Bedford Institute BIOof Oceanography REVIEW ‘85

C a n a d a

TEMPERATURE (°C)

On the cover:

A satellite infrared image that depicts thesea-surface temperature (SST) over theGrand Banks of Newfoundland: it wastaken on 31 October 1984 by a NOAA-7satellite from an altitude of 833 km. Themagnetic tape of infrared data was pro-cessed and enhanced for SST by KevinReid at the image processing facility lo-cated at BIO. The BIO facility was config-ured by Perceptron Computing Inc. ofToronto: the analysis software used to pro-cess and enhance the cover illustration wasprovided by the Rosenstiel School of Ma-rine and Atmospheric Sciences.

The image nicely illustrate several fea-tures of the oceanography of the region.The Labrador Current is shown as thebroad band of cold water (1.0 - 3.5°C) inthe upper third of the image that narrowsmarkedly between 49° and 48°N at thenorthern shoulder of the Grand Banks. Itfollows the outer edge of the Banks along apath parallel to the 200 m isobath. The shelfedge of the Labrador Current is highlyvariable with waters of about 3°C inter-spersed with waters of about 7°C. At44°N, 49° W the variability on the temper-ature front is quite regular and wavelike.Near the Tail of the Banks, the Current isbroken up by a blob of warmer water withcentral temperatures of about 15°C. Notethat the reddish area in the southwest (bot-tom left) portion of the image is cloud coverand not a part of the Labrador Current.

The inshore branch of the LabradorCurrent can be seen as a cooler (5 - 7°C)region in Avalon Channel. Along 47°Nand southwestward towards Whale Bankand Haddock Channel. the seaward bound-ary of the cooler water corresponds to the100 m isobath.

The central portion of the Grand Banksfeature warmer waters with SST increas-ing to a maximum of about l2.5°C atSoutheast Shoal (near 44°20’S. 50°20’W).This warmer body of water situated on theShoal is another well known phenomenonof the Grand Banks: it is currently beingstudied by DFO scientistsat the NorrhwestAtlantic Fisheries Centre in St. John’s,Newfoundland, and at BIO.

Regional oceanography:The Grand Banks of Newfoundland

For a thousand years or more, the Grand Bankshave been a nursery of seamanship, a source of

great wealth for some but of hard-wrung smallreturns for many, and a most dangerous region lyingathwart the sea-lanes to North America from theolder countries. The Grand Banks in the eighties ofthis century are a challenge for Canadian fisheriesdevelopment, and the site of a great engineeringadventure. Truly, the Grand Banks is a place we needto know more about: this issue of BIO Reviewrecords how federal oceanographers and hydrog-raphers in eastern Canada are working to this end.

The earliest probings of the Norsemen from theirsettlements in southwest Greenland certainly coveredthe northern Grand Banks, on their way to their set-tlement in northern Newfoundland, and perhapsareas further south to Cape Cod and westward to theGreat Lakes. These early explorers must have beenvery familiar with the special problems of ice, fog,offshore shoals, and the teeming seabirds, fish, andwhales that attracted later voyagers. After GiovanniCabotti’s enthusiastic reports of his landing onNewfoundland in 1497, fishermen from England,France, northern Spain, and Portugal poured acrossthe Atlantic for the dried cod and whale oil trades.This traffic led to several bitter little wars and to the‘French Shore’ issue of northern Newfoundland inthe 19th century; the matter was only finally resolvedin 1977 with the Canadian declaration of our 200-milefisheries management zone, which covers much of theGrand Banks.

As late as the 1960s, Portuguese schooners withfleets of tiny wooden dories had been taking codwith handlines on the Grand Banks, continuing acenturies-old technology. During all this period, oneof the reasons why European and North Americangovernments stood behind their fishermen on theGrand Banks was to support a nursery of seamanshipto feed sailors to their navies in time of war: the abil-ity of Newfoundlanders to handle small boats ingreat seas must have saved countless lives in distantoceans over the years. The legendary fog that sooften shrouds the Grand Banks and the pack-ice

and icebergs drifted down from the eastern Arcticbrought the voyages of many ships, including theTitanic, to an abrupt and tragic end over thecenturies, and progressively sharpened seamanshipand the techniques of navigation. The terrible nightof February 15, 1982, when a bitter winter stormtook the lives of all 84 crew of the Ocean Rangerdrilling rig and of 33 of the 37 seamen from theSoviet cargo vessel that attempted their rescue, willironically further sharpen our skills.

You may ask, what has all this got to do withocean science and the BIO? As we hope to show inthis issue of our Review, the twin issues of Canadianresponsibility for Grand Banks fisheries, and thepossibility that production from the Grand BanksHibernia field will finally end our dependence on oilimports to fuel eastern Canada, both require heavyscientific input, much of which has come from BIOover the last several years.

