

ae

Burhini

dae

Charad

riidae

Ciconia

cicin

ia

Columbid

ae

Coracii

dae

Corvida

e

Cuculi

dae

Emberiz

idae

Falco

nidae

Hirund

inida

e

Lanii

dae

Meropid

ae

Motacil

lidae

Passe

ridae

Phasia

nidae

Picida

e

Rallida

e

Scolop

acida

e

Starnid

ae

Turdi

dae

Upupid

ae

Families

Spe

cies

Num

ber

Figure 3. Number of Species in each family of Birds in BMA

A study was done in 2006 about Distribution systemand its role about range destruction in BMA, it was foundthe way are used in BMA, is that range land exclusion(keeping livestock from entering the range land area) isapplied every year until the pasture has made sufficientgrowth (almost up to 25th June). Rangeland exclusion tolivestock is one of the best management methods for rangeand watershed management that are applied for rangerehabilitation and improvement. This method is used forincrease in vegetation cover in watershed area that leads toincrease in amount of land cover and consequently, causingstabilization of soil and reduction of soil loss rate. For thispurpose, the ranger mans, that was called gorogban, isemployed by stakeholders. In the end of exclusion period,the sub divisions of every grass pastures and every hillpastures as well as randomly classified and selected by thestakeholders. Later than, each stakeholder cut and collectsthe forage and carries them to the village. After cutting theforage material and finished the exclusion period, pasturegrazing becomes possible and free for all of the villagers tograze their animals on. It is obvious that unlimited grazingof pasture is made after forage harvest (Vejdani and Solgi2006).

Table 2. List of bird species in BMA

FamilyScientific name

AccipitridaeAccipiter nisusPhasianidaeAlectoris chukarPhasianidaeAmmoperdix griseogularisAccipitridaeAquila chrysaetosStrigidaeAthene noctuaStrigidaeBubo buboBurhinidaeBurhinus oedicnemusAccipitridaeButeo rufinusAlaudidaeCalandrella brachydactylaFringillidaeCarduelis flavirostrisCiconiidaeCiconia ciciniaAccipitridaeCircus pygargusCoraciidaeCoracias garrulusCorvidaeCorvus coroneCorvidaeCorvus frugilegusPhasianidaeCoturnix coturnixColumbidaeColumba liviaCuculidaeCuculus canorusEmberizidaeEmberiza ciaEmberizidaeEmberiza pusillaTurdidaeErithacus megarhynchosTurdidaeErithacus rubeculaFalconidaeFalco naumanniFalconidaeFalco peregrinusAlaudidaeGalerida cristataScolopacidaeGallinago gallinagoAccipitridaeGyps fulvusHirundinidaeHirundo rusticaLaniidaeLanius minorMeropidaeMerops orientalisTurdidaeMonticola saxatilisMotacillidaeMotacilla cinereaTurdidaeOenantha isabellinaStrigidaeOtus scopsPasseridaePasser domesticusPasseridaePasser hispaniolensisPicidaePicoides minorRallidaePorzana parvaHirundinidaeRiparia ripariaSturnidaeSturnus vulgarisColumbidaeStreptopelia decaoctoTurdidaeTurdus merulaScolopacidaeTringa totamusUpupidaeUpupa epopsCharadriidaeVanellus vanellus

Table 3. List of mammal species in BMA

FamilyScientific name

ErinaceidaeParaechinus hypomelasCanidaeCanis lupusCanidaeCanis aureusBovidaeCapra aegagrusLeporidaeLepus europaeusSuidaeSus scrofaCanidaeVulpes vulpes


The results of the study may be compared to two otherstudies that have attempted to estimate the plant diversityin Lashgardar and Khan_Gormaz Protected Areas inHamadan province. Both studies focused only on the plantdiversity of these protected area. The first of these studieswas accomplished by Safikhani et al. (2003) and reportedthat there are 43 families, 184 genera and 266 plant speciesin Lashgardar protected area. Based on the second study,Approximately 46 families, 180 genera and 261 plantspecies have been identified in Khan Gormaz ProtectedArea (Safikhani et al. 2006).

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Since Buqaty Mountain Area (BMA) have a substantialrole in maintaining genetic resources, preservingbiodiversity, production of medical herbs, biologicalcontrol of plant pests and preservation of soil and water, itis necessary to combine different techniques for betterexploitation of rangelands of the study area throughteaching, educating, planning, investment, research andalso evaluation of previous plans. In order to manage andcontrol the natural beauty and full use of its potential, it isrecommended that the area be declared as a prohibitedhunting area by DoE for the conservation of flora and faunaand vested in the study area. It is obvious that theprotection of BMA must be made in such a way as toguarantee the preservation and maintenance of the areas,increasing income of local people and also increasing thecapacity of nature and environment.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was supported by Islamic AzadUniversity (Hamadan Branch). The authors would like tothank department of environment of mentioned university.Also, the authors would like to thank Ahmad Yari, theexpert of Hamadan provincial directorate of environmentalprotection, for their collaboration in this study.

REFERENCES

Bouayed J, Piri K, Rammal H, Dicko A, Desor F, Younos C, Soulimani R.2007. Comparative evaluation of the antioxidant potential of someIranian medicinal plants. Food Chem 104 (1): 364-368.

Demers M. 2009. Fundamental of Geographic Information System. JohnWiley & Sons, New York.

Kalvandi R, Safikhani K, Najafi GH, Babakhanlo P. 2007. Identificationof medicinal plants of Hamedan province. Iranian J Med Aromatic Pl23 (3): 350-374.

Koochak H, Seyyednejad SM, Motamedi H. 2010. Preliminary study onthe antibacterial activity of some medicinal plants of Khuzestan(Iran). Asian Pac J Trop Med 3 (3):180-184.

Mansoori J. 2001. Field guide to the birds of Iran. Nashre Zehn Aviz,Tehran, Iran.

Mirutse Giday M, Asfaw Z, Woldu Z. 2009. Medicinal plants of theMeinit ethnic group of Ethiopia: An ethnobotanical study. JEthnopharmacol 124 (3): 513-521.

Mosaddegh M, Naghibi F, Moazzeni H, Pirani A, Esmaeili S. 2012.Ethnobotanical survey of herbal remedies traditionally used inKohghiluyeh va Boyer Ahmad province of Iran. J Ethnopharmacol141 (1): 80-95.

Mozaffarian VA. 2006. A dictionary of Iran plant names. Farhang Moaserpublisher, Tehran, Iran.

Nadembega P, Boussimb J.I, Nikiemac J.B, Polia F, Antognonia F., 2011,Medicinal plants in Baskoure, Kourittenga Province, Burkina Faso:An ethnobotanical study. J Ethnopharmacol 133 (2): 378-395.

Reyahi-Khoram M, Karami-Nour M. 2010. A Case Study onEnvironmental Evaluation and Planning for Range and ForestManagement by Means of Geographic Information System (GIS). JAgric Sci Technol 4 (6): 57-62.

Rihawy MS, Bakraji EH, Aref S, Shaban R. 2010. Elemental investigationof Syrian medicinal plants using PIXE analysis. Nuclear Instrumentsand Methods in Physics Research Section B, Beam Interactions withMaterials and Atoms 268 (17-18): 2790-2793.

Russell-Smith J, Karunaratne NS, Mahindapala R. 2006. Rapid inventoryof wild medicinal plant populations in Sri Lanka. Biol Conserv 132(1): 22-32.

Safikhani K, Rahiminejhad MR Kalvandi R. 2003. Presentation of flora,life forms, endemic species and their conservational classes inprotected region of Lashkardar (Malayer city-Hamadan province).Pajouhesh & Sazandegi 60: 72-83

Safikhani K, Rahiminejhad MR, Kalvandi R. 2006. Presentation of floraand life forms of plants in protected region of Khangormaz (Hamadanprovince). Pajouhesh & Sazandegi 70: 70-78.

Shahidi B. 2004. Evaluation of antibacterial properties of some medicinalplants used in Iran. J Ethnopharmacol 94 (2-3): 301-305.

Suneetha MS, Chandrakanth MG. 2006. Establishing a multi-stakeholdervalue index in medicinal plants—an economic study on selectedplants in Kerala and Tamilnadu States of India. Ecol Econ 60 (1): 36-48.

Tilahun-Teklehaymanot T, Giday M. 2010. Quantitative ethnobotany ofmedicinal plants used by Kara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people inlower Omo River Valley, Debub Omo Zone, Southern Nations,Nationalities and Peoples Regional State, Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol130 (1): 76-84.

Ulukanli Z, Akkaya A. 2011. Antibacterial Activities of Marrubiumcatariifolium and Phlomis pungens Var. Hirta Grown Wild in EasternAnatolia, Turkey. Intl J Agric Biol 13 (1): 105-109.

Vejdani HR, Solgi M. 2006. Distribution system and its role about rangedestruction. Proceeding of the First National Festival on Range andRangeland Management, Mashhad, Iran.

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Population dynamics of dominant demersal fishes caught in TambelanIslands waters, Riau Archipelago Province

YONVITNER1,♥, FAHMI2

1Department of Aquatic Resources Management, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Bogor Agricultural University (IPB). Jl. Agatis No.1,Darmaga, Bogor 16680, West Java, Indonesia. Tel./Fax +62 251 8623644, email: [email protected]

2Research Center for Oceanography, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (PPO-LIPI), North Jakarta 14430, Indonesia

Manuscript received: 19 October 2011. Revision accepted: 14 October 2012.

ABSTRACT

Yonvitner, Fahmi. 2012. Population dynamics of dominant demersal fishes caught in Tambelan Islands waters, Riau ArchipelagoProvince. Biodiversitas 14: 200-204. The population of demersal fishes tends to be decline in the last few decades. The decline was dueto the increased of intensive catches, fishing effort and illegal fishing practices. This study aimed to examine aspects of populationdynamics such as mortality, recruitment, opportunity capture and population estimation. The study was conducted in six locations atTambelan waters, on 4-16 November 2010. Collected data included the fish species, size and biomass catch. The analyses performedincluded mortality, recruitment, opportunity capture and population estimates (VPA). The data indicated that the Genus of Nemipterusand Lutjanus possess the highest total mortality rate that was respectively 1.62 and 2.55. The highest recruitment presentation of thepopulation which has an annual period as Pentapodus was 16%. Catch opportunities tend to be higher than actual fishing, while thealleged biomass of steady state conditions reached 12.2 tons/yr.

Key words: demersal, fish, Tambelan, Natuna Sea, Riau Archipelago

INTRODUCTION

Fishing area located in the Natuna Sea waters are verydiverse both ecosystems and fish resources. In terms ofecosystems, the Natuna Sea waters possess coastalfisheries, offshore fishing, shallow water fishing, deep seafishing and reef fishing. In terms of fisheries resources,there is an area dominated by one particular species butalso many fishing areas inhabited by various species.

Multi-species fishery may cause the existence of threekinds of interactions, i.e. biological, technical, andeconomical interactions. The biological interaction may beboth intra-and inter-species in the form of predation (prey-predator relationships, including cannibalism), and thecompetition in terms of food or space. Technicalinteractions occur because of fisheries on a stock as a targetalways cause mortality in other stocks, namely in the formof by catches.

Demersal fisheries in Tambelan waters, the Natuna Seais one of fisheries resources where fishing pressuresoccurred. Tambelan waters are relatively open to fishingpressure either by local and foreign fishermen. Usuallyfishing activities are carried out by using trawl fishing gear(bottom nets). The declining of demersal fish stocks causedby high fishing pressure has led to decrease in stocks andfish stocks in Tambelan waters. Capture diminishing size,small fish catches getting more frequently, lowerpercentage of recruitment as well as the percentage of low

yield per recruit may be the indicators of the declining ofstock levels.

Based on the above conditions, it requires a study onthe dynamics of the pattern of demersal fish stocks ofwhich includes the more frequent small fishes catch, thelower the percentage of recruitment as well as thepercentage of yield per recruit. The results of this studywere expected to be used as a basis for formulatingmanagement plans and resource utilization of demersal fishfrom the Tambelan waters. Therefore, in the long periodthe stocks are maintained and remain sustainable.


Site samplingThe study of demersal fish in Tambelan Islands waters,

Natuna Sea, Riau Archipelago Province, Indonesia, wascarried out on November 4 to 16, 2010. Fish samples werecollected using a bottom trawl nets (trawling) with a sweptarea method. The equipments were operated on theResearch Ship Baruna Jaya VIII. Fish sampling using trawlwas conducted between 11 pm to 5 am.

Location of sampling stations were set as six spots inthe south, east and north of Menggirang Island, west andnorth of Benua Island, and east of Tambelan Island. Thesampling sites are presented in Table 1.

YONVITNER & FAHMI – Demersal fishes of Tambelan Islands waters, Riau Archipelago 201

Table 1. Position and description of each location of the trawl operation in Tambelan waters, November 2010.

ST1 ST2 ST3 ST4 ST5 ST6

Location South ofMenggirang BesarIs.

East of MenggirangBesar Is.

North ofMenggirang BesarIs.

West of BenuaIs.

North of BenuaIs.

East of TambelanIs.

Time (WIB) 3.45-4.45 4.30-5.30 4.15-5.15 4.50-5.50 22.05-23.05 4.34-5.58Setting N 01o 02,257' N 00 o 53,163’ N 00 o 54,255’' N 00 o 54,804’ N 01 o 00.599' N 00 o 59,765'

E 107 o 26,390' E 107 o 35,160’ E 107 o 31,478' E 107 o 25,258 E 107 o 26,253' E 107 o 37,788'Hauling N 00 o 59,805' N 00 o 55,850' N 00 o 56,434' N 00 o 58,669' N 01 o 03,779 N 01 o 02,789'

E 107 o 29,062' E 107 o 38,208' E 107 o 34,385' E 107 o 22,242' E 107 o 27,818' E 107 o 35,134'Velocity (kt) 3.5 3.2 3.2 3.3 2.8 2.8Depth (m) 33-34 44-45 32-34 37-39 37-42 37-63

ProceduresThe measurement of fishes caught were included the

length (mm) and weight (grams). Measurements wereperformed on the Baruna Jaya ship using a ruler (precision0.005 cm) and OHAUS scales (accuracy 0.0005 g). Thecollected data were subsequently analyzed with the sizestructure using statistical approach (average and deviationanalysis), analysis of mortality, the percentage of recruited(Pauly 2004), the opportunity of the captured size, and thelevel of population change (yield per recruit) (Pauly 1999;FAO 2005).

Data analysisAnalysis of natural mortality (M) according to Pauly

(2004) derived from empirical data that is ln (M) =-0.0152-0279 ln (L ∞) + 0.6543ln (K) + 0463 ln (T), where L ∞(infinity length), K (growth rate coefficient and T (averagetemperature of the waters). While the mortality due tofishing was evaluated using model approach from the linearrelationship between the numbers of fish in length of-i withthe time needed to grow as follows:

ln(Ni/Dti) = a + b · ti

Where, Ni: is the number of fish in length class i, Dti: isthe time required for fish to grow in length to the class, ti:is the age (or the relative age, calculated) in accordancewith the value of mean of class-i, and where b (negativesign) is as an estimate value of Z (mortality).

Analysis of recruitment percentage was conductedusing length frequency data analysis approach used on theapproach of regression analysis of the relationship ofGausian distribution model (with a normal distributioncurve approaches is maximum (Moreau and Cuende 1991).Fisheries analysis includes descriptive analysis ofproduction data and the size of the capture, while analysisof fishing opportunities using the approach curve toapproach the selection of data length and weight in theinterpolation of the catch curve and compare with theactual number of catches caught by fishermen. Lengthparameters with the estimation success rate (%) i.e. (L25,L50, L75), which was evaluated from (i) using a logisticcurve, which assumes that the selection will besymmetrical or nearly between the actual catch by logisticcurve interpolation; (ii) using a moving average of each

class and the interpolation of the parameters of selection.The function of the logistic curve (Pauly 1999; FAO 2005) i.e.

ln((1/PL)-1) = S1-S2 · L ...........................................(1)

Where, PL is catch opportunity of length data of fishcatch (L).

L25 = (ln(3)-S1)/S2 ……………………….………...(2)L50 = S1/S2 …………………………………………(3)L75 = (ln(3)+S1)/S2 …………………………………(4)Function of average is:PL,i(new) = (PL,i-1+PL,i(old)+PL,i+1)/3, …………………(5)

Population analysis to reconstruct the population(estimated population) which describes the maximumnumber to obtain the calculated amount of catch,population, fishing mortality and biomass amount whichavailable in a state of equilibrium (steady state). Steadystate conditions may include the circumstances that havenot been under pressure of arrest or arrests have been underpressure, but the population is spread more uniformly. Themodel used was based on the model curve analysisapproach to measure the length of the curve with the linearmodel. VPA analysis begins with the evaluation ofestimated population

Nt = Ct · (M + Ft)/Ft

Where, Ct catch point (i.e. the number of catches takenfrom the largest length class). Then the value of Nt isdetermined from the movement of the curve F (fishing) tosolve the equation

Ci = Ni+Nt · (Fi/Zi) · (exp(Zi·Nti)-1)

Where,Nti = (ti+1-ti), andti = to-(1/K) · ln(1-(Li/L))and whereas length of population (Ni) calculated fromNi = Ni+Nt. exp(Zi)

Last two equations are used as an alternative topopulation size and mortality due to fishing for all groupsof predetermined length. ELEFAN analysis assisted withanalysis tools in the program I Fisat 1.2.2 series. In the


analysis of fish size structure, all fish samples were used.While frequency distribution analysis, age group and thegrowth were measured from the dominant fish caught.


MortalityMortality describes fish mortality rates either due to

fish catch, or natural deaths. Natural death is a process oflife cycle of many populations which are influenced by theenvironmental factors. While deaths due to fishing is adeath caused by fishing activities and use of destructivefishing gear. The results of analysis of dominant fishmortality rates are presented in Table 2.

The results showed that the highest total mortality ratein the group Lutjanus lutjanus, then Nemipterus sp andSaurida grandisquamis. Pentapodus group has a lowmortality rate. From these results it can be concluded thatthe Tambelan waters was very supportive to life and thedevelopment of Pentapodus setosus, Selaroides leptolepisand Upeneus asymmetricus. Mortality of siganid fishesfrom the Luwu waters (M = 1.27, F = 1.08), Tambelan fishmortality was nearly the same of Nemipterus group (Jalil etal. 2003).

RecruitmentRecruitment is the addition of new individual either due

to the birth process and the process of growth andmigration. In one population, recruitment is usually seen asa stage of the entry of individuals from youth to adultindividuals who are ready to be captured. Indicatorsrecruitment is usually the size of the population began toget caught by fishing gear used. Knowledge of the highfishing mortality these species endure may affect a fisheryregulator’s choice of management measures (Morgan andBurgess 2009).

From the length frequency analysis, then the levelrecruitment of each type of fish can be known. The resultsof the analysis of recruitment approaches was usingGausian distribution model as follows. Levels ofrecruitment from Saurida grandisquamis were happenedtwo times within a year of entering fourth months to ninemonths. Percentage recruited in April reached 21.17% andin September reached 8.49%. But the percentages of thesecond month was not as high as in April as shown inFigure 1. Percentage recruit of Lutjanus lutjanus at thehighest recruited in June reached 19.73%. In general, thelevel of recruit more evenly each month throughout theyear with different percentages as in Figure 1.

Table 2. Total maturity (z), natural maturity (m) and fishing maturity (f) of demersal fishes

Species M* F Z** Note

Nemipterus sp. 1.05 0.57 1.62 Mortality of dominant catch in size > 135 mmSaurida grandisquamis 0.35 1.31 1.66 Mortality of dominant catch in size > 200 mmUpeneus asymmetricus 0.31 0.8 1.11 Mortality of dominant catch in size > 110 mmPentapodus setosus 0.35 0.29 0.64 Mortality of dominant catch in size > 196 mmSelaroides leptolepis 0.64 0.33 0.97 Mortality of dominant catch in size > 106 mmLutjanus lutjanus 0.54 2.01 2.55 Mortality of dominant catch in size > 109 mmNote: *: Empirical equation of Pauly; **: Empirical equation of Jones van Zelinge

A B C

D E F

Figure 1. Recruitment percentage. A. Saurida grandisquamis, B. Lutjanus lutjanus, C. Nemipterus sp., D. Pentapodus setosus, E.Selaroides leptolepis, F. Upeneus asymmetricus

YONVITNER & FAHMI – Demersal fishes of Tambelan Islands waters, Riau Archipelago 203

Recruitment of Nemipterus sp. occurredevenly with a peak in September (20.81%).However, increased recruit began in May toa peak in September. At this time manyyoung fishes started to grow into adulthoodand begin to be captured. The percentage ofNemipterus sp. recruits as shown in Figure1C. This pattern was similar to the type offish Pentapodus setosus that the percentageof the highest recruited in June reached16%. In March, the percentage of recruitedbegan to show improvement and almostevenly each month as shown in Figure 1D.

