Additive: Material Added In Small Amounts To Finished Fuel

Products To Improve Certain Properties Or Characteristics.

Antioxidant: Substance That Inhibits Reactions Promoted By

Oxygen

Aromatic Compound: A Hydrocarbon Based On A Six-Carbon

Benzenoid Ring

Biodiesel: Methyl Esters Of Fatty Acids Meeting The Requirements

Of Astm Specification D6751.

Biodegradable: Capable Of Being Broken Down By The Action Of

Microorganisms

Boiling Range: The Spread Of Temperature Over Which A Fuel, Or

Other Mixture Of Compounds, Distills.

Cetane Index: An Approximation Of Cetane Number Based On An

Empirical Relationship With Density And Volatility Parameters

Such As The Mid-Boiling Point. This Approximation Is Not Valid For

Biodiesel Or Biodiesel Blends.

Cetane Number: A Measure Of The Ignition Quality Of Diesel Fuel

Based On Ignition Delay In An Engine. The Higher The Cetane

Number, The Shorter The Ignition Delay And The Better The

Ignition Quality.

Chelating Compound: A Fuel Additive That Deactivates The

Catalytic Oxidizing Action Of Dissolved Metals, Notably Copper,

On Fuels During Storage.

Ci: Compression Ignition, I.E. A Diesel Engine

Cloud Point: The Temperature At Which A Sample Of A Fuel Just

Shows A Cloud Or Haze Of Wax (Or In The Case Of Biodiesel,

Methyl Ester) Crystals When It Is Cooled Under Standard Test

Conditions, As Defined In Astm D2500.

Detergent: A Fuel Detergent Is An Oil-Soluble Surfactant Additive

That Maintains The Cleanliness Of Engine Parts By Solubilizing

Deposits Or Materials Likely To Deposit In The Engine Fuel

System.

Dispersant: A Surfactant Additive Designed To Hold Particulate

Matter Dispersed In A Liquid.

Elastomer: Synthetic Rubber-Type Material Frequently Used In

Vehicle Fuel Systems (But Not Necessarily Natural Or Synthetic

Rubber, May Also Apply To Other Polymers).

Energy Content: The Heat Produced On Combustion Of A

Specified Volume Or Mass Of Fuel, Also Known As Heating Value

Or Heat Of Combustion.

EPAct: Energy Policy Act of 1992. Title III provides incentives to

promote the use of alternative fuel vehicles in transportation.

fatty acid methyl esters (FAME): Mono alkyl ester of long-chain

fatty acids from naturally occurring vegetable oil, animal fats, and

recycled greases.

fatty acid: any of the saturated or unsaturated monocarboxylic

acids that occur naturally in the form of triglycerides (or mono or

diglycerides) or as free fatty acids in fats and fatty oils.

flash point: the lowest temperature at which vapors from a fuel

will ignite on application of a small flame under standard test

conditions.

Free fatty acids: any saturated or unsaturated monocarboxylic

acids that occur naturally fats, oils or greases but are not

attached to glycerol backbones. These can lead to high acid fuels

and require special processes technology to convert into

biodiesel.

Hydrocarbon (HC): a compound composed of hydrogen and

carbon. Hydrocarbons can refer to fuel components and to

unburned or poorly combusted components in vehicle exhaust.

kerosene: a refined petroleum distillate of which different grades

are used as lamp oil, as heating oil, blended into diesel fuel, and

as fuel for aviation turbine engines.

lubricity: the ability of a fuel to lubricate.

microbial contamination: containing deposits or suspended matter

formed by microbial degradation of the fuel.

multifunctional additive: an additive or blend of additives with

more than one function.

OEM: original engine manufacturer.

Oxidation: Loosely, The Chemical Combination Of Oxygen To A

Molecule.

Oxidative Stability: The Ability Of A Fuel To Resist Oxidation

During Storage Or Use.

Oxygenate: A Fuel Component That Contains Oxygen; I.E.,

Biodiesel Or Ethanol.

Particulate Matter (Pm): The Solid Or Semi-Solid Compounds Of

Unburned Fuel That Are Emitted From Engines.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (Pah): Aromatic Compounds

With More Than One Benzenoid Ring (Pah). Also, Npah For Nitro-

Polyaromatic Compounds.

Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids: Fatty Acids With More Than One

Double Bond.

Pour Point: The Lowest Temperature At Which A Fuel Will Just Flow

When Tested Under Standard Conditions As Defined In Astm D97.

Saturation: Or Saturated Compound. A Paraffinic Hydrocarbon Or

Fatty Acid, I.E. With Only Single Bonds And No Double Or Triple

Bonds.

Solvency: The Quality Or State Of Being A Solvent.

Specific Gravity: The Ratio Of The Density Of A Substance To The

Density Of Water.

Splash Blending: The Fuels To Be Blended Are Delivered

Separately Into A Tank Truck

Stratification: To Separate Into Layers.

Storage Stability: The Ability Of A Fuel To Resist Deterioration On

Storage Due To Oxidation.

Torque: A Force That Produces Rotation.

Viscosity: A Measure Of The Resistance To Flow Of A Liquid.

