biodiv

N E W Y O R K S T A T E M U S E U M

Biological Diversity:T H E O L D E S T H U M A N H E R I T A G E

By

Edward O. Wilson


THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK

RE G E N TS O F T H E UN I V E R S I T Y

Carl T. Hayden, Chancellor, A.B., J.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elmira

Diane O’Neill McGivern, Vice Chancellor, B.S.N., M.A., Ph.D. . . . . Staten Island

J. Edward Meyer, B.A., LL.B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chappaqua

R. Carlos Carballada, Chancellor Emeritus, B.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rochester

Adelaide L. Sanford, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hollis

Saul B. Cohen, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . New Rochelle

James C. Dawson, A.A., B.A., M.S., Ph.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Peru

Robert M. Bennett, B.A., M.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tonawanda

Robert M. Johnson, B.A., J.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lloyd Harbor

Peter M. Pryor, B.A., LL.B., J.D., LL.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Albany

Anthony S. Bottar, B.A., J.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Syracuse

Merryl H. Tisch, B.A., M.A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . New York

Harold O. Levy, B.S., M.A. (Oxon.), J.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . New York

Ena L. Farley, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Brockport

Geraldine D. Chapey, B.A., M.A., Ed.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Belle Harbor

Ricardo E. Oquendo, B.A., J.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . New York

PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY AND COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION

Richard P. Mills

CHIEF OPERATING OFFICER

Richard H. Cate

DEPUTY COMMISSIONER FOR CULTURAL EDUCATION

Carole F. Huxley

DIRECTOR FOR THE STATE MUSEUM

Clifford A. Siegfried

The State Education Department does not discriminate on the basis of age, color, religion, creed,disability, marital status, veteran status, national origin, race, gender, genetic predispositionor carrier status, or sexual orientation in its educational programs, services and activities.Portions of this publication can be made available in a variety of formats, including Braille,large print or audiotape, upon request. Inquiries concerning this policy of nondiscriminationshould be directed to the Department’s Office for Diversity, Ethics, and Access, Room 152,Education Building, Albany, NY 12234.


By

Edward O. Wilson

Pellegrino University Research Professor and Honorary Curator in Entomology at Harvard University

N e w Y o r k S t a t e M u s e u m

E d u c a t i o n a l L e a f l e t 3 4

A Publication of The New York State Biodiversity Research Institute

The University of the State of New YorkThe State Education Department

N E W Y O R K S T A T E M U S E U M

Copyright © 1999 by The New York State Biodiversity Research InstitutePrinted in the United States of America

Published in 1999 by:The New York State Biodiversity Research InstituteNew York State MuseumCultural Education CenterAlbany, New York 12230(518) 486-4845http://www.nysm.nysed.gov/bri.html

Requests for additional copies of this publication may be made by contacting:Publication SalesNew York State MuseumCultural Education CenterAlbany, New York 12230(518) 449-1404http://www.nysm.nysed.gov/publications.html

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 99-70195

ISBN: 1-55557-210-3ISSN: 0735-4401

Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

Biological Diversity: The Oldest Human Heritage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Appendix I (Glossary) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Appendix II (Suggested Reading) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Appendix III (Discussion Questions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Appendix IV (Geologic Time Table) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Preface

This book is based on a manuscript written by Edward Osborne Wilson

following the first New York Natural History Conference at the New York State

Museum in Albany on June 20-22, 1990. Wilson, who was the keynote speaker,

opened the conference with a talk titled “Biodiversity and the Future of the Global

Environment.” He described how the extinction of species caused by habitat

destruction has increased to a rate that may be 10,000 or more times greater than

the rate prior to human intervention. This mass extinction, according to Wilson, is

the most destructive global environmental change occurring at this time, and it is

critical that we reverse the process. Following his keynote address at the New York

State Museum, Wilson put together a manuscript based on the topics covered in

his talk to be used as the basis of this educational book. Although this manuscript

was written in 1990, the ideas presented are of great value and will continue to be

important for many years to come.

Edward Osborne Wilson is a world-renowned scientist and researcher. He

currently works at Harvard University as Pellegrino University Research Professor

and as Honorary Curator in Entomology. Wilson is also a distinguished writer;

he has written or edited 20 books, including two that have won Pulitzer Prizes in

general non-fiction, On Human Nature and The Ants (with co-author Bert

Hölldobler). Over a career of nearly 50 years, Wilson has focused on a wide range

of topics from population biology to sociobiology and, most recently, biodiversity

issues. His career has always centered on the study of his lifelong passion—ants—

and he is recognized as the world’s leading authority on the kingdom of ants.

His major contributions to the field of myrmecology include the discovery of

B i o l o g i c a l vii D i v e r s i t y

B i o l o g i c a l viii D i v e r s i t y

pheromones that direct specific ant activities and the discovery of many previously

unknown species of ants from around the world. He has also begun to unravel and

describe some of the complex social behaviors of these insects.

Although Wilson’s career continues to involve research on ants, he has also

recently assumed a new role as a leader in the crusade to save the world’s biodiversity.

In his book Biodiversity, he states: “… every scrap of biological diversity is priceless,

to be learned and cherished, and never to be surrendered without a struggle.” In

the pages that follow, Wilson describes why this is true. He explains how all aspects

of human well being are dependent on preserving the remaining biological resources

of our world, and why we can no longer ignore increased extinction rates that are

the result of anthropogenic activities. In the final pages of this book, Wilson offers

recommendations and a multi-disciplinary approach for the successful

conservation and use of biodiversity.

This book has been printed using funds from the New York State Biodiversity

Research Institute (BRI). The BRI was created during a time of increasing awareness

of the urgent need to preserve global and local biodiversity. State Education Law

(Section 235-a (2, 3)) of 1993 mandated the establishment of the BRI within the

New York State Museum to meet these demands. The BRI is funded through the

Environmental Protection Fund and includes a number of collaborators, including

the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, the New York

Natural Heritage Program, and the New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and

Historic Preservation. Activities of the BRI are guided by an executive committee,

which is appointed by the legislature and the governor of New York. The major

objectives of the BRI include the following:

• promote and sponsor cooperative scientific and educational efforts to increase

our knowledge and awareness of biodiversity within New York state;

• advise the governor and officials of governmental agencies on biodiversity issues

within New York state;

• develop a comprehensive and readily accessible database on the status of

biodiversity within New York state; and

• identify areas within the state that lack adequate biodiversity information and

promote research in such areas.

Additional information on the activities of the BRI along with databases related

to New York state’s biodiversity can be found by accessing the BRI’s Web site at

http://www.nysm.nysed.gov/bri.html. By making this information readily available,

natural resource managers will be better able to minimize potentially negative

impacts on local biodiversity. Ultimately, however, the successful conservation of

biodiversity will also depend greatly upon increasing public concern and aware-

ness—especially by future generations—of local and global biological diversity.

In recognition of this situation, the BRI published this book with the intent of

educating primarily high school students on the values of biodiversity. However,

considering the urgency and importance of the issues discussed, this book will,

we believe, be of value to a much broader audience.

We wish to acknowledge all the people who have assisted us in the publication

of this book. Above all, we owe the most thanks to the author, Edward O. Wilson,

who has graciously offered his writing to us. We are also grateful for all the effort

Patricia Kernan has put into creating the drawings that illustrate the pages of this

book and the cover. Finally, we extend our thanks to all those who have worked on

editing the text, including Erin Davison, Jeanne Finley, Karen Frolich, Patricia

Kernan, Norton Miller, Shannon Murphy, David Steadman, Gordon Tucker and

Lisa Wootan.

Ronald J. GillBiodiversity Research SpecialistNew York State Biodiversity Research Institute

Clifford A. SiegfriedDirectorNew York State Museum

Albany, New YorkFebruary 1999

B i o l o g i c a l ix D i v e r s i t y

HE ROSY PERIWINKLE (CATHARANTHUS ROSEUS )

IS THE SOURCE OF ALKALOID CHEMICALS THAT

ARE USED TO TREAT TWO OF THE MOST DEADLY

FORMS OF CANCER: HODGKIN’S DISEASE AND

ACUTE LYMPHOCYTIC LEUKEMIA.

T

In the northeastern United States, as in most of the remainder of the country,

about one plant species in five is threatened with significant reduction in numbers

or even with total extinction. Here are the names of several: New England boneset,

Furbish’s lousewort, threadleaf sundew, fairy wand and hairy beardtongue. Many

people still ask the vexing question: Of what possible value, except to a few

botanists, is a plant with a name like hairy beardtongue? Why should money and

effort be spent to save this and other bits of floristic esoterica?

Let me tell the ways. Consider periwinkles of the genus Catharanthus, flowering

plants that live on Madagascar, a great island off the East Coast of Africa. Inconspicuous

in appearance, located all the way around the world, the six species of periwinkles

would seem to be even less worthy of attention than beardtongues and louseworts.

But one of them, the rosy periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus), is the source of alkaloid

chemicals vinblastine and vincristine, used to cure two of the most deadly forms of

cancer: Hodgkin’s disease, especially dangerous to young adults, and acute lympho-

cytic leukemia, which, before the periwinkle alkaloids, was a virtual death sentence

for young children. These anti-cancer substances are now the basis of an industry

earning more than 100 million dollars a year. Ironically, the other five periwinkle

species remain largely unexamined for their medical potential. One of them is near

extinction due to the destruction of its habitat on Madagascar. On a global scale,

one out of ten plant species has been found to contain anti-cancer substances of


By

Edward O. Wilson

B i o l o g i c a l 1 D i v e r s i t y


OME NORTHEASTERN PLANTS HAVE PROVIDED

PEOPLE WITH FOLK REMEDIES, SUCH AS

JEWELWEED SAP USED IN TREATING THE RASH

POISON IVY CAUSES. OTHER SPECIES—FOR

EXAMPLE, GINSENG AND GOLDEN-SEAL—ARE

GATHERED COMMERCIALLY AND CULTIVATED

TO A LIMITED EXTENT IN NEW YORK STATE.