Groups of Selaroides leptolepis possesshigh levels of recruitment two times a year.Dominant first recruited in February reached6.32%, the highest peak in August was17.72% (Figure 1E). Recruitment percentageof Upeneus asymmetricus was evenly in themonth since April and the peak was inAugust 15.22%. The pattern of Upeneusasymmetricus was recruited during theentire year with a period of more uniform asshown in Figure 1F.

Captured opportunityCatching opportunity is the percentage

of fish capture using trawl gear. Fishes which showed achance of being caught in a larger size were Pentapodussetosus, Nemipterus sp. and Upeneus asymmetricus.Opportunity of the size capture of the dominant fish ispresented in Table 3. From the results revealed that fishwhich potentially have depleted due to fishing wereLutjanus lutjanus, Selaroides leptolepis and Sauridagrandisquamis. The shorter of fish catch size indicated thelower fish size in the waters. It is an indicator of the decline

of stocks in the waters. Opportunity of catching size alsoindicates the affectivity of fish capture. Reduction ofabundance of the bigger fishes (Serra and Canales 2007)and with this, the decrease of the relative biomass reflectedin the CPUE. Information from this study is an indirectindicator for the creation of capture efficiency (Canales etal. 2005). According to FAO (1999) red snapper as a groupof bentho-pelagic can reach 80 cm in size, but the averagecatch was in the size of 50 cm.

A B C

D E F

Figure 2. The pattern of distribution of survival rates, natural mortality, catch and catch rates of: A. Nemipterus sp., B. Lutjanuslutjanus, C. Pentapodus setosus, D. Saurida grandisquamis, E. Selaroides leptolepis, and F. Upeneus asymmetricus.

Table 3. Estimated size of catched fish in Tambelan

Estimated size (mm)SpeciesL25 L50 L75

Distribution ofcatched size

Lutjanus lutjanus 152.32 218.19 284.06 54,76-180Nemipterus sp. 378.16 536.88 695.61 65-210Pentapodus setosus 607.76 822.09 1036.41 115-285Saurida grandisquamis 265.65 342.35 419.05 110-315Selaroides leptolepis 206.75 259.21 311.67 80-177,89Upeneus asymmetricus 331.75 447.94 564.12 70-185

Table 4. VPA analyses of dominated caught fish

Population Ratio (%)Species C (ind) N (ind) F (ind) SSB (ton) C/F C/N

Saurida grandisquamis 48.0 391.7 41.6 0.4 86.767 12.2549Nemipterus sp. 53.0 1802.9 10.7 0.3 20.253 2.9398Upeneus asymmetricus 401.0 17720.0 5.1 3.7 1.261 2.2630Pentapodus setosus 127.0 6005.5 2.8 12.2 2.190 2.1147Selaroides leptolepis 78.8 4037.8 3.2 1.3 4.073 1.9509Lutjanus lutjanus 147.1 5105.1 11.8 1.5 8.028 2.8824Note: C = number of actual catches (ind); N = Estimated fish abundance(ind/area); F = Estimated catch (assuming that L, K, M according to theestimation); SSB = Steady State Biomass (tons); C/F = Ratio of actual number ofcatches against the estimated catch; C/N = Ratio of actual catches against theestimated total population


Virtual population analysisVirtual population analysis principally is the estimation

of population in an area of waters that includes informationabout the amount of population growth (survival) and death(mortality). The results of the evaluation of estimatedpopulation catch rate and catch rate of each size ofdominant fish are presented in Figure 2 and Table 4.

From the results revealed that the fish with highsurvival rate due to the condition of aquatic ecosystems inTambelan regarding to fish catches was Pentapodussetosus. Saurida grandisquamis, Lutjanus lutjanus andNemipterus sp. tended to be susceptible to fishing pressure.All three types of these fishes can quickly run into stock inthe waters. Demersal groups of fish such as Cynoglossussp. was difficult to escape from the capture process (Veigaet al. 2009). The low estimated total abundance andstanding stock of biomass in the waters was also possible tocause the rapid decline of fish stocks populations in thewaters. According to Ridho et al (2004) biomass density ofdemersal fish in the Natuna Sea was from 2.35 ton/km2

decreased to 1.3 ton/km2.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATION

The natural mortality rate of Pentapodus setosus due tofishing activities was relatively lower compared to otherfishes. Fish with solely high recruit percentage indicatesthat the fish possess spawning periods annually, while thenumber with more evenly distributed peaks are moreresistant to fish catches. Opportunity catch of larger fishesthan actual size of the fishing waters indicated that thestanding stock was decreasing. Types of fish which weresusceptible to fishing pressure are Saurida grandisquamis,Lutjanus lutjanus and Nemipterus sp.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors thank to the Directorate General of HigherEducation and Research Center for Oceanography,Indonesian Institute of Sciences (PPO-LIPI). The help ofthe entire crew of Baruna Jaya VIII was also kindlyacknowledged.

REFERENCES

Canales C, Caballero L, Aranís A. 2005. Catch per unit effort of ChileanJack Mackerel (Trachurus murphyi) of the purse seine fishery offsouth-central Chile (32º10’-40º10’ S) 1981-2005. Instituto deFomento Pesquero (IFOP), Valparaiso, Chile.

FAO. 1999. Morphometric of fish species-sub ordo Percoidea. FAO,Rome.

FAO. 2005. Fisat user guide. FAO, Rome.Jalil, Malawa A, Ali SA. 2003. Population biology of Baronang Lingkis

fish (S. canaliculatus) in waters of Bua sub-district, Luwu district. JSains & Teknologi 3 (1): 8-14. [Indonesia]

Moreau J, Cuende FX. 1991. On improving the resolution of therecruitment patterns of fishes. ICLARM Fishbyte 9 (1): 45-46.

Morgan AC, Burgess GH. 2009. Fishery-dependent sampling: Total catch,effort and catch composition. Florida Museum of Natural History,University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 USA.

Pauly D. 1999. Longhurst areas: ecological geography of the sea byA. Longhurst. Trends Ecol Evol 14 (3): 118.

Pauly D. 2004. Much rowing for fish. Nature 432: 813-814.Ridho MR, Kaswadji RF, Jaya I, Nurhakim S. 2004. Distribution of

demersal fish resources in the South China Sea waters. Jurnal Ilmu-Ilmu Perairan dan Perikanan Indonesia 2: 123-128. [Indonesia]

Serra JR, Canales C, Caballero L. 2007. Evaluación y captura totalpermisible de Jurel (Trachurus murphyi) Sub Regional, 2008.Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (IFOP), Valparaiso, Chile.

Veiga P, Machado D, Almeida C, Bentes L, Monteiro P, Oliveira F,Ruano M, Erzini K, Gonçalves JMS. 2009. Weight-lengthrelationships for 54 species of the Arade estuary, southern Portugal. JAppl Ichthyol 25: 493-496.


The population of Jernang rattan (Daemonorops draco) in JebakVillage, Batanghari District, Jambi Province, Indonesia

IIK SRI SULASMI1,2,♥, NISYAWATI2, , YOHANES PURWANTO3, SITI FATIMAH4

1 State High School number 1 of Jambi. Jl. Urip Sumoharjo No 15, Telanai Pura, Jambi 36122. Indonesia. Tel. +62-741-63147, Fax. +62-741-61108,email: [email protected]

2Conservation Biology Post Graduate School, Faculty of Mathematic and Natural Sciences, University of Indonesia, Depok 16436, West Java, Indonesia.3 Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong Bogor 16911, West Java, Indonesia.

4 State High School number 2 of Surakarta. Surakarta 57134, Central Java, Indonesia.

Manuscript received: 12 September 2012. Revision accepted: 18 October 2012.

ABSTRACT

Sulasmi IS, Nisyawati, Purwanto Y, Fatimah S. 2012. The population of Jernang rattan (Daemonorops draco) in Jebak Village,Batanghari District, Jambi Province, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 13: 205-213. Research of Rattan Jernang (Daemonorops draco Willd.)population in Jebak Village, Batanghari District, Jambi had never been done before. Daemonorops draco is a plant that produces sapcalled dragon blood. Dragon blood is very useful for the the lives of people of Anak Dalam Tribe in Jambi. This research used purposiverandom sampling method. All of data were analyzed descriptively. The results showed that beside D. draco, there were other six speciesof rattan in Jebak forest. The population of D. draco in Jebak forest was only 8 clumps, consisting of 82 individuals. D. draco had thesmallest population among all rattan species. Calamus javensis had the highest population, namely 11 clumps, consisting of 197individuals. The research location had air temperature of 20.20C-28.90C, relative humidity of 58%-68%, and pH of 4.60-4.81. In thislocation, there were 35 tree species (73 individuals) as supporting trees for D. draco to climb. The number of D. draco’s supportingtrees and D. draco was not balanced, causing the death of D. draco in Jebak forest. Vegetation analyses showed that there were 51 treespecies with diameter > 10 cm, consisting of 69 individuals. Pithecolobium saman had the highest importance value index (11) amongall trees. There were also 33 tree species with diameter < 10 cm, consisting of 60 individuals. Pithecolobium saman also had the highestimportance value index (20) in this group. Based on the interview, it is showed that the population of D. draco in Jebak forest declinedbecause of illegal logging and forest encroachment.

Key words: Daemonorops draco, supporting trees, dragon blood, forest encroachment, illegal logging.

INTRODUCTION

The word Daemonorops is derived from Greek, daemoand rhops; daemo means devil, and rhops means shrub(Mogea 1991). In Indonesia, the genus Daemonoropsconsist of many species, namely 84 species (Beccari 1911),113 species (Dransfield and Manokaran 1994), 115 species(Rustiami et al. 2004). According to Rustiami et al. (2004),of the 115 species of Daemonorops found in Indonesia, 12species produce sap, namely D. acehensis, D.brachystachys, D. didymophylla, D. draco, D. dracuncula,D. dransfieldii. D. maculata, D. micracantha, D. rubra, D.sekundurensis, D. siberutensis, and D. uschdraweitiana. InJambi, 10 species of Daemonorops are found, namely, D.brachystachys, D. didymophylla (Beccari 1911), D.dracuncula, D. dransfieldii, D. longipes (Dransfield 1984),D. palembanicus, D. singalamus, D. trichrous, D. draco(Dransfield 1992), and D. mattanensis (Soemarna 2009).According to Heyne (1987), only five species of rattanproduce high quality of sap, namely D. didymophylla, D.draco, D. draconcellus, D. motleyi, and D. micracantha. Ofthe five species, D. draco produces the best jernang sap,which has many uses, such as coloring agent (Beccari1911), ingredient of cosmetics (Dali and Soemarna 1985),

and medicines for diarrhea (Winarni et al. 2004), forwound (Harata et al. 2005), and ingredient of tooth paste(Purwanto et al. 2009). Not only producing jernang sap,Daemonorops periacanthus, found only in Japan, alsoproduces edible sweet fruit (Beccari 1911).

Indonesia is the largest jernang sap exporter in theworld. The demand of Indonesian jernang sap from Chinais 400 ton-500 ton per year (Januminro 2000; Soemarna2009), but Indonesia can export only 27 ton per year, worthUS$ 10,125,000 (Soemarna 2009). In addition to Sipintunand Lumbun Sigatal Villages, Jebak Village in MuaraTembesi Sub-District, Batanghari District, Jambi Province,also produces jernang sap as much as 300 kg per month(Jambi Forestry Office 2009).

Jebak Village has 15,830 ha of natural forest, but theforest is not utilized optimally because much of it has beendamaged due to illegal logging and forest encroachmentdone by transmigrants coming mostly from Java and SouthSumatra (Soemarna 2009; BKSDA Jambi 2010).

Forest degradation at an extent of 6,332 ha has causedthe decline of population of supporting tree species onwhich the jernang rattan climb (BKSDA Jambi 2010),which in turn has caused the decline of jernang rattanpopulation. As a result, the production of jernang sap has


declined (Soemarna 2009). The degree of negative impactof illegal logging and forest encroachment on thepopulation of jernang rattan population had not beendocumented. The objective of this study was to estimate thepopulation of jernang rattan (Daemonorops draco Willd.)in Jebak Village. The results of this study can be used tocomplete the data of rattan population in BatanghariDistrict, Jambi Province, Indonesia and as the basis for thedevelopment of this species in Jebak Village.


Study siteThe field work was done from January to February

2011 in forest area belonging to Anak Dalam Tribe (SukuAnak Dalam) in Jebak Village, Muara Tembesi Sub-District, Batanghari District, Jambi Province. The locationwas selected based on the information that the Jebak forestis a habitat of jernang rattan (Daemonorops draco).

Sampling methodSampling of data in the field was done using purposive

random sampling method (Fachrul 2007; Simon 2007).Sampling plots were made only in the sites where D. dracowas found. Within 25 hectares of research area, five 100mx 100m plots were made. Each plot was divided into 100small plots measuring 10m x 10m each. Within 100 smallplots, the number of jernang rattan and all species of rattanwere counted and categorized according to their growthstages following Dransfield (1984), INTAG (1989), Kalima(1991) and Siswanto (1991): (i) Seedling: length of stem <3 m, (ii) Juvenile: length of stem: 3-5 m, (iii) Semi mature:length of stem: 5-15 m, (iv), Mature: length of stem > 15 m.

Within 10m x 10m plots, the number of trees on whichjernang rattan climbs was also counted. For vegetationanalyses, two sizes of plots were made in one of the 100mx 100m plot, namely 10m x 10m plots and 20m x 20mplots, with a total area of 0.2 ha (20m x 100m). Trees witha diameter > 10 cm were counted in 20m x 20m plots,while trees with a diameter < 10cm were counted in 10m x10m plots. The data of trees were used as supporting data.The names of species and number of individual trees wererecorded to determine the frequency and density of eachspecies. Identification of trees was not done because thelocal and scientific names of trees had been given.

Data analysesImportance value index was counted for each species

using formula cited in Rugayah et al. (2004) and Simon(2007). From the importance value, dominance index wasdetermined using the formula cited in Simon (2007),namely:

ID= Σ _ni/N_2ID= dominance index for each tree species,ni= importance value of each tree species,N= total importance value indexes.Criteria for Simpson dominance indexes were 0 < C <

0.5 = low dominance; 0.5 < C < 0.75 = mediumdominance; 0.75 < C < 1 = high dominance


Population of jernang rattan and othersAccording to Rustiami (2004), Daemonorops draco

Willd. is also known as Calamus draco Willd. andDaemonorops propinqua Becc. The species has many localnames in Indonesia, namely rotan jernang (Malay),limbayung (West Sumatra), huar (Dayak-Busang),seronang (Dayak-Penihing), uhan (Dayak-Kayan), getihbadak (Sundanese), getih warak (Javanese). The jernangrattan is distributed in two islands, namely Sumatra (Jambi,Bengkulu, Riau Archipelago Provinces), and Kalimantan.The species grows in clumps in valleys and is commonlyfound in flood plain near rivers.

In Jambi, there were 10 species of Daemonorops,namely D. brachystachys, D. didymophylla (Beccari 1911),D. dracuncula, D. dransfieldii, D. longipes (Dransfield1984), D. palembanicus, D. singalamus, D. trichrous, D.draco (Dransfield 1992), and D. mattanensis (Soemarna2009). Currently only three species can be found in Jambi,namely D. didymophylla, D. draco, and D. mattanensis.The three species can be found in the Districts ofBatanghari, Sarolangun, Tebo, and Tanjung Jabung(Soemarna 2009). Based on the information from thejernang sap seekers in Jebak Village, Malay people inJambi know two jernang sap producing rattans, namelyrotan jernang (D. draco) and rotan kelukup (Daemonoropsdidymophylla), while the people of Anak Dalam Tribe inJebak Village call the two species rotan jernang (D. draco)and rotan mengkarung/kelemunting (D. didymophylla). Thejernang rattan has longer panicles and high density offlower, darker fruit and more abundant, higher quality andmore expensive sap than the kelemunting. The people ofAnak Dalam Tribe in Jebak Village can easily distinguishjernang rattan from other rattans from the stems, leaves,fruits, and spines. Jernang rattan has diameter between 1cmto 3 cm, reddish green leaves, shinny black fruit, the skinbeing scaly when extracted. It has stem internodes between15cm to 40 cm long, and the whole stem is covered byblack spines which do not shed until old age. The numberof stems in a clump is between 5 to 20 individuals, with theheight between 8m to 15m.

According to jernang sap seekers, the cane of D. dracocan be used to make household equipments. But the qualityof cane is not good, so the people of Anak Dalam Tribeonly infrequently use it. Figure 1. shows the differencesbetween jernang rattan and batang rattan, young leaves offemale jernang rattan, jernang rattan fruit. Jernang rattancan be easily distinguished from other rattan from its stem,leaves, and fruit. Jernang has many spines, light green orreddish green leaves and black fruit.

According to Rustiami (2004) and Winarni et al.(2004), the characteristics distinguishing D. draco fromother Daemonorops are the followings: Its height is 8m-15m, the length of internodes 20 cm; the breadth of sheath30mm; the length of leaf 3m, the length of cirrus 100 cm,petiole10 cm; diameter of stem 10mm-30mm. The leaveshave sheath circling the stem. The fruit skin is scaly likesalacca’s fruit. The spines are arranged in a structure calledthe knee (Figure 1).

SULASMI et al. – Daemonorops draco of Jebak village, Jambi 207

Figure 1.A. Stem of jernang rattan, B. Stem of batang rattan (Calamus), C. Seedlings, D. Young leaves of female jernang rattan, E.Jernang rattan fruit.

The differences between female and male jernang rattancan be seen from the bracts, young leaves, flower,internodes, and number of individuals in a clump (Table 1).

Daemonorops draco is a dioecious plant. Femaleflowers and male flowers are produced in different rattanclumps. D. draco starts producing fruit at the age of twoyears, but it starts producing jernang sap when it is 5 yearsold (Winarni et al. 2004). A clump of D. draco generallyconsists of 5-20 individuals (BKSDA Jambi 2010).

Based on the report from the Forestry Office of JambiProvince in 2009, the population of jernang rattan in Jambiis relatively small, as shown in detail in Table 2. Table 2shows that the smallest population in nature is found inBatanghari District, which is 40 clumps, because since1990, illegal logging and forest encroachment in JebakVillage, Batanghari District has been the largest among alldistricts (BKSDA Jambi 2010). Therefore, in 2008 twopeople from Anak Dalam Tribe started planting 40 clumpsof rattan under the guidance of Forestry Office ofBatanghari District (Jambi Forest Office 2009). However,only 25 clumps survive, because the other 15 clumps wereconsumed by pigs. According to jernang rattan farmers,since November 2011, the planted jernang rattans haveproduced sap as much as 30 kg.

The results of our study showed that the population ofjernang rattan in Anak Dalam Tribe forest area in JebakVillage has declined. Our study only found 8 clumps ofjernang rattan consisting of 82 individuals (stems). Table 2shows that the population in nature has declined from 40clumps/ha in 2009 to 8 clumps in 25 ha in 2011. Thedecline of rattan population is caused by illegal logging andforest encroachment done by transmigrants and otheroutside communities. According to Anak Dalam Tribe, thedamage due to illegal logging and forest encroachment in2011 was 60% from the total of 15.830 ha of forestbelonging to the tribe. Transporting timber in the forest isdone using skid road made of timber. Many jernang rattansdie because there are not enough supporting trees to climb.