A chemical property is any of a material's properties that

becomes evident during a chemical reaction; that is, any quality

that can be established only by changing a substance's chemical

identity.[1] Simply speaking, chemical properties cannot be

determined just by viewing or touching the substance; the

substance's internal structure must be affected for its chemical

properties to be investigated. However a catalytic property would

also be a chemical property.

The pour point of a liquid is the temperature at which it becomes

semi solid and loses its flow characteristics. In crude oil a high

pour point is generally associated with a highparaffin,or kerosene

content, typically found in crude deriving from a larger proportion

of plant material. That type of crude oil is mainly derived from

a kerogen Type II.

Gel point  is the temperature at

which diesel or biodiesel fuel freezes solid and can no longer flow

by gravity or be pumped through fuel lines. This phenomenon

happens when a fuel reaches a low enough temperature whereby

enough wax crystals have formed to prevent any movement in

the oil. For #2 diesel this is usually around 17.5 °F (−8.1 °C).

For the fuel to become pumpable again, it needs to be brought

above the gel point temperature to the Ungel point, which is

typically near its pour point. However, most of the waxes will still

remain in solid form and the fuel has to be warmed up further

until its Remix temperature in order to completely remelt and

redissolve the waxes.

Anti-gel additives are therefore commonly added to diesel or

biodiesels where cold temperature is expected. They act to

reduce the formation of wax crystals in the fuel, thereby lowering

the pour point and the gel point of the fuel. Anti-gel additives may

not necessarily affect the cloud point.

The cloud point of a fluid is the temperature at which dissolved

solids are no longer completely soluble, precipitating as a second

phase giving the fluid a cloudy appearance. This term is relevant

to several applications with different consequences.

In the petroleum industry, cloud point refers to the temperature

below which wax in diesel or biowax in biodiesels form a cloudy

appearance. The presence of solidified waxes thickens the oil and

clogs fuel filters and injectors in engines. The wax also

accumulates on cold surfaces (e.g. pipeline or heat

exchanger fouling) and forms an emulsion with water. Therefore,

cloud point indicates the tendency of the oil to plug filters or small

orifices at cold operating temperatures

The chemical composition of a mixture can be defined as the

distribution of the single substances that constitute the mixture

(called "components"). In other words, it is defined giving

the concentration of each component.

Because there are different ways to define the concentration of a

component, as a consequence there are also different ways to

define the composition of a mixture. For example it can be

expressed as molar fraction, volume fraction, mass

fraction, molality, molarity or normality.

Molarity" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Molality.

In chemistry, the molar concentration,   is defined as

the amount of a constituent   (usually measured in moles –

hence the name) divided by the volume of the mixture  :[1]

It is also called molarity, amount-of-substance

concentration, amount concentration, substance

concentration, or simply concentration. Whereas mole

fraction is a ratio of moles to moles, molar concentration is a

ratio of moles to volume. The volume   in the

definition   refers to the volume of the solution, not the

volume of the solvent. One litre of a solution usually contains

either slightly more or slightly less than 1 liter of solvent

because the process of dissolution causes volume of liquid to

increase or decrease (discussed further at volume fraction).

In chemistry, the molality, b (or m), of a solution is defined as

the amount of substance (in mol) of solute,  , divided by

the mass (in kg) of the solvent,   (not the mass of the

solution):[1]

The enthalpy of solution, enthalpy of dissolution, or heat of

solution is the enthalpy change associated with the dissolution of

a substance in a solvent at constant pressure resulting in infinite

dilution.

The enthalpy of solution is most often expressed in kJ/mol at

constant temperature. The energy change can be regarded as

being made of three parts, the endothermic breaking of bonds

within the solute and within the solvent, and the formation of

attractions between the solute and the solvent. An ideal

solution has an enthalpy of solution of zero. For a non-ideal

solution it is an excess molar quantity.

The enthalpy of mixing (also called heat of mixing) is

the heat that is taken up or released upon mixing of two (non-

reacting) chemical substances. When the enthalpy of mixing is

positive, mixing is endothermic while negative enthalpy of mixing

signifies exothermic mixing. In ideal mixtures the enthalpy of

mixing is null. In non-ideal mixtures thethermodynamic activity of

each component is different from its concentration by multiplying

with the activity coefficient.

Chemical properties:

Enthalpy of reaction, defined as the enthalpy change observed

in a constituent of a thermodynamic system when one mole of

substance reacts completely.

Enthalpy of formation, defined as the enthalpy change

observed in a constituent of a thermodynamic system when

one mole of a compound is formed from its elementary

antecedents.

Enthalpy of combustion, defined as the enthalpy change

observed in a constituent of a thermodynamic system when

one mole of a substance burns completely with oxygen.

Enthalpy of hydrogenation, defined as the enthalpy change

observed in a constituent of a thermodynamic system when

one mole of an unsaturated compound reacts completely with

an excess of hydrogen to form a saturated compound.

Enthalpy of atomization, defined as the enthalpy change

required to atomize one mole of compound completely.

Enthalpy of neutralization, defined as the enthalpy change

observed in a constituent of a thermodynamic system when

one mole of water is formed when an acid and a base react.

Standard Enthalpy of solution, defined as the enthalpy change

observed in a constituent of a thermodynamic system when

one mole of a solute is dissolved completely in an excess of

solvent, so that the solution is at infinite dilution.