S

some degree of potency. A much higher percentage yield pharmaceuticals and other

natural products of potential use as well as basic scientific information. If we dismiss

beardtongues and louseworts, we may be doing ourselves a considerable disservice.

Simple prudence dictates that no species, however humble, should ever be allowed

to go extinct if it is within the power of humanity to save it. Take another—even

repugnant—example, the leech. We would certainly be better off without these

miserable bloodsuckers, right? Wrong. The medicinal leech of Europe has proved to

be of great value to modern medicine. To prevent the blood of its victims from

clotting, it secretes a powerful anticoagulant called hirudin. This substance is used to

treat contusions, thrombosis, hemorrhoids and other conditions in which clotting

blood can be painful or dangerous. Thousands of lives are saved annually by hirudin.

The leech uses a second substance, the enzyme hyaluronidase, to disperse cells and

hasten the penetration of hirudin. Surgeons adapt this material in the same way to

spread injected drugs and anesthetics. Leeches also contain antibiotics and substances

that enlarge the diameter of blood vessels, which might someday lead to a cure

for migraine headaches. Medicinal leeches are now the basis of a $4 million annual

business. They are so much in demand that the European species is threatened by

overcollecting in its natural habitat.

With the aid of other specialists (my own special group is ants), I have estimated

the total number of kinds of plants, animals, and microorganisms known to science

to be about 1.4 million. By “known to science” we mean characterized anatomically

and given a scientific name, such as Canis familiaris for the domestic dog, Hirudo

medicinalis for the European medicinal leech, and Homo sapiens for humans. But

the actual number of kinds is estimated to fall somewhere between 10 million and

80 million, depending on the statistical method used and the degree of conserva-

tiveness on the part of the scientist making the estimate. The truth is that we don’t

know even to the nearest order of magnitude the amount of diversity. In other words,

we cannot say whether the figure is closer to 1 million, 10 million or 100 million.

When scientists fail to make a measurement to the nearest order of magnitude,

it is fair to surmise that the subject is still poorly known. The truth is that life on

planet earth has only begun to be explored. Every time I go to a rainforest site in

Central or South America, I find new species of ants within several hours of searching.



OME SPECIES OF LEECHES CONTAIN THE

CHEMICAL HIRUDIN AND THE ENZYME

HYALURONIDASE, BOTH OF WHICH ARE USED

IN MEDICINE.

S

Some groups of organisms, such as fungi and mites (small spider-like organisms

that abound in the leaf litter and soil) are so poorly studied that it is possible to find

new species within a few miles of almost any locality in the United States, including

the most densely populated urban areas. In the Chocó region of Colombia, as many

as half the plant species, including trees and shrubs, still lack a scientific name.

Even new species of mammals still turn up occasionally. In the past several years, a

new deer, a kind of muntjac, was found in western China, and a new monkey, the

sun-tailed guenon, was discovered in Gabon.

We know less about life on earth than we know about the surface of the moon and

Mars—in part because far less money has been spent studying it. Taxonomy, the

study of classification and hence of biological diversity, has been allowed to dwindle,

while other important fields such as space exploration and biomedical studies have

flourished. Like glass-blowing and harpsichord manufacture, taxonomy of many

kinds of organisms has been left in the hands of a small number of unappreciated

specialists who have had few opportunities to train their successors. To take one of

hundreds of examples, two of the four most abundant groups of small animals of

the soil are springtails and oribatid mites. Marvelously varied, having complex life

cycles, and teeming by the millions in every acre of land, these tiny animals play

vital ecological roles by consuming dead vegetable matter. Thus they help to drive

the energy and materials cycles on which all of life depends. Yet there are only four

specialists in the United States who can identify springtails—one is retired—and

only one is an expert on oribatid mites. The reason that so little is heard about

these important organisms in the scientific literature and popular press is that there

are so few people who know enough to write about them at any level.

The general neglect of expertise in the face of overwhelming need and

opportunity rebounds to the weakness of many other enterprises in science and

education. Museums are understaffed, with too few biologists to develop research

collections and prepare exhibitions. Systematics, the branch of biology that employs

taxonomy and the study of similarities among species to work out the evolution of

groups of organisms, is able to address only a minute fraction of life. Biogeography,

the analysis of the distribution of organisms, is similarly hobbled. So is ecology,

the extremely important discipline that explores the relationships of organisms



VERY TIME THAT I GO INTO THE RAINFOREST

IN CENTRAL OR SOUTH AMERICA, I FIND

NEW SPECIES OF ANTS WITHIN SEVERAL HOURS

OF SEARCHING.”

—EDWARD O. WILSON

“E


to their environment and to one another. A great deal of the future of biology

depends on the strengthening of taxonomy, for if you can’t tell one kind of plant

or animal from another, you are in trouble. Some kinds of research may be held

up indefinitely. As the Chinese say, the beginning of wisdom is getting things by

their right names.

The study of classification and expertise on “obscure” groups of organisms

such as periwinkles, leeches, springtails and mites may receive the needed boost by

association with what has come to be known as biodiversity studies. Biodiversity

studies constitute a hybrid discipline that took solid form during the 1980s. They

can be defined (a bit formally, I admit, but bear with me) as follows: the systematic

examination of the full array of organisms and the origin of this diversity, together

with the technology by which diversity can be maintained and utilized for the

benefit of humanity. Thus biodiversity studies are both scientific in nature, a branch

of pure evolutionary biology, and applied studies, a branch of biotechnology.

Two events during the past quarter-century brought biodiversity to center

stage and encouraged the deliberately hybrid form of its analysis. The first was the

recognition that human activity threatens the extinction of not only a few “star”

species such as giant pandas and California condors, but also a large fraction of all

the species of plants and animals on earth. At least one-quarter of the species on

earth are likely to vanish due to the cutting and burning of tropical rainforests

alone if the current rate of destruction continues. The second reason for the new

prominence of biodiversity studies is the recognition that extinction can be slowed

and eventually halted without significant cost to humanity. Extinction is not a price

we are compelled to pay for economic progress. Quite the contrary: As the examples of

the rosy periwinkle and medicinal leech suggest, conservation can promote human

welfare. Ultimately conservation might even be necessary for continued progress in

many realms of endeavor.

The connection between the biodiversity crisis and economic development

has been an important element in the reawakening of environmentalism in 1990,

which reached a peak when Earth Day II was celebrated on April 22—20 years

after the original event. The new environmentalism continues to endure. It arose

with auspicious timing at the end of the Cold War, as Eastern Europe abandoned

communism and Russian-U.S. relations entered their most cooperative period

since the Second World War. The industrialized countries could now, it seemed,

turn more of their energies to domestic reform, including improvement of the

environment.

It appeared to many scientists, the public and political leaders that this oppor-

tunity was realized not a moment too soon. What were previously viewed as mostly

local events such as pollution of a harbor here or landfilling of a marsh there, had

coalesced into secular global trends. Through advances in technology, scientists were

able to make precise measurements of changes in the atmosphere and of the rates

of deforestation and other forms of habitat destruction. And when the iron curtain

lifted, the environment was revealed to be even worse off in socialist countries than

in the capitalist West. Action to reverse the decline was demanded everywhere.


ARVELOUSLY VARIED, HAVING COMPLEX

LIFE CYCLES, AND TEEMING BY THE MILLIONS

IN EVERY ACRE OF LAND, SPRINGTAILS PLAY

VITAL ECOLOGICAL ROLES BY CONSUMING

DEAD VEGETABLE MATTER.

M

EW YORK’S BIODIVERSITY IS THREATENED MAINLY BECAUSE OF

HUMAN ACTIVITY. HABITAT DESTRUCTION AND/OR PESTICIDES HAVE

CAUSED SPECIES SUCH AS THE KARNER BLUE BUTTERFLY (PICTURED

BELOW), LOGGERHEAD SHRIKE AND BLACK TERN TO BECOME ENDANGERED.

MISMANAGEMENT, SPECIFICALLY OVERHUNTING, HELPED BRING THE

PASSENGER PIGEON TO EXTINCTION AND EXTIRPATED THE MOUNTAIN

LION, GRAY WOLF AND ELK FROM THE NORTHEAST. PLANT SPECIES LIKE

LEATHERFLOWER (CLEMATIS OCHROLEUCA ), SHORTLEAF PINE (PINUS

ECHINATA ), AND LONG’S BULRUSH (SCIRPUS LONGII ) ONCE OCCURRED

IN THE NEW YORK METROPOLITAN AREA, BUT DISAPPEARED AS THE CITY

EXPANDED AND DESTROYED WOODLANDS AND WETLANDS.


N

By Timothy L. McCabeSenior Scientist and Curator of EntomologyNew York State Museum

The Karner blue butterfly serves as an indicator of the environmental health

of the Albany pine barrens. The Karner blue larvae are dependent on a single

host plant—the blue lupine. Lupine requires a complex mix of fire, low graze

pressure from herbivores, and disturbance. The butterflies have equally complex

needs for winter snow cover, nectar sources, ant symbionts and traffic-free areas.

In preserves, deer and rabbit populations are protected from exploitation,

enabling them to build large populations. The resulting increased browsing puts

unnatural pressure on selected plants, particularly the lupine, thus reducing host

availability.

The Karner blue butterflies disperse across the landscape, taking advantage

of unexploited habitat. They may stay in an area for 20 years, then disappear as

the area becomes more overgrown and shaded. Managing the habitat is important

for the future of this species. Currently, unused suitable habitat necessary for

establishing new populations is being destroyed. The delicate balance between

the butterfly and habitat has been exemplified by its extirpation from four states.

The Karner blue is found in Albany, Schenectady and Warren counties.