Table 1. The differences between female jernang rattan and malejernang rattan

Distinguishing factors

Female jernang rattan Male jernang rattan

Youngleaves’color

Reddish green Green

Internodes 15 cm-20 cm 35 cm-40 cm

Bracts Large Small

Number ofindividualsin a clump

5-20 individuals 3-5 individuals

2.5 cm

♀♂

2.5 cm

3.5 cm

UniversitasIndonesia

A

BC D E

49 cm

20 cm

20 cm

54 cm 49 cm54 cm

20 cm

20 cm


Table 2. The population of naturally growing jernang rattan and planted jernang rattan in Jambi Province based on the Forestry Ofiicereport and on research data in 2011.

DistrictPopulationin nature

per hectarePlantation Research

data

Batanghari 40 clumps In 2008, plantation was started in jebak Village, consisting of 40 clumps. 8 clumpsSarolangun 53 clumps In 2006, plantation was started in Sipintun and Lumban Sigatal villages, consisting

of 500 clumps. Rattans were planted in rubber plantation at the extent of 10 ha.8 clumps

Tebo 71 clumps Plantation has not been done. 8 clumpsTanjung Jabung 69 clumps Plantation has not been done. 8 clumps

Figure 2. Pictures of forest encroachment in Jebak Village: A= encroachment; B= skid road to facilitate timber transportation, C=jernang rattan died because there was no supporting tree, D= forest fire; E-G = conversion of forest into oil palm plantation; F. indicatesan area inside Anak Dalam Tribe forest being encroached.

After the death of jernang rattan, people burn the forestto clear the land for oil palm plantation, 2-3 months later(Figure 2). The information was in agreement with the datafrom BKSDA Jambi (2010) stating that the forest damagein 2009 was 40% of 15.830 hectare, resulting in the declineof trees on which the jernang rattan climb. The damage offorest can be seen from the conversion of forest into oilpalm plantation.

Since 1990, the encroachment of forest has grown outof control because of lack of supervision from thegovernment and because of unclearness of the boundary

between the forest area and the villages around the area.The encroachment is done not only by transmigrants, butalso by several oil palm plantation companies in thesurrounding areas. (The companies are PT. Asiatic Persadain the west, PT. Tunjuk Langit Sejahtera and BatanghariSawit Persada in the north, and PT. Nan Riang in the eastof the forest area).

According to the people of Anak Dalam Tribe, before1990, they could easily get the sap because the populationdensity of jernang rattan was still high. Within less than 6hours, they could collect jernang rattan fruit as much as 60

CB

A CB

D FE


kg-180 kg per family. That amount was collected from 3-6clumps of jernang rattan. After 1990, they could collectjernang fruit only 3 kg-20 kg per day, taken from 1 clumpof jernang rattan. In 2010, the population of jernang rattanin Jebak Village was 15-30 clumps, but in 2011, only 8clumps left, consisting of 82 individuals. The compositionof growth stages of the 83 individuals are given in Figure 3.Figure 3 shows that the number of seedlings was muchhigher than the mature individuals, so the production ofjernang sap was low. But, the abundant seedlings alsoensure the sustainability of jernang rattan in the future ifillegal logging and forest encroachment is stopped, so thenumber of supporting trees on which rattan climb is sufficient.

Figure 3. The number of jernang rattan individuals at differentgrowth stages in Jebak Village in 2011.

The complete data of the number of individuals ofjernang rattan is given in Table 3. In plot 1, a clump ofyoung female rattan (5 individuals) was found. One clumpdied in plot 4 because there was no supporting tree toclimb. In plot 11, a clump of female rattan was found (5seedlings and 5 semi mature individuals). Two clumps diedin plots 13 and 16. In plot 21 a clump of semi mature malejernang rattan was found (3 individual), and clump died inplot 24.In plot 31 a clump of female jernang rattan wasfound (3 individuals of seedling, 3 individuals of juvenile,and 7 individuals of semi mature rattan). In plot 35 a clumpof semi mature male jernang rattan was found (5 indivi-duals), and a clump died in plot 38. In plot 41 a clump offemale rattan was found (5 individuals of seedlings, 3individuals of juvenile, 2 individuals of semi mature, and10 individual of mature rattan). In plot 43 a clump of femalejernang rattan was found (10 individuals of seedlings, 4individuals of semi mature and 7 individuals of maturerattan). In plot 45 a clump of rattan died. In plot 47 a clumpof female jernang rattan was found (5 individuals ofseedlings, and 4 individuals of mature rattan). In plot 50 aclump of rattan died. Table 3 shows that jernang rattanpopulation was distributed widely in each plot.

Overall, there were 2 clumps of male jernang rattan (8individuals), 6 clumps of female jernang rattan (74individuals) (Figure 4), and 7 clumps of jernang rattandied. Because the number of female and male rattans wasnot equal and their locations were separated widely, naturalreproduction of jernang rattan did not occur easily. Toovercome this constraint, artificial pollination has beenconducted.

Table 3. Number of individuals of jernang rattan in Jebak Village

Jernang rattan population (ind.)Plotnos Seedlings Juvenile Semi

mature Mature

1234†5678910

5---------

----------

----------

----------

111213†141516†17181920

5---------

----------

5---------

----------

21♂222324†252627282930

----------

----------

3---------

----------

3132333435♂363738†3940

3---------

3---------

7---5-----

----------

4142434445†4647484950†

5-

10---5---

3---------

2-

4 (†)-------

10-7---4---

Total 33 6 22 21

Figure 4. Comparison of number of female and male individualsof jernang rattan in 2011

See

dlin

g

Juve

nile

Sem

i mat

ure

Mat

ure

No. of individuals

No. of individuals

Male rattan Female rattan


The comparison of population between jernang rattanand other rattans in Jebak Village is presented in Table 4.The detailed information of rattan population in JebakVillage is given in Table 5.

Table 4. Population of rattan in Jebak Village.

Local names Scientific names clumps

Ind

Rotan lilin Calamus javensis Bl. 11 197Rotan semambu Calamus scipionum Lour. 9 178Sego air Calamus axillaris Becc. 9 103Rotan getah Daemonorops melanochaetes Bl. 10 102Rotan dahan Calamus flagellaris Burr. 8 95Rotan manau Calamus manan Miq. 8 93Rotan jernang Daemonorops draco Willd. 8 82

Table 5. Population of rattan in Jebak Village in 2011

Number of individuals

Rot

an j

erna

ng

Sego

air

Rot

an d

ahan

Rot

an g

etah

Rot

an m

anau

Rot

an li

lin

Rot

an s

emam

bu

Seedlings 33 21 20 23 14 24 24Juvenile 6 20 30 24 18 41 39Semi mature 22 35 16 23 35 63 44Mature 21 27 29 32 26 69 71Total 82 103 95 102 93 197 178

It can be seen in Table 4 that jernang rattan had thesmallest number of individuals. This may be due to illegallogging and forest encroachment which result in the shrinkof jernang rattan habitat. Meanwhile, the populations ofrotan lilin (Calamus javensis) and rotan semambu(Calamus scipionum) were relatively large because,according to the community, these two species have loweconomic value. The canes from these species have lowquality because they are easily broken. Of the 7 speciesabove, beside jernang rattan, rotan manau (Calamusmanan) also has high economic value. The cane of rotanmanau has the highest quality among all the species and itis flexible, so it can be easily made into desirable forms(Soemarna 2009).

Habitat of jernang rattan in Jebak VillageThe results showed that in 2011 the forest in Jebak

Village had been damaged by illegal logging andencroachment, so the vegetation was sparse. The relativelyopen vegetation caused the relatively wide range of airtemperature, 20.20C-28.90C, and low relative humidity,58%-68% (Table 6).

The sparse vegetation results in low transpiration, so thewater vapor is little, and consequently the humidity is low.Bernatzky (1978) said that water vapor in the air fromevapotranspiration affects air humidity. Table 7 shows thatin 2005-2009 the range of air temperature was not wide andthe relative humidity was high, 80%-87%. Thesephenomena indicated that the vegetation in that period wasdense, so the water vapor from transpiration was large;

therefore, the humidity was high.

Table 6. Air temperature, relative humidity, soil pH in JebakVillage, during research period in 2011.

Parameters measured

Day/date Plot no. Temp.(0C)

Relativehumidity

(%)

SoilpH

Monday/3-1-2011 1 23.1 65 4.71Wed./5-1-2011 2 24.2 64 4.71Thurs./6-1-2011 5 25.1 63 4.70Wed./12-1-2011 6 25.1 63 4.71Thurs./13-1-2011 10 26.0 60 4.74Sat/15-1-2011 11 25.9 60 4.75Tuesday/18-1-2011 15 26.8 59 4.70Thurs./20-1-2011 20 27.0 59 4.61Monday/24-1-2011 21 27.0 59 4.61Tuesday/25-1-2011 25 27.5 59 4.64Thurs/27-1-2011 30 28.6 58 4.61Wed./2-2-2011 31 28.6 58 4.60Sat./5-2-2011 33 28.5 58 4.62Tuesday/8-2-2011 35 28.9 58 4.62Wed/9-2-2011 37 28.9 58 4.62Thurs/10-2-2011 40 23.0 66 4.68Sat./12-2-2011 41 22.9 66 4.68Monday/14-2-2011 43 22.9 66 4.77Thurs./17-2-2011 47 20.2 68 4.81Monday/21-2-2011 50 21 68 4.81

The soil in Jebak village is acidic (pH 4,60-4,81) andbelongs to yellow red podzolic soil type (Soemarna 2009).The village has an altitude of 20 m above sea level withannual rainfall of 1500-2296 mm (BPS 2010).

Table 7. The average temperature, relative humidity and rainfallin Jebak Village in 2005-2009 (BPS 2006-2010)

MonthAir

temperature(oC)

Relative humidity(%)

Rainfall(mm)

January 25.9 86 126February 25.4 87 243March 25.9 85 207April 26.4 84 167May 27.5 80 137June 27.3 81 129July 26.9 83 70August 26.8 82 123September 27.4 81 139October 26.9 83 157November 26.6 84 245December 26.5 85 254

Jernang rattan is an endemic species of Sumatra(Soemarna 2009). In Jebak Village jernang rattan is foundmostly in dry flood plain. According to Soemarna (2009),jernang rattan grows in acidic yellow red podzolic soil,with pH of 4-6, in lowland, with annual rainfall of 1000-2300 mm, air temperature of 24-32oC, and relativehumidity of 60-85%. Plantation of jernang rattan willproduce the best result if it is done in its natural habitat.The forest area in Jebak village is suitable for thedevelopment of jernang rattan.

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Figure 5. Forest encroachment results in the death of jernang rattan because there is no supporting tree.

Species diversity of jernang rattan supporting treesJernang rattan is a liana. Its life depends on the

supporting tree on which it climbs. If the population ofsupporting trees declines due to forestdegradation, the population jernang rattanwill decline too (Figure 5.).

In Jebak Village, jernang rattan isusually found climbing 7 species of trees,namely keranji, berangan, duku, durian,meranti bunga, kayu tahi, and sekentut.These 7 species were frequently found insampling plots. However, their populationhas declined due to forest degradation. Thecomparison of the number of individuals ofjernang rattan and the supporting trees ispresented in Table 8. Study on jernangrattan supporting trees had not beenconducted.

It can be seen from Table 8 that all treespecies can become jernang rattansupporting trees. According to Mogea(2002), Jasni et al. (2007) and Soemarna(2009), all tree species in forest can becomesupporting trees for jernang rattan to climb.However, since the number of supportingtrees is not balanced with the number ofjernang rattan individuals (82), thepossibility of jernang rattan to die is highbecause of the lack of supporting trees.Table 8 also shows that some tree specieswere clustered in one location, while otherspecies were distributed in several locations.The results of this study showed that togrow optimally, each individual jernangrattan needed 4 supporting trees. This resultis in agreement with the statement ofSoemarna (2009) that each jernang rattanneeds 4 supporting trees. If there is nosupporting tree or the number of supportingtrees is small, then jernang rattan will notsurvive.

Diversity of tree speciesThe trees found in the study area were divided into two

groups, those with stem diameter > 10 cm (Table 9) and

Table 8. Jernang rattan supporting trees in jebak Village.

Local names Scientific names No. of ind. Plot nos

Keranji Dialium platysepalum Backer 4 1, 11, 31, 47Berangan Quercus elmeri Merr. 4 21, 31, 41Kelat Eugenia sp. Verdc. 4 11, 41Medang api Adinandra dumosa Jack 4 21, 41Duku Lansium domesticum Corr. 3 31, 41, 47Durian Durio zibethinus Murr. 3 11, 31, 43Meranti bunga Shorea teysmanniana Bl. 3 31,41,43Kayu tahi Celtis wightii Planch. 3 1, 31, 47Sekentut Saprosma arboreum Blume 3 21, 31,43Berangan babi Castanopsis inermis Lindl 3 31, 43Siluk Gironniera subaequalis Planch. 3 31, 41Tempinis Sloetia elongata Kds. 2 21,43Kempas Koompassia malaccensis Maing. 2 31, 35Kayu arang Diospyros pilosanthera Blanco 2 35, 41Jelutung Dyera costulata Miq 2 11, 43Kepayang Pangium edule Reinw. 2 21, 35Trembesi Pithecolobium saman Jacq. 2 1, 47Kedondong Spondias cytherea Forst 2 35, 47Jengkol Pithecellobium lobatum Benth 2 31, 35Petai Parkia speciosa Hassk 2 31, 47Ambacang Mangifera foetida Lour. 2 1Medang Litsea sp. Lam. 2 35Cempedak Artocarpus champeden Lour. 2 47Simpur rawang Dillenia indica L. 1 47Medang serai Cinnamomum parthenoxylon Jack 1 11Rambutan Nephelium lappaceum L. 1 1Mahang Macaranga hypoleuca Rechb. 1 1Brumbung Adina minutiflora Val. 1 31Kabau Archidendron bulbalium Jack 1 21Tempunek Artocarpus rigida Blume 1 11Kayu batu Rhodamnia sp. 1 35Kelat jambu Eugenia densiflora Blume 1 31Kayu terap Artocarpus elastic Willd. 1 35Tampui Baccaurea crassifolia J. J. Sm. 1 35Merpayang Scaphium macropodum 1 47Rotan jernang Daemonorops draco Willd. (82 ind.)

Total 73


those with diameter < 10 cm (Table 10). Alltree species had been identified by ForestryOffice of Batanghari District, so treeidentification was not done in this study.

Table 9 shows that the species of treesfound abundantly in the study site were,among others, trembesi. pinang, andsungkai. The abundance of those treespecies indicates that those species havehigh adaptation capability, so they grow fastin Jebak forest area. Ecologically, thosespecies have positive role for jernang rattanpopulation because those trees can becomesupporting trees for jernang rattan.

It can be seen from Table 10 that treespecies with stem diameter < 10 cm whichhad the highest importance value index (20)was trembesi. (rain tree) That species wasfound in highest number of individualsamong all trees in the ecosystem. Keranjiand sekentut had the same IVI, which was10. The relatively large differences in IVIare caused by forest degradation which leadto the decline of plant population, which inturn affects dominance value in ecosystem.According to Irawan (2002, 2003), the lowIVI of several species in Jebak forest wasdue to the low population caused by illegallogging. While Peluso (1992) stated that thedecline of population of a species is due toover exploitation of that species.

In general, the dominance of trembesi(rain tree) among all tree species populationwas categorized as low. The dominanceindexes of trembesi for tree with diameter >10 cm, and < 10 cm were low, namely0.00123 and < 10cm were 0.00018,respectively. This is in accordance with thecriteria of Simpson Dominance Index,namely 0 < C < 0.5 = low dominance; 0.5 <C < 0.75 = medium dominance; 0.75 < C <1.00 = high dominance.

CONCLUSION ANDRECOMENDATION

The population of jernang rattan in Jebakforest in 2011 was 8 clumps, consisting of82 individuals. The life or jernang rattandepends highly on the supporting trees onwhich jernang rattan climbs. All trees canbecome supporting trees for jernang rattan.There were 35 species of supporting trees,consisting of 73 individuals in Jebak forest. The treespecies in Jebak Village on which jernang rattan usuallyclimbed were berangan (Quercus elmeri), duku (Lansiumdomesticum), durian (Durio zibethinus), kelat (Eugeniasp.), kempas (Koompassia malaccensis), keranji (Dialiumplatysepalum), mahang (Macaranga hypoleuca), and

rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum). The population ofjernang rattan (D. draco) was only 82 individuals, smallerthan other rattan such as rotan lilin (Calamus javanensis)197 individuals, rotan semambu (C. scipionum) 178individuals, sego air als (C. axillaris) 103 individual, rotangetah (D. melanochaetes) 102 individuals, rotan dahan (C.

25

Table 9. Importance value index (IVI), number of individuals (n), density (n/ ha),and dominance index (DI) of trees with stem diameter > 10 cm

Local names Scientific names IVI n n/ha DI

Trembesi Pithecolobium saman Jacq. 11 2 10 0.00123Keranji Dialium platysepalum Backer 9 2 10 0.0009Punak Tetramerista glabra Miq. 8.8 2 10 0.00086Jelutung Dyera costulata Miq. 8.8 2 10 0.00086Mahang Macaranga hypoleuca Rechb. 8.5 2 10 0.00081Manggis Garcinia mangostana L. 8.4 2 10 0.00079Kayu batu Rhodamnia sp. 8.1 2 10 0.00072Balam Palaquium sp. R. Br. 7.9 2 10 0.00069Kayu arang Diospyros pilosanthera Blanco 7.6 2 10 0.00065Gaharu Aquilaria malaccensis Oken 7.5 2 10 0.00062Kelat jambu Eugenia densiflora Blume 7.5 2 10 0.00062Kayu terap Artocarpus elastic Willd. 7.4 2 10 0.0006Medang Litsea sp. Lam. 7.3 2 10 0.00059Medang kuning Pimelodendron sp. Hassk. 7.3 2 10 0.00059Mahang gajah Macaranga gigantean Reichb. 7.1 2 10 0.00056Merpayang Scaphium macropodum (Miq.)

Beumee ex Heine7 2 10 0.00055

Pasak bumi Eurycoma longifolia Jack 6.5 2 10 0.00047Duku Lansium domesticum Corr. 6.2 1 5 0.00043Cempedak Artocarpus champeden Lour. 6.1 1 5 0.00041Durian Durio zibethinus Murr. 6 1 5 0.00039Sungkai Peronema canescens Jack 5.7 2 10 0.00037Kedondong Spondias cyntherea Forst 5.6 1 5 0.00034Kabau Archidendron bubalinum Jack 5.6 1 5 0.00034Kempas Koompassia malaccensis Maing. 5.3 1 5 0.00031Siluk Gironniera subaequalis Planch. 5.2 1 5 0.0003Medang serai Cinnamomum parthenoxylon Jack 5.2 1 5 0.0003Kayu tahi Celtis wightii Planch. 5.1 1 5 0.00029Berangan Quercus elmeri Merr. 5.1 1 5 0.00029Simpur rawang Dillenia indica L. 5.1 1 5 0.00029Jengkol Pithecellobium lobatum Benth 5 1 5 0.00028Petaling Ochanostachys amentacea Mast. 4.9 1 5 0.00026Medang api Adinandra dumosa Jack 4.9 1 5 0.00026Kepayang Pangium edule Reinw. 4.9 1 5 0.00026Meranti bunga Shorea teysmanniana Bl. 4.8 1 5 0.00025Medang kelor Litsea teysmanni Miq. 4.8 1 5 0.00025Sekentut Saprosma arboreum Blume 4.7 1 5 0.00024Merawan Hopea mengarawan Miq. 4.7 1 5 0.00024Ambacang Mangifera foetida Lour. 4.7 1 5 0.00024Keruing Dipterocarpus hasseltii Blume 4.6 1 5 0.00023Kelat Eugenia sp. Verdc. 4.6 1 5 0.00023Kemang Mangifera kemanga Blume 4.6 1 5 0.00023Mangga Mangifera indica L. 4.6 1 5 0.00023Tempinis Sloetia elongate Kds. 4.5 1 5 0.00022Berangan babi Castanopsis inermis Lindl. 4.5 1 5 0.00022Bulian Eusideroxylon zwageri T. et B. 4.5 1 5 0.00022Tempunek Artocarpus rigida Blume 4.1 1 5 0.00019Karet Hevea brasiliensis Muell. Arg. 4.1 1 5 0.00018Brumbung Adina minutiflora Val. 4.1 1 5 0.00018Petai Parkia speciosa Hassk. 3.9 1 5 0.00017Rambutan Nephelium lappaceum L. 3.8 1 5 0.00016Tampui Baccaurea crassifolia J. J. Sm. 3.8 1 5 0.00016Total 300 69 345


flagellaris) 95 individuals, and rotan manau (C.manan) 93 individuals.