Standard enthalpy of Denaturation (biochemistry), defined as

the enthalpy change required to denature one mole of

compound.

Enthalpy of hydration, defined as the enthalpy change

observed when one mole of gaseous ions are completely

dissolved in water forming one mole of aqueous ions.

Physical properties:

Enthalpy of fusion, defined as the enthalpy change required to

completely change the state of one mole of substance between

solid and liquid states.

Enthalpy of vaporization, defined as the enthalpy change

required to completely change the state of one mole of

substance between liquid and gaseous states.

Enthalpy of sublimation, defined as the enthalpy change

required to completely change the state of one mole of

substance between solid and gaseous states.

Lattice enthalpy, defined as the energy required to separate

one mole of an ionic compound into separated gaseous ions to

an infinite distance apart (meaning no force of attraction).

Enthalpy of mixing, defined as the enthalpy change upon

mixing of two (non-reacting) chemical substances.

Enthalpy is a defined thermodynamic potential, designated by

the letter "H", that consists of the internal energy of the system

(U) plus the product of pressure (p) and volume (V) of the system:[1]

Since enthalpy, H, consists of internal energy, U, plus the

product of pressure (p) and the volume (V) of the system,

which are all functions of the state of the thermodynamic

system, enthalpy is a state function.

Freezing-point depression describes the process in which

adding a solute to a solvent decreases the freezing point of the

solvent.

Examples include salt in water, alcohol in water, or the mixing of

two solids such as impurities in a finely powdered drug. In the last

case, the added compound is the solute, and the original solid is

thought of as the solvent. The resulting solution or solid-solid

mixture has a lower freezing point than the pure solvent or solid

did. This phenomenon is what causes sea water, (a mixture of salt

(and other things) in water) to remain liquid at temperatures

below 0 °C (32 °F), the freezing point of pure water.

In chemistry, colligative properties are properties

of solutions that depend upon the ratio of the number of solute

particles to the number of solvent molecules in a solution, and

not on the type of chemical species present.[1] This number

ratio can be related to the various units for concentration of

solutions. Here we shall only consider those properties which

result because of the dissolution of nonvolatile solute in a

volatile liquid solvent.[2] They are independent of the nature of

the solute particles, and are due essentially to the dilution of

the solvent by the solute. The word colligative is derived from

the Latin colligatus meaning bound together.[3]

Solubility equilibrium is a type of dynamic equilibrium. It exists

when a chemical compound in the solid state is in chemical

equilibrium with a solution of that compound. The solid may

dissolve unchanged, with dissociation or with chemical reaction

with another constituent of the solvent, such as acid or alkali.

Each type of equilibrium is characterized by a temperature-

dependent equilibrium constant. Solubility equilibria are

important in pharmaceutical, environmental and many other

scenarios.

A solubility equilibrium exists when a chemical compound in the

solid state is in chemical equilibrium with a solution of that

compound. The equilibrium is an example of dynamic

equilibrium in that some individual molecules migrate between

the solid and solution phases such that the rates

of dissolution and precipitation are equal to one another. When

equilibrium is established, the solution is said to be saturated.

The concentration of the solute in a saturated solution is known

as the solubility. Units of solubility may be molar (mol dm−3) or

expressed as mass per unit volume, such as μg ml−1. Solubility is

temperature dependent. A solution containing a higher

concentration of solute than the solubility is said to

be supersaturated. A supersaturated solution may be induced to

come to equilibrium by the addition of a "seed" which may be a

tiny crystal of the solute, or a tiny solid particle, which initiates

precipitation.

Molar solubility is the number of moles of a substance (the

solute) that can be dissolved per liter of solution before the

solution becomes saturated. It can be calculated from a

substance's solubility product constant (Ksp) and stoichiometry.

The units are mol/L, sometimes written as M.

Diesel engines can be run with a lean burn air-to-fuel ratio

(overstoichiometric ratio), to ensure the full combustion of soot

and to prevent the exhaust of unburnt fuel. The excess of oxygen

necessarily leads to generation of nitrogen oxides (NOx), which

are harmful pollutants, from the nitrogen in the air. Selective

catalytic reduction is used to reduce the amount of NOx released

into the atmosphere. Diesel exhaust fluid (from a separate DEF

tank) is injected into the exhaust pipeline, the aqueous urea

vaporizes and decomposes to form ammonia and carbon dioxide.

Within the SCR catalyst, the NOx are catalytically reduced by the

ammonia (NH3) into water (H2O) and nitrogen (N2), which are both

harmless; and these are then released through the exhaust.[3]

Diesel Exhaust Fluid (DEF) is an emissions control liquid required

by modern diesel engines. It is injected into the exhaust stream.

DEF is never added to diesel fuel. It is a non-hazardous solution of

32.5% urea in 67.5% de-ionized water. DEF is clear and colorless,

and looks exactly like water. It has a slight smell of ammonia,

similar to some home cleaning agents. DEF is used in by Selective

Catalytic Reduction (SCR) technology to remove harmful NOx

emissions from diesel engines.