Originally, the Albany pine barrens comprised 25,000 acres. Now there are

less than 2,800 acres of undeveloped land. Loss of pine barrens habitat through

development has resulted in a corresponding decline in butterfly abundance.

Figure 1 is an example of a site that has experienced a severe decline with the

population apparently being extirpated. However, at most other sites in the Albany

pine barrens, the decline has not been as severe as in this example. This decline

became well known in the late 1970s and early ’80s through a city-sponsored

Environmental Impact Statement.


A N e w Y o r k C a s e S t u d y :

The Decline of an Endangered Species

F i g u r e 1 .

Data were collected by observing and counting adult butterflies at one site in the Albanypine barrens. This visual survey method gives researchers a relative population indexnumber, which, although it is not the actual population size, is very useful for monitoringsome organisms such as butterflies. Each bar on the graph represents the total number ofbutterflies counted on different days. There were no butterflies observed on surveys in1997 and 1998. (Data courtesy of the Albany Pine Bush Preserve Commission.)


Species

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998Survey Year

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

Num

ber

of B

utte

rflie

s Obs

erve

d

SOLATED AREAS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW

YORK STATE ARE THE HABITAT OF THE EASTERN

WOODRAT. IT WOULD SEEM THESE AREAS’

INACCESSIBILITY WOULD PROTECT THE WOODRAT

FROM EXTINCTION, AND YET INEXPLICABLY

IT DECLINED IN NEW YORK STATE IN RECENT

DECADES, AND FINALLY DISAPPEARED FROM

THE STATE IN 1989.


I

It is possible that the next hundred years will become known as the “Century

of the Environment.” If in the fullness of time that prophecy comes true, the

beginning of this era might be marked by historians by environmental disasters,

such as the 11 million-gallon Exxon Valdez oil spill off the coast of Alaska, the 350

tons of depleted uranium weapons still lying on Persian Gulf War battlefields, and

the continued exploitation of precious ecosystems like the Brazilian Amazon, where

deforestation, mining and over-development continue to flourish.

I would like to summarize the whole picture by classifying global trends into

four categories:

1. Ozone depletion in the stratosphere, allowing increased penetration of

ultraviolet radiation to reach ground level.

2. Global warming due to the greenhouse effect, in which increased levels of

carbon dioxide, methane and a few other gases trap growing quantities of heat.

3. Toxic pollution, including acid rain.

4. Mass extinction of species by destruction of habitats, especially tropical rainforests.

The first three trends are dangerous to health and the economy—but they can

be reversed. It is a matter of converting to cleaner forms of energy, changing our

patterns of production and consumption, and above all, reversing population

growth with an aim toward reaching supportable levels country by country. However,

extinction cannot be reversed. No species can be called back. Extinction of species, or

the reduction of biodiversity, is the one process

that is being perpetrated not only on our children

and grandchildren but also on our descendants

10,000 years from now and beyond—as far into

the future as can be imagined.

With that somber but essential theme as

background, let me now review some of the key

facts about global biodiversity. The world is at

or close to its highest level of biodiversity in the

history of life, spanning 3.75 billion years. This

buildup has been associated with changes in the

atmosphere, the most important of which were caused by organisms and their

innovations as they adapted to the changing atmosphere and other parts of the

ACIDIFICATION REDUCES THE DIVERSITY

OF AQUATIC LIFE, BECAUSE FEW SPECIES

CAN SURVIVE IN WATER WITH A LOW pH.

THE pH LEVEL CAN BE RESTORED

THROUGH LIMING; SOME OF THE PLANT

SPECIES LOST MAY RE-ESTABLISH FROM

SEED SOURCES IN NEARBY LAKES.


HE DIVERSITY OF THE POWDERY MILDEW IS DEMONSTRATED BY THE

SHAPES OF THEIR APPENDAGES. THIS ENGRAVING WAS DONE IN 1861 BY

CHARLES TULASNE.


T

environment. For almost 3 billion years, life was limited to the oceans and consisted

of bacteria, blue-green algae, and other relatively simple one-celled forms. Then

complex cells evolved, incorporating organelles such as nuclear membranes, chloro-

plasts, and cilia. Soon afterward, these cells evolved into still more complex multi-

cellular animals and plants. About 600 million years ago, the concentration of

oxygen in the atmosphere climbed rather quickly (by geological standards) to near

its current level, destroying most of the anaerobic life in the oceans and on land

surfaces. A shield of ozone accumulated in the stratosphere, protecting life from

harmful ultraviolet irradiation. For the first time, substantial numbers of larger

animals filled the seas, and the global variety of life climbed sharply. Plants invaded

the land, then animals, represented first by small arthropods and other invertebrates,

then jawless fishes. The diversity of life continued to rise. Biodiversity stalled on a

plateau during most of the Mesozoic Era, then climbed gradually to its current

high level. It is a supreme irony that mankind, the great destroyer of life, began as

one of the products of the living world’s maximum proliferation.

A second major principle of biodiversity is that smaller organisms are generally

more diverse than larger ones. The reason appears to be simply that they fit into

smaller spaces, consume less food individually, complete their life cycles more quickly,

and hence are able to divide the habitats in which they live into smaller and more

numerous niches. And the more numerous the niches, the more species that can be

packed into the same location. Take a typical epiphyte-laden tree in the rainforest

of Peru. It may be the home of several hundred species of beetles, 40 species of ants,

and as many as 50 species of orchids and other epiphytes. But it can only be the

partial home for a flock of parrots, which must range over portions of the forest that

contain many thousands of such trees in order to obtain enough food for survival.

Among smaller animals, insects dominate diversity. About 750,000 of the 1 million

animal species described to date are insects, and some estimates have placed the

actual number as high as 80 million. The reason for this amazing disproportion is

uncertain. It seems likely due to the metamorphosis experienced by the majority of

kinds of insects during the individual life cycle: egg to larva to pupa to adult, with

the egg and pupa as passive transitional stages and the larva and adult as the active

stage. Larvae and adults are radically different in appearance (recall the caterpillar

and butterfly), typically feed on different foods, and even live in different sites. As


HE MARINE TURTLES, SUCH AS THIS GREEN

SEA TURTLE, ARE MOST OFTEN KILLED

BECAUSE THEY ARE LARGE AND SLOW AND ARE

CONSIDERED GOOD EATING. ALL SIX SPECIES

ARE NOW IN DANGER OF EXTINCTION.


T

ITH ITS WISPINESS AND LIGHT-AND-DARK

COLORATION, THE PHANTOM CRANE FLY

MIMICS COBWEBS AS IT FLIES THROUGH THE

AIR. IF CAUGHT, IT CAN EASILY LOSE A LIMB,

A CHARACTERISTIC KNOWN AS AUTOTOMY.


W

a result, still more niches are generated by the combinations of life cycles. Another

reason for the megadiversity of insects may be pre-emption. Insects were among the

first small animals to adapt well to the land environment in early Paleozoic times,

some 400 million years ago, and this advantage allowed them to expand their

populations and species to an extreme degree while holding their own against rival

groups among the land invaders. The pre-emption hypothesis gains some support

from the fact that oribatid mites invaded the land about the same time, and today

they too are exceptionally diverse and abundant.

HE MASSASAUGA IS A SMALL SPECIES OF

RATTLESNAKE THAT IS ENDANGERED. IT IS

KNOWN IN NEW YORK FROM ONLY TWO

SWAMPS IN THE CENTRAL AND WESTERN

PARTS OF THE STATE.


T

If insects and other small invertebrate animals are so much more diverse than

vertebrates and larger invertebrates due to size alone, is it true by extension of the

same principle that still smaller creatures such as roundworms, fungi, and bacteria

are even more diverse? The conventional answer is that for some unknown reason,

they are not. But the conventional answer may prove to be wrong. The truth is

that we know very little about the smallest of organisms. Because of their microscopic

size and the difficulty of collecting and preserving them, they tend to be collected

less frequently. Furthermore, many of the species can be distinguished only by

sophisticated microscopic and biochemical techniques. Take the roundworms, for

example. Vast numbers occur throughout the world, with untold varieties of species

living free in the soil or in the bodies of insects and other animals. Since round-

worms can specialize in particular species of hosts, which are excessively diverse

themselves, or even certain parts of the bodies of their hosts, they have the potential

for spectacular diversification. We simply have no idea how many kinds of round-

worms live on earth. The same is true for fungi and bacteria. The number of

recognized bacterial species is about 4,000, but most specialists on the subject agree

that this is only a tiny fraction of the real number. Bacterial species usually exist in

numbers too low to detect by direct inspection, and become apparent only when

given the right nutrients, temperature, and chemical environment to create obvious

population blooms. Many also flourish in very odd places, such as thermal springs

or the intestines of termites. In the late 1980s, deep drilling in South Carolina

uncovered an entire new flora of bacteria living 1,000 feet or more below the soil

surface on nutrients carried to them by water seepage. The terra incognita of the

smallest organisms is the reason why students of biodiversity, in giddier moments,

are sometimes willing to entertain the idea of 100 million or more species of

organisms on earth.

Yet another peculiarity of global biodiversity is its inordinate concentration in

tropical rainforests. This habitat, or biome-type as it is called by ecologists, is defined

as a forest growing in tropical areas with 80 inches or more of annual rainfall,

allowing the growth of broad-leaved evergreen trees that form several layers of dense

canopies. Tropical rainforests today cover only about 6% of the land surface (9 million

square kilometers), but they are generally thought to contain more than half the

species of organisms on earth. The diversity of rainforest organisms is legendary,

the common stuff of gossip among field biologists. For example, as many as 300

species of trees have been identified in a single hectare (2.5 acres) in the Peruvian

Amazon; this compares with 700 native species found in all of North America. Each

tree harbors as many as a thousand species of insects. One tree that I analyzed yielded

43 kinds of ants, approximately the same number found in the entire British Isles.