To protect the forest from the increasing forestencroachment, serious efforts from the governmentare needed, such as increasing forest rangers thatare brave and firm in enforcing the law to theencroachers. Further research is needed to estimatethe population of jernang rattan in other district,because the population in Batanghari District iscritical.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Yana Soemarna, ErwinNurdin, Wisnu Wardana, Dr. Kuswata Kartawinata,Mega Atria, Dr. Himmah Rustiami, Titi Kalima,Totok Waluyo, Dr. Bambang Irawan, who spenttime with us for discussion. The financial supportand permission to conduct reseacrh by thegovernment of Jambi are greatly appreciated.

REFERENCES

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Aksara, Jakarta. [Indonesia]Harata K, Mogea JP, Rahayu M. 2005. Diversity conservation and local

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INTAG. 1989. Pedoman inventarisasi rotan. Direktorat InventarisasiHutan Departemen Kehutanan. Jakarta. [Indonesia]

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Jambi Forest Office. 2009. Annual Report. Jambi Forest Office, Jambi.[Indonesia]

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Kalima T. 1991. Some species of Daemonorops; jernang producer and itsproblems. Sylva Tropika 6 (1): 15-18. [Indonesia]

Mogea JP. 1991. Utilization and conservation of Indonesian palms. In:Johnson DVJ (ed) Palms for Human Needs in Asia. A.A. Balkema,Rotterdam.

Mogea JP. 2002. Rattan in Gunung Halimun National Park and theprospects for cultivation in the village Cisungsang, Lebak, Banten.Prosiding Biodiversitas Taman Nasional Halimun 6 (1): 33-55.[Indonesia]

Peluso NL. 1992. The ironwood problems management and developmentof an extractive rainforest product. Conserv Biol 6 (2): 210-219.

Purwanto Y, Polosakan R, Susiarti S, Waluyo EB. 2009. Extraction ofjernang sap (Daemonorops spp.) and the possible extension. In:Purwanto Y, Walujo EB, Wahyudi A. (eds.). 2009. Valuasi hasilhutan bukan kayu setelah pembalakan (Kawasan konservasi PTWirakarya Sakti Jambi). LIPI, Bogor: 183-198. [Indonesia]

Rugayah, Widjaya EA, Praptiwi. 2004. Guidelines for collecting data onthe diversity of flora. Pusat Penelitian Biologi-LIPI, Bogor.[Indonesia]

Rustiami H, Setyowati FM, Kartawinata K. 2004. Taxonomy and uses ofDaemonorops draco (Willd.). J Trop Ethnobiol 1 (2): 65-75.

Rustiami H. 2004. A new species of Daemonorops section Piptospatha(Arecaceae) from Siberut island, West Sumatra. Kew bulletin. 57 (3):729-733.

Simon H. 2007. Methods on forest inventory. Pustaka Pelajar,Yogyakarta. [Indonesia]

Siswanto BE. 1991. Methods of forest inventory in forest group of SungaiAya Hulu, KPH Hulu Sungai, South Kalimantan. Buletin PenelitianHutan 538: 13-22. [Indonesia]

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Table 10. Importance value index (IVI), number of individuals (n),density (n/ ha), and dominance index (DI) of trees with stem diameter <10 cm.

Local names Scientific names IVI n n/ha DI

Trembesi Pithecolobium saman Jacq. 20 4 20 0.00018Pinang Areca catechu L. 20 4 20 0.00018Sungkai Peronema canescens Jack 16 3 15 0.00010Balam Palaquium sp. R. Br. 16 3 15 0.00010Mahang Macaranga hypoleuca Rechb. 15 3 15 0.00010Berangan babi Castanopsis inermis Lindl. 15 3 15 0.00010Medang Litsea sp. Lam. 12 3 15 0.00010Brumbung Adina minutiflora Val. 11 2 10 0.00004Keranji Dialium platysepalum Backer 10 2 10 0.00004Sekentut Saprosma arboreum Blume 10 2 10 0.00004Medang kuning Pimelodendron sp. Hassk. 10 2 10 0.00004Medang serai Cinnamomum parthenoxylon Jack 10 2 10 0.00004Tempinis Sloetia elongate Kds. 10 2 10 0.00004Kayu terap Artocarpus elastic Willd. 10 2 10 0.00004Rambutan Nephelium lappaceum L. 10 2 10 0.00004Kayu arang Diospyros pilosanthera Blanco 9.9 2 10 0.00004Punak Tetramerista glabra Miq. 8.9 2 10 0.00004Simpur rawang Dillenia indica L. 8.2 2 10 0.00004Kayu tahi Celtis wightii Planch. 5.3 1 5 0.00001Petaling Ochanostachys amentacea Mast. 5.3 1 5 0.00001Kelat Eugenia sp. Verdc. 5.3 1 5 0.00001Kemang Mangifera kemanga Blume 5.3 1 5 0.00001Karet Hevea brasiliensis Muell.Arg. 5.3 1 5 0.00001Kelat jambu Eugenia densiflora Blume 5.3 1 5 0.00001Kabau Archidendron bulbalium Jack 5.3 1 5 0.00001Tempunek Artocarpus rigida Blume 5.3 1 5 0.00001Tampui Baccaurea crassifolia J. J. Sm. 5.3 1 5 0.00001Cempedak Artocarpus champeden Lour. 5.3 1 5 0.00001Kacang-kacang Strombosia javanica Blume 5 1 5 0.00001Bulian Eusideroxylon zwageri T. et B. 5 1 5 0.00001Merpayang Scaphium macropodum (Miq.)

Beumee ex Heine5 1 5 0.00001

Medang kelor Litsea teysmanni Miq. 4.7 1 5 0.00001Mangga Mangifera indica L. 4.7 1 5 0.00001Total 300 60 300


Review:Sugarcane production: Impact of climate change and its mitigation

ASHOK K. SRIVASTAVA1, MAHENDRA K. RAI2,♥1 Department of Geology, Sant Gadge Baba Amravati University, Amravati 444602, Maharashtra, India. Tel: +91-721-2662207/8, Extension-302. Fax:

+91 721 2660949, 2662135.email: [email protected] Department of Biotechnology, Sant Gadge Baba Amravati University, Amravati 444602, Maharashtra, India. Tel: +91-721-2662207/8, Extension-267.

Fax: +91 721 2660949, 2662135. ♥email: [email protected]

Manuscript received: 11 August 2012. Revision accepted: 17 October 2012.

ABSTRACT

Srivastava AK, Rai MK. 2012. Review: Sugarcane production: impact of climate change and its mitigation 13: 214-227. Sugarcane is aclimatic sensitive crop: therefore, its spatial distribution on the globe is restricted as per the suitability of various climatic parameters.The climate change, though, a very slow phenomenon is now accelerated due to natural, as well as enormous human activities disturbingthe composition of atmosphere. The predications of various climatic models for probable rise in temperature, rainfall, sea level show analarming condition in forthcoming decades. As the sugarcane is very sensitive to temperature, rainfall, solar radiations etc. therefore, asignificant effect on its production and sugar yield is expected in future. It is also well known that sugarcane is one of the precious cropsof the world and its end products i.e. sugar and ethanol have a continuous growing demand on global level. Hence, the studies related togood production of sugarcane in changing conditions of climate has become one among the front line area of research and is a majorconcern of scientist’s world over. Advance agronomic measures including development of suitable cane varieties susceptible to changedclimatic conditions, land preparation, time and pattern of plantation, weed, disease and pest managements, nutrients managements,proper timing and adequate water management seems to be the affective measures for obtaining high production of crop with goodquality juice in future.

Key words: sugarcane, climate change, agronomy, soil

INTRODUCTION

Sugarcane, a taxa represented by stout, jointed, fibrousstalk of 2-6 m with sugar is a tall perennial grass of thegenus Saccharum of family Poaceae (Clark et al. 1995). Itis native to warm temperate to tropical regions of SouthAsia and Southeast Asia having humid climate. This C4plant has a high efficiency to store solar energy as well asefficient converter of the same. Broadly, four growthphases of the plant can be identified, i.e. germinationphase, tillering phase, main growth phase and, maturity andripening phase. The first phase covers a period of plantingup to the completion of germination of buds which dependsupon field condition and lasts for 4-5 weeks. The optimumtemperature for sprouting is around 20-30°C. The secondphase is of about 120 days i.e. tillering which is a tenderand highly sensitive to the local climate, soil climate, waterand nutrient supply as it forms a base for good production.Temperature and solar radiations play a major role in thisphase. Temperature around 30°C is optimum whereas:sufficient light is required for good growth. Tillering is alsoinfluenced by water availability, spacing manuring, weedcontrol etc. The phase of main growth is a period of actualcane formation and elongation which may take 270-300days. Better growth of the cane requires warm and humidconditions which facilitates leaf production and theirgrowth. Similar temperature condition as of the second

phase with around 80% humidity is the best suitedcondition. The last phase of maturity and ripening prevailsfor a period of about 90 days. In this phase, rapidaccumulation of sugar as well as conversion of simplesugar to cane sugar takes place. A dry weather with goodsunshine, warm days accelerate the process.

The crop is grown in more than 120 countries, ofwhich, Brazil (420,121,000 MT), India (232,320,000 MT),China (88,730,000 MT), Thailand (49,572,000 MT),Pakistan (47,244,100 MT), Mexico (45,126,500 MT),Columbia (39,849,240 MT), Australia (38,246,100 MT),Philippines (31,000,100 MT) and USA (25,803,960 MT)are the top ten countries in production (FAO 2005). Areawise, Brazil is the highest, i.e. 5.63 million ha, whereas,India’s contribution is 4.0 million ha (FAOSTAT 2005). Inproduction, Brazil still remains on the top with 33% ofglobal sugar production followed India (23%), China (7%)and Pakistan (4%) (FNP 2009). Worldwide sugarcaneoccupies an area of 20.42 million ha with a total productionof 1328 million metric tons (FAOSTAT 2005).

In India, sugarcane occupy about 4.0 million hectarearea and is produced in most of the states having thehighest area of 47.05% in Uttar Pradesh followed byMaharashtra (17.52%), Karnataka (7.76%), Tamil Nadu(7.47), Gujarat (4.57%) and Andhra Pradesh (3.76%)contributing about 88% of the total area. The rest of the12% area is shared by Bihar, Uttarakhand, Haryana,

SRIVASTAVA & RAI – Impact of climate change on sugarcane production 215

Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Punjab etc. However, theyield of sugarcane per hectare is highest in Tamil Nadu,followed by West Bengal, Karnataka and Maharashtra(ICRISAT 2009). The average cane yield in India is about70.0 tonnes per hectare while the sugar recovery is around10.0 percent (IISR 2011).

Though, the cultivation of sugarcane is geographicallyrestricted so as to climate, but its end products e.g, sugarand ethanol have a global increasing demand, therefore, itis very essential to look the cultivation, production andyield in this changing scenario of the climate. Sugarcane isvery sensitive to the climate but also highly adoptive.Basically, it is a rain-fed crop and depends heavily on theamount and duration of precipitation, humidity, moisturecontent, temperature and soil condition (Gawander 2007).These factors are to some extent interrelated and thechange in one normally affects the others. In recent years,both natural phenomena, i.e. variations in the earth's orbitalcharacteristics, atmospheric carbon dioxide variations,volcanic eruptions and variations in solar output (Masih2010): and, human activities, particularly, the rapidindustrialization which resulted in increased emission ofCO2, global warming, green house effect etc. (Segalstad1996) have influenced the global climatic set-up.Therefore, it is a matter of concern on priority to study theeffect of climatic change on various aspects of sugarcane.

CLIMATE AND SOIL FOR SUGARCANE

Climate requirementClimate plays an important role in all the phases of the

plant. Since, the plant stands in the field for 12-24 months,hence, goes through all possible limits of weatherparameters i.e. rainfall, temperature, sunshine, humidityetc. All these parameters have a role in plant growth, sugaryield, quality and content of juice etc. For good growth ofplant and high production, specific weather conditions withsuitable parameter are required.

The crop is grown in the world from latitude 36.7° N to31.0° S however, inhabits well in tropical region. In India,two distinct regions can be categorized for sugarcanecultivation, i.e. tropical and sub-tropical. The northern sub-tropical region experiences extreme summer temperaturesas well as severe cold in winter, whereas, the tropicalregion south of Vindhyans, the temperature, like previous,shoots up to 47°C in comparatively prolonged summerseason, however, winter is short and temperature iscomparatively congenial. The cultivation is done right fromPunjab and Haryana in the north to Tamil Nadu in thedown south. It has wider adaptability and grows well wheretemperature ranges between 20-40°C. It responds well tolong period of sunlight (12 to 14 hours), high humidity(above 70%) and high rainfall even up to 1500 mm. Ifassured irrigation water is available, it can also be grown inareas where rainfall is low up to 500 mm. As sugarcanecrop remains in the field for more than 12 months, itwithstands temperature variations of winter (6-8°C) andsummer (40-42°C). The climatic factors required for thegood growth of the plant is a matter of active research on

global level which is basically necessitated to have a goodcrop in different regions having local variations in climaticset-up. Optimum climates required for cane developmentare as follows (Binbol et al. 2006, Gawander 2007):

Rainfall: Rainfall is an important factor for goodgrowth of sugarcane. The plant requires optimum rainsduring the vegetative growth as it encourages rapid canegrowth, cane elongation and internodes formation. Duringripening period, the rainfall should be less in order to havegood quality juice, less vegetative growth as well asreduction in the tissue moisture. Due to high rainfall, theseconditions may be adverse. An average of 1200 mm evenlydistributed rainfall in the range of 1100-1500 mm isoptimum for higher yield. However, good productions arealso being taken in the regions having a minimum of600mm and a maximum of 3000mm rainfalls, whichdepends on adoptive measures, selection of varieties,farming methods (ICAR 2000).

Temperature: Temperature is equally important similarto the rainfall as it is closely related to the growth andproductivity of the plant. Its optimum range varies fordifferent phase of the plant which has a severe affect ongood growth of plant and recovery of sugar. An optimumtemperature for sprouting (germination) of stem cuttings is32-38°C as it slows down below 25°C, reaches plateaubetween 30-34°C, and reduced above 35°C, whereas,practically stops when the temperature is above 38°C.Temperatures above 38°C reduce the rate of photosynthesisand increase respiration. During ripening period, a lowtemperature in the range of 12-14°C reduces vegetativegrowth rate and enrichment of sucrose in the cane (Fageriaet al. 2010).

However, there is a control of cane variety, frequencyand irrigation and other field practices on growth andproduction of cane as well as the yield of sugar. Aminimum mean temperature of 20°C congenial duringactive growth phase. Temperatures both below 5°C andabove 35°C are not suitable as previous may be harmful foryoung leaves and buds. In the later case of hightemperature, rolling may occur irrespective of watersupply. Further rise in temperature may enhance red rotdisease. The durations of high and low temperature phasesinfluence highly on sucrose accumulation. The adverseaffect of high temperature is marked by reversion ofsucrose into fructose and glucose. Enhancedphotorespiration may reduce accumulation of sugar (Binbolet al. 2006; Gawander 2007):

Sunlight: Increase in leaf area index is rapid during 3rdto 5th month, coinciding the formative phase of the cropand attained its peak values during early grand growthphase. Light in terms of both duration and intensity is anecessary requirement of this C4 plant, which has a highcapacity of photosynthesis as well as stabilization range. Ingeneral, high radiation favors high production of cane andgood yield of sugar. On average 7-9 hours of bright sunlight is optimum. In cloudy and short day’s period, tilleringmay be adversely affected. Growth of stalk is also goodduring bright light with long duration (ICAR 2000; Fageriaet al. 2010). The upper six leaves of the sugarcane cropcanopy intercept 70% of the radiation which reduce the


photosynthetic rate of the lower leaves due to mutualshading. Therefore, a care is to be taken for proper spacingduring plantation. The areas with short growing periodbenefit from closer spacing to intercept higher amount ofsolar radiation and thus get higher yields however, withlong growing season, wider spacing is suggested to avoidmutual shading and mortality of shoots (Legendre 1975).

The entire mechanism of sugarcane growth andformation of sugar depends on photosynthesis, for whichsunlight is required. Like others, the growth of plant resultfrom conservation of radiant energy from the sun intoplants fibers and sugar. During the process, the firstproduct of photosynthesis i.e. four carbon sugar (C4) isfixed in the specialized cells of conductive tissue i.e. stemof the plant. The amount of carbon gain per day fromphotosynthesis is dependent on latitude and clouds covers.The previous, determines the intensities of radiation onhorizontal surface and the later amount of radiation thatreaches the surface. This plant thrives best under high solarinsolation and temperature associates with lower latitudes(da Silva et al. 2008).

Relative humidity and wind have comparatively lesscontrol over plant, however, affect to a large extent in caseof extremes. Up to 80-85% humidity and warm weatherconditions favor the rapid growth of the cane. In ripeningphase, a moderate humidity with limited water supply isfavorable (SC 2012). Similarly, wind has no harm to plantuntil it reaches to a velocity capable of breakage of cane ordamage to leaves. The high velocity may be harmful ininitial stage of plant growth. The long duration highvelocity wind will result to loss of moisture.

Broadly, two different sets of climatic parameters arerequired in the life cycle of the plant. Long duration ofbright sunshine warm season with optimum rainfall highhumidity in growing phase favors rapid growth of plant aswell as cane length with good yield. The ripening seasonwhich is a phase of sugar storage needs clear sky withoutprecipitation, warm days and dry weather conditions.

Soil requirementSoils, forming the base of any of the crop, affect the

productivity as per its inherent and dynamic proportions. Itprovides essential nutrients and water: and, holds the cropstanding for months together. Broadly, it consists of thinlayers, of which, the topmost is made up of soil panticksincluding animal and plant decay material. Numerous typesof soils are reported world over, which depends uponphysical, chemical and biological properties of the same.Since, soil is basically a weathered product: therefore, thehost rock plays an important role in the composition of thesoil. This specific composition makes the soil specific orsuitable for a particular crop, for example, the alluvial soilof Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and other adjoining areaare highly fertile and rich in potassium making it highlysuitable for sugarcane, rice, wheat etc. whereas, the blacksoil from Maharashtra and parts of Madhya Pradesh,Andhra Pradesh, a weathered product of basalt rich in iron,lime, calcium, magnesium provides good crops of cotton,sugarcane, groundnut, rice, wheat etc. The red soil is ironrich and more sandy due to high content of silica andferromagnesium minerals in host crystalline rocks. It is

good for groundnut, tobacco, potato, rice and sugarcane inthe area of southern Karnataka, eastern Rajasthan,northeastern states, Maharashtra etc. However, all thesesoils are good for the sugarcane however, the cane varietymatters. Certain other soil types i.e. lateritic soils, salineand alkaline soil, mountain soil, desert soil etc. are notsuitable up to the required extent

A generalized idea about the soil conditions for thesugarcane is being summarized on the basis of informationavailable on SC (2012). Sugarcane can be produced in allthe types of soils, however, well drained loamy soil with aph of 6.5-7.5 and adequate nutrients is considered to be theideal. There should not be compaction in soil, as well as, itshould be loose and friable with a minimum depth of 45cm, excluded with harmful soil. The plant can be wellgrown on higher soil, as well as, on heavy clays providedone has to opt for proper irrigation management.

A continuous monitoring of physical, chemical andbiological conditions of the soil is required to ensure goodcane growth, high yield and better quality of sugar. Thebulk density and porosity of soil along with othersignificant physical parameters affects the root growth. Abulk density of 1.4mg/m3 and porosity around 50%occupied by both air and water in equal proportions arehighly favorable. Higher density hampers the proper spreadand growth of roots. The plant has a capacity for deep rootsup to 5m, hence, soil thickness along with its qualitymatters as deep soil have appreciable dry tolerance (Huang2000).