In January 2010, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

brought in new emissions standards requiring medium- and

heavy-duty vehicles to significantly reduce engine emissions,

particularly NOx and particulate matter (PM). Vehicle

manufacturers use SCR to meet these standards. DEF is sprayed

into the exhaust, breaking down NOx gases into nitrogen and

water using an advanced catalyst system. As a result most new

diesel trucks, pickups, SUVs, and vans are now fitted with SCR

technology and have a DEF tank that must be regularly refilled.

EPA set the emissions standards to improve air quality. NOx and

PM emissions are associated with a wide range of health problems

including respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, aggravation of

asthma, acute respiratory symptoms, chronic bronchitis and

decreased lung function. The EPA estimates that the emission

standards will prevent 8,300 premature deaths, more than 9,500

hospitalizations and 1.5 million work days lost due to illness,

saving approximately $70.3 billion by 2030. But yet there is still

the cost of buying the Diesel Exhaust Fluid.

SCR is a so-called "aftertreatment" technology, which means that

it destroys harmful emissions after combustion. This gives

manufacturers greater scope to tune engines to improve fuel

efficiency and increase power. Owners of SCR vehicles enjoy

greater reliability and longer oil change intervals, which add up to

impressive operating cost savings over the life of the vehicle

A diluent (also referred to as a filler, dilutant or thinner) is

a diluting agent. Certain fluids are too viscous to be pumped

easily or too dense to flow from one particular point to the other.

This can be problematic, because it might not be economically

feasible to transport such fluids in this state. To ease this

restricted movement, diluents are added. This decreases the

viscosity of the fluids, thereby also decreasing the

pumping/transportation costs.

One industrial application is the transport of crude oil via

pipelines. Heavy crude oil/bitumen are fluids with high viscosity,

especially at low temperatures. The addition of a diluent enables

the diluted fluid (dilbit in the case of bitumen) to meet pipeline

specifications in order for it to be efficiently transported. Typical

diluent in this case is naphtha orcondensate.

A dispersion is a system in which particles are dispersed in a

continuous phase of a different composition (or state). See

also emulsion. A dispersion is classified in a number of different

ways, including how large the particles are in relation to the

particles of the continuous phase, whether or

not precipitation occurs, and the presence of Brownian motion.

IUPAC definition

Material comprising more than one phase where at least one

of the phases consists of finely divided phase domains, often in

the

colloidal size range, dispersed throughout a continuous phase.[1]

Note 1: Modification of definition in ref.[2]

There are three main types of dispersions:

Coarse dispersion (Suspension)

Colloid

Solution

The enthalpy of solution, enthalpy of dissolution, or heat of

solution is the enthalpy change associated with the dissolution of

a substance in a solvent at constant pressure resulting in infinite

dilution.

The enthalpy of solution is most often expressed in kJ/mol at

constant temperature. The energy change can be regarded as

being made of three parts, the endothermic breaking of bonds

within the solute and within the solvent, and the formation of

attractions between the solute and the solvent. An ideal

solution has an enthalpy of solution of zero. For a non-ideal

solution it is an excess molar quantity.

In chemistry, a solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of

only one phase. In such a mixture, a solute is a

substance dissolved in another substance, known as a solvent.

The solution more or less takes on the characteristics of the

solvent including its phase, and the solvent is commonly the

major fraction of the mixture. The concentration of a solute in a

solution is a measure of how much of that solute is dissolved in

the solvent.

The ability of one compound to dissolve in another compound is

called solubility. When a liquid can completely dissolve in another

liquid the two liquids are miscible. Two substances that can never

mix to form a solution are called immiscible.

All solutions have a positive entropy of mixing. The interactions

between different molecules or ions may be energetically favored

or not. If interactions are unfavorable, then thefree

energy decreases with increasing solute concentration. At some

point the energy loss outweighs the entropy gain, and no more

solute particles can be dissolved; the solution is said to

be saturated. However, the point at which a solution can become

saturated can change significantly with different environmental

factors, such as temperature, pressure, and contamination. For

some solute-solvent combinations a supersaturated solution can

be prepared by raising the solubility (for example by increasing

the temperature) to dissolve more solute, and then lowering it

(for example by cooling).

Usually, the greater the temperature of the solvent, the more of a

given solid solute it can dissolve. However, most gases and some

compounds exhibit solubilities that decrease with increased

temperature. Such behavior is a result of an exothermic enthalpy

of solution. Some surfactants exhibit this behaviour. The solubility

of liquids in liquids is generally less temperature-sensitive than

that of solids or gases.

The fire point of a fuel is the temperature at which the vapour

produced by that given fuel will continue to burn for at least 5

seconds after ignition by an open flame. At the flash point, a

lower temperature, a substance will ignite briefly, but vapor might

not be produced at a rate to sustain the fire. Most tables of

material properties will only list material flash points, but in

general the fire points can be assumed to be about 10 °C higher

than the flash points. However, this is no substitute for testing if

the fire point is safety critical. It is done by open cup apparatus.

The autoignition temperature or kindling point of a

substance is the lowest temperature at which it

will spontaneously ignite in a normal atmosphere without an

external source of ignition, such as a flame or spark. This

temperature is required to supply the activation energy needed

for combustion. The temperature at which a chemical will ignite

decreases as the pressure or oxygen concentration increases. It is

usually applied to a combustible fuel mixture.