MONG MANY OF THE ENDANGERED FISH

IN NEW YORK STATE ARE THE SHORT-NOSED

STURGEON (PICTURED BELOW) AND THE

EASTERN SAND DARTER. THE NOW-EXTINCT

BLUE PIKE LOOKS VERY MUCH LIKE THE STILL-

ABUNDANT WALLEYE, AND AS RECENTLY AS

THE 1970S IT WAS A MAJOR COMMERCIAL FISH.


A

The reason for the concentration of terrestrial diversity in rainforests and their

marine equivalent in the coral reefs is one of the great unknowns of ecology. The con-

centration is actually the result of a more or less continuous increase in diversity

encountered while traveling from the poles to the equator, the so-called latitudinal

gradient of biodiversity. When biologists say “unknown” in this particular case, they

really mean “not known with certainty.” Several hypotheses have been advanced,

any one of which—or all of which—could be true to some extent. I am going to

take a deep breath and try to impart the most likely explanation from a synthesis

of these hypotheses, with due respect to current evidence:

The tropical zones generally have a more congenial climate for life,

providing it with longer growing seasons, an even distribution of solar

energy, and freedom from freezing and other extreme, unpredictable, short-

term changes in temperature. The rainforest, moreover, offers a humidity

regime and tree structure (that is, prevalence of broad, nearly horizontal

branches) favorable to epiphytes such as orchids and bromeliads. This

“elevated swampland” with its little pools of water and moist root masses

offers vast numbers of additional living sites for animals. The delicate

life cycles of the epiphytes and their co-evolved animal populations are

pre-eminently tropical. It is unlikely that the organisms could endure the

freezes of the Temperate Zone. The stability of the climate and the layering

of vegetation allows division of the ecosystem into large numbers of niches

and a corresponding number of plant and animal species, many bound

together by intricate and finely tuned symbioses. A small shift from one

part of a tree to another, or from one species of tree to another, or from

one elevation on a mountainside to another, opens an opportunity for the

evolution of yet another kind of animal or plant. The entirety of evolution

has built the equivalent of a house of cards: vast numbers of species propped

and leaning on one another and dependent on a steady environment to

avoid collapse. It used to be thought that diversity created stability; in

other words, the more species were locked together by co-evolution, the

less likely any one of them could be extirpated. This diversity-stability

hypothesis has gradually given way to its exact reverse, the stability-diversity

hypothesis, wherein external, climatic stability is thought to allow the

buildup of biodiversity. In the Temperate Zones, plant and animal species

must adapt to a more drastically and unpredictably shifting environment.

As a consequence, each Temperate Zone species is, on the average, likely to

occur in a greater range of habitats, elevation and so forth than individual

tropical species. In short, Temperate Zone species occupy a broader niche.

Fewer species can be fitted together, resulting in lower biodiversity in

temperate climates.

Destructive human activity, including habitat removal, pollution, and excessive

exploitation, have reduced large numbers of plant and animal species in the Temperate

Zones even though they are “tougher” in the sense of having wider ranges on the


RANKLINIA ALATAMAHA, A SHRUB OF THE TEA FAMILY, WAS DISCOVERED

IN GEORGIA IN 1765 BY JOHN BARTRAM AND HIS SON WILLIAM, WHO

MADE THIS WATERCOLOR PAINTING. IN SPITE OF MANY ATTEMPTS TO FIND

IT AGAIN, THE FRANKLINIA HAS NOT BEEN SEEN IN THE WILD SINCE

1803, ALTHOUGH IT CONTINUES TO THRIVE HORTICULTURALLY IN MANY

PLACES OTHER THAN ITS ORIGINAL HABITAT, INCLUDING NEW YORK.

WHY IT DID NOT OCCUR NATURALLY ELSEWHERE REMAINS AN ENIGMA.


F

average as well as greater ecological flexibility. In rainforests and other tropical

environments with their legions of finely adapted species, degradation of this kind

has deepened into catastrophe. Rainforests occupy about 9 million square kilometers

currently, down some 45% from the original cover before the coming of man. The

current area, then, is roughly equal to that of the United States. The forest is being

cut and burned at the rate of 100,000 square kilometers a year, roughly the area of

South Carolina—or, to use a more vivid measure, an area equal to a football field every

second. Employing simple models based on the

known relation of the area of islands and habitat

patches to the number of species that can coexist,

I have conservatively estimated that on a world-

wide basis the ultimate loss attributable to

rainforest clearing alone is from 0.2% to 0.3%

of all species in the forests per year. Taking a very

conservative figure of 2 million species confined

to the forests, the global loss that results from

deforestation is thus at least 4,000 to 6,000 species

a year. That, in turn, is on the order of 10,000

times greater than the naturally occurring back-

ground extinction rate that prevailed before the

appearance of human beings.

Although 4,000 species a year extinguished

or doomed is a shocking figure, it is still almost

certainly a gross underestimate. When we consider

that the true number of plant and animal species

limited to the rainforests may well be in the tens

of millions, and that many, or even most, species

in these areas are very limited in distribution, even

small reductions in forest coverage can make them

vulnerable to extinction. Add to this the species extinctions occurring in other habitats

worldwide, and the animal extinction rate could easily be 10 times higher—that is,

2% or more of all rainforest species, 50,000 or more species worldwide. A common

estimate among biodiversity specialists, one to which I subscribe, is that one-fourth

of the species of organisms on earth are likely to be eliminated outright or doomed to


MICRANTHEMUM (MICRANTHEMUM

MICRANTHEMOIDES ), A TINY RELATIVE OF

THE GARDEN SNAPDRAGON, ONCE

FLOURISHED ON THE MUDDY SHORES

OF ESTUARIES ALONG THE EAST COAST,

INCLUDING NEW YORK’S HUDSON

RIVER. IT HAS NOT BEEN SEEN IN SEVERAL

DECADES, AND IS PRESUMED TO BE

EXTINCT. ANOTHER RELATIVE OF THE

SNAPDRAGON, CHAFFSEED (SCHWALBEA

AMERICANA ), HAS A LIMITED RANGE

IN THE NORTHEAST AND HAS NOT BEEN

SEEN IN NEW YORK SINCE THE EARLY

NINETEENTH CENTURY, WHEN IT WAS

FOUND IN THE ALBANY PINE BUSH.

APIRS ARE HERBIVORES THAT LOOK VAGUELY

SIMILAR TO THE PIG BUT ARE MOST CLOSELY

RELATED TO RHINOCEROSES. THEY ARE SHY,

NOCTURNAL ANIMALS THAT SPEND THE HEAT OF

THE DAY IN THE SHADOWS AND SHALLOW POOLS

DEEP IN THE FOREST. ALL FOUR SPECIES OF

TAPIRS IN THE WORLD ARE NOW SCARCE AND

EXIST ONLY IN EXTENSIVE AREAS OF REMAINING

TROPICAL FOREST.


T

early extinction within the next 30 years if current

rates of habitat destruction continue unabated.

Habitat destruction is far from the whole

picture. It represents most of the problem in warm

climates, but global climatic warming due to the

greenhouse effect is a potentially major second

force in cold temperate and Polar Regions. A pole-

ward shift of climate at the rate of 100 kilometers

or more per century, which is considered at least a

possibility, would leave wildlife reserves and entire

species ranges behind. Many kinds of plants and

animals simply could not spread fast enough to keep up. The Englemann Spruce,

for example, has an estimated natural dispersal capacity of from 1 kilometer to 20

kilometers per century, so that massive new plantings would be required to sustain

the size of the geographical range it currently occupies. Some kinds of plants and

less mobile animals occupying narrow ranges might become extinct altogether.

Entire arctic ecosystems might be endangered, because the warming will be greatest

nearest the poles, and the organisms composing the ecosystems have no northward

escape route to follow.

People often ask, why should man-induced changes be thought apocalyptic or

even very serious? After all, environmental change is perpetual, and organisms have

always adjusted to it in past geological times. Isn’t the human impact just one more

form of environmental change? Certainly over millions of years species adapted to

alternative climatic warming and cooling, the expansion or shrinkage of continental

shelves and the invasion of new competitors and parasites. Those that could not

change became extinct, but at such a relatively slow rate that other better-adapted

species evolved to replace them. In the midst of endless turnover, the balance of life

was sustained. But now the velocity of change is too great for life to handle, and

the equilibrium has been shattered. It has reached precipitous levels within a single

human life span, merely a tick in geological time. Humanity is creating a radical

new environment too quickly to allow the species to adjust. Species need thousands

or millions of years to assemble complex genetic adaptations (see Appendix IV,

Geologic Time Table). Most of life is consequently at risk. We are at risk.


RAINFORESTS OCCUPY ABOUT 9 MILLION

SQUARE KILOMETERS CURRENTLY, DOWN

SOME 45% FROM THE ORIGINAL COVER

BEFORE MAN. THE FOREST IS BEING CUT

AND BURNED AT THE RATE OF 100,000

SQUARE KILOMETERS A YEAR … AN AREA

EQUAL TO A FOOTBALL FIELD EACH SECOND.


There have been five previous episodes of mass extinction during the past

500 million years, the time in which large, complex organisms flourished in the

seas and on the land. These occurred at intervals of 20 million to 140 million

years, during brief periods when the equilibrium between species formation and

species extinction was upset. The most recent occurred at the end of the Mesozoic

Era, the Age of Dinosaurs, 65 million years ago. Scientists generally agree that

some major physical event was responsible, most likely a giant meteorite strike or

abnormally heavy volcanic activity. Life required more than 5 million years to

restore its original diversity by additional evolution. We are now in the midst of a

comparable extinction spasm, almost entirely by our own actions. If a remedy is not

found, we could continue on to approach the greatest crisis of all, the Permian

crash of 240 million years ago, when 77% to 96% of all marine animal species

MALL POPULATIONS OF MUSK OXEN LIVE IN ARCTIC REGIONS, IN SOME AREAS

DUE TO REINTRODUCTION. THEY HUDDLE TOGETHER WHEN THREATENED, AN

EFFECTIVE DEFENSE AGAINST PREDATORS SUCH AS WOLVES, BUT ONE THAT

ALLOWED EASY SLAUGHTER OF WHOLE HERDS BY HUMANS IN THE 18TH AND

19TH CENTURIES.