The pH conditions other than the normal (pH 6.5-7.5)of soil may lead to alkaline or acidic nature. However,sugarcane can tolerate the pH range from 5.0-8.5 butrequires lime or gypsum applications in more extremeconditions. Proper management of soil is required in caseof saline soil i.e. dissolution, removal of salts by drainingof water trough channels, organic manuring, mechanicaltreatments etc. There are certain plant varieties which cantolerate salinity up to certain limits, may be opted. Thelight textured soils bear poor water holding capacity whichcan be upgraded by addition of organic matter. Black soilsusually have high water holding capacity but permeabilityis very less i.e. ill drained, hence, bad poor drainage(European Commission 2012).

Sugarcane is a management responsive crop: therefore,soil-plant relationship is to be monitored during all thephases of the plant. The condition of plant, as well as thesoil, takes so many turns in entire period as the cropremains in the field for more than one year facing all theextremes of rainfall, temperature, sunlight, humidity etc.Therefore, it is recommended to maintain the congenial soilclimate for good growth of plant by its proper managementin various extreme conditions i.e. irrigations in dry period,maintaining drainage of excess water, pest control, weedcontrol etc.

EFFECT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON SUGARCANE

It general, agricultural production activities of all thesectors are the most sensitive and vulnerable to climate


change (IPCC 1990, 2005). IPCC (2007) clearly reportsthat the climate change is real and the process is going on.Its impact will be disproportionately on developingcountries threatening to undermine the achievement of theMillennium Development Goals, reduction of poverty andsecurity of safeguard food. The climatic change is not onlyconcerned with the crop production, instead, heavy impacton socio-economic set-up of a region, ultimately affectingthe national economy. The change also poses significantchallenges for the fair trade movement. There areevidences that most of the small farmers in Indiansubcontinent, as well as others of Southeast Asia, areexperiencing increased climate variability and change. It isexpected that climate change will include more extremeevents and slow onset impacts, such as changes inprecipitation and temperature (Nelson et al. 2010). Climatechange is likely to have mainly negative impacts uponagricultural production, food security and economicdevelopment, especially in developing countries (Hannahet al. 2005).

Sugarcane is also strongly influenced by the impacts oflong-term climatic change as well as local weather andseasonal variations. The climate affects the growth anddevelopment of plants and may harm the crops. It alsoaffects severely on the microorganisms related directly orindirectly for better growth and yield of the crop.

Rosegrant et al. (2008) identified potential direct effectsof climate change on the agricultural systems which are asfollows: (i) Seasonal changes in rainfall and temperaturecould impact agroclimatic conditions, altering growingseasons, planting and harvesting calendars, wateravailability, pest, weed and disease populations, etc. (ii)Transpiration, photosynthesis and biomass production isaltered. (iii) Land suitability is altered. (iv) Increased CO2

levels lead to a positive growth response for a number ofstaples under controlled conditions, also known as the“carbon fertilization effect”.

Certain model-based predictions of climate change onvarious regions of the globe have been made by Rosegrantet al. (2008), which are as follows: (i) Global modelsconsistently highlight risk disparities between developedand developing countries. (ii) For temperature increases ofonly 1-2°C, developing countries without adaptation willlikely face a depression in major crop yields. (iii) In mid-tohigh latitudes, increases in temperature of 1-3°C canimprove yields slightly, with negative yield effects iftemperatures increase beyond this range. (iv) Strongeryield-depressing effects will occur in tropical and sub-tropical regions for all crops, which reflect a lower growingtemperature threshold capacity in these areas. (v)Estimations predict that cereal imports will increase indeveloping countries by 10 to 40 percent by 2080. (vi)Africa will become the region with the highest populationof food insecure, accounting for up to 75 percent of theworld total by 2080.

Global warming, increase in the global temperatures, isone of the main factors affecting the climate in recent past,for which, the human activities play an important role(Nikolaos 2011). The global warming is result of anincrease in the concentration of “greenhouse” gases, such

as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. The fossilfuel combustion along with land use change is the mainreason for the global increase of carbon dioxideconcentration, while agriculture for methane and nitrousoxide (Cerri et al. 2007). The increase in theirconcentrations will retain the radiations emitted by theearth’s surface causing imbalance to the earth’s thermalsystem. The changes in temperature, rainfall and solarradiation patterns due to global warming will affect thesugarcane production in both positive and negative ways.IPCC (2007) reported that the average global surfacetemperature has increased by 0.74±0.18°C in the lastcentury and is projected to increase by another 1.1°C-6.0°Cin this century: may be 6.0°C increase by the end of thiscentury (Rahmstorf et al. 2007). The mean annual surfaceair temperature is likely to increase ~ 4°C over India by theend of 21st century (2071-2098). The temperature extendedi.e. daily maximum and minimum temperatures may beintense which will be more intense in case of night timetemperature (Kumar 2011). The role of temperature in canedevelopment starts from the very beginning and continuesup to later stage. It is directly linked with the growth ofplant, photosynthesis as well as other biochemicalprocesses including bud development (Gawander 2007).Photosynthesis efficiency of sugarcane increases in a linearmanner with temperature in the range of 8°C to a maximumof 34°C. Cool nights and early morning temperatures 14°Cin winter and 20°C in summer significantly inhabitphotosynthesis next day. The leaf growth is constrained attemperatures less than 14-19°C. Cool night temperaturesand sunny days slow down growth rates and carbonconsumption, while photosynthesis may continue(Gawander 2007). Gbetibouo and Hassan (2005) employeda Ricardian model to measure the impact of climate changeon South Africa’s field crops including sugarcane. Theirstudy reveals that the production of field crops in SouthAfrica will be very sensitive to even marginal changes intemperature as the remaining range of tolerance toincreased temperature is narrow compared to changes inprecipitation. This result suggests developing the varietiesof plant which should have more heat tolerance rather thandraught and moving from rain fed to irrigated agriculturecould be an effective adaptation option to reduce theharmful effects of climate change for the field crops.Gouvêa et al. (2009) made the future estimates ofsugarcane yield in tropical southern Brazil for the years2020, 2050 and 2080 on the basis of an agrometeorologicalmodel based on future A1B climatic scenarios andinterpreted that increasingly higher temperatures will causean increase of the potential productivity, since, this variablepositively affects the efficiency of the photosyntheticprocesses of C4 plants. However, changes in solar radiationand rainfall will have less impact.

The rainfall is also a limiting factor. The countriesdepending more on rain-fed crops are experiencing anadverse effect the agricultural products including sugarcanebecause of the change in volume and spatial distribution ofrains. A climatic prediction made for 2050 on Viti LevuIsland, Fiji shows that the increases in rainfall during goodyears may offset the impacts of warmer temperatures, with


little change in sugarcane production. However, a warmerand possibly drier climate could lead to more intensedroughts during El Niño years in which the sugarcane willbe heavily affected (World Bank 2004). The availability ofwater is more or less a dependable factor on climate whichis well reflected in agricultural sectors. An increase intemperature will enhance the evaporation from soil, waterand plant surfaces due to deficit of water in the atmosphere.There will be more demand of water to land ecosystems.Kimball et al. (2002) interpreted that elevated CO2 andtemperatures will affect plant growth and water balance.Lawlor and Mitchell (1991) reported that the elevatedatmospheric CO2 concentrations primarily enhance CO2

diffusion into the leaf and increase the photosynthetic rateof C3-plants over a wide range of radiation intensities. InIndia, monsoon is most active with a share of about 70%annual rain fall in the duration of June to September, i.e.summer monsoon or southwestern monsoon. However,south-eastern and northeastern regions are more affected bythe northeastern monsoon for their agricultural produce.The high resolution regional climate precipitation modelPRECIS, projects that summer monsoon in India mayincrease by ~150 to 2080s relative to the base line periodcorresponding to 1970s. The number of raining days maybe non uniform over the country and spatial pattern mayalso differ. The intensity of rain fall on a raining day islikely to be higher in future (Kumar et al. 2011).

The sugarcane producing coastal belt areas are alsovulnerable to climate change and a major loss is expected.Low lying areas will be submerged in this phase of sealevel rise. Coastal erosion and inundation will be high.

AGRONOMIC MEASURES

Agronomy basically dealing with good production ofany crop and yield starts from the very beginning.Sugarcane agronomy also starts with field preparationfollowed by seed selection, planting patterns, tillering,irrigation, manuring, weed and insect controls, irrigationmanagement etc. These practices are though generalized,but also need certain specifications depending upon soilcharacteristics, field topography, cane variety, climaticconditions etc. The long standing crop should get theoptimum condition for better growth in changingenvironmental and soil climate, hence, specific agronomicmeasures are required at different phases. Some of theagronomic measures required for the sugarcane are asfollows:

Field preparation and plantingThe field preparation starts with the cleaning of the

field particularly, the left out of the previous crop. The seedbed for sugar should be free from the unwanted residue ofthe previous crop. Paddy happens to be a preceding crop inmost of the Indian subcontinent which leave a lot of stubbleand roots. A common practice to remove these is theircollection followed by their burning and spreading the ashin the field which results in the change of soil texture andcomposition. The other affect of the paddy cultivation is

the increase of soil moisture as the crop needs water and itslocal accumulation increases the moisture posing difficultyin ploughing. Hence, sufficient time of 1-2 weeks isrequired for decrease in soil moisture. A cross and deepploughing for 2-3 times with sufficient organic manureprovides good seed bed. Hard stubble of wheat, maize,sorghum should be taken out. In case of wheat as precedingcrop, soil is not much deteriorated due to less moisture,hence, easy for preparation by simply collecting the residueand burning or removing the same. The cleaning isfollowed by ploughing which depends upon the soilconditions. Sometimes, mainly in the large forms, thetransportation of crop by heavy vehicles make the soilcompact and uneven which reduces the pore spaces toretain water and air, which is harmful for rootdevelopment. It needs a proper tillering by disc harrows,tyned harrows or rotavator. However, 2-3 shallow and 1-2deep ploughings are sufficient in order to maintain the soildensity and moisture congenial for its proper aeration andsoftness. It is followed by the leveling of the ground foruniform crop stand and proper distribution of water.Organic manure may be added by last ploughing or in thelater stage to improve soil fertility (ICRISAT 2009).

Planting materialThe next step is the planting material and planting

pattern with the selection of suitable variety of the cane.From a long time, scientists world over are involved indeveloping improved varieties to make the crop moreproductive and high yielding with respect to change inlocal setup of climate and soil. The selection of varietydiffers with the area, requirement, climatic conditions, soiltypes etc.: and, the information about the same is availablelocally in almost all the major sugarcane producingcountries.

Cane setts, settlings and bud chips are planting materialto raise the crop. The setts are the cut pieces of a healthyand disease free cane which bears 2-3 buds. In most of thecountries three bud setts are used. To ensure a disease freematerial, a few treatments are recommended. SugarcaneStreak Mosaic Virus (SCSMV) and Sugarcane MosaicVirus (SCMV) are two common viruses affecting the cropto considerable limit (Chatenet et al. 2005: Damayanti et al.2010). Damayanti et al. (2011) concluded that the thermalinactivation point of SCSMV ranges between 55-60°C,which is higher than the plant thermal death point.However, treatments at 53°C for ten minutes can reducedrastically the disease severity with maintaining 100%plant viability. Apart from this, simply soaking the canewater for 12-18 hours, mud or cow dung treatments arealso applied for higher germinations. Treatment withspecific chemicals i.e. KMnO4, MgSO4 or potassiumferrocyanide, ammonium sulphate, chlorohydrins,acetylene etc. are good for better germination and budsprouting, whereas, prevention from fungal attack as wellas insects can be made from Aretan and Benzene. Anothervegetative material is the settlings that are cane setts havingroots. It can be raised in the nursery as used in spacedtransplanting, as well as, in plastic bags. The later has anadvantage as the climatic conditions, soil conditions;


nutrient supply can be regulated artificially: and over all,the transportation is easy. The other alternative is the budchip which is excised auxiliary buds of cane stalk or,cutting of one bud from entire stem. It proved to be analternate to reduce the mass and improve the quality ofseed cane. These bud chips are less bulky, easilytransportable and more economical seed material. The budchip technology holds great promise in rapid multiplicationof new cane varieties (Jain et al. 2010). This method,though have multifaceted advantages also bears certaindrawbacks, e.g. poor survival conditions in the field,relatively low food reserves, limited survival etc. Foodreserve and moisture in the bud chip depletes faster whichresults in poor sprouting which can be managed withsuitable storage conditioned including low temperature. Astudy carried out for improvement of sprouting by soakingof pre-planting seed by growth-promoting chemicals viz,ethephon and calcium chloride helps in enhancing budsprouting, root growth and plant vigor by altering some ofthe key biochemical attributes essential for the early growthand better establishment of bud chips under fieldconditions. Treated bud chips recorded higher budsprouting, shoot height, root number, fresh weight ofleaves, shoot and roots, and plant vigor index (Jain et al.2011).

An ideal seed cane can be obtained from a seed crop of7-8 months. Care should be taken to choose the seed freethe diseases like red rot, wilt, smut, ratoon stunting diseaseetc. It should be healthy with high moisture content andnutrients and aerial roots and splits.

Planting patternPattern of planting is a significant factor affecting the

plant. Some of the commonly followed practices are flatbeds, ridges and furrows, trench method, Rayungan methodetc. The field method is adopted in the areas having lowrain fall. It is a simple and cheep method mostly followedin northern and central India. Shallow furrows of 8-10 cmdepth at the distance of 70-90 cm are made on flat seedbed. The setts with 3-buds are planted end to end in thesefurrows which are covered with the soil followed byleveling. Moisture content should be adequate at this time.The furrow planting is a common practice in the areas ofnorthern and southern India having moderate rain fall andheavy soil with low drainage. V-shaped furrows of 15-20cm depth are made at the intervals of 90 cm. Addition ofFYM, potassium and phosphate fertilizers, nutrient in thesoil of the furrow may be done as per the requirement. Thecane setts are planted in end-to-end manner and arecovered by about 6 cm soil which leaves a furrow abovethe planted row. These furrows are watered in order toenhance soil moisture for good germination. The trenchmethod is followed in coastal areas where strong windsprevail in the rainy season. This method prevents the cropfrom lodging. It is also known as ‘Java method’ ascommon in Java. Trenches of 20-25 cm depth are dug atthe distance of 75-90 cm. Suitable soil condition is madeby addition and through mixing of fertilizers rich insodium, potash and phosphate. Like previous, end to endpattern is also opted in this method. Chemical treatment to

cane setts provides protection from soil born insects.Trenches are filled with the soil after planting. In Rayunganmethod, the seed stalk is topped off about two monthsbefore planting which results in the development of lateralshoots. Trenches having 30 cm depth and 90 cm lateralintervals are made and prepared by mixing of manure.Further digging and softening of soil up to the depth ofabout 15 cm is carried out and filled with same soil andfertilizer. Shaft of about 40-45 cm with 2-3 nodes areplanted followed by irrigation. There are other methods ofplantation like distance planting, bud transplantation,sprouting method, planting of uppermost nodes etc. whichare more or less modifications of above mentioned methodssuitable for specific region or climatic and soil conditions(IISR 2008).

Planting pattern has a direct bearing on the productivityand yield. An experiment conducted by Mahmood et al.(2007) to determine the effect of different planting patternsi.e. number of rows, spacing in between, width of theditches, pit size etc. on the yield potential and juice qualityof autumn planted sugarcane indicates that there weresignificant differences in the length, diameter and weight ofindividual cane. The data also shows high variation in caneyield as well as production of millable canes due toadoption of various planting patterns. Garside and Bell(2009) experimentally demonstrated that high densityplanting did not produce more cane or sugar yield atharvest than low-density planting regardless of location,crop duration, and water supply and soil health. In general,tiller survival, cane weight and yield are higher in wide rowplanting resulting to comparatively high produce ofmillable canes as well as longer duration and high-yieldingnature of the same (Sundra 2002: IISR 2008: Kapur et al.2011).

Weed managementWeeds are probably the single factor which can damage

the crop productivity and yield up to the maximum limit. Itcan reduce the potential sugar yield by 25-90% along withother nutrients. In India, the common weed are Cynodondoctylon, Cyperus rotundus, Echinochloa spp, Saccharumsp. (narrow leaved), Chenopodium album, Solanumnigrum, Convolvulus arvensis, Trianthema sp. Digeraarvensis, Anagallis arvensis, Fumania sp. (broad leaved)and Cynodon dactylon, Sorghum halepense, Panicum spp,Dactyloctenium aegyptium (grasses) etc. Since, thesugarcane is a long standing crop: therefore, it is affectedby the different weeds in changing climatic conditions. Themajor reasons for easy susceptibility of the sugarcane areits planting pattern i.e. wide row gap: slow rate of plantgrowth as the germination phase is of 4-6 weeks followedby 8-10 weeks of full development of canopy: and,comparatively better water and nutrient conditions duringplantation. These factors enhance the possibility of weedgrowth: however, the control of the same is essential foreconomical sugarcane production. It reduces the yields bycompeting for moisture, nutrients, and light during thegrowing season. Various growth phase of the plant areprone to specific weeds, however, the initial 4-6 months ofgrowing phase of the plant need more care as negligence


during this period will have an adverse affect on tillergrowth as well as number and development of millablestalks (Chauhan and Srivastava 2002; Chattha et al. 2007).

The methods for weed control broadly consist ofcultural, mechanical, chemical and integrated weedmanagement practices. The cultural method includes theuse of high tillering and fast growing cane varieties whichreduce the time span of critical period of competition.Mulching of the trash, inter crop between the row space arealso adopted. Mechanical and manual control includes thephysical removal of weeds by bullock or tractor-drawncultivators, harrows and rotavators or by manual laborimplements like spade, hand hoe, etc. are very effective inearly stages of crop growth. These practices are veryeffective, but now difficult to be opted because of so manyreasons like, non availability of man power, high cost oflabor, longer time span of operation etc, therefore, use ofchemical methods i.e. use of herbicides are widely beingfollowed. It provides an effective and long duration controlas well as economical in a few cases. However, it is alsotrue that chemical methods are only supplementary tocultural practices and as can possibly never replace thelater. There are so many herbicides available in the market,however, prior to use, the opinion of expert is suggested forproper selection of herbicide, doses, methodology etc.Selective herbicides will invariably fail to kill some weedsand furthermore some herbicides will damage the cropbecause the protoplasm of desirable plants is similar to thatof undesirable plants i.e. weeds. It follows that continuousand injudicious use of a particular selective herbicide willencourage a resistant type of weed to flourish andpredominate (Stewart 1955).

The herbicides are specific for pre-emergence and post-emergence varieties (see Mossler 2008; Odero and Dusky2010; www.sugarcanecrop.com). Some common herbicidesare (i) Atrazine-controls most annual grass and broadleafweeds, (ii) 2,4-D-spiny amaranth, ragweed, morning glory,and many others, (iii) Ametryn-annual grass and broadleafweed seedlings, especially effective against Alexandergrass, (iv) Asulam- controls Alexander grass, broadleafpanicum, and other annual grasses but response is slow: itis applied only once per season, (v) Metribuzin-controlsmost annual grass and broadleaf weeds but is often mixedwith atrazine or pendimethalin. It is applied at the time ofplanting or ratooning, but prior to weed emergence, (vi)Pendimethalin-control and time of application are same asprevious and often mixed with the same, (vii)Halosulfuron- controls purple and yellow nutsedge as wellas some broadleaf species and may be applied to any stageof sugarcane growth. Apart from these, Diuron, Alachlor,Trifluralin, Terbacil, Dalapan, Glyphosate, Paraquat arealso in common use. Diuron is less common, thoughresponse well to broad leaves than grass. Trifluralin workson annual grasses and small seeded broadleaf weeds.Glyphosate is a broad-spectrum herbicide patented underthe trade name Roundup. It is only effective on activelygrowing plants: it is not effective as a pre-emergenceherbicide (WHO 1994; Duke and Powles 2008). Paraquathave an excellent control on annual weeds and can be usedas an alternated to glyphosate. Integrated weed

management is a combination of all the practices i.e.cultural, manual and chemical methods at proper time ofthe plant growth to get the maximum productivity andyield. A wise combination of various methods will alsoresults to the best and economical way for controllingweed.