Autoignition temperatures of liquid chemicals are typically

measured using a 500 mL flask placed in a temperature

controlled oven in accordance with the procedure described

inASTM E659.[1]

Destructive distillation is the chemical process involving

the decomposition of feedstock by heating to a high temperature;

the term generally applies to processing of organicmaterial in the

absence of air or in the presence of limited amounts of oxygen or

other reagents, catalysts, or solvents, such as steam or phenols.

It is an application of pyrolysis. The process breaks up

or 'cracks' large molecules. Coke, coal gas, gas carbon, coal tar,

Buckministerfullerene, ammonia liquor, and "coal oil" historically,

are examples of commercial products of the destructive

distillation of coal.

Dry distillation is the heating of solid materials to

produce gaseous products (which may condense into liquids or

solids). The method may not involve pyrolysis/thermolysis. The

products are condensed and collected. This method usually

requires higher temperatures than classical distillation. The

method has been used to obtain liquid fuels from coaland wood. It

can also be used to break down mineral salts such

as sulfates through thermolysis, in this case producing sulfur

dioxide/sulfur trioxide gas which can be dissolved in water to

obtain sulfuric acid. By this method sulfuric acid was first

identified and artificially produced.

Thermal decomposition, or thermolysis, is a chemical

decomposition caused by heat. The decomposition

temperature of a substance is the temperature at which the

substance chemically decomposes.

The reaction is usually endothermic as heat is required to

break chemical bonds in the compound undergoing

decomposition. If decomposition is sufficiently exothermic,

apositive feedback loop is created producing thermal

runaway and possibly an explosion.

In petroleum geology and chemistry, cracking is the process

whereby complex organic molecules such as kerogens or

heavy hydrocarbons are broken down into simpler molecules such

as light hydrocarbons, by the breaking of carbon-carbon bonds in

the precursors. The rate of cracking and the end products are

strongly dependent on thetemperature and presence of catalysts.

Cracking is the breakdown of a large alkane into smaller, more

useful alkanes and alkenes. Simply put, hydrocarbon cracking is

the process of breaking a long-chain of hydrocarbons into short

ones.

An oxidizing agent (also oxidant, oxidizer or oxidiser) is the

element or compound in an oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction

that accepts an electronfrom another species. Because the

oxidizing agent is gaining electrons (and is thus often called

an electron acceptor), it is said to have been reduced.

The oxidizing agent itself is reduced, as it is taking electrons onto

itself, but the reactant is oxidized by having its electrons taken

away by the oxidizing agent. Oxygen is the prime

(and eponymous) example among the varied types of oxidizing

agents, but oxidisers (e.g., chlorine trifluoride) do not necessarily

donate or contain oxygen.

Fusibility is the ease with which a material will melt. Materials

such as solder require a low melting point so that when heat is

applied to a joint, the solder will melt before the materials being

soldered melt, i.e. high fusibility. On the other hand, firebricks

used for furnace linings only melt at very high temperatures and

so have low fusibility. Materials that only melt at very high

temperatures are called refractorymaterials.

Heat capacity, or thermal capacity, is a measurable physical

quantity equal to the ratio of the heat added to (or subtracted

from) an object to the resulting temperature change.[1] The SI unit

of heat capacity is joule per kelvin,   and the dimensional form is

M1L2T−2Θ−1.

A pyrophoric substance (from Greek πυροφόρος, pyrophoros,

"fire-bearing") ignites spontaneously in air at or below 55°C

(130°F).[1] Examples are iron sulfide and many

reactive metals including uranium, when powdered or thinly

sliced. Pyrophoric materials are often water-reactive as well and

will ignite when they contact water or humid air. They can be

handled safely in atmospheres of argon or (with a few

exceptions) nitrogen. Most pyrophoric fires should be

extinguished with a Class D fire extinguisher for burning metals.

Organic chemistry is a chemistry subdiscipline involving

the scientific study of the structure, properties, and reactions

of organic compounds andorganic materials, i.e., matter in its

various forms that contain carbon atoms.[1] Study of structure

includes using spectroscopy (e.g., NMR), mass spectrometry, and

other physical and chemical methods to determine the chemical

composition and constitution of organic compounds and

materials. Study of properties includes both physical

properties and chemical properties, and uses similar methods as

well as methods to evaluate chemical reactivity, with the aim to

understand the behavior of the organic matter in its pure form

(when possible), but also in solutions, mixtures, and fabricated

forms. The study of organic reactions includes probing their scope

through use in preparation of target compounds (e.g., natural

products, drugs,polymers, etc.) by chemical synthesis, as well as

the focused study of the reactivities of individual organic

molecules, both in the laboratory and via theoretical (in silico)

study.

Catalysis is the increase in the rate of a chemical reaction due to

the participation of an additional substance called a catalyst.[1] With a catalyst, reactions occur faster and with less energy.

Because catalysts are not consumed, they are recycled. Often

only tiny amounts are required.

Cold filter plugging point (CFPP) is the lowest temperature,

expressed in degrees Celsius (°C), at which a given volume

of diesel type of fuel still passes through a

standardized filtration device in a specified time when cooled

under certain conditions. This test gives an estimate for the

lowest temperature that a fuel will give trouble free flow in certain

fuel systems. This is important as in cold temperate countries, a

high cold filter plugging point will clog up vehicle engines more

easily.