S

perished. As the paleontologist David Raup put it, at that time “global biology

(for higher organisms, at least) had an extremely close call.” There is an additional,

sinister note in the current extinction spasm. For the first time ever, plant species

are dying in large numbers. The world’s flora survived the end of the Mesozoic Era

more or less intact, but now it is being eroded swiftly—with eventual consequences

impossible to predict.

Let me now shift gears abruptly, by saying that catastrophe can be replaced by

a bright future if the world’s fauna and flora are saved and put to use for the benefit

of humanity. This new enterprise, which should command our attention as fully as

biomedical science and space exploration, will require the revitalization of “classical

biology” and the unification of the best efforts of scientists, political leaders and

business entrepreneurs. Much of future biology, I predict, will focus on biodiversity

studies, carried down to the level of species and genetic strains. The study of biodi-

versity comprises several levels, each of which must be understood to protect and

make full use of species and genetic strains. These levels correspond roughly to the

conceptual levels of biological organization employed in basic research, which are

used to illuminate pattern and process all the way from DNA replication to energy

flow in ecosystems. The disciplines attending the levels are hierarchical. Starting

with systematics, each feeds vital information to those up the line. In turn, the most

comprehensive among them, community ecology and ecosystems studies, offer the

broad vistas that guide biodiversity studies as a whole.

HE AMERICAN ALLIGATOR WAS ON THE VERGE

OF EXTINCTION, BUT THROUGH A MAJOR

REHABILITATION PROGRAM, ITS POPULATION

HAS REBOUNDED.


T

A N e w Y o r k C a s e S t u d y :

By Robert A. DanielsChair of Biological Survey and Curator of IchthyologyNew York State Museum

Surveys and inventories of organisms provide the basic data used in research

projects. Studying such changes as population size, species composition and

distribution of organisms requires baseline data to which new information can

be compared. Biological systems are dynamic; organisms living in a specific

geographic area, often called a community, respond to physical, chemical and

biological factors. As these factors change on a daily, seasonal, annual or long-term

basis, the organisms in the community also change. To understand the effects of

changes on these organisms, the biologist must first understand the various

components that affect the community. Too often, the baseline data needed for

this comparison are nonexistent because no early survey of the biological

resources was conducted. New York has taken a lead in inventorying its natural

resources with the establishment of the State Geological and Natural History

Survey in 1836. Modern field surveys, documented by careful notes and voucher

specimens, can be used to protect rare or unusual species, to define and map

their habitats and to meet government regulations for building or other permits.

Because both the environment and communities are dynamic, repeated surveys

or long-term monitoring of specific sites provides the greatest amount of infor-

mation and allows the researcher to observe and predict the response of the

community to potential environmental changes.

For example, biologists examine change in fish communities by comparing

current information on fish abundance and distribution to information collected

during past surveys. The simple comparison, as shown in Figure 2 describing

fish communities in the Wallkill River, indicates that the composition and relative

abundance of the fish community has changed markedly in this stream in the

six decades between surveys. The chart shows that there were 22 species of fish


Why Biological Inventories Are Important

collected in the stream in 1936 and only 16 species in 1992. Factors contributing

to the loss of species and change of community composition are unknown. Had

the stream been surveyed regularly, these mechanisms would be more obvious to

the modern researcher, and they would be better able to understand the changes

and to predict the effects of change.

F i g u r e 2 .

Community composition of fishes in the riverine section of the lower Wallkill River, NewYork. The comparison is based on fishes collected at four sites during 1936 and 1992between Dashville and Montgomery. The 1992 sites were selected to match, as closely as possible, the habitats sampled in 1936. This chart shows the decline in the relativeabundance and diversity of fish that has occurred in the Wallkill River.


mportant

0 20 40 60 80 100Number of Fish Collected

Tessellated DarterSpotfin ShinerSpottail ShinerGolden Shiner

Smallmouth BassLargemouth Bass

White SuckerRedbreast Sunfish

PumpkinseedCommon Shiner

Rock BassBrown BullheadCutlips Minnow

Creek ChubsuckerFallfish

Creek ChubRedfin PickerelChain Pickerel

BluegillMargined Madtom

Eastern Silvery MinnowBlack Crappie

Yellow BullheadSand Shiner

Log Perch

1936

1992

HERE ARE SUCCESS STORIES IN NEW YORK,

WHERE THE STATE BIRD, THE EASTERN BLUEBIRD,

HAS MADE QUITE A COMEBACK MOSTLY DUE TO

CITIZENS PLACING AND MANAGING NEST BOXES

IN SUITABLE HABITATS. THESE BOXES ALLOW

BLUEBIRDS TO BETTER COMPETE WITH INTRO-

DUCED SPECIES LIKE THE HOUSE SPARROW AND

THE EUROPEAN STARLING.


T

Systematics, or taxonomy, is at the base of biodiversity studies for the simple

reason that if species cannot be identified they cannot be studied or marked for

preservation. Systematics creates two key products, monographs and inventories.

Monographs are complete classifications of particular groups of organisms for some

larger part of the world, such as the ferns of tropical America or the Danaid butter-

flies of the world. The ideal monograph describes the species in the group, presents

the available information on their distribution and natural history and interprets

their evolutionary history. When appropriate monographs are available, inventories

can be conducted of particular sites, including the hot spots of greatest interest

in conservation. Typical inventories might include lists of the ferns, butterflies, or

ideally all the species found in a rainforest on Cape York or the Chocó region of

Colombia. The urgency in the need for systematics research comes from the fact

that few appropriate monographs actually exist, forestalling inventories of any but

a small number of relatively well-known groups such as flowering plants and birds

and other vertebrates. As I noted earlier, the vast majority of species of invertebrates,

fungi and microorganisms have not even been discovered, let alone described.

There is a great need to promote monographic work on selected groups that are so

different from flowering plants and vertebrates in their biology as to occupy unique

places in the ecosystem and require special techniques in conservation. For adven-

turous scientists, these other groups await exploration in the field in the same way

that elephants, gorillas and rhododendrons awaited exploration in the last century.

Organismic biology moves us one level of organization down from systematics,

rather than up. It comprises the physiology, genetics and life cycle studies of

individual organisms. Once species have been distinguished taxonomically, those

of most importance can be determined on the basis of whether they are keystone

species, or close to extinction, or of potential economic importance, or offer extra-

ordinary new biological phenomena for scrutiny. Detailed analysis can assess their

status and role in the ecosystem.

The next logical link in the chain is population biology, moving us back to

the level of the species. Here we study the traits of whole populations, species by

species, including the detailed distribution of each (selected) population, its fluctu-

ation in size through time and hence its susceptibility to local extinction, and its

internal genetic diversity—also important as a factor in potential extinction.


T ONE TIME THE PEREGRINE FALCON WAS ON THE VERGE OF EXTINC-

TION. THROUGH EXTENSIVE REHABILITATION EFFORTS, IT HAS RETURNED

TO LARGE PARTS OF ITS ORIGINAL RANGE. IT HAS BEEN INTRODUCED INTO

NEW YORK AND OTHER LARGE CITIES TO HELP CONTROL THE PIGEON

POPULATION. THIS PAINTING IS BY LOUIS AGASSIZ FUERTES, A FAMOUS

BIRD ILLUSTRATOR OF THE EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY WHO LIVED AND

WORKED IN ITHACA, NEW YORK.


A

Community ecology addresses the manner in which species are linked in local

environments. One of the most important problems in modern biology, as well as in

conservation practice, is the tightness and reach of such linkages. We know how small

sets of species, such as pairs and triplets, closely interact as partners in symbiosis,

competition, predation and prey. What we do not know to any extent, especially

in the most species-rich, endangered communities, is the range of linkages for

individual species. How many species, for example, are keystone species whose

elimination would bring down, say, 100 or more other species? This kind of scien-

tific research is as basic and subtle as any in molecular biology or physics.

In ecosystems studies, the highest level of organization is the ecosystem, the

combined biological and physical components of circumscribed domains such as

islands, patches of forest and lakes. The emphasis at this level is on the properties

of energy and material flow, and (for our purposes) the relation of these properties

to species composition. When environments are disturbed, energy and material

flows are shifted, and humidity and temperature are altered. As a consequence,

some species flourish while others decline and die out.

Economic analysis of local ecosystems becomes practical to the extent that

knowledge of the fauna and flora increases. One very promising approach is bio-

chemical prospecting, the screening of natural products of wild species, a relatively

inexpensive procedure that can follow closely upon systematic inventories and

other early biological studies. The aim of this approach is to create new pharma-

ceuticals and commercial products from the wildlands and to encourage the

creation of extractive reserves as an alternative to habitat destruction.

In conclusion, here is the way these several fields of study can be fit together

in the service of conservation and use of biodiversity:

• Promote monographic studies of the poorest known groups, especially those

likely to display novel population traits and conservation needs.

• Encourage inventories of “warm areas,” i.e., species-rich areas under consid-

erable environmental assault, to identify the true hot spots within them that

are both species-rich and most threatened, with an aim toward early remedial

action. The inventories should cover flowering plants and vertebrates, which

are taxonomically in the best shape, and should be extended as soon as


possible to selected groups of smaller organisms likely to display different

population traits and conservation needs. Inventories should be directed

from some of the best-established field laboratory sites, such as the tropical

forest stations on Barro Colorado Island, Panama, and La Selva in Costa

Rica, as well as the many local stations and field laboratories throughout

North America.

• Focus on selected groups of species for those physiological and genetic studies

most likely to identify the causes of population decline and extinction. Such

studies are also best conducted at well-established field laboratory sites.