Insect/pest controlInsects and pests are equally dangerous if not controlled

within time. Sugarcane is also very much susceptible to thesame and may bear heavy loss due to rapid and enormousgrowth of the pests in comparatively short time dependingupon climate, rain fall, temperature, as well as sufficientfood material in the form of crop itself. More than 200species of insects are known from India, however, a feware considered as most devastating. Some of the commoninsects of the sugarcane, its time of appearance andcontrolling measures are as follows:

Pyrilla perpusilla. It is a most destructive foliage-sucking pest and causes heavy loss in cane yield and sugarrecovery. It appears in the months of August-Septemberafter heavy rainfall casing high humidity. It attacks mainlyon the leaves and leave sheath. Spray of chemicals is theonly remedy. Planting in paired row method provides spacefor supervision and to undertake control measures (Paul2007).

Termites. These are the underground insects attack thestalk used for the planting as well as shoots, canes. Ininitial phase, it finds the way from the cut ends of the seedand damage the soft tissue leading to low bud germinationand replantation. These include Coptotermes heimi,Odontotermes assmuthi, O. obesus, O. wallonensis,Microtermes obesi and Trinervitermes biformis. They aremost active under draught conditions, i.e. April-June andOctober, however, active in almost all the seasons. Farmerscontrol termites by spraying pesticides over the stalks inthe furrow during planting (Cheavegatti-Gianotto et al.2011). The remedial measures include application of wellrotten farmyard manure, removal of stubbles and debris ofprevious crop, addition of chemicals in the furrows duringplanting.

Borers. These are the insects which bore young shoots,canes and roots. Significant damage results from thesugarcane borer larvae tunneling within the stalk. This cancause a loss of stalk weight and sucrose yield. The borer'stunneling into the stalk allows points of entry for secondaryinvaders. If the tunneling is extensive, death of the terminalgrowing point of the plant may result. Weakened stalks aremore subject to breaking and lodging (Cherry et al. 2001).The shoot borers (Chilo infuscatellus) attacks in the earlyphase during the months of plant growth i.e. April-June byentering laterally through the holes in the stalk and mayeven damage complete cane by upward or downwardboring producing dead hearts. In early phase, it maydamage the mother stem destroying entire stem. Plantationof early crop e.g. before mid March is suggested. Chemicaltreatment is effective. The internode borer (Chilosacchariphagus) is one of the major pests of peninsularIndia (Gupta 1957) and is more active at the time or littleafter the internode formation, however effective during


entire plant life (Ananthanarayana and Balasubramanian1980). Due to infection, the internodes suffer reduction inlength and girth causing considerable reduction in caneyield (David et al. 1979). It also deteriorates juice qualityand reduces sucrose content (David and Ranganathan1960). Immature internodes are normally attacked by freshborers. The top shoot borer (Scirpophaga excerptalis)attack the youngest part of the plant top, and usuallydestroy the growing point. Young stalks die, whereas olderstalks often die or produce side shoots and sucrose contentis usually adversely affected (Sallam 2006). It attacksduring March-October and is very serious during July-August. The larvae usually penetrate along the midrib ofthe leaf into the heart of the plant. Larvae feed to tenderleaves within the whorl and damage the growing pointswhich turn dark. The other signs of attacks are shot holes inleaves, white or red streaks on the upper side of the mid riband bunchy tops from July onwards. Collection and destroyof moth and egg clusters as well as integrated method ofcultural and chemical methods are useful. The root borer(Emmalocera depressella) disconnects the conductingtissues of the root from the soil due to which the plant die.It also paves way for Ratoon Stunning Disease (RSD) (Gul2007). Plants infested with E. depressella suffer deadhearts and general yellowing of the leaves and may resultin poor tillering in mature plants. It infests sugarcane plantsat all stages of development (Singh et al. 1996). Chemicaland biological managements are effective if done atsuitable time.

Black bug. This group of insects are mainly a problemof north Indian Sugarcane formers. It is most destructivefor the ratoons. These include Blissus gibbus and Macropesexcavates. Both nymphs and adult accumulate in thecentral whole of the cane shoot and suck the sap as a resultthe shoot turns pale, yellow in color with brown patchesand sickly appearance. These consequently affect thechlorophyll content of the leaves, length, girth andultimately weight of the stalk. The healthy stalk exhibitedcomparatively higher length as compared to infested stalkas well as loss in weight occurs. An increase in nitrogencontent of infested leaves and decrease in chlorophyllcontent hampers the growth (Yadav 2003). Nymphs appearin March-April which is also a peak period of infection andfrom June to October, both nymph and adults are presenttogether. The management needs both cultural andchemical methods. Burning of trash and leaves left behindthe harvesting may be done in the months of March-Aprilwhen the pest go through the early stage of its activity.Chemical method is the spray of specified insecticides.Nitrogen deficiency has been reported to invite black buginfestation in sugarcane ratoon crop (Jaipal 1991). Foliarfertilization of black bug infested cane crop with 2.5percent urea at formative phase has shown to substantiallyreduce the young nymphal population. The incidence andintensity of black bug in ratoon crop may reduce from 50-70 percent with a concomitant increase in shoot heightsimply by removal of plant crop residue and foliar Napplications (Jaipal 2000).

Scale insect (Melanaspis sp.). It is probably a native toNorth India (Rao 1970) but prevails in other parts also. It is

a post monsoon pest normally appears in 5-6 months oldcrop after formation of internodes. The symptom is thepresence of approximately circular, smoky-brown orgrayish-black scale covers on stems and leaf midribs(Agarwal et al. 1959). The scales are often so closelycrowded that it is difficult to distinguish their individualshapes. Infested leaves may show drying of the tip and palegreen to yellow coloration. Nodal region is more infestedthan internodal region. It thrives best between 24°C and34°C and at high relative humidity: the traditional methodof irrigation by flooding fields strongly favors survival ofthe pest (CPC 2012). Rao et al. (1991) found that a longdry period immediately after the rains favored a rapidbuild-up of M. glomerata populations. Wind is animportant aid to the dispersal of the scale (Tripathi et al.1985). The control of the pest is to be taken care fromselection of setts by avoiding them from infested field. Thesetts may be treated with insecticide to ensure removal ofinfestation. Crop rotation with wheat is an effectivemeasure (Varun et al. 1993). Detrashing and burning of thetrash and other crop residue helps considerably. Spray ofinsecticide is quite effective controlling measure provideddetrashing is carried out in combination with the pesticideapplication (Rao et al. 1976).

Mealy bug (Saccharicoccus sacchari). These are foundin cluster, on the stalks under overlapping leaf sheaths,below the nodes and spread up and down to the otherinternodes and buds. The damage mainly occurs by suckingthe cell sap, depriving plants of essential nutrients whichmay result to stunning, yellowing and thinning of thecanes. It also plays an important role in virus transmissionand the growth of sooty-mould fungus due to large amountof honeydew secreted by the insect (Eid et al. 2011). Thepest populations grow fast under drought conditions andants help in their dispersal to a large extent. Both nymphsand adults (female) suck the juice. The infested plants showa sickly appearance and look pale. Severe infestation maycause drying up of the leaves. Occasionally, cavity likedepressions is formed on the internodes under the leaf-sheaths. Deterioration in juice quality and loss in sucrosecontent are the late results. Destroying of the affectedleaves at harvest, selection of proper and healthy seedcanes, spray of insecticides are the controlling measures.Spray material should be made in a way that it can trickledown the internodes into the underneath leaf-sheath inorder to kill the nymphs.

White fly (Aleurolobus barodensis, Neomaskelliabergii). It is the most dreaded pest causing direct as well asindependency for sucking cell sap from leaves. Populationgrowth is high and reaches to maximum level under lowlying, water logged and nitrogen deficient areas (Mann etal. 2006). It usually becomes active with the onset ofmonsoons having high humidity which favors its breeding.September-October is the period of maximum attack whichgradually slows down in forthcoming days due tounfavorable climatic conditions. Both adult and the nymphssuck the sap from the leaves and turning them yellow. Theadults are small pale yellow, ovate in outline with blackand grey coating on the body. Nymphs reside underneath ofthe leaves and suck the cell sap. Due to the attack, cane


juice becomes more watery. Reduction of sucrose and lessrecovery of sugar are other adverse affects. Loss can beminimized by avoiding ratoon in low lying areas, burn allthe trash of the harvested crop, destruction of affected partsand foliar sprays

White grub (Holotrichia sp.). It is a problem of mainlytropical India, but the name ‘white grub’ is a collectiveterm for various genus and species reported from sugarcaneproducing areas of the world. The pest life cycle consists ofegg, larval instars, pupa and adult stages, of which, the latelarval stage is the most damaging to sugarcane. It feeds onthe root of the sugarcane and also damages theunderground part of the stem by boring. The visiblesymptom can be seen in September with yellowing(chlorosis) of the leaves which is usually followed bystunted growth, dense browning, lodging, plant uprooting,and death in heavily infested areas. Symptoms may be seenas early as September. Damage is usually more severe inratoon crops and is most evident around the edges of a field(Srikant and Singaravelu 2011). It thrives in moist sandysoil. The larval instars can survive for more than threemonths by remaining dormant inside the earthen cell. Themanagement can be made by collection of beetles anddestroying them either the same night or a night after firstshower when the emergence is high. Cultural practiceincludes deep ploughing of field in the month of Februarywell before summer showers. Flooding for 24-48 hoursduring pest activity period reduces grub population.Rotation of crop with paddy and sunflower also help tominimize the pest. Biological control is mostly self-sustaining as several vertebrates are natural enemy of thepest. A fungus Beauveria brongniartii infective to allstages of the white grub, penetrates the body wall of larvaand multiply, thus killing the insect. The chemical methodmay be of little use, i.e. spray of insecticides immediatelyafter the first summer shower (Srikant and Singaravelu2011).

Disease managementThere are about 50 diseases of sugarcane caused by

fungal, bacterial, viral and phytoplasm pathogens(Vishwanathan and Padnabhan 2008). Fungal diseasesinclude Red rot, Smut, Wilt, Eye spot, Yellow spot, Brownspot, Pine apple, Banded scletioal and Pokkah boeng,whereas Ratoon stunting, Leaf scald and Red stripe aremainly caused by bacteria. Viral and mycoplasmal diseasesare Mosaic, Grassy shoot and Leaf yellow of sugarcane.Brief ideas about the symptom of important diseases are asfollow:

Red rot. It is a fungal disease caused by Colletotrichumfalcatum. The growth of this fungus is affected bytemperature, pH, nutrition and environmental conditions. Itis one of main diseases of Indian subcontinent as well asother parts of the world. It can attack entire plant e.g. stalk,leaf, buds or roots however: the most amazing phase is itsattack on stalk. The symptom depends on the susceptibilityof the sugarcane variety, time of infection and theenvironment which may not be apparent in the initial phasebut may be fatal in later stage. In the initial phase, theinfected tissues show dull red coloration with whitish

patches across the stalk. These white patches differentiate itfrom other stem rots. In resistant varieties, the infection islargely confined to the internodes. The typical stalksymptoms i.e. presence of white spots in otherwise rotten(dull red) internodal tissues and nodal rotting appear whenthe crop is at the fag end of the grand growth phase duringAugust-September in subtropical India. In the early stagesof infection, it is difficult to recognize the presence of thedisease in the field, as the plant does not display anyexternal symptom or distress. At a later stage, somediscoloration of rind often becomes apparent when internaltissues have been badly damaged and are fully rotten. Atthe field level, this may be observed as the death of a fewplants or clumps to the failure of entire crop(Duttamajumder 2008). Infected leaf shows small redmarks on upper surface of the lamina and midrib. Due tothis disease, retardation in the yield and deteriorationoccurs in juice quantity. The management includesselection of healthy setts treated with heat therapy:cultivate of resistant sugarcane varieties, burning of trashand other residue of the field, rotation of with paddy,onion, garlic, linseed and green manure crops etc.Precaution should be taken to control the spread of diseasethrough water: hence, water of infected crop field is not tobe allowed in other crop grown areas.

Sett rot or pine apple disease. It is caused byCeratocystis paradoxa, both sett borne and soil borne. Itinfects in the primary phase of cultivation due to which theinternal tissue of the setts turns red and black. The blackcoloration is due to production of fungal spores within theseed piece. Nodes act as partial barriers to the spread ofrotting, but with susceptible varieties, entire seed piecesmay become colonized by the fungus. The disease severelyretards bud germination, shoot development and earlyshoot vigor. Pineapple disease can result in young plant-cane crops having patchy, uneven appearance germinationover large areas (Raid 1990). The disease is much prone inlow lying areas and soils having ill drainage. It can becontrolled by treating the setts by chemical fungicidebefore plantation (Vijaya et al. 2007).

Wilt disease. A fungal disease caused byCephalosporium sacchari, spreads through setts andadversely affects the germination. Poor and weak qualitygermination ultimately affects the root development andcane formation. The symptoms are visible after 4-5 monthsof plantation during monsoon and post monsoon periodsshowing gradual withering. The affected tissue showreddish brown coloration in patches. The leaves turnyellow and dry up. The disease is controlled by selectinghealthy, disease free seed setts after treatment withfungicide (Khan 2003; Gupta and Tripathi 2011).

Gummosis or gumming disease (Xanthomonasvasculorum). The symptoms are white leaf stripes withnecrotic zones at leaf margins, extensive chlorosis ofemerging leaves, vascular reddening and cavity formationin invaded stems, production of side shoots, rapid wiltingand death of plants. Prolonged latent infection can occur,necessitating detection by isolation or sensitive molecularassays. The development and spread of disease includesxylem-invading pathogen, transmitted in cuttings,


mechanically, and by wind-blown rain (Birch 2011). Thecontrol is mainly the precautions i.e. selection of diseasefree setts, cultivation of resistant varieties and destroyingdiseased canes.

Sugarcane smut. The causal organism of smut diseaseof sugarcane is Ustilago scitaminea, which occurs in mostpart of the world and spread by windblown spores, infestedseed-cane and infested soil (Nzioki 2010). The diagnosticfeature is the emergence of a whip which is gray to black,curved, pencil-thick growth which, emerges from the top ofthe affected cane plant. It arises from the terminal bud orfrom lateral shoots on infected stalks and may attain thelength from a few centimeters to meter. It is composedpartly of host plant tissue and partly of fungus tissue. Thecontrol measures are hot water treatment of seed canes,rouging out diseased plants, planting resistant or tolerantcultivars, and fungicides (Agnhotri 1983).

There are many other diseases of sugarcane which mayaffect to some extent in the growth and quality of juice, viz.ratoon stunting, yellow spot, red stripe, rust and geneticvariegation of leaf and sheath. black rot, black stripe,brown rust, dry rot, leaf binding, leaf blast, leaf blight, leaffleck, leaf scorch, leaf splitting, leaf yellows, mosaic rangerust etc

Soil and nutrient managementSoil and nutrient management is the most emphasized

aspects of the agro-technology to increase the cropproduction and sugar yield. Since, all the nutrientmanagement practices are to be applied on the soil overwhich the crop is to be grown, therefore, the idea of soilcondition, texture, composition etc. are the prerequisite.The soils of the area varies considerably, therefore, theagronomic methods varies from area to area. Landdegradation in the tropics has mainly resulted from poorsoil management practices. In Korea, despite choosing newsugarcane varieties with improved sugarcane and sugaryields, early maturity, resistance to pests and diseases,good milling qualities and adaptability to local growingconditions, the average yield was low as compared toprevious years (Wawire 2006): for which, the decline ofsoil fertility resulting to depletion of essential nutrients wasone of the main reason (Bell et al. 2001: Garside et al.2003). The yield potentials and other characteristics arespecific to a particular sugarcane variety. Soil is one of themain factors which influence the production according toits chemical composition particularly nitrogen andpotassium which play a major role in physiology, growthand development (Malavolta 1994: Rice et al. 2002).

Both physical and chemical properties of the soil havean impact on the plant growth. Soil bulk density in thesugarcane field varies considerably as the crop is usuallygrown on low ridges i.e. rows with tractors and harvesterspassing over the interrows making it compact. Because ofthe compaction, the soil strength gets increased but theporosity is reduced lowering the water intake capacity oftopsoil (Srivastava 1984). The good soil structure, i.e.arrangement of soil particles having lots of pores andspaces is good for root development by allowing gooddrainage and aeration. Excessive cultivation, high irrigation

may spoil this property of soil. The crusting of soil beforedevelopment of crop canopy is a phenomenon of both rainfed and irrigated conditions. These crusts develop when thesoil surface dries out after rainfall or irrigation. Physicaldisaggregation of soil particles occurs in response to theimpact of raindrops, causing compaction of the surfacelayer which limits water penetration into the soil. Soilcrusting is a precursor to soil loss through erosion andimproving water intake rates (Meyer et al. 1996).

Acidity and alkalinity of the soil requires specifictreatments. Acid soils are normally recorded in the areas ofhigh rainfall areas and in the soils rich with organic matter.Under such environmental conditions, soils weatherquickly and the basic cations like Ca, Mg, K are leachedout from the soil profile, leaving behind more stablematerials rich in iron and alumina oxides. This processmakes soils acidic and generally devoid of nutrients.Accelerated acidification of soils under cultivation is mostoften due to the combined effect of oxidation of ammoniacfertilizers to nitric acid, mineralization of organic matterand leaching of basic cations from the soil. Because of acidsoil, the growth of cane may not reach to the optimum: inaddition, yield and quality of the juice are also adverselyaffected. High alumina level damages the root system: as aresult, the roots tend to be shortened and swollen, having astubby appearance. Management is possible by lime anddolomite applications. The solicity or soil salinity is also acommon problem of sugarcane growing areas having lowrain fall. It may be natural or secondary, developed due toirrigation however, in both cases, the plant is affected. Insome areas, the cause of soil salination is due thedevelopment of high water tables, which allow capillaryrise of saline ground water into the rooting depth of thecrop. Occasionally, poor quality irrigation water may beanother source of salts (Meyer et al. 1996). Various adverseaffect reported are stunted growth, scorched tips andmargins of leaves, poor root growth, poor cane quality,deterioration of juice quality etc.

The nutrient management is basically the maintenanceof sound soil fertility conditions for the crop. The nutrientcondition of the field which was good in the past maybecome poor in future due to many reasons includingcultivation of crops without nutrient management. Eachcrop requires certain constituents which are taken from thesoil resulting to reduce its quantity as per the previouslevel. Therefore, continuous cropping without propermanagement of nutrient will result to degradation of soil:hence, the nutrients management is required. Fertilizers arenecessity for better management of the soil but at the sametime its composition, quantity and time have an importantrole. Higher quantity of unwanted constituents may act aspollutant and harm the crop. Though, a lot of constituentsare required for the sugarcane, however, the managementof nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium needs special carefor good crop.

Nitrogen is an essential part of all plants. Its deficiencyin the soil is represented on sugarcane by short and thinnerand shorter stalk, paleness of foliage, leaves turn black anddie, blade turn light green to yellow, thin roots etc. It alsoinfluences the quality and quantity of juice. Phosphorus in


low quantity reduces sprouting or no tillering, lesselongation of stalk, red, greenish violet and purplecolorations of leaf tips and margins, slender leaves, delayin canopy development etc. It is essential for cell divisionresponsible for plant growth and also for better rootdevelopment to support and develop healthy plant. It is anecessary constituent for formation of protein,photosynthesis and plant metabolism. Potassium helps incarbon assimilation and photosynthesis, in addition toproviding resistance to sugarcane against pests anddiseases. Symptoms of deficiency are yellow-orangecoloration of leaf borders and tips, slender stalk. It is themost abundant cation of the cell sap. By acting mainly asan enzyme activator in plant metabolism, it is fundamentalto the synthesis and translocation of sucrose from theleaves to the storage tissues in stalks. It also plays asignificant role in controlling the hydration and osmoticconcentration within the stomata guard cells (Ng 2002).