In cooking, the smoke point of an oil or fat is the temperature at

which, under defined conditions, enough volatile compounds

emerge from the oil that a bluish smoke becomes clearly visible.

At this temperature, volatile compounds, such as water, free fatty

acids, and short-chain degradation products of oxidation come up

from the oil. The smoke point is the temperature at which the oil

is decomposed and where possibly toxicological relevant

compounds are formed.

In chemistry, the standard molar entropy is

the entropy content of one mole of substance, under standard

conditions (not standard temperature and pressure STP).

The standard molar entropy is usually given the symbol S°, and as

units of joules per mole kelvin (J mol−1 K−1). Unlike standard

enthalpies of formation, the value of S° is an absolute. That is, an

element in its standard state has a nonzero value of S° at room

temperature. The entropy of a pure crystalline structure can be 0

J mol−1 K−1 only at 0 K, according to the third law of

thermodynamics. However, this presupposes that the material

forms a 'perfect crystal' without any frozen in entropy (defects,

dislocations), which is never completely true because crystals

always grow at a finite temperature. This residual entropy is often

quite negligible.

In thermodynamics, entropy (usual symbol S) is a measure of the

number of specific ways in which a thermodynamic system may

be arranged, commonly understood as a measure of disorder.

According to the second law of thermodynamics the entropy of

anisolated system never decreases; such a system will

spontaneously evolve toward thermodynamic equilibrium, the

configuration withmaximum entropy. Systems that are not

isolated may decrease in entropy, provided they increase the

entropy of their environment by at least that same amount. Since

entropy is a state function, the change in the entropy of a system

is the same for any process that goes from a given initial state to

a given final state, whether the process

is reversible or irreversible. However irreversible processes

increase the combined entropy of the system and its

environment.

Lower flammability limit (LFL),[1] usually expressed in volume

per cent, is the lower end of the concentration range over which a

flammable mixture of gas or vapour in air can ignite at a given

temperature and pressure. The flammability range is delineated

by the upper and lower flammability limits. Outside this range of

air/vapor mixtures, the mixture will not ignite (unless the

temperature and pressure are increased). The LFL decreases with

increasing temperature; thus, a mixture that is below its LFL at a

given temperature may ignite if heated sufficiently. For liquids,

the LFL is typically close to the saturated vapor concentration at

the flash point, however, due to differences in the liquid

properties, the relationship of LFL to flash point (which is also

dependent on the test apparatus) is not fixed and some spread in

the data usually exists.

Minimum ignition energy (MIE) is the minimum amount of

energy required to ignite a combustible vapor, gas or dust cloud,

for example by means of an electrostatic discharge. Ignition of a

fuel/air mixture is possible only when the rate of liberation of heat

near the ignition zone is greater than the heat loss by conduction.

Heat loss due to radiation is not considered, as it is assumed to be

negligible, and the ignition process is assumed to be steady and

one-dimensional[clarification needed]. MIE is measured in joules.

 

flammability is how easily something will burn or ignite,

causing fire or combustion. The degree of difficulty required to

cause the combustion of a substance is quantified through fire

testing. Internationally, a variety of test protocols exist to quantify

flammability. The ratings achieved are used in building codes,

insurance requirements, fire codes and other regulations

governing the use of building materials as well as the storage and

handling of highly flammable substances inside and outside of

structures and in surface and air transportation. For instance,

changing an occupancy by altering the flammability of the

contents requires the owner of a building to apply for a building

permit to make sure that the overall fire protection design basis

of the facility can take the change into account.

Miscibility / m ɪsɨ ̍ bɪlɨt i /  is the property of substances to mix in all

proportions, forming a homogeneous solution. The term is most

often applied to liquids, but applies also to solids and

gases. Water and ethanol, for example, are miscible because they

mix in all proportions.[1]

By contrast, substances are said to be immiscible if a significant

proportion does not form a solution. Otherwise, the substances

are considered miscible. For example, butanone is significantly

soluble in water, but these two solvents are not miscible because

they are not soluble in all proportions.

An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids that are

normally immiscible (nonmixable or unblendable). Emulsions are

part of a more general class of two-phase systems

of matter called colloids. Although the

terms colloid and emulsion are sometimes used

interchangeably, emulsionshould be used when both the

dispersed and the continuous phase are liquids. In an emulsion,

one liquid (the dispersed phase) is dispersed in the other (the

continuous phase). Examples of emulsions

include vinaigrettes, milk, mayonnaise, and some cutting

fluids for metal working.

A multiphasic liquid is a mixture consisting of more than

two immiscible liquid phases. Biphasic mixtures consisting of two

immiscible phases are very common and usually consist of

an organic solvent and an aqueous phase ("oil and water").

Multiphasic liquids can be used for selective liquid-liquid

extractions or for decorative purposes, e.g. in cosmetics.

While it is possible to get multilayered phases by

layering nonpolar and aqueous phases of decreasing densities on

top of each other, these phases will not separate after mixing like

true multiphasic liquids.

A vapor (American English spelling) or vapour (British) is a

substance in the gas phase at a temperature lower than its critical

point,[1]which means that the vapor can be condensed to

a liquid by increasing its pressure without reducing the

temperature.