• Select groups of organisms for studies of species linkages, the most basic level

of community organization, aimed at disclosing the reach of such linkages

and the nature of keystone species. Again, this kind of study is generally best

conducted at well-established field laboratory sites.

• Promote studies of ecosystem changes in natural habitats under assault, as

these changes affect community cohesion and threaten the safety of keystone

species.

Finally, given that this conceptual structure is close to the mark, the best way

to promote biodiversity studies and conservation would seem to be to strengthen

our experimental field stations and museums while promoting the very best studies

ranging from systematics to ecosystems analyses. Our brightest young people should

consider careers in biodiversity studies; our government and foundations should

promote their enterprise in the service of national interest. We already know what

needs to be done and the first important steps to take.

Now is the time to act.


Biological field stations from four parts of the world:


There are many other biological field stations and preserves in New York state,

including the Adirondack Ecological Center (Newcomb), Bard College Field Station

(Annandale), Beaver Lake Nature Center (Baldwinsville), Betty Matthiessen Preserve

(Fishers Island), Cranberry Lake Biological Station (Cranberry Lake), Mohonk

Preserve (New Paltz), and Tift Farm Nature Preserve (Buffalo).

1. Sirena Biological Field Station

Osa Peninsula, Costa Rica

Latitude: 8° 29´ North

Longitude: 83° 30´ 30´́ West

2. Palmer Station

Antarctic Peninsula

Latitude: 64° 46´ 30´́ South

Longitude: 64° 04´ West

3. Fu-Shan Station

Northeastern Taiwan

Latitude: 24° 46´ North

Longitude: 121° 43´ East

4. Edmund Niles Huyck Preserve

& Biological Research Station

Rensselaerville, New York, USA

Latitude: 42° 31´ 30´́ North

Longitude: 74° 9´ 30´́ West

A p p e n d i x I

Glossary

Acid rain Precipitation that is acidic due to the chemical reaction of nitrousoxides (NOx) or sulfate (SO4) with water (H2O), forming nitric or sulfuricacid. These chemicals are picked up by clouds over industrial areas that burnfossil fuels. The acids formed can be carried long distances and depositedfar away from their origin. Acid rain is thought to be killing some of thetrees and polluting water in New York, Vermont and New Hampshire.

Anatomy A branch of biology that deals with the physical structure of anorganism.

Anesthetic A substance that causes insensitivity and/or loss of consciousness.For example, novocaine or ether may be used during medical or dentaloperations, causing the patient to feel no pain.

Antibiotic A substance, such as penicillin or erythromycin, that inhibits orstops the growth of bacteria or other microorganisms.

Arthropod1 A member of the Phylum Arthropoda, such as an insect, spider,or crustacean, bearing an articulated, external skeleton.

Bacteria1 Microscopic organisms (Kingdom Monera) that are prokaryotic, orlacking nuclear membranes around the genes.

Biochemical Involving the chemical reactions of living organisms.

Biodiversity1 The variety of organisms considered at all levels, from geneticvariants belonging to the same species through arrays of species to arrays of genera, families, and still higher taxonomic levels; includes the variety of ecosystems which comprise both the communities of organisms withinparticular habitats and the physical conditions under which they live.


Biogeography1 The scientific study of the past and present geographical distribution of organisms.

Biome1 A major category of habitat in a particular region of the world, suchas the tundra of northern Canada or the rainforest of the Amazon Basin.

Biomedicine Developments in medical science using biological sources.Antibiotics and organ transplants are examples.

Biome type An organism that is a characteristic species of a particular environ-ment or biome.

Biotechnology Developments using knowledge of biology for the benefit of humanity. For example, genetic engineering of more productive cropplants was developed through biotechnology.

Blue-green algae Any of a division (Cyanophyceae) of unicellular, prokaryotic,aquatic organisms having chlorophyll masked by bluish-green pigments.They are more closely related to bacteria than to other algae and many scientists refer to them as blue-green bacteria.

Broad-leaved evergreen trees Woody plants that have broad green leaves, not needles, all year. Those with needles are coniferous evergreens. Theopposite of evergreen, deciduous woody plants grow new leaves and shedthem each year.

California Condor Near extinction, this large vulture-like bird is restricted in distribution today to small mountainous parts of southern California. It inhabited New York state in the Tertiary Period.

Canopy The high leafy layer formed by the trees in a forest. In the tropics,many plants and animals live in the thick canopy where there is morewater and sun than on the forest floor.

Cell The basic structural unit of organisms which, alone or interacting withothers, can perform the fundamental functions of life. Some organismsconsist of a single cell, while others are multicellular.

Chloroplast The part of a plant cell that contains chlorophyll, which captureslight and is involved in photosynthesis.

Cilia Tiny hair-like structures that enable unicellular creatures to move and thathelp other cells (for example, those in our lungs) to move particles around.


Classical biology The study of organisms based on comparative morphology(physical structure).

Classification Systematic arrangement into groups or categories according toestablished criteria.

Coagulant A substance which causes a fluid to thicken to a solid. For example,platelets, found in red blood cells, are coagulants that cause a blood clot to form.

Coevolution1 The evolution of two or more species due to mutual influence.For example, many species of flowering plants and their insect pollinatorshave coevolved in a way that makes the relationship more effective.

Competition Active demand by two or more organisms or kinds of organismsfor a resource. For example, male white-tailed deer could compete forfood, territory or mates.

Conservation1 To sustain biodiversity in the face of human-caused environ-mental disturbance.

Continental shelf A shallow underwater plain of various widths that forms a border to a continent and that typically ends in a steep slope to theoceanic abyss.

Danaid butterfly A type of butterfly, the best known example of which is theMonarch butterfly.

Deforestation The cutting of a high percentage of trees and the clearing ofmost of the shrubs and brush in a forest.

Degradation A decline to a low, destitute state with regard to a lower qualityof resources.

Dioxide A chemical compound with two molecules of oxygen. An example isCO2 (carbon dioxide). This is vital to plants, which use it to produce energyand O2 (oxygen). The O2 provided by plants is used by other forms of life,including humans. Dioxides can be harmful to the environment. Whencombined with sulfur or nitrogen, these chemical compounds contributeto air and water pollution.


Dispersal In biology, the way a species can spread into the environment. Forexample, dandelion seeds may disperse by wind or be carried on an animalthat brushes against the plant.

Diversity1 See Biodiversity.

DNA1 A double helix of deoxyribonucleic acid. The fundamental hereditarymaterial of all living organisms, the polymer composing the genes.

Ecology1 The scientific study of the interactions of organisms with their environment, including the physical environment and the other organismsliving in it.

Energy flow The path of energy from the environment that is used andreturned by an organism.

Energy and materials cycle The origin, movement, and recycling of energyand nutrients through an organism or several organisms through an ecological system back to the environment.

Environment1 The surroundings of an organism or a species, the ecosystemin which it lives, including both the physical environment and the otherorganisms with which it comes in contact.

Environmentalism An awareness and concern for the natural environment.This may lead to actions such as reusing, recycling and composting.

Enzyme A protein that causes chemical reactions in cells. Some enzymes aresecreted in the digestive system to aid in the absorption of nutrients. Othersmay be extracted and used in making bread or cheese.

Epiphyte1 A plant specialized to grow on other kinds of plants in a neutral orbeneficial manner, not as a parasite. Examples: most species of orchids,bromeliads, and many mosses and lichens.

Evolution1 In biology, any change in the genetic material of a population oforganisms. Evolution can vary in degree from small shifts in the frequencyof minor genes to the origin of complex genes of new species. Changes oflesser magnitude are called microevolution, and changes at or near the upperextreme are called macroevolution. Evolution is also a theory or model toaccount for diversity of life on earth through these genetic changes.


Extinction1 The termination of any lineage of organisms, from subspecies tospecies and higher taxonomic categories from genera to phyla. Extinctioncan be local, in which one or more populations of a species or anotherunit vanish but others survive elsewhere, or total (global), in which all thepopulations vanish. When biologists speak of extinction without furtherqualifications, they mean total extinction.

Extirpate A species no longer occurring where it once lived; to entirelyremove from an area. For example, the mountain lion has been extirpatedfrom the Northeast, but is still found in much of the western U.S.

Extractive reserves1 A wild habitat from which timber, latex and other naturalmaterials are taken on a sustained yield basis with minimal environmentaldamage and, ideally, without the extinction of native species.

Fern A flowerless, seedless lower vascular plant that reproduces by spores.

Field laboratory site A temporary or permanent place where scientific research,usually having to do with the environment, is prepared and/or carried out.

Flowering plant A plant that produces flowers, fruit, and seeds and is morecomplex than non-flowering plants, such as conifers (evergreens) or fungi.

Fungi A group of plants, such as mushrooms, molds, rusts, and mildews,which derive nutrients from decomposing organic matter instead ofthrough photosynthesis because they lack chlorophyll.

Genetic adaptation A change in genetic composition that occurs naturally overtime so that an organism is more efficient and competitive in its environment.

Genetics A branch of biology that deals with the heredity and variation ofDNA in organisms.

Genus1 A group of similar species of common descent. Examples: Canis, com-prising the wolf, domestic dog, and similar species; and Quercus, the oaks.

Geological time Time periods throughout the history of the earth.

Giant panda A mammal that resembles the bear but is actually related to theraccoon. It is found only in isolated parts of China and now in some zoos.It eats mainly bamboo and small rodents or fish.


Global warming An increase in the climatic temperature of the earth over aperiod of time.

Greenhouse effect A gradual warming of the earth’s atmosphere due to anincrease in carbon dioxide (CO2) in the air coming from industrial smoke,car exhaust and the destruction of vegetation that uses carbon dioxide to produce oxygen. The excess CO2 traps the sun’s energy radiating fromearth, causing the warming.