Sugarcane requires sulfur in relatively large amountswhich is used for plant structure and growth. Plants take upsulfur as sulphate which is more mobile in soils. Othernatural sources of sulfur are rainfall and irrigation. Calciumis essential for cane growth and for cell wall development.It is taken up as a positively charged cation from the soilsolution. Magnesium is essential for plant photosynthesisas it is the main mineral constituent of chlorophyll. Sodiumis required in very small amounts for the maintenance ofplant water balance. Copper, zinc, iron, manganese,molybdenum, boron etc. are the micronutrients which aretaken up by cane in much smaller quantities and aregenerally regulators of plant growth (Wood 2003). Thedeficiencies of micronutrients are also effective and theirsymptoms are visible either on leaves and stem in the formof odd appearance, different colorations, spots, necroticleaves, thinning of stalks etc. It is advisable to contact theexpert agronomist, because the identification of thedeficiency of a particular micronutrient and their exactremedial measure is difficult for a common farmer.

The management starts with enhancement of thesuitability of soil by adding organic manure i.e. farm yardmanure (FYM), compost, dung etc. which improves thephysical, chemical and biological properties of the soil.Apart from these, various other manures like, press mud,vermicompost, green manure can be made with littleplanning. The fertilizers provide a supplement to the soilsdepleting in one or more constituents. The requirement ofthe suitable fertilizer for a particular field can be known bythe analysis of soil test result. At the same time, soil type,crop nutrient requirements, past fertilization practices andcropping history should also be taken into consideration.The traditional methods like mixing of fertilizer with soil,its application in the furrows followed by little irrigationare still widely used. It is also important to retain thenutrient in the field by avoiding the runoff and erosion forwhich soil and water conservation measures should befollowed.

Irrigation managementSugarcane is a high water requirement crop. The lack of

water in soil cause the moisture stress which can ihfluence

the crop from the very begning and up to the last.Reduction in the stalks elongation and leaves in the plantare the primary symptoms of water stress, whereas, the lastphase of crop shows decrease in sucrose accumulation.Irrigation is therefore a major factor for growth ofsugarcane which has been a matter of active research fromthe very begning and will probably continue with morequantum in future as the water is being expansive day byday, so as to the cost of irrigation.

In the present climatic conditions, it is evident that therain fall is very erratic, unpredictable and uneven. Itsstipulated duration is also shifting in some of the regions.In central India, 2-3 seasons of good rain fall is normallyfollowed by a draught or low rainfall period. Since, thedemand of sugarcane is high for the water, as the irrigationis required in almost all the phases of plant growth and costof irrigation has also increased, therefore, the cost effectivemanagement is present need in almost all the sugarcanegrowing areas. Moreover, it also becomes necessary for thejudicious use of the available water as its share foragriculture is also reduced due to high demand andconsumption by domestic, private and public sectors in last2-3 decades. In India, the present demand of irrigationwater is between 543-557 billion cubic meter (BMC) asestimated by NCIWARD (1999) which may go to 628-807BMC in the year 2050 and 826-852 BMC in the year 2065.However, it is expected that demand for water is likely toexceed the availability much before 2050 (Jain 2011).

Various traditional methods of irrigation followed forthe crop are flood irrigation, large furrow system,serpentine method, alternate skip furrow method andcontour furrows system which depends upon theavailability of water, soil characteristics and topography ofthe area. In most of the practices, the water used forirrigation is often more than that of the requirement, and acertain amount of water go waste, particularly in the floodirrigation. Therefore, the drip irrigation is now a highlyadopted technique. This technique is largely preferred incentral India because of mainly low rainfall and high depthof water table. Further, it saves the water, reduces laborcost, save electricity and is suitable for almost all lands.Besides, free movement of pests and diseases as in case offlood management are automatically prohibited. Sprinklersare also being common.

The irrigation depends mainly upon the climaticcondition of the region and type of soil, however, sowingpattern, type of manure and fertilizers are also thegoverning factors to some extent. The northern India,where the water table is comparatively low, most of the soilspread is alluvial and fertile, may need comparatively lessnumber of irrigations. Water requirement is more in theareas having hot and dry winds. The method of sowing intrench form is little economical. The soil types and canevarieties also restricts the method and number of irrigationsto be practiced for the crop. In all the cases, the irrigation isto be carried out to the extent preventing water-loggedcondition as it adversely affects the crop growth.


Biotechnological approachesBiotechnology plays a pivotal role for the improvement

of Sugarcane varieties. Tiwari et al. (2010) suggestedbiotechnological approaches for sugarcane improvement inthe following areas: (i) Cell and tissue culture for rapidpropagation genetic transformation and molecularbreeding, (ii) Introduction of novel genes into commercialcultivars, (iii) Molecular detection of sugarcane pathogens,(iv) Development of genetic maps using molecular markertechnology, (v) Understanding the molecular basis ofsucrose accumulation, (vi) Molecular testing of plants forclonal fidelity, (vii) Variety identification, and (viii)Molecular characterization of various traits.

Much focus had been made on development oftransgenic plants and marker assisted breeding.Biotechnological strategies may improve a number of planttraits which may important for adapting to climate changeincluding early vigor, water-use efficiency, nitrogen-useefficiency, water logging tolerance, frost resistance, heattolerance, pest and disease resistance, and reduceddependence on low temperatures to trigger flowering orseed germination. Research is being conducted intodeveloping molecular markers or GM varieties for thesetraits. The Genetically modified Sugarcane would really bethe answer to cope with the challenges of Climate changes.Development of new stress tolerant, high yielding veritieswith the help of biotechnology may open up new avenuesin sugarcane in sugarcane production.

CONCLUSION

Various climatic factors and agronomic measuresrequired for better growth of sugarcane are specific in localset-up. The change in global climate is a matter of seriousconcern to sugarcane cultivators for sustainabledevelopment of the crop. A review of various climaticfactors and agronomic measures strongly suggests for theadaptation of modern techniques being developed atregional level in most of the sugarcane producing areas. Inthe initial phase, both land preparation and plantingmaterial need a careful planning as the further growth ofthe crop entirely depends on the same. Land preparationrequires a thorough study of the soil and climaticconditions of the region which may vary as per thetemperature of the region, availability and intensity ofrainfall and sun light. The selection of planting material isbeing suggested for those varieties which can sustain localclimatic conditions as well as resist for pests and diseases.Since, sugarcane is a long standing crop and experiencessevere changes in climate, biotic and abiotic factors,therefore, a regular care of soil and nutrient management,pest control, disease management and adequate irrigationare required. It is also advised to the cultivators to takesuggestions of the experts to enhance the quality andproduction of the cane. Such expertises are made availablelocally by government at agriculture offices and researchcenters. Besides, all most all the agriculture universities,colleges and research institutes extend their cooperation tothe cultivators for good development of crops including

sugarcane. The same may be availed regularly to ensuregood crop.

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A-1

Authors Index

Abedi R 72Adiwibowo A 46, 56Agus SB 145Agustini V 59Arisoesilaningsih A 18Asgari F 72Aththorick TA 92Bayati M 190Boer C 86Budiman 18Fahmi 200Farhan AR 145Farida WR 86Fatimah S 151, 205Filiz E 114Finnegan PM 53Gandjar I 34Ghasemi A 195Guharja E 92Haghgooy T 7Hariyadi B 40Hernawan UE 118Hoshmand K 135Ikawati V 23Jafary M 190Jalilvand H 195Kartono AP 79Koc I 114Kumar A 107Kusmardiastuti 79Lense O 98Madduppa HH 145Mangunwardoyo W 34Mawikere NL 124Mir RA 65Mohajeri-Borazjani S 195Munawar A 13Murtiningrum 124Nisyawati 46, 151, 205Norisharikabad V 130Nugroho TS 23Nurmeliasari 1Pala SA 65

Peritika MZ 140Pharmawati M 53Pitopang R 178Pourbabaei H 7 72Purwanto Y 92, 151, 205Putranto HD 1Rahman DA 79Rai MK 214Reif A 72Reyahi-Khoram M 130, 135, 190Reyahi-Khoram R 190Santosa Y 79Santoso U 1Sarungallo ZL 124Setiadi D 92Setianto J 1Setiawan A 23Setyawan AD 161, 172Sinery AS 86Srivastava AK 214Subhan B 145Suciatmih 34Sufaati S 59Sugardjito J 23Sugiyarto 140Suharno 59Suhartoyo H 13Suhendra D 145Sulasmi IS 46, 151, 205Sunarto 140Sutarno 161Suwarno 28Suyatna I 161Ulumuddin YI 172Vafaei H 130Verma N 107Wani AH 65Warnoto 1Wibisono Y 23Wiryono 13Yan G 53Yonvitner 200Zueni A 1

A-2

Subject Index

A. muelleri growth 18, 19, 22accession 54, 107, 108, 109, 112, 115,

124agroforestry 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 50, 140, 141,

142, 143, 152, 178, 187agronomy 214, 218Amanita 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70Anoxypristis 161, 164, 165anti-bacterial 3, 34, 38, 69, 102anti-yeast 34, 37aquatic 130, 131, 132, 133, 138, 145,

204Arfak Mountain 86, 87, 88, 89, 90artificial inlet 195, 196, 197, 198Avicennia marina 195, 196, 198biodiversity 1, 2, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 16, 44, 46,

47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 54, 65, 69,71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 77, 6, 87, 89,92, 130, 133, 135, 138, 141,145, 147, 152, 159, 178, 179,188, 190, 194

burgo 1, 2, 3, 4, 5Bushehr 195, 196, 198Central Java 23, 24, 25, 26, 140, 141, 142chemical 11, 16, 49, 100, 102, 105, 124,

125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 132,135, 137, 140, 141, 142, 195,196, 197, 198, 216, 217, 218,219, 220, 221, 222, 223

chloroplast SSRs 114, 115climate change 46, 65, 79, 135, 214, 216, 217,

218, 225cluster 50, 59, 60, 62, 63, 107, 111,

124, 126, 127, 128, 129, 145,148, 172, 175, 211

cultivation 18, 19, 21, 22, 40, 42, 43, 44,92, 93, 112, 151, 52, 58, 59, 79,215, 218, 222, 223

cuscus 86, 87, 88, 89, 90Daemonorops draco 46, 47, 48, 50, 151, 152, 153,

156, 158, 205, 206, 207, 210,211, 212, 205

Darabkola 72, 73demersal fish 200, 202, 204Dendrobium crumenatum 34, 36, 38Dieng Mountain 23, 24, 25, 26distribution 7, 8, 11, 15, 16, 23, 24, 25, 26,

27, 29, 40, 44, 74, 86, 87, 88,90, 94, 95, 96, 107, 111, 114,115, 116, 118, 119, 120, 122,125, 161, 162, 164, 166, 167,168, 169, 172, 173, 175, 176,182, 193, 197, 198, 201, 202,203, 214, 217, 218

diversity 3, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15, 16, 27, 49,54, 57, 59, 65, 70, 72, 73, 74,75, 76, 77, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90,92, 99, 107, 108, 109, 111, 112,114, 116, 124, 125, 126, 128,129, 130, 133, 137, 138, 140,141, 142, 145, 147, 150, 161,163, 173, 179, 180, 181, 187,188, 190, 192, 194, 211

diversity index 9, 10, 16, 74, 75, 87, 88, 90,140, 141, 142, 143, 145, 147,181

dragon blood 151, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157,158, 205

dry seasons 28, 34, 138ecological species groups 7, 8, 9, 10, 11ecotourism 133, 137, 190endophytic 34, 35, 36, 37, 38environment 2, 7, 11, 12, 13, 18, 19, 20, 21,

31, 35, 37, 40, 59, 73, 75, 76,82, 92, 96, 126, 130, 131, 132,133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138,139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 145,147, 162, 164, 168, 172, 176,190, 191, 194, 195, 196, 202,218, 222, 223

establishment 11, 13, 14, 26, 27, 195, 196,197, 213, 219

estradiol-17ß 1, 2, 3, 4fecundity 28, 79, 80, 81, 162, 167fish visual census 145, 146follicles 1, 5forest encroachment 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210,

211, 212forest plant species 86genetic diversity 7, 89, 107, 108, 109, 112Guilan 7, 8habitat 7, 11, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24,

25, 26, 27, 37, 46, 65, 67, 68,69, 79, 80, 81, 87, 88, 90, 118,119, 120, 127, 130, 132, 135,137, 142, 145, 147, 148, 150,152, 157, 158, 159, 162, 163,166, 167, 168, 173, 176, 179,181, 188, 190, 206, 210

harvest 18, 20, 21, 22, 35, 46, 47, 48,49, 50, 72, 73, 75, 79, 80, 81,83, 84, 94, 107, 126, 151, 152,154, 156, 157, 158, 159, 172,192, 193, 195, 217, 219, 221,222, 223

harvesting quota 79, 80, 81, 83Hirpora 65, 66hunting area 135, 136, 138, 190, 194illegal logging 151, 205, 206, 207, 209, 210,

A-3

212in silico analysis 114income source 48, 49, 151, 156, 157, 158indigenous people 40, 98, 99, 103, 105, 190Indonesia 1, 2, 3, 5, 13, 23, 28, 34, 35, 40,

41, 43, 59, 60, 79, 80, 86, 98,99, 100, 102, 103, 104, 118,119, 120, 122, 124, 125, 127,140, 141, 145, 146, 147, 153,162, 163, 164, 167, 172, 173,714, 176 178, 179, 188, 200,205, 206

Iran 7, 8, 11, 72, 73, 75, 130, 131,134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139,190, 191, 192, 195, 196

ISSR 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112Jambi 40, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 151, 152,

153, 154, 155, 156, 517, 158,159, 205, 206, 207, 208, 213

Javan gibbon 23, 24, 25, 26,Jebak forest 151, 205, 206, 212jernang 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 151, 152,

153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158,159, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209,210, 211, 212

Kandelat 7, 8Kashmir 65, 66, 69, 70, 71katuk 1, 2lagoon 145, 146, 147, 148, 150, 168land use types 178, 79, 82, 87Leucadendron 53, 54, 55, 56, 57Leuser ecosystem 92, 93life table 28, 29, 30local ecological knowledge 40long-tailed macaque 79, 80, 81, 82, 83Lore Lindu National Park 178, 179, 187macrofungi 65, 69, 71Malay Archipelago 161, 163, 164, 165, 166management 18, 26, 40, 41, 44, 49, 50, 72,

75, 76, 79, 86, 87, 112, 131,134, 136, 138, 140, 150, 151,152, 157, 159, 191, 192, 193,200, 202, 214, 216, 218, 219,220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225

Manokwari 87, 89, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102,103, 104, 105, 106, 124, 125,126, 127

Maratua Island 145, 146Mazandaran 72, 73, 75mining 13, 16Mount Slamet 23, 24, 25, 26,mtDNA 53, 54, 55, 56, 57Museum ZoologicumBogoriense

118, 119, 121, 122, 163

nad1/B-C 53, 54, 55, 57Natuna Sea 172, 173, 176, 177, 200, 204nature conservation 40, 44, 79Nusantara 161, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167,

168Olea 114, 115, 116

olive 114,orchid-mycorrhiza 59, 60, 61, 62, 63Pandanus conoideus 124, 125, 127, 128,Papilio demoleus 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33Papua 59, 60, 86, 87, 90, 98, 99, 100,

102, 103, 124, 26, 27, 28, 163,164, 166, 167

parasitoids 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33pasture 13, 131, 190, 192, 193PCR-RFLP 53, 54, 55, 57phylogenetic analysis 53, 60, 63, 107, 109physical 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129plant species diversity 7, 9, 72, 73plantation 18, 19, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31,

32, 33, 46, 47, 48, 50, 72, 73,74, 75, 76, 77, 151, 152, 154,158, 178, 180, 181, 187, 188,196, 208, 210, 214, 216, 219,220, 222

population 1, 2, 5, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28,31, 32, 33, 42, 44, 46, 47, 48,49, 50, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84,86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 108, 111,112, 114, 118, 126, 129, 130,135, 136, 137, 140, 142, 151,152, 155, 157, 158, 159, 161,162, 166, 168, 172, 173, 190,195, 196, 200, 201, 202, 203,204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209,210, 211, 212, 217, 221, 222

predator 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 83, 135,142, 43, 48, 200

prediction 18, 21, 217pristid 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166,

169Pristis 161, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167,

168, 169prohibited 43, 44, 135, 162, 190, 194, 224RAPD 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112,

114rattan 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 87, 151, 152,

153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158,159, 179, 180, 188, 205, 206,207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212

red fruit 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129reef fishes 145, 146, 147, 148, 200regression model 18, 19, 20, 21, 22restoration 12, 13, 14, 16, 33, 195, 196,

199Rhizoctonia 34, 37, 38, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63,Rhizophora 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177Riau Archipelago 200, 206Russula 65, 66, 68, 69, 70, 71sawfish 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166,

167, 168,seasonal wetland 135, 136, 138,secondary forest 14, 15, 25, 43, 44, 50, 92, 93,

94, 96, 102, 179, 188, 198sloping land 140, 141, 142, 143soil 7, 8, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19,

20, 21, 22, 42, 43, 46, 61, 72,

A-4

75, 76, 92, 96, 132, 137, 140,141, 214

soil macrofauna 140, 141, 142, 143Spathoglottis plicata 59, 60, 61, 62, 63SSR mining 114,structural complexity 7, 13, 76,sugarcane 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219,

220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225Sulawesi 178, 179, 187, 188Sumatra 13, 14, 40, 41, 44, 46, 47, 92,

93, 151, 152, 153, 163, 167,172, 178, 187, 205, 206, 210

supporting tree 205, 207, 208, 209, 211, 212,survival 23, 28, 29, 30, 33, 76, 79, 90,

81, 83, 84, 136, 143, 162, 191,196, 203, 204, 219, 221

Tambelan 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 200,201, 202, 203, 204

taxonomy 118, 161, 163topography 7, 11, 24, 65, 92, 140, 142, 172,

198, 218, 224,traditional agriculture 92, 93traditional medicine 98, 99, 100, 105, 107, 190, 192tree 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 40,

42, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51,54, 56, 57, 59, 62, 63, 67, 68,

69, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 87, 90,92, 94, 95, 96, 108, 111, 116,124, 126, 33, 40, 51, 54, 56, 57,58, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79,80, 81, 82, 87, 88, 95, 97, 98,205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 211,212, 213

tree diversity 16, 178, 179, 187tribe 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 98, 100,

102, 103, 105, 151, 152, 153,154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159,206, 207, 208

Tribulus terrestris 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112Tridacninae 118, 119, 122tropical forest 92, 93, 96, 178,Tulasnella 59, 60, 61, 62, 63wet season 28, 30, 32, 33wetland 42, 43, 130, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35,

36, 37, 38, 39, 42, 43, 130, 131,133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138,139

wild plant 98Zarivar 130, 131, 132

A-5

List of Peer Reviewers

Abdul-Reza Dabbagh The Persian Gulf Aquatics World Center, Bandar-e-Lengeh Branch, Islamic Azad University,Bandar-e Lengeh, Iran

Altafhusain B. Nadaf Department of Botany, University of Pune, Pune 411007, Maharashtra, IndiaAnath Bandhu Das Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, College of Agriculture, Orissa University of

Agricultutre & Technology, Bhubaneswar 751003, Orissa, IndiaBrad M. Potts School of Plant Science and Cooperative Research Centre for Forestry, University of

Tasmania, Hobart 7001, Tasmania, AustraliaChao Dai Chuan College of Life Science, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, PR ChinaDavid R. Bellwood School of Marine and Tropical Biology & ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies,

James Cook University, Townsville, Qld. 4811, AustraliaHari Sutrisno Division of Zoology, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong

Bogor 16911, West Java, IndonesiaHimmah Rustiami Division of Botany, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong

Bogor 16911, West Java, IndonesiaJean-Luc Legras INRA, UMR 1083 Sciences pour l'Oenologie Bat 28, 2 place Viala, F-34060 Montpellier

Cedex 1, FranceJesús Ernesto Arias González Dpto. Recursos del Mar, Cinvestav-Unidad Mérida, Cordemex 97310, Mérida, Yucatán,