For example, water has a critical temperature of 374 °C (647 K),

which is the highest temperature at which liquid water can exist.

In theatmosphere at ordinary temperatures, therefore, gaseous

water (known as water vapor) will condense to liquid if its partial

pressure is increased sufficiently.

A vapor may co-exist with a liquid (or solid). When this is true, the

two phases will be in equilibrium, and the gas partial pressure will

equal the equilibrium vapor pressure of the liquid (or solid).[1]

In thermodynamics, the triple point of a substance is

the temperature and pressure at which the

three phases (gas, liquid, and solid) of that substance coexist

in thermodynamic equilibrium.[1] For example, the triple point

of mercury occurs at a temperature of −38.8344 °C and a

pressure of 0.2 m Pa .

In addition to the triple point between solid, liquid, and gas, there

can be triple points involving more than one solid phase, for

substances with multiple polymorphs. Helium-4 is a special case

that presents a triple point involving two different fluid phases

True vapor pressure (TVP) is a common measure of the

volatility of petroleum distillate fuels. It is defined as the

equilibrium partial pressure exerted by a volatile organic liquid as

a function of temperature as determined by the test method

ASTM D 2879.[1]

The true vapor pressure (TVP) at 100 °F differs slightly from

the Reid vapor pressure (RVP) (per definition also at 100 °F), as it

excludes dissolved fixed gases such as air. 

Vapor pressure or equilibrium vapor pressure is defined as

the pressure exerted by a vapor in thermodynamic

equilibrium with itscondensed phases (solid or liquid) at a given

temperature in a closed system. The equilibrium vapor pressure is

an indication of a liquid'sevaporation rate. It relates to the

tendency of particles to escape from the liquid (or a solid). A

substance with a high vapor pressure at normal temperatures is

often referred to as volatile.

A crude oil assay is essentially the chemical evaluation of crude

oil feedstocks by petroleum testing laboratories. Each crude oil

type has unique molecular, chemicalcharacteristics. No crude oil

type is identical and there are crucial differences in crude oil

quality. The results of crude oil assay testing provide extensive

detailed hydrocarbonanalysis data for refiners, oil traders and

producers. Assay data help refineries determine if a crude oil

feedstock is compatible for a particular petroleum refinery or if

the crude oil could cause yield, quality, production, environmental

and other problems. "Crude Oil Assay". Intertek Worldwide.

Retrieved 4/2/14. 

The assay can be an inspection assay or comprehensive assay.

Testing can include crude oil characterization of whole crude oils

and the various boiling range fractions produced from physical or

simulated distillation by various procedures. Information obtained

from the petroleum assay is used for detailed refinery engineering

and client marketing purposes. Feedstock assay data are an

important tool in the refining process.

Octane rating or octane number is a standard measure of the

performance of an engine or aviation fuel. The higher the octane

number, the more compression the fuel can withstand before

detonating (igniting). In broad terms, fuels with a higher octane

rating are used in high performance petrol engines that require

higher compression ratios. In contrast, fuels with lower octane

numbers (but higher cetane numbers) are ideal for diesel engines,

because diesel engines (also referred to as compression-ignition

engines) do not compress the fuel but rather compress only air

and then inject the fuel into the air heated up by compression.

Petrol engines (also referred to as gasoline engines) rely on

ignition of air and fuel compressed together as a mixture without

ignition, which is then ignited at the end of the

compression stroke using spark plugs. Therefore, high

compressibility of the fuel matters mainly for petrol engines. Use

of petrol (gasoline) with lower octane numbers may lead to the

problem of engine knocking.[1]

The tonne of oil equivalent (toe) is a unit of energy defined as

the amount of energy released by burning one tonne of crude oil.

It is approximately 42 gigajoules, although as different crude oils

have different calorific values, the exact value is defined by

convention; several slightly different definitions exist. The toe is

sometimes used for large amounts of energy.

In a piston engine, the valve timing is the precise timing of the

opening and closing of the valves. In an internal combustion

engine these are usually poppet valves and in asteam

engine they are usually slide valves or piston valves.

The heat of combustion ( ) is the energy released

as heat when a compound undergoes

complete combustion with oxygen under standard conditions. The

chemical reaction is typically a hydrocarbon reacting with oxygen

to form carbon dioxide, water and heat. It may be expressed with

the quantities:

energy/mole of fuel (kJ/mol)

energy/mass of fuel

energy/volume of the fuel

The heat of combustion is conventionally measured with a bomb

calorimeter. It may also be calculated as the difference between

the heat of formation   of the products and reactants.

The compression ratio of an internal-combustion

engine or external combustion engine is a value that represents

the ratio of the volume of its combustion chamber from its largest

capacity to its smallest capacity. It is a fundamental specification

for many common combustion engines.

In a piston engine, it is the ratio between the volume of

the cylinder and combustion chamber when the piston is at

the bottom of its stroke, and the volume of the combustion

chamber when the piston is at the top of its stroke.