As for climate research, the subject of BIO Review‘84, the reader will quickly discover that our workon the Grand Banks is not organized into a formal,single project with this title; rather, our individualresearch and survey divisions are responsible formany individual projects of which some are dedicatedsolely to a Grand Banks problem, while some willproduce general results applicable everywhere offeastern Canada, including the Grand Banks. Becausewhat happens on the Grand Banks is driven byoceanographic processes and events in the AtlanticOcean and Labrador Sea far from the Banks them-selves, we include relevant research of this kind inour review. It is not easy (or useful) to put anaccurate estimate on the costs of all these projects,but they comprise approximately 20% of the DFOexpenditure at BIO, totalling about $7.9 million. Itshould be noted that the component of fisheries man-agement scientists housed at BIO does not haveresponsibilities for research off Newfoundland: thisis done by scientists of DFO’s Northwest AtlanticFisheries Centre at St. John’s, Newfoundland, withwhom oceanographers at BIO collaborate in manyprojects. To recognize this, we have included in this

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The historical photographs at left(circa 1911) depict “flying sets “,dories towed astern a schooner thendropped off one by one to fish. Thiscenturies-old method was in use onthe Grand Banks of Newfoundlanduntil as late as the 1960s. The workwas hard and dangerous, particu-larly as sudden summer fogs andstorms often set down. In angrywinds and waters, dories strayedfrom their parent vessels and, by oneestimation, more fishermen were lostin this manner than in shipwreck.(Courtesy of the Maritime Museum of theAtlantic, the F. W. Wallace Collection)

edition a special guest article by Larry Coady andScott Akenhead of St. John’s

As the reader will discover in this Review, ourresearch in support of fisheries management and oilexploration on the Grand Banks takes many formsand covers all oceanographic disciplines. Someprojects are done directly at the request of the off-shore industry who must have the best possibleadvice and data on conditions in the offshore:bathymetry of outports and large bays, wave climate,ice behaviour, currents and current surges, sedimentbedload strength and the statistics of continental shelfearthquakes, the statistics and mechanics of icebergscouring, and many other topics. Some projects aredone because only thus can we, or various sectors ofthe industry, understand variability of fog, ice, andcurrents on the Grand Banks: the between-year varia-tions in the Labrador Current and the interactionbetween the Gulf Stream and the topography of theGrand Banks, for example. Some projects are donebecause study of the unique features of the Grand

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Banks produces results of wide relevance: the struc-tural history of the continental margin, and the greattransform fault that forms the southern flank of theGrand Banks. Finally, some are done to back up themore direct investigations of fisheries biology andmarine pollution done by the St. John’s fisheriesscientists: the influence of Hudson Strait outflow onfisheries production, the modelling of the effects ofpollution on fish stocks, the processes controllingbiological production on the Banks.

As well as discussing some of the ways in whichBIO is addressing these problems, this issue of theReview contains our now-familiar guide to BIOorganization, projects, voyages, and output ofpapers, reports, and charts. We hope it continuesto be useful to you.

- A . R . L o n g h u r s tDirector-General

Bedford Institute of OceanographyDepartment of Fisheries and Oceans

ContentsREGIONAL OCEANOGRAPHY: THE GRAND BANKS BIO Review is published annu-

OF NEWFOUNDLAND (A.R. Longhurst) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 ally by the Bedford Institute ofOceanography. Change of

1. SCIENCE AND SURVEYS ON THE GRAND BANKS: address notices and other

GOVERNMENT AND INDUSTRY correspondence concerning this

(H.B. Nicholls) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 publication should be sent to:

Publication Services2. GEOSCIENCE (D.I. Ross) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Bedford Institute of

Passive margins: The Grand Banks example (C.E. Keen) . . 13Oceanography

P.O. Box 1006

Surficial and bedrock geology of the Grand Banks Dartmouth, Nova Scotia

(G.B.J. Fader) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Canada B2Y 4A2

Iceberg-scour features on the Grand Banks(D.I. Ross and M. Lewis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

International Standard SerialNumber (ISSN) 0229-8910

Seabed stability on the continental slope adjacent to theGrand Banks (D.J. W. Piper) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Cat. No. Fs 75-203/1985E

ISBN 0-662-14592-5

3. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL OCEANOGRAPHY(J.A. Elliott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Background levels of petroleum residues and their originon the Grand Banks (E.M. Levy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Une version française est aussidisponible.

@Minister of Supply and

Sea ice and iceberg movement (S.D. Smith andG. Symonds) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Mean and variable currents on the Grand Banks(B.D. Petrie) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Services Canada 1985

4. BIOLOGY (K.H. Mann) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Stock assessment and related fisheries research on the GrandBanks (L. W. Coady and S.A. Akenhead) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

How the Labrador Current and Hudson Bay run-off affectthe ecology of the Grand Banks (K.F. Drinkwater) . . . . . . . 46

The Grand Banks modelling project (W. Silvert) . . . . . . . . . 49

Microheterotrophic activity on the Grand Banks: Thebiological submodel (M.A. Paranjape and R.E. Smith) . . . . 53

Seabirds and the Grand Banks (R.G.B. Brown) . . . . . . . . . . 56 BIO Review ‘85:

5. CHARTING THE GRAND BANKS AND ADJOINING Editor -AREAS (R. Pietrzak) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Michael P. Latremouille

Assistant Editor -6. CHARTS AND PUBLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Brenda Newman

7. VOYAGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73Production Co-ordinator -Susan Scale

8. ORGANIZATION AND STAFF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Typesetter -Nancy Poirier Typesetting

9. PROJECT LISTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Printer -Kromar Printing Ltd.,

10. EXCERPTS FROM THE BIO LOG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Winnipeg 1

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chapter 1

Science and surveyson the Grand Banks:Government and industry

A s a major centre for oceano-graphic research and hydrogra-

phic surveys in Canada, the BedfordInstitute of Oceanography providesservices, advice, and research expertisein support of a variety of nationalneeds. In keeping with the federalgovernment’s economic thrust to pro-mote and support technologicaldevelopment in Canada, a key strategyof Institute programs is to undertakework relevant to industry’s needs. Thispaper explains how the Instituteendeavours to meet the needs of threeclients in one geographic region, theGrand Banks, and examines the asso-ciated institute-industry interfacesand interactions.