Habitat1 An environment of a particular kind, such as a lake shore or tall-grassprairie; also a particular environment in one place, such as the mountainforests of Tahiti.

Habitat island1 A patch of habitat separated from other patches of the samehabitat, such as a glade separated by a forest or a lake separated by dry land.Habitat islands are subject to much the same ecological and evolutionaryprocesses as “real” islands.

Hodgkin’s disease A cancer that involves the enlargement of the lymph glands,spleen and liver. There is no known cure, but there are successful treatments.

Host An organism providing something (for example, food, transportation, etc.)for another. The relationship can harm, benefit or have no discernableeffect on the host.

Humidity The concentration of moisture in the air. If it is raining, there is100% humidity.

Hybrid1 The offspring of parents that are genetically dissimilar, especially ofparents that belong to different species.

Invertebrate1 Any organism lacking a backbone of bony segments thatenclose the central nerve cord. Most organisms are invertebrates, from seaanemones to earthworms, spiders and butterflies.

Keystone species1 A species, such as the sea otter, that affects the survival andabundance of many other species in the community in which it lives. Itsremoval or addition results in a relatively significant shift in the composi-tion and sometimes even the physical structure of the community.

Latitudinal diversity gradient1 The trend, widespread but not universalamong plants and animals, toward greater diversity with closer proximityto the equator.


Lymphocytic leukemia A cancer that causes enlargement of the lymphglands. While there is no known cure, there are successful treatments.

Mesozoic Era1 The Age of Reptiles or Age of Dinosaurs, extending from 245million to 66 million years ago. It is divided into the Triassic, Jurassic andCretaceous Periods.

Meteorite A meteor that is not completely vaporized by friction with theatmosphere and reaches the surface of the earth.

Methane gas A chemical product (CH4) of the decomposition of organicmatter (in marshes, mines and garbage dumps) or of the carbonization ofcoal. It has no color or smell and is flammable.

Muntjac A small deer (of the genus Muntiacus) found in southeastern Asiaand the East Indies.

Myrmecology The branch of entomology dealing with the study of ants.

Niches1 A vague but useful term in ecology, meaning the place occupied bythe species in its ecosystem—where it lives, what it eats, its foraging route, the seasonal activity and so on. In a more abstract sense, a niche is a potential place or role within a given ecosystem into which species mayor may not have evolved.

Nucleus1 In biology, the dense central body of the cell, surrounded by a double nuclear membrane and containing the chromosomes and genes.

Nutrient A substance taken in by an organism that is used to produce energyand matter.

Order of magnitude A range of estimation extending from a given value to10 times that value.

Organelle A specialized cellular structure that is analogous to an organ. Forexample, chloroplasts and mitochondria are organelles.

Organism A living thing or creature, including plants, animals, invertebrates,fungi, etc.


Ozone A form of oxygen (O3) that is created in the earth’s upper atmosphereby a photochemical reaction with solar ultraviolet radiation (UV). Thisozone layer protects the earth from receiving too much UV. It is also abyproduct of industrial reactions and is a major contributor to smog.

Paleontology1 The scientific study of fossils and all aspects of extinct life.

Paleozoic Era A geologic time period starting with the Cambrian Period 620million years ago and ending with the Permian Period 245 million years ago.

Parasite An organism that lives by using another organism, returning no benefits to the host.

Permian Period1 The last period of the Paleozoic Era, extending from 290million to 245 million years ago and closing with the greatest extinctionevent of all time. Somewhere between 77% and 96% of all marine animalspecies perished during this period.

Pharmaceutical Having to do with the drugs and medications used in medical science.

Physiology A branch of biology that deals with the physical and chemicalfunctions of an organism.

Population1 In biology, any group of organisms belonging to the same speciesat the same time and place.

Population biology The study of the population dynamics, or the changes inpopulation distribution and density that occur over time, for a particularspecies.

Pre-emption hypothesis Those species that established themselves in an areafirst and which have a more likely chance of thriving and evolving intodiverse and abundant species.

Replication The process of making an exact duplicate. For example, DNAuses replication to make more DNA.

Roundworm A member of the Phylum Nematoda, an organism (can be amicro- or macroscopic species) with an unsegmented body that often livesin the soil or in host animals.


Sociobiology The study of the biological bases of social behavior in animalsand how this behavior is influenced by the processes of natural selection.Initially, sociobiology was quite controversial because it was applied toexplain human behavior.

Species1 The basic unit of classification, consisting of a population or series ofpopulations of closely related and similar organisms. In sexually reproducingorganisms, a species is more narrowly defined by the biological speciesconcept: a population or series of populations of organisms that freelyinterbreed with one another, but not with members of other species, innatural conditions.

Square kilometers A metric form of measurement of area; one square kilometeris equal to .3844 square miles.

Statistical The collection, analysis and interpretation of numerical data. Anopinion poll is statistical.

Strain A group of organisms from a common ancestor with different hereditarycharacteristics. For example, there are many strains of lab mice, some thatlook different and others that are only physiologically different.

Stratosphere The upper layer of the earth’s atmosphere, approximately sevenmiles from the surface.

Symbiosis1 The living together of two or more species in a prolonged andintimate ecological relationship with no harmful effect, such as the incorporation of algae and cyanobacteria within fungi to form lichens.

Synthesis A combination of thoughts, concepts, or materials constituting alogical process.

Systematics1 The scientific study of the diversity of life. Sometimes used synonymously with taxonomy to mean the procedures of pure classificationand reconstruction of phylogeny (relationship among species); on otheroccasions it is used more broadly to cover all aspects of the origins andcontent of biodiversity.

Taxonomy1 The science (and art) of the classification of organisms. See alsoSystematics.

Temperate A moderate climate characterized by distinct seasons. There arenorthern and southern temperate zones.


Termites A group of insects that is socially structured like bees, with sexualforms, sterile workers and sometimes soldiers. There are several species livingfrom the tropics to northern regions. Many species live in or feed on wood.

Terra incognita Latin: incognita: unknown or unexplored; terra: place or territory.

Terrestrial An organism that lives on or in or grows from the ground, asopposed to living in the water or air.

Thrombosis The formation of a blood clot in a blood vessel.

Trait An inherited characteristic.

Tropical rain forest1 Also known more technically as tropical closed moist forest:a forest with 200 cm of annual rainfall spread evenly through the year andwhich supports broad-leaved evergreen trees, typically arranged in severalirregular canopy layers dense enough to capture more than 90% of thesunlight before it reaches the ground.

Ultraviolet radiation The rays of the sun that are of shorter wavelength thanthe spectrum visible to human eyes.

Wildlife reserve An area of habitat(s) left undeveloped and supposedly safefrom other human activities, designed to help wildlife flourish.

1From the Glossary in E.O. Wilson’s The Diversity of Life, 1992, Belknap Press ofHarvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, pp. 391-407.


A p p e n d i x I I

Suggested ReadingsB o o k s

Cohen, Joel E. 1995. How Many People Can the Earth Support? W.W. Norton andCompany, Inc. New York, New York.

“... the definitive work on the global population problem.”—Edward O. Wilson

The Earthworks Group. 1995. 50 Simple Things You Can Do to Save the Earth.Andrews and McMeel. Kansas City, Missouri.

“To commemorate the twenty-fifth anniversary of Earth Day, an updatedguide to environmental awareness encompasses the latest research into suchissues as global warming, ozone depletion, and endangered species andoffers advice on how readers can help the environment.”—from Amazon.com

NOTE: This book is out of print.

The Earthworks Group. 1991. The Next Step: 50 More Things You Can Do to Savethe Earth. Andrews and McMeel. Kansas City, Missouri.

“It goes beyond simple, individual actions, and focuses on ways of expand-ing community participation and awareness, ways of empowering people tocreate an impact beyond their own homes.” —from Amazon.com

Ehrlich, Paul R., and A. H. Ehrlich. 1998. Betrayal of Science and Reason: HowAnti-Environment Rhetoric Threatens Our Future. Island Press. Washington, D.C.

The most recent work by well known authorities on the problems of over-population and related environmental problems.


Grifo, Francesca, and J. Rosenthal (eds.). 1996. Biodiversity and Human Health.Island Press. Washington, D.C.

Until recently, the direct effects of declining biodiversity on human healthhave not been greatly discussed. This publication addresses some of theseconcerns while offering strategies for the sustainable use of biodiversity.

Mackintosh, Gay (ed.). 1989. Preserving Communities and Corridors. Defenders ofWildlife. Washington, D.C.

A thorough report that shows how the preservation of connections betweennatural communities can help to maintain biodiversity.

Myers, Norman. 1983. A Wealth of Wild Species: Storehouse for Human Welfare.Westview Press. Boulder, Colorado.

This book discusses the “utilitarian benefits” of preserving biodiversity. It isa classic text on the economic aspects and the questions continuously askedin ecological discussions.

Myers, Norman. 1992. The Primary Source: Tropical Forests and Our Future. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. New York, New York.

Dr. Myers describes not only the condition of these forests and what needsto be done to preserve them, but also how these forests influence the lives ofall people on earth.

Office of Technology Assessment. 1987. Technologies to Maintain BiologicalDiversity. Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C.

This report identifies some potential opportunities and also some constraintsto maintaining biodiversity.

Platt, Rutherford H., R.A. Rowntree, and P.C. Muick (eds.). 1994. The EcologicalCity: Preserving and Restoring Urban Biodiversity. University ofMassachusetts Press. Amherst, Massachusetts.

“The symposium on ‘Sustainable Cities: Preserving and Restoring UrbanBiodiversity,’ which led to this volume, was devoted to a reconnaissance of(1) the functions of biodiversity within urban areas, (2) the impacts ofurbanization upon biodiversity, and (3) the ways to design cities compatiblywith their ecological contexts.” —from the introduction and overview.


Reid, Walter V., and K.R. Miller. 1989. Keeping Options Alive: The Scientific Basisfor Conserving Biodiversity. World Resources Institute. Washington, D.C.