MéxicoMahdi Reyahi-Khoram Department of Environment, Hamadan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Hamadan, IranMarilyn S. Combalicer Nueva Vizcaya State University, Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya, The PhilippinesMario A. Tan Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Research Center for the Natural and Applied

Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, Espana, Manila 1015, The PhilippinesMatt Gitzendanner Department of Biology and Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida,

Gainesville, FL 32611-7800, U.S.A.Md-Sajedul Islam University of Texas-Pan American and USDA-APHIS-PPQ-CPHST, Moore Air Base

Building S-6414, Edinburg, Texas 78541, U.S.A.Milan S. Stanković Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science, University of Kragujevac, Radoja

Domanovića 12, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia.Mohammad Basyuni Department of Mangroves and Bio-resources, Tropical Biosphere Research Center, University

of the Ryukyus. Nishihara, Okinawa 903-0213 JapanMohammed S.A. Ammar National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Attaqa, Suez, EgyptNelson Rosa Ferreira Group of Biotransformations and Molecular Biodiversity, Institute of Exact and Natural

Sciences, Federal University of Pará, Belém, Pará, BrazilPrafulla Soni Ecology and Environment Division, Forest Research Institute, Dehradun 248006,

Uttarakhand, India.Pulla K. Nakayama Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Nara Institute of Science and Technology 8916-5,

Takayama, Ikoma, Nara 630-0192, JapanRashid Sumaila UBC Fisheries Centre, University of British Columbia, 2202 Main Mall Vancouver, BC,

CanadaRichard C. Gardner School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New ZealandSaneyoshi Ueno Department of Forest Genetics, Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Matsunosato,

Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8687, JapanShahabuddin Department of Agrotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Tadulako University. Tondo, Palu

94118, Central Sulawesi, IndonesiaSujitha Thomas Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Research Centre Mangalore, Bolar, Mangalore

575001, Karnataka, IndiaSuranto Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Sebelas Maret

University. Surakarta 57126, Central Java, IndonesiaYaherwandi Departmentof Plant Pest and Disease, Faculty of Agriculture, Andalas University, Padang

25161, West Sumatra, IndonesiaYouhong Peng Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chengdu, P.R. ChinaZhengrong Luo Department of Pomology, Key Lab of Horticultural Plant Biology, Huazhong Agricultural

University, Shizishan, Wuhan 430070, P.R. China

A-6

Table of Contents

Vol. 13, No. 1, Pp. 1-51, January 2012

GENETIC DIVERSTYEstradiol-17β hormone concentration and follicles number in exotic Burgo chicken supplemented by Sauropusandrogynus katuk leaves extractHERI DWI PUTRANTO, JOHAN SETIANTO, URIP SANTOSO, WARNOTO, NURMELIASARI, AHMAD ZUENI

1-6

ECOSYSTEM DIVERSTYPlant species diversity in the ecological species groups in the Kandelat Forest Park, Guilan, North of IranHASSAN POURBABAEI, TAHEREH HAGHGOOY

7-12

Returning biodiversity of rehabilitated forest on a coal mined site at Tanjung Enim, South SumatraHERY SUHARTOYO, ALI MUNAWAR, WIRYONO

13-17

Predictive model of Amorphophallus muelleri growth in some agroforestry in East Java by multiple regression analysisBUDIMAN, ENDANG ARISOESILANINGSIH

18-22

Population density and distribution of Javan gibbon (Hylobates moloch) in Central Java, IndonesiaARIF SETIAWAN, TEJO SURYO NUGROHO, YOHANNES WIBISONO, VERA IKAWATI, JITO SUGARDJITO

23-27

Age-specific life table of swallowtail butterfly Papilio demoleus (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) in dry and wet seasonsSUWARNO

28-33

Frequency of endophytic fungi isolated from Dendrobium crumenatum (Pigeon orchid) and antimicrobial activityWIBOWO MANGUNWARDOYO, SUCIATMIH, INDRAWATI GANDJAR

34-39

ETHNOBIOLOGYJambak Jambu Kalko: Nature conservation management of the Serampas of Jambi, SumatraBAMBANG HARIYADI

40-45

The relationships of forest biodiversity and rattan jernang (Deamonorops draco) sustainable harvesting by AnakDalam tribe in Jambi, SumatraANDRIO ADIWIBOWO, IIK SRI SULASMI, NISYAWATI

46-51

Vol. 13, No. 2, Pp. 53-106, April 2012

GENETIC DIVERSTYThe conservation of mitochondrial genome sequence in Leucadendron (Proteaceae)MADE PHARMAWATI, GUIJUN YAN, PATRICK M. FINNEGAN

53-58

Isolation and phylogenetic relationship of orchid-mycorrhiza from Spathoglottis plicata of Papua using mitochondrialribosomal large subunit (mt-Ls) DNASUPENI SUFAATI, VERENA AGUSTINI, SUHARNO

59-64

ECOSYSTEM DIVERSTYDiversity of macrofungal genus Russula and Amanita in Hirpora Wildlife Sanctuary, Southern Kashmir HimalayasSHAUKET AHMED PALA, ABDUL HAMID WANI, RIYAZ AHMAD MIR

65-71

Effect of plantations on plant species diversity in the Darabkola, Mazandaran Province, North of IranHASSAN POURBABAEI, FATEMEH ASGARI, ALBERT REIF, ROYA ABEDI

72-78

Determination of long-tailed macaque’s (Macaca fascicularis) harvesting quotas based on demographic parametersYANTO SANTOSA, KUSMARDIASTUTI, AGUS PRIYONO KARTONO, DEDE AULIA RAHMAN

79-85

The population condition and the food availability of cuscus in the Arfak Mountains Nature Reserve, West PapuaANTON SILAS SINERY, CHANDRADEWANA BOER, WARTIKA ROSA FARIDA

86-91

A-7

ETHNOBIOLOGYVegetation stands structure and aboveground biomass after the shifting cultivation practices of Karo People inLeuser Ecosystem, North SumatraT. ALIEF ATHTHORICK, DEDE SETIADI, YOHANES PURWANTO, EDI GUHARDJA

92-97

The wild plants used as traditional medicines by indigenous people of Manokwari, West PapuaOBED LENSE

98-106

Vol. 12, No. 3, Pp. 107-160, July 2012

GENETIC DIVERSTYA comparative phylogenetic analysis of medicinal plant Tribulus terrestris in Northwest India revealed by RAPD andISSR markersASHWANI KUMAR, NEELAM VERMA

107-113

In Silico chloroplast SSRs mining of Olea speciesERTUGRUL FILIZ, IBRAHIM KOC

114-117

SPECIES DIVERSTYTaxonomy of Indonesian giant clams (Cardiidae, Tridacninae)UDHI EKO HERNAWAN

118-123

The exploration and diversity of red fruit (Pandanus conoideus L.) from Papua based on its physical characteristicsand chemical compositionMURTININGRUM, ZITA L. SARUNGALLO, NOUKE L. MAWIKERE

124-129

ECOSYSTEM DIVERSTYStudy of biodiversity and limiting factors of Ag-gol Wetland in Hamadan Province, IranMAHDI REYAHI-KHORAM, VAHID NORISHARIKABAD, HOSHANG VAFAEI

130-134

Assessment of biodiversities and spatial structure of Zarivar Wetland in Kurdistan Province, IranMAHDI REYAHI-KHORAM, KAMAL HOSHMAND

135-139

Diversity of soil macrofauna on different pattern of sloping land agroforestry in Wonogiri, Central JavaMARKANTIA ZARRA PERITIKA, SUGIYARTO, SUNARTO

140-144

Fish biodiversity in coral reefs and lagoon at the Maratua Island, East KalimantanHAWIS H. MADDUPPA, SYAMSUL B. AGUS, AULIA R. FARHAN, DEDE SUHENDRA, BEGINER SUBHAN

145-150

ETHNOBIOLOGYJernang rattan (Daemonorops draco) management by Anak Dalam Tribe in Jebak Village, Batanghari, JambiProvinceIIK SRI SULASMI, NISYAWATI, YOHANES PURWANTO, SITI FATIMAH

151-160

Vol. 12, No. 4, Pp. 161-227, October 2012

SPECIES DIVERSTYSpecies diversity of critically endangered pristid sawfishes (Elasmobranchii: Pristidae) of Nusantara waters (MalayArchipelago)SUTARNO, AHMAD DWI SETYAWAN, IWAN SUYATNA

161-171

Species diversity of Rhizophora in Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea, IndonesiaAHMAD DWI SETYAWAN, YAYA IHYA ULUMUDDIN

172-177

ECOSYSTEM DIVERSTYImpact of forest disturbance on the structure and composition of vegetation in tropical rainforest of CentralSulawesi, IndonesiaRAMADHANIL PITOPANG

178-189

Plants and animals diversity in Buqaty Mountain Area (BMA) in Hamadan Province, IranMAHDI REYAHI-KHORAM, MAJEED JAFARY, MOSTAFA BAYATI, REIHANEH REYAHI-KHORAM

190-194

Vegetative characteristics of Avicennia marina on the artificial inletAKBAR GHASEMI, HAMID JALILVAND, SOHEIL MOHAJERI-BORAZJANI

195-199

Population dynamics of dominant demersal fishes caught in Tambelan Islands waters, Riau Archipelago ProvinceYONVITNER, FAHMI

200-204

A-8

ETHNOBIOLOGYThe population of Jernang rattan (Daemonorops draco) in Jebak Village, Batanghari District, Jambi Province,IndonesiaIIK SRI SULASMI, NISYAWATI, YOHANES PURWANTO, SITI FATIMAH

205-213

REVIEWReview: Sugarcane production: Impact of climate change and its mitigationASHOK K. SRIVASTAVA, MAHENDRA K. RAI

214-227

GUIDANCE FOR AUTHORS

Aims and Scope ”Biodiversitas, Journal of Biological Diversity” orBiodiversitas encourages submission of manuscripts dealing with allbiodiversity aspects of plants, animals and microbes at the level of gene,species, and ecosystem.

Article types The journal seeks original full-length research papers,reviews, and scientific feedback (short communication) about materialpreviously published.

Acceptance The only articles written in English (U.S. English) areaccepted for publication. Manuscripts will be reviewed by managing editor,communicating editor and invited peer review according to their disciplines.Authors will generally be notified of acceptance, rejection, or need forrevision within 2 to 3 months of receipt. Manuscript is rejected if the contentis not in line with the journal scope, dishonest, does not meet the requiredquality, written in inappropriate format, has incorrect grammar, or ignorescorrespondence in three months. The primary criteria for publication arescientific quality and biodiversity significance. The accepted papers will bepublished in a chronological order. This journal periodically publishes inJanuary, April, July, and October.

Uncorrection proofs will be sent to the corresponding author by e-mailas .doc or .docx files for checking and correcting of typographical errors. Toavoid delay in publication, proofs should be returned in 7 days.

A charge The cost of each manuscript is IDR 250,000,- plus postal costor IDR 150,000,- for SIB members. There is free of charge for nonIndonesian author(s), but need to pay postal cost for hardcopy.

Reprints Two copies of journal will be supplied to authors; reprint is onlyavailable with special request. Additional copies may be purchased by orderwhen sending back the uncorrection proofs by e-mail.

Submission The journal only accepts online submission, through e-mailto the managing editor at [email protected]; better to forward to oneof the communicating editor for accelerating evaluation.. The manuscriptmust be accompanied with a cover letter containing the article title, the firstname and last name of all the authors, a paragraph describing the claimednovelty of the findings versus current knowledge, and a list of five suggestedinternational reviewers (title, name, postal address, email address). Reviewersmust not be subject to a conflict of interest involving the author(s) ormanuscript(s). The editor is not obligated to use any reviewer suggested bythe author(s).

Copyright Submission of a manuscript implies that the submitted workhas not been published before (except as part of a thesis or report, or abstract);that it is not under consideration for publication elsewhere; that its publicationhas been approved by all co-authors. If and when the manuscript is acceptedfor publication, the author(s) agree to transfer copyright of the acceptedmanuscript to Biodiversitas. Authors shall no longer be allowed to publishmanuscript without permission. For the new invention, authors suggested tomanage its patent before publishing in this journal.

Open access The journal is committed to free open access that does notcharge readers or their institutions for access. Users are entitled to read,download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of thearticles, as long as not for commercial purposes. For the new invention,authors are suggested to manage its patent before published.

Preparing the ManuscriptManuscript is typed at one side of white paper of A4 (210x297 mm2)

size, in a single column, double space, 12-point Times New Roman font, with2 cm distance step aside in all side. Smaller letter size and space can beapplied in presenting table. Word processing program or additional softwarecan be used, however, it must be PC compatible and Microsoft Word based.Names of sub-species until phylum should be written in italic, except for italicsentence. Scientific name (genera, species, author), and cultivar or strainshould be mentioned completely at the first time mentioning it, especially fortaxonomic manuscripts. Name of genera can be shortened after firstmentioning, except generating confusion. Name of author can be eliminatedafter first mentioning. For example, Rhizopus oryzae L. UICC 524,hereinafter can be written as R. oryzae UICC 524. Using trivial name shouldbe avoided, otherwise generating confusion. Mentioning of scientific namecompletely can be repeated at Materials and Methods. Biochemical andchemical nomenclature should follow the order of IUPAC-IUB, while itstranslation to Indonesian-English refers to Glossarium Istilah Asing-Indonesia (2006). For DNA sequence, it is better used Courier New font.

Symbols of standard chemical and abbreviation of chemistry name can beapplied for common and clear used, for example, completely written butilichydroxytoluene to be BHT hereinafter. Metric measurement use IS denomi-nation, usage other system should follow the value of equivalent with thedenomination of IS first mentioning. Abbreviation set of, like g, mg, mL, etc.do not follow by dot. Minus index (m-2, L-1, h-1) suggested to be used, exceptin things like “per-plant” or “per-plot”. Equation of mathematics does notalways can be written down in one column with text, for that case can bewritten separately. Number one to ten are expressed with words, except if itrelates to measurement, while values above them written in number, except inearly sentence. Fraction should be expressed in decimal. In text, it should beused “%” rather than “gratuity”. Avoid expressing idea with complicated

sentence and verbiage, and used efficient and effective sentence. Manuscriptof original research should be written in no more than 25 pages (includingtables and picture), each page contain 700-800 word, or proportional witharticle in this publication number. Invited review articles will beaccommodated.

Title of article should be written in compact, clear, and informativesentence preferably not more than 20 words. Name of author(s) should becompletely written. Running title is about five words. Name and institutionaddress should be also completely written with street name and number(location), zip code, telephone number, facsimile number, and e-mail address.Manuscript written by a group, author for correspondence along with addressis required. First page of the manuscript is used for writing above information.

Abstract should not be more than 200 words, written in English.Keywords is about five words, covering scientific and local name (if any),research theme, and special methods which used. Introduction is about 400-600 words, covering background and aims of the research. Materials andMethods should emphasize on the procedures and data analysis. Results andDiscussion should be written as a series of connecting sentences, however,for manuscript with long discussion should be divided into sub titles.Thorough discussion represents the causal effect mainly explains for why andhow the results of the research were taken place, and do not only re-expressthe mentioned results in the form of sentences. Concluding sentence shouldpreferably be given at the end of the discussion. Acknowledgments areexpressed in a brief.

Figures and Tables of maximum of three pages should be clearlypresented. Title of a picture is written down below the picture, while title of atable is written in the above the table. Colored picture and photo can beaccepted if information in manuscript can lose without those images. Photosand pictures are preferably presented in a digital file. JPEG format should besent in the final (accepted) article. Author could consign any picture or photofor front cover, although it does not print in the manuscript. There is noappendix, all data or data analysis are incorporated into Results andDiscussions. For broad data, it can be displayed in website as Supplement.

Citation in manuscript is written in “name and year” system; and isarranged from oldest to newest and from A to Z. The sentence sourced frommany authors, should be structured based on the year of recently. In citing anarticle written by two authors, both of them should be mentioned, however,for three and more authors only the family (last) name of the first author ismentioned followed by et al., for example: Saharjo and Nurhayati (2006) or(Boonkerd 2003a, b, c; Sugiyarto 2004; El-Bana and Nijs 2005; Balagadde etal. 2008; Webb et al. 2008). Extent citation as shown with word “cit” shouldbe avoided. Reference to unpublished data and personal communicationshould not appear in the list but should be cited in the text only (e.g., RifaiMA 2007, personal communication; Setyawan AD 2007, unpublished data).In the reference list, the references should be listed in an alphabetical order.Names of journals should be abbreviated according to the ISSN List of TitleWord Abbreviations (www.issn.org/2-22661-LTWA-online.php).

APA style in double space is used in the journal reference as follow:

Journal:Saharjo BH, Nurhayati AD (2006) Domination and composition structure

change at hemic peat natural regeneration following burning; a case studyin Pelalawan, Riau Province. Biodiversitas 7: 154-158.

Book:Rai MK, Carpinella C (2006) Naturally occurring bioactive compounds.

Elsevier, Amsterdam.

Chapter in book:Webb CO, Cannon CH, Davies SJ (2008) Ecological organization, biogeography and

the phylogenetic structure of rainforest tree communities. In: Carson W,Schnitzer S (eds) Tropical forest community ecology. Wiley-Blackwell,New York.

Abstract:Assaeed AM (2007) Seed production and dispersal of Rhazya stricta. 50th

annual symposium of the International Association for VegetationScience, Swansea, UK, 23-27 July 2007.

Proceeding:Alikodra HS (2000) Biodiversity for development of local autonomous

government. In: Setyawan AD, Sutarno (eds) Toward mount Lawunational park; proceeding of national seminary and workshop onbiodiversity conservation to protect and save germplasm in Java island.Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta, 17-20 July 2000. [Indonesian]

Thesis, Dissertation:Sugiyarto (2004) Soil macro-invertebrates diversity and inter-cropping plants

productivity in agroforestry system based on sengon. [Dissertation].Brawijaya University, Malang. [Indonesian]

Information from internet:Balagadde FK, Song H, Ozaki J, Collins CH, Barnet M, Arnold FH, Quake

SR, You L (2008) A synthetic Escherichia coli predator-prey ecosystem.Mol Syst Biol 4: 187. www.molecularsystemsbiology.com

L

SPECIES DIVERSTYSpecies diversity of critically endangered pristid sawfishes (Elasmobranchii: Pristidae) ofNusantara waters (Malay Archipelago)SUTARNO, AHMAD DWI SETYAWAN, IWAN SUYATNA

161-171


172-177

ECOSYSTEM DIVERSTYImpact of forest disturbance on the structure and composition of vegetation in tropicalrainforest of Central Sulawesi, IndonesiaRAMADHANIL PITOPANG

178-189

Plants and animals diversity in Buqaty Mountain Area (BMA) in Hamadan Province, IranMAHDI REYAHI-KHORAM, MAJEED JAFARY, MOSTAFA BAYATI, REIHANEHREYAHI-KHORAM

190-194


195-199

Population dynamics of dominant demersal fishes caught in Tambelan Islands waters,Riau Archipelago ProvinceYONVITNER, FAHMI

200-204

ETHNOBIOLOGYThe population of Jernang rattan (Daemonorops draco) in Jebak Village, BatanghariDistrict, Jambi Province, IndonesiaIIK SRI SULASMI, NISYAWATI, YOHANES PURWANTO, SITI FATIMAH

205-213

REVIEWSugarcane production: Impact of climate change and its mitigationASHOK K. SRIVASTAVA, MAHENDRA K. RAI

214-227

Front cover:

Avicennia marina(PHOTO: ABU ABDURRAHMAN)

Published four times in one year PRINTED IN INDONESIA

ISSN: 1412-033XE-ISSN: 2085-4722

E-ISSN: 2085-4722ISSN: 1412-033X

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161-171


172-177


178-189


190-194


195-199


200-204


205-213


214-227

Front cover:



ISSN: 1412-033XE-ISSN: 2085-4722

E-ISSN: 2085-4722ISSN: 1412-033X

L


161-171


172-177


178-189


190-194


195-199


200-204


205-213


214-227

Front cover:



ISSN: 1412-033XE-ISSN: 2085-4722

E-ISSN: 2085-4722ISSN: 1412-033X

Documents

Biodiversitas vol. 13, no. 4, October 2012