BIO has four objectives:(1) To perform fundamental long-term

research in all fields of the marinesciences, and to act as a majorCanadian repository of expertise.

(2) To perform shorter term appliedresearch in response to presentnational needs, and to advise onthe management of our marineenvironment, including its fisheriesand offshore hydrocarbonresources.

(3) To perform necessary surveys andcartographic work to ensure a sup-ply of navigation charts of therequired accuracy for the regionfrom Georges Bank to the highCanadian Arctic.

(4) To respond with all relevant exper-tise and assistance to any majormarine emergency within thesame region.

Most interaction with industry occursin the areas of applied research and4

hydrography. The level of effort in1984/85 for applied research pertain-ing to the Grand Banks, includingfunds from all sources and overheadand support costs, is $6.4 million (or16%); for hydrographic surveys andchart production, the correspondingfigure is $4.8 million (or 30%). How-ever, one should not lose sight of theimportance of fundamental long-termresearch in meeting industry’s needs.In science, basic research inevitablybecomes the cornerstone of appliedresearch, and what seems lacking inimmediate application today may beof great importance a decade hence.This seems especially true in oceanog-raphy, and much of the knowledgenow being applied to some of themost urgent problems of the marineenvironment stems from the basicresearch of years past. The provisionof advice to industry today is possiblebecause of the basic research that wasundertaken five or ten yearspreviously.

BIO programs provide support tovarious industries active on the GrandBanks, chief of these being the fishingindustry, shipping, and the offshoreoil industry. It should be noted at theoutset, however, that few of the Insti-tute’s programs are focused on a sin-gle geographic region such as theGrand Banks; the majority have amuch wider range of application.Thus, while some of the studiesdescribed here are specific to theGrand Banks, others are applicable tothe Canadian east coast offshoregenerally including the Banks. Simi-larly, very few projects are directed at

a single customer.Institute programs have as one of

their objectives support for the devel-opment of a stand-alone Canadianocean industry, both manufacturingand contract R&D. Such an industry isof course not specific to any one geo-graphic region, but this article willmake reference to some of the firmsinvolved with BIO on the GrandBanks.

Fishing industry

The support of the fisheries ofAtlantic Canada, including the GrandBanks, has been a longstanding pri-ority of Institute programs. There arefour main thrusts:- providing technical developments to

assist in fish finding and stockassessment;

- providing a better understanding ofthe causes of variability in fishstocks;

- evaluating the consequences ofindustrial activity on the fisheries;and

- investigating how changes in theatmosphere/ocean climate machineaffect fishing.

These involve varying degrees of inter-action with the industry. Most of theInstitute’s research in support of thelong-term renewal of fish stocks, forexample, is an underpinning in ocean-ography and ecology for the workof the fisheries laboratories of theDepartment of Fisheries and Oceans,while the research pertaining toatmosphere/ocean climate is fun-damental long-term research to addressa major national issue. In both cases

Newfoundland fishing villages such as this one in the Ramea Islands off therugged south coast rely exclusively on water transportation. In one exampleof efforts to improve the charts that fishermen use, radio-navigation gridsthat are corrected for distortion near coasts are now included.

the fishing industry is not theimmediate customer.

Fishing profitability through technicalinputs

The fishing industry itself is not aslarge a consumer of scientific productsas the offshore oil industry; the techni-cal problems of industrial fishing havelargely been solved by the industryitself. Nevertheless, this situation iscontinually monitored so that we canmatch potential new ocean data ser-vices with what can actually be usedby the industry.

Special navigation charts, tailored tomeet the needs of fishermen in thatthey provide information about the

seafloor, are now available for theGrand Banks and other regions as aresult of a co-operative arrangementbetween BIO and a Newfoundlandcompany, NORDCO. Prior to thesecharts, information on seafloor geol-ogy was provided on an ad hoc basisin answer to requests from individualfishermen. NORDCO submitted anUnsolicited Proposal(l), which wassupported by the Institute. This wasfollowed-up by other contracts and thetransfer of Institute data. The com-pany is now marketing the charts asa commercial venture.

Attention has been paid to the needsof small fishing vessels for access toradio navigation systems available

(1)The Unsolicited Proposal (UP) Program is an adjunct to the federal government’s Contracting-outPolicy in Science and Technology; it provides the Canadian private sector and commercial industrythe opportunity to submit, on their own initiative, proposals for scientific work. Its aim is toencourage industry’s contribution to government objectives and to increase government apprecia-tion of Canadian industrial capabilities. The work is funded by the federal government.

more easily to larger ships. In particu-lar, the way in which radio navigationgrids are distorted near coasts andislands has been measured and theresulting correction included in chartsthat fishermen are likely to use,including the charts referred to above.