“In a way, Keeping Options Alive is a ‘how-to’ publication. Its timely premiseis that the biological sciences can help policy makers identify the threats to biodiversity, evaluate conservation tools, and come up with successfulmanagement strategies to the crisis of biotic impoverishment before it isfull-blown.” —from the foreword.

Soulé, Michael E. (ed.). 1987. Viable Populations for Conservation. CambridgeUniversity Press. Cambridge, England.

“This book addresses the most recent research in the rapidly developingintegration of conservation biology with population biology.” —from theback cover.

Thorne-Miller, Boyce, and S.A. Earle. 1998. The Living Ocean: Understanding andProtecting Marine Biodiversity—2nd edition. Island Press. Washington, D.C.

A valuable primer for understanding the threats to marine biodiversity andthe conservation needs of this important ecosystem.

Western, David, and M.C. Pearl (eds.). 1989. Conservation for the Twenty-FirstCentury. Oxford University Press. New York, New York.

This collection of writings from a diverse group of authors outlinesapproaches to nature conservation and it also reviews some possible futureoutcomes for habitats and wildlife.

Wilson, Edward O. (ed.), and Frances M. Peter (photographer). 1989. Biodiversity.National Academy Press. Washington, D.C.

This book is a collection of papers from a major conference that highlightsthe causes of biodiversity loss followed by a systematic analysis of theapproaches to preserving biodiversity.

“Anyone concerned with biodiversity should own this book …”—from the journal Science.

Wilson, Edward O. 1992. The Diversity of Life. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.New York, New York.

“In this book a master scientist tells the great story of how life on earthevolved. Edward O. Wilson describes how the species of the world became


diverse and why the threat to that diversity today is beyond the scope ofanything we have known before.”—from the back cover.

Wyman, Richard L. (ed.). 1991. Global Climate Change and Life on Earth.Chapman and Hall. New York, New York.

“Global Climate Change and Life on Earth focuses on the greenhouse effectand its relation to such crucial issues as deforestation, overpopulation andhunger, pollution, sea-level changes, and the loss of biodiversity. These environmental threats now facing us could have so much momentum thatunless steps are taken now to reverse them, they may soon overwhelm ourability to respond.” —from the back cover.

P e r i o d i c a l s

Biological Conservation

Monthly publication on theoretical and applied science, research and commentary on conservation issues; worldwide in scope.

The Conservationist

Monthly publication of the New York State Department of EnvironmentalConservation. Lots of artwork; non-technical articles associated withwildlife management and outdoor recreation.

National Geographic

Monthly magazine. Non-technical; lots of color photographs; good coverageof wildlife refuges, national parks, rare species, unusual ecosystems.

Natural History

Monthly magazine. Non-technical; lots of photographs; emphasizes naturaldiversity of the landscape and diversity of organisms.

Nature

Weekly British scientific journal. Short, highly technical articles reportingoriginal research on all scientific subjects.

Nature Conservancy

Bimonthly magazine of the Nature Conservancy, an organization dedicatedto saving unique natural areas primarily by buying and preserving them.


New Scientist

Weekly British publication. Brief, non-technical, often “chatty” articles on awide range of recent scientific discoveries, controversies, and public policyissues; excellent coverage of biological and conservation issues.

S e l e c t e d P u b l i c a t i o n s

P e r t a i n i n g t o N e w Y o r k S t a t e

Daniels, Robert A. 1996. Guide to the Identification of Scales of Inland Fishes ofNortheastern North America. New York State Museum. Albany, New York.

This book presents a comprehensive source of information to assistresearchers in identifying the scales of inland fishes of the Northeast.

Mills, Edward L., M.D. Scheuerell, J.T. Carlton, and D.L. Strayer. 1997. Biological Invasions in the Hudson River Basin. New York State Museum.Albany, New York.

“The purpose of this study is to present a comprehensive inventory of the introduced flora and fauna of the Hudson River drainage basin.” —from the introduction.

Mitchell, Richard S., and C.J. Sheviak. 1981. Rare Plants of New York State. NewYork State Museum. Albany, New York.

“Through this publication we seek to reach the interested public as well asprofessionals in conservation and biology. The book is not intended to be apurely technical botanical document, but a practical guide and introductionto the subject of rare plants in the state.” —from the foreword.

Mitchell, Richard S., and G. Tucker. 1997. Revised Checklist of New York StatePlants. New York State Museum. Albany, New York.

Revised compilation of all vascular plant species known to grow, indepen-dently of cultivation, within the state of New York.


Mitchell, Richard S., L. Danaher, and G. Steeves. 1998. Northeastern FernIdentifier. New York State Museum. Albany, New York.

This innovative software package allows identification of fern species fromthe northeastern United States by simply pointing and clicking. Each speciesis illustrated with a color photograph. This PC-compatible software is available only on CD-ROM.

New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. 1987. Checklist ofAmphibians, Reptiles, Birds and Mammals of New York State, Including theirProtective Status. NYSDEC, Division of Fish, Wildlife and MarineResources. Albany, New York.

Available from the NYSDEC Web site: www.dec.state.ny.us

New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. 1987. Endangered,Threatened and Special Concern Fish & Wildlife Species of New York State.NYSDEC, Division of Fish, Wildlife and Marine Resources. Albany, New York.

A checklist. Available from the NYSDEC Web site: www.dec.state.ny.us

Reschke, Carol. 1990. Ecological Communities of New York State. New York NaturalHeritage Program. Latham, New York.

“The primary objective of this report is to classify and describe ecologicalcommunities representing the full array of biological diversity of New YorkState.” —from the introduction.

Siegfried, Clifford A. 1986. Understanding New York Lakes. New York StateMuseum. Albany, New York.

“This pamphlet serves as a starting point for the general reader who is inter-ested in lakes. It is intended as an introduction to what lakes are and howthey function, and to some of the problems that must be faced by resourcemanagers in New York State.” —from part I.

Strayer, David L., and K.J. Jirka. 1997. The Pearly Mussels of New York State. NewYork State Museum. Albany, New York.

Illustrations, descriptions and keys of the shells of New York’s pearly mussels.


A p p e n d i x I I I

Discussion Questions

1. What is biodiversity?

2. Why is biodiversity important?

3. What recent worldwide events have made the importance of biodiversity and

the health of the environment more widely recognized?

4. Is there more or less diversity now than 100 million years ago?

5. How long ago did the diversity start to increase? Why?

6. Is there more or less diversity among small organisms? Why?

7. How much do scientists know about all the plants and animals on earth?

8. What is the science of systematics? Taxonomy? Classification?


9. Is an ecologist the same as a taxonomist? How are they the same or different?

Do they work together?

10. Why is it important to know the name of an organism?

11. Do scientists have a name for every plant and animal on earth?

12. How many plants and animals are there on earth? What are scientists’ best

guesses?

13. Can you name five plants that are used medicinally?

14. What can a leech do for humans?

15. Why are insects useful? Give two examples.

16. What areas of the world are called tropical?

17. What is unique about the way plants grow in the tropics?

18. Why are the tropics particularly rich but fragile environments?

19. Where is Madagascar?


20. Why do so many of the plants and animals live in the tropical rainforest?

Why do many of them live in the canopy of the forest?

21. What is extinction?

22. Can extinction be reversed?

23. When did much of the current environmental destruction and change start

to occur?

24. Have there been other times in history of the earth when mass extinction

occurred? When? Why?

25. What possible conditions caused the disappearance of the dinosaurs?

26. What is the major difference between environmental changes now and

environmental changes 300 years ago?

27. What is the greenhouse effect?

28. What are the major causes of rainforest destruction?

29. Do you see signs of environmental destruction in your home area?

What are they?

30. Do you know of a wildlife preserve near your home?


31. Do you know of a biological research station or institution in your area?

Have you been to visit it? Is there a scientist on its staff? What does he or

she study?

32. Can you list five areas in which biological scientists specialize?

33. Are there plants and animals threatened with extinction in the northeastern

United States? Can you name some of them?

34. Name some animals that are not threatened with extinction in New York.

Why are they not considered threatened or endangered?

35. Can you name two environmental groups dedicated to saving biodiversity?

36. What are some things we each can do to help preserve biodiversity?


A p p e n d i x I V

Geologic Time Table



CreditsA r t w o r k

The drawings throughout the book, except for those pieces noted below, are originalgraphite drawings by Patricia Kernan. Patricia has been a scientific illustratorat the New York State Museum since 1988.

Cover artwork and design are also by Patricia Kernan.

O t h e r A r t i s t s

Powdery mildew (p. 14), 1861 print from a copper plate engraving of a drawing byCharles Tulasne, printed by permission of Farlow Reference Library, HarvardUniversity.

Franklinia alatamaha (p. 22), watercolor (circa 1788) by William Bartram, printedby permission of the British Museum, Natural History.

Peregrine Falcons (p. 32), watercolor by Louis Agassiz Fuertes, originally printed in1914 by the New York State Museum.

F i e l d S t a t i o n P h o t o s

Sirena Biological Field Station, taken in 1988 by Patricia Kernan, New York StateMuseum.

Palmer Station, taken in 1998 by Dean S. Klein, Antarctic Support Associates.

Fu-Shan Station, taken in 1996 by John H. Haines, New York State Museum.

Edmund Niles Huyck Preserve & Biological Research Station, taken in 1998 byRonald J. Gill, New York State Museum.

G e o l o g i c T i m e t a b l e

The geologic time table is a publication of the Geological Survey at the New YorkState Museum.

B o o k D e s i g n

Design by: Documentation Strategies, Inc., Rensselaer, New York In cooperation with Kristine Fitzgerald, 2k Design, Clifton Park, New York.


THE NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM IS A PROGRAM OF

THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK

THE STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

ISBN: 1-55557-210-3

ISSN: 0735-4401

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