An engine or motor is a machine designed to

convert energy into useful mechanical motion.[1][2] Heat engines,

including internal combustion engines and external combustion

engines (such as steam engines) burn a fuel to create heat, which

then creates motion. Electric motors convert electrical energy

into mechanical motion, pneumatic motors use compressed

air and others—such as clockwork motors in wind-up toys—

use elastic energy. In biological systems, molecular motors,

like myosins in muscles, usechemical energy to create motion.

The melting point (or, rarely, liquefaction point) of a solid is

the temperature at which it changes state from solid to liquid at

atmospheric pressure. At the melting point the solid and liquid

phase exist in equilibrium. The melting point of a substance

depends on pressure and is usually specified

at standard pressure. When considered as the temperature of the

reverse change from liquid to solid, it is referred to as

the freezing point or crystallization point. Because of the

ability of some substances to supercool, the freezing point is not

considered as a characteristic property of a substance. When the

"characteristic freezing point" of a substance is determined, in

fact the actual methodology is almost always "the principle of

observing the disappearance rather than the formation of ice",

that is, the melting point.[1]

The density, or more precisely, the volumetric mass density,

of a substance is its mass per unit volume. The symbol most often

used for density is ρ (the lower case Greek letter rho).

Mathematically, density is defined as mass divided by volume:

In cooking, the smoke point of an oil or fat is the temperature at

which, under defined conditions, enough volatile compounds

emerge from the oil that a bluish smoke becomes clearly visible.

At this temperature, volatile compounds, such as water, free fatty

acids, and short-chain degradation products of oxidation come up

from the oil. The smoke point is the temperature at which the oil

is decomposed and where possibly toxicological relevant

compounds are formed.

The smoke point for an oil varies widely depending on origin and

refinement.[1] The smoke point of an oil does tend to increase

as free fatty acid content decreases and degree of refinement

increases.[2][3] Heating the oil produces free fatty acid and as this

heating time increases, more free fatty acids are produced,

thereby decreasing smoke point. It is one reason not to use the

same oil to deep fry more than twice.[1] Intermittent frying has a

markedly greater effect on oil deterioration than continuous

frying.[4]

Considerably above the temperature of the smoke point is

the flash point, the point at which the vapours from the oil can

first ignite when mixed with air.

The autoignition temperature or kindling point of a

substance is the lowest temperature at which it

will spontaneously ignite in a normal atmosphere without an

external source of ignition, such as a flame or spark. This

temperature is required to supply the activation energy needed

for combustion. The temperature at which a chemical will ignite

decreases as the pressure or oxygen concentration increases. It is

usually applied to a combustible fuel mixture. Autoignition

temperatures of liquid chemicals are typically measured using a

500 mL flask placed in a temperature controlled oven in

accordance with the procedure described in ASTM E659.

The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which

the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure surrounding

the liquid[1][2] and the liquid changes into a vapor.

A liquid at high-pressure has a higher boiling point than when that

liquid is at atmospheric pressure. In other words, the boiling point

of a liquid varies depending upon the surrounding environmental

pressure. For a given pressure, different liquids boil at different

temperatures.

The normal boiling point (also called the atmospheric boiling

point or the atmospheric pressure boiling point) of a liquid is

the special case in which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals

the defined atmospheric pressure at sea level, 1atmosphere.[3]

[4] At that temperature, the vapor pressure of the liquid becomes

sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure and allow bubbles of

vapor to form inside the bulk of the liquid. The standard boiling

point has been defined by IUPACsince 1982 as the temperature

at which boiling occurs under a pressure of 1 bar

Combustibility is a measure of how easily a substance will set

on fire, through fire or combustion. This is an important property

to consider when a substance is used for construction or is being

stored. It is also important in processes that produce combustible

substances as a by-product. Special precautions are usually

required for substances that are easily combustible. These

measures may include installation of fire sprinklers or storage

remote from possible sources of ignition.

Substances with low combustibility may be selected for

construction where the fire risk needs to be reduced.Like

apartment buildings, houses,offices and so on. If combustible

resources are used there is greater chance of fire accidents and

deaths. Fire resistantsubstances are preferred for building

materials and furnishings.

Thermal energy is a term sometimes used to refer to the

internal energy present in a system in a state of thermodynamic

equilibriumby virtue of its temperature.[1] The average

translational kinetic energy possessed by free particles in a

system of free particles in thermodynamic equilibrium (as

measured in the frame of reference of the center of mass of that

system) may also be referred to as the thermal energy per

particle

A temperature is a comparative objective measure of hot and

cold. The comparison is through detection of heat radiation,

particle velocity, kinetic energy, or most commonly, by the bulk

behavior of a thermometric material. It may be calibrated in any

of varioustemperature scales, Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin, etc.

The latent internal energy of a system is the internal energy a

system requires to undergo a phase transition. Its value is specific

to the substance or mix of substances in question. The value can

also vary with temperature and pressure. Generally speaking the

value is different for the type of phase change being

accomplished. Examples can include Latent internal energy of

vaporization (liquid to vapor), Latent internal energy of

crystallization (liquid to solid) Latent internal energy of

sublimation (solid to vapor). These values are usually expressed

in units of energy per mass or per mole such as J/mol or BTU/lb.

Often a negative sign will be used to represent energy being

withdrawn from the system, while a positive value represents

energy being added to the system. However, reference sources

do vary so check the source to be sure.