Physical oceanographers are co-operating with Atmospheric Environ-ment Service meteorologists in a proj-ect designed to improve the detailedpredictions of conditions within stormsat sea; inferior predictions not onlyrisk lives at sea, but also the unneces-sary loss of productive fishing time ifthe storm proves to be less violentthan predicted (refer to the section onthe offshore oil industry below forfurther information on this project,known as the Canadian Atlantic StormProject, CASP).

Research into acoustic fish-findingtechnology at the Institute has resultedin a much-improved system forgroundfish detection by which notonly abundance but also individualfish size can be measured. It isintended that this will be availablecommercially with as little delay aspossible and discussions are underwaywith prospective manufacturers.

Consequences of industrial activity forfisheries

It is the responsibility of the Instituteto apply its wide range of expertise inevaluating the consequences of pro-posed industrial developments. Part ofthis responsibility is discharged by aid-ing the drafting of guidelines for pro-ponents’ studies needed to back upEnvironmental Impact Statements, andthe subsequent review of the state-ments within the EnvironmentalAssessment and Review and other for-mal processes. Another part is thereview of oil industry contingencyplans for all exploratory wells, while athird aspect requires scientists to per-form some related research becauseBIO may be the chief location of rele-vant expertise in Canada, or because itis essential for our scientists to befully up-to-speed in the problems onwhich they must pass judgement.

The Grand Banks has been anextremely busy region for the Institutewith respect to evaluating the conse-quences of industrial activity for fish-eries, as well as for other concerns.

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An example of this activity is illus-trated by the Hibernia EnvironmentalImpact Statement (EIS). With thefiling of the EIS on May 15, 1985,Mobil Oil Canada started along theregulatory road that could lead toproduction approval for this discovery.A joint Canada-Newfoundland reviewpanel was established; their report isdue at year-end. At the time of writing(June/July 1985), Institute staff areengaged in the technical review of thefour-volume EIS and its many sup-porting documents. Departmental(DEMR and DFO) positions will beestablished based in part on theInstitute reviews, and Institute staffwill attend the public hearings toprovide expert advice.

Researchers of the Marine EcologyLaboratory (MEL) at BIO are engagedin a project to model the possibleeffects of oil spills on the GrandBanks ecosystem. The project isfunded by the Department of Energy,Mines, and Resources through thePanel on Energy Research andDevelopment, PERD(2). It is hopedthat this modelling effort will gobeyond traditional methods of impactassessment and will, in addition, pro-vide a basis for the consolidation ofinformation on the Grand Banks eco-system. The project is of significancebecause it addresses the requirementfor an ecosystems approach toenvironmental impact assessment asrecommended in a recent FederalEnvironmental Assessment and ReviewOffice (FEARO) report (Beanlandsand Duinker, 1983). A major compo-nent of the project is the use of inter-active modelling workshops involvingscientists active in the field. Dutch andGerman scientists who have developedsimilar models have been consulted.

Offshore Pe t ro leum and the Fisher ies

W hat impact will recovering the hydrocarbon reserves off eastern Canadahave on offshore fish stocks and fishing operations? Much misinforma-

tion existed when BIO hosted a two-day scientific consultation on this widelydiscussed subject in October 1980. The objective was to draft a scientificopinion on the probable consequences of the additional oil contamination tobe anticipated as a result of offshore hydrocarbon production at Sable Islandand on the Grand Banks. The consultation was organized by the MarineEnvironment and Ecosystems Subcommittee of CAFSAC (the CanadianAtlantic Fisheries Scientific Advisory Committee), so that a consensus mightbe expressed by at least one segment of the scientific community on the mostprobable consequences.

Recognizing that the problem is a complex one, it was decided to limit the focusof the two-day consultation. The panel of experts were each given a question inadvance and asked to address it at the consultation prior to in-depth discussion.A very limited set of questions was used:(1) What are the likely scales and frequency of accidental release of hydrocarbons

from foreseeable developments off the Canadian east coast?(2) What levels of oil contamination may be expected in water and sediments, and

what would be the physiological consequences for biota?(3) What kind of observational programs would be required to detect the effects

on biota?(4) What is the likelihood that such effects would impair recruitment and that

such impaired recruitment would be separable from natural variation?(5) What consequences for offshore fishing operations may be expected?(6) What will be the effects, if any, of countermeasures?

Discussion did not cover coastal fisheries, recreational beaches, ports, har-bours, or wildlife because it was felt that the very important inshore problemswere much better understood than the offshore consequences. Views expressedwere personal and not the position of any organization. The Consultation did notconsider any program requirements for the future to solve uncertainties that wereexposed and it was recognized that the output would not represent or substitutefor a detailed study of the same problems more formally undertaken over alonger period. Lastly, no formal recommendations were made, or would theyhave been appropriate, as a result of the Consultation.

Notwithstanding the caveats noted above, the Consultation achieved its aims.For those interested in the details of the consensus replies to the questions, thefollowing report may be consulted:

Longhurst, A. (Editor). 1982. Consultation on the consequences of offshoreoil production on offshore fish stocks and fishing operations. CanadianTechnical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences No. 1096: 95 p.

and major trophic pathways of the The first phase of the project wasGrand Banks ecosystem; completed in June 1985 and has

The interactive modelling system is (b) identification and modelling of thebased on a microcomputer system that significant interactions throughhas been developed at MEL for the which oil spills could affect thepurpose of this project. The work is biota on the Grand Banks; andorganized in three phases: (c) elaboration of the model for(a) development of a highly aggregated predictive modelling of the effects

model representing the dynamics of oil spills.

(2)The Panel on Energy R&D (PERD) is an interdepartmental committee of Assistant DeputyMinisters representing some 23 federal departments, agencies, and crown corporations, who areresponsible for reviewing, co-ordinating and recommending on priorities and funding for federalenergy research and development. The Office of Energy R&D (OERD) of the Department ofEnergy, Mines, and Resources serves as the secretariat. Funding for this program is providedthrough the Department of Energy, Mines and Resources.

resulted in the preparation of a work-ing model of the Grand Banks ecosys-tem and preliminary identification ofways in which the system is mostlikely to be impacted by oil in theevent of a spill. To furnish criticaldata, it was necessary to run threemajor voyages to the Grand Banks toinvestigate the distribution and growthdynamics of microplankton communi-ties. Developmental work is now con-tinuing into phase (b), with increasedemphasis on the toxicological aspects.

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Interaction with industry takes placein two ways. Firstly, the periodicreview by the funding agency (PERD)involves a committee comprising bothgovernment and oil company mem-bers. Secondly, much of the work onthe project (54% of total resources) iscontracted out to industry, primarilyin Atlantic Canada. Significantproportions of the majority of PERD-funded projects are contracted out.

In another BIO project directly rele-vant to the consequences of industrialactivity for fisheries on the Canadianeast coast including the Grand Banks,research is being undertaken into sur-face current prediction, which is rele-vant to a number of applied problemssuch as oil spill trajectory modelling.The project involves joint participationof several government agencies, uni-versities, and the oil industry (Esso,Dome, Petro-Canada, and Mobil).In the modelling work there is closeco-operation with a Canadian com-pany that is active in this field,Meteorological and EnvironmentalPlanning Ltd. of Markham, Ontario.Much of the data analysis and fieldwork is carried out on contract byfirms such as MacLaren Plansearch ofHalifax, N.S. The work is funded byBIO, PERD, the Natural Sciencesand Engineering Research Council(NSERC), and Mobil Oil Canada Ltd.

Shipping on the Grand Banks

According to the Charts and Publi-cations Regulations of the CanadaShipping Act, all ships (both Canadianand foreign) are required to carryCanadian charts in Canadian waters.It is the responsibility of the CanadianHydrographic Service (CHS) to pro-vide these charts and associated publi-cations such as Tide Tables andSailing Directions.

In the case of the Grand Banks andits associated coastal waters, the CHScomponent at BIO is responsible forthe upkeep of eight existing charts. Inaddition it is currently producing threenew offshore charts for this region,two of which pertain to St. PierreBank off southern Newfoundland atthe western edge of the Grand Banks.All three charts are being produced oncontract (by Terra Surveys Ltd. ofOttawa), which is in itself a relativelynew departure.

Large portions of the coast ofNewfoundland are poorly charted.Knowledge of the bathymetry is scantwith many parts of the coastlinepoorly delineated. The geographicposition is, in places, several miles outof position. This state of affairspresents an obvious hazard to ship-ping, particularly since large vesselsare now venturing into some of theharbours. As an example (and close tothe Grand Banks), Notre Dame Bay innortheast Newfoundland is one sucharea where the existing charts areprimarily British Admiralty reproduc-tions dating back to the last century.Lewisporte, situated within NotreDame Bay, is but one of several activeports in the area. It is the terminus forthe Labrador ferry and a receivingdepot for fuel oils for the centralpart of Newfoundland. Botwood, nearLewisporte, is the major shipping portfor the Abitibi-Price paper mill atGrand Falls and has been used as asupply base for drilling in theLabrador Sea. Not only are existingcharts here very old, but this area ofthe coast is very rugged and complexwith numerous islands, rocks, andshoals. In 1984, BIO mounted a majorhydrographic effort in Notre DameBay. Part of the work was undertaken

An offshore fishing trawler on theGrand Banks of Newfoundland.(Courtesy of the North west AtlanticFisheries Centre)

by contract (Terra Surveys of Ottawawas contracted to survey Lewisporteand its approaches, and also LoonBay), while part of the work wasundertaken by BIO hydrographersworking from CSS Baffin. To providedetailed shoreline plots for these andassociated surveys, and later to facili-tate the construction of the charts,another contract was let for photo-grammetric mapping. The results ofthese various surveys will contributedata towards a set of new charts forthe Notre Dame Bay area.

Another field in which there is sig-nificant interaction with the shippingindustry is that of radio-navigationaids, such as Loran-C. Recently a newLoran-C transmitter was established byTransport Canada at Fox Harbour,Labrador, thereby extending the cover-age of this state-of-the-art system toinclude the Grand Banks. A transmit-ter such as this cannot be used effec-tively without the updating of existingcharts to include Loran-C technicaldata (lattices). In response to thisneed, CHS at BIO embarked on amajor new program. The work, whichwill take several years to complete, isstill underway. Much of it is beingdone on contract by such firms asAtlantic Air Surveys of Dartmouth,N.S. and Kenting of Ottawa. Loran-Cprovides fishing vessels and supplyboats for offshore drilling platformswith an aid that contributes to moreefficient and safer vessel operations.Helicopters servicing drilling platformsalso utilize the revised charts in theiroffshore flights. The interaction withindustry includes the training of vesseloperators in the use of the revisedcharts.

Services such as the above must beresponsive to the changing practicesand demands of the industry. This isensured through regular interactionwith shipping interests in such foraas the Newfoundland ShipownersAssociation and the Atlantic PilotageAuthority, the Regional Director ofHydrography at BIO being a memberof both organizations.

Also relevant to shipping is theresearch being undertaken at BIO onwaves and sea ice (including icebergs).This work is considered under the sec-tion on the offshore oil industry sincemuch of it is funded via the Energy

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R&D Program (PERD). Of particularinterest is the recently establishedCanadian Atlantic Storm Project(CASP) that will look in detail at thelarge and small features of severe andunpredictable winter storms that lashthe Canadian east coast. Such stormsare a threat to ships at sea and cancause millions of dollars of damage tovessels in small harbours, to wharves,and to private property.

Oil industry

Offshore regions are believed tocontain Canada’s largest remaininguntapped reserves of oil and gas. Ofthese, the Hibernia field on the GrandBanks, discovered in 1979, is regardedas one of the best prospects. Mr. PaulTellier, Deputy Minister, FederalDepartment of Energy, Mines andResources, appearing before theStanding Committee of the Senate ofCanada on Energy and NaturalResources in April 1984 said of theHibernia field that it is “a very majoroilfield on a world scale” (Tellier,1984). Despite the high costs and risks,exploration on the Grand Banks hascontinued since the first well wasdrilled in 1966. In 1984, for example,seven exploratory wells and threedelineation wells were drilled, resultingin one oil discovery, two gas-and-oildiscoveries, and one gas-condensatefind. In 1985, as previously stated,Mobil released its EnvironmentalImpact Statement for the Hiberniafield, and production from this sourceis now confidently expected during thenext five years. As well as requiringnew engineering solutions, Hiberniahas been characterized by a greatdemand for scientific informationabout the environment in which itmust operate, while for the GrandBanks as a whole there is the need toprovide improved understanding ofpetroleum reservoirs. This has meantan unprecedented demand for scien-tific services from the federal govern-ment to which BIO has responded bymaking major changes in its researchand survey programmes.

Moorings about to be deployed from CSS Dawson in November 1985.These directional wave buoys are being used in the Canadian AtlanticStorm Project to measure wave height, and the direction of propagation.

BIO research pertaining to offshoreoil and gas may be classified under thefollowing categories: geoscience con-siderations; effects of the oceanenvironment on offshore structures;and offshore geotechnics. Note that8

of surface waters.

the effects of oil and gas developmentson the marine environment are consid-ered under the section on the fishingindustry.

Geoscience considerations

The objective of research in thisfield is to provide improved under-standing of petroleum reservoirs andthe geological hazards faced in hydro-carbon developments, e.g. seabedinstability.

The geological setting of the GrandBanks was established by industry andgovernment scientists in the 1970s,with the Atlantic Geoscience Centre(AGC) playing a major role. Thesestudies, which continue, involve closeco-operation between AGC and oilcompany scientists; the results make adirect contribution to the assessmentof oil and gas reserves. As an exampleof more recent work, an agreementwas struck in 1985 between the Geo-logical Survey of Canada and a groupof oil companies headed by Chevronto proceed jointly with a major aero-

magnetic survey in an area coveringthe northeastern Grand Banks and theOrphan Basin. The objective was todelineate in greater detail thanpresently available a number ofsedimentary basins that are potentialsources of hydrocarbons. AGC will beplaying a major role in this project.Field operations are scheduled for thesummer of 1985. AGC will incor-porate the data obtained with seismicinformation acquired through othercontracts to establish the deep struc-ture of the continental margin acrossthe eastern Grand Banks and delineatethe sedimentary basins that havedeveloped during its formation.

The continental margin offNewfoundland is part of one of theworld’s classic transform-faulted mar-gins. This region, which includes theGrand Banks, is a key target for seis-mic reflection experiments designed toacquire information on the geologydeep within the earth’s crust. TheFrontier Geoscience Program(3) isfunding the Atlantic Geoscience Centre

(3)The Frontier Geoscience Program is designed to gather data, provide analysis, and synthesize anddisseminate information relating to the geology of the frontier areas. The focus is on the geologyand evolution of sedimentary basins, the processes governing the generation, accumulation, andpreservation of hydrocarbons, and the identification and analysis of constraints to their development.

Only two semi-submersible oil-drilling rigs of this type exist. Thisone was used on the Grand Banksof Newfoundland.

to do this. One of the objects of suchwork is to obtain an understanding ofthe fundamental controls on thedevelopment of the sedimentary basinsthat are known to contain hydrocar-bon resources. The acquisition of thedeep crustal marine seismic reflectiondata along the northeast coast ofNewfoundland and across OrphanBasin and the adjacent continentalmargin was undertaken on contract byGeophysical Services Incorporated ofCalgary in 1984, and further work iscurrently underway. Results off north-east Newfoundland will be made avail-able to industry and others as part ofthe national Lithoprobe Program.(4)

Seabed instability resulting fromearthquakes has been investigated bythe Institute in the vicinity of the 1929earthquake on the Grand Banks. Thework has shown that surficial slump-ing is widespread on the continentalslope within 50 km of the epicentre,

and that the turbidity current gener-ated was 300 m thick and sufficientlypowerful to sweep seabed gravel intowaves. Such information is useful inthe preparation of standards by theCanadian Standards Association onthe design of offshore structures. Asignificant part of this research wasfunded by PERD.

Effects of the ocean environment onoffshore structures

The objective of research in thisfield is to improve the safety ofmarine hydrocarbon exploration andproduction systems. Rig operatorsneed to know the statistics of waveconditions and currents (including theprobable extreme wave heights andcurrent surges), the statistics of ice andfreezing spray conditions, and how topredict the drift of observed pack iceand icebergs approaching a rig.

In 1981 the Resource ManagementBranch of the Department of Energy,Mines and Resources (which subse-quently became part of the CanadaOil and Gas Lands Administration,COGLA) asked the Atlantic Oceano-graphic Laboratory at BIO to providean overview of oceanographic condi-tions for the Newfoundland Shelf andthe Hibernia area in particular. Thiswas done, and was followed by aworkshop with industry, government,and university participation. Based onthe recommendations of the workshopa steering group was formed involvingthe above groups (specifically Mobil,Petro-Canada, Dalhousie University,and AOL) to arrange and co-ordinatea joint program of analysis, model-ling, and observation of currents onthe Grand Banks. As an example ofthe work undertaken, current meterdata collected by Mobil and satellite-tracked drifting buoy tracks resultingfrom Petro-Canada and InternationalIce Patrol work have been analyzed byAOL and utilized in a statisticaliceberg-drift prediction model devel-oped by Dalhousie University. Otheroil companies, such as Husky-BowValley and Esso, are also involved,

(4)The Lithoprobe Program is a national, collaborative, multi-year, multidisciplinary, geoscientificresearch program for investigating fundamental questions concerning the nature and evolution ofthe rigid outer shell of the earth (the lithosphere) beneath Canada’s landmass and surroundingoceans. It involves the effective integration of modern geophysical, geological, and geochemicalconcepts and technology to extend knowledge of the lithosphere in various key areas in Canadainto the third dimension - depth.

and significant parts of the programare undertaken on contract by consul-tants (e.g., Dobrocky Seatech hasprovided the consulting support for astudy of pressure gauges). Funding isfrom PERD, the oil industry (whoalso provide ship time), and AOL.

The heavy ice conditions experiencedover the Grand Banks in recent yearshave highlighted the need for better iceforecasting. One of the objectives ofthe Atlantic Oceanographic Labora-tory’s sea ice research program is toimprove the models presently beingused for operational forecasting byboth the Atmospheric EnvironmentService and private industry. A majorthrust in the work is to elucidate therespective roles of meteorological andoceanographic factors in determiningthe large-scale distribution of pack ice.

Icebergs represent one of the majorhazards and impediments to GrandBanks hydrocarbon development. Amajor objective of AOL icebergresearch is to develop models that willprovide accurate predictions of icebergdrift in the short term (1 to 3 daysover a range of 10 to 50 km) in orderto assist industry in making decisionson the need to tow icebergs and/or tovacate the rig. In 1983, 1984, and 1985AOL organized a voyage to the GrandBanks to monitor the trajectory of ice-bergs and to measure the associatedcurrents and winds. Among the con-tractors involved in this project areIce Engineering Ltd. of St. John’s,Newfoundland, and Seimac Ltd. ofBedford, N.S.

A major thrust of the program ofthe Atlantic Oceanographic Laboratoryis wave studies. Relevant to shippingand coastal engineering as well as tothe offshore oil industry, the AOLprogram has two main components.One is the presentation of statisticaldata on ocean wave fields over manyyears in the form of wave climatecharts. The other is research aimed atunderstanding how waves form, prop-agate, and eventually decay and atimproving numerical wave-hindcastmodels. One recent example of exter-nal interaction with reference to theGrand Banks is in connection with theOcean Ranger incident. While thisinteraction is not on a one-to-one basiswith the industry, it obviously hasimportant implications to them. The

9

Ocean Ranger sank during a storm inFebruary 1982, and Institute staffprovided expert advice on factors suchas waves at the Royal Commissionthat was established to investigate theincident. One example of how theInstitute assisted (in response to aspecific request of the Commission)was to develop and build a three-dimensional model of the energiesmeasured at the Zapata Ugland rig,some 30 km north of the OceanRanger site. The model depicted theperiod from 1430 h local time onFebruary 14 through 0330 h onFebruary 15 when the storm reachedits peak and eventually the OceanRanger sank.

The Canadian Atlantic StormProject (CASP), referred to previ-ously, is a multi-year joint meteorolog-ical and oceanographic research proj-ect whose objective is advancing theunderstanding of Canadian east coaststorms and the effects of such stormson the oceans, e.g. in the generationof waves. As such it is of relevance tooil and gas development because suchstorms are a threat to offshore drillingplatforms. The meteorological aspectis the responsibility of the AtmosphericEnvironment Service, while the ocean-ographic component is the responsi-bility of the Atlantic OceanographicLaboratory at BIO. Initiated in1984/85, the main field work is to beundertaken in 1985/86 off Nova Sco-tia and on the Grand Banks usingbuoys and moored instruments. Whilethe oceanographic field work is essen-tially confined to the Scotian Shelf,the results will be applicable to theeast coast offshore generally. Theproject, estimated to cost about$3 million, is primarily funded throughPERD. The CASP management com-mittee includes oil industry membersas well as, of course, BIO andAtmospheric Environment Servicerepresentatives.

Offshore geotechnics

The objective of this area of activityis to improve knowledge of seabedconditions on the Grand Banks forboth development and regulation pur-poses. The Atlantic Geoscience Centreis conducting various projects, manyfunded by PERD, on topics such asseabed stability, soil properties, sedi-10

ment dynamics, and iceberg scouring.With the step-up in engineering

activity and offshore development inice-infested waters, it is becomingincreasingly important to understandice scouring processes and to predictthe frequency and depth of seafloordisruption by iceberg and sea-icescouring. At risk are seabed compo-nents of hydrocarbon production sys-tems such as wellheads, flowlines,gathering lines, and productionmanifolds. Advice has been providedto Mobil, based on surveys undertakenby AGC, on the distribution and ageof iceberg scours on the Grand Banks.Other BIO research in this field is con-cerned with iceberg grounding, scourformation and degradation, and thedevelopment of techniques for predict-ing scour frequency and depth. Icebergscour is monitored using submersiblesand side-scan sonar, and other tech-niques are being developed. Thework is funded to a large extent byPERD and the Environmental StudiesRevolving Fund (ESRF)(5); much of itis done on contract by companies suchas Geonautics Ltd. of St. John’s,Newfoundland. An example of oneof the ESRF-funded studies is theDynamics of Iceberg Grounding andScouring experiment (DIGS); this proj-ect involves the voyage of the chartervessel Polar Circle to offshoreLabrador (where it is somewhat easierto study iceberg grounding and scour)in the summer of 1985.

One of the major programs of theAtlantic Geoscience Centre is the sys-tematic mapping of the sediments andbedrock of the seafloor off easternCanada. Over the years this activityhas resulted in the accumulation of aconsiderable body of knowledge onregions such as the Grand Banks. Thisinformation is of interest to the oilindustry. One of the first examples ofinteraction with industry occurred inthe 1960s and early 1970s when explo-ratory work first got underway on theGrand Banks. Industry approachedBIO for information on the charac-teristics of the seafloor in order to

ascertain foundation conditions foranchoring drilling rigs. Following thediscovery of oil at Hibernia in 1980,Mobil investigated the possibility oftransporting oil ashore by pipeline.The company wanted to know ifseafloor conditions were such that arelatively direct pipeline could beconstructed between Hibernia andSt. John’s. AGC was approached. Theadvice provided was that while such adirect route was not feasible, a moresoutherly route might be possible. Asis now (i.e., July 1985) known, Mobilsubsequently decided against the pipe-line option. In the interim, however,AGC provided information pertainingto foundation characteristics for pipe-lines to contractors working forMobil, e.g., Lavalin Ltd. In a some-what related example of the use of thistype of geological data to industry,advice was provided to a salvage com-pany in connection with the recoveryoperation for an expensive anchorchain that was lost overboard from asupply vessel on the Grand Banks.

In other geotechnics work in sup-port of the Hibernia development,studies of sediment dynamics, soilproperties, and seabed dynamics areall underway and are funded viaPERD or the Frontier GeoscienceProgram. In connection with the firsttype, results suggest that sand ridgebodies near Hibernia are less relictthan previously thought and appear tohave developed during the last 8000 y;an inventory of offshore geotechnicalboreholes, including industry bore-holes, is currently underway, while inthe seabed stability work a surficialfeatures map has been compiled forthe Hibernia area.

Marine information and advice

In addition to the many contractsand joint programs with industry per-taining to the Grand Banks, there isconsiderable interaction through theprovision of advice, interpretation,and data. Much of this occurs on anad hoc basis through informal chan-nels on a one-to-one basis, but in

(5)The Environmental Studies Revolving Fund (ESRF) is administered jointly by COGLA and theNorthern Affairs Program of the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development. It wasestablished to finance environmental and social studies needed to assist decision making on oil andgas activity in the Canada Lands. The studies are financed by means of levies on the oil and gasindustry and cover a broad range of scientific disciplines in the physical, biological, and socialsciences.

addition certain formal mechanismshave been established to facilitate thetransfer. An example of the latter isthe Institute’s marine advisory andindustrial liaison office, BIOMAIL.The functions of this office are:- to facilitate the dissemination and

interpretation of information anddata on all appropriate aspects ofthe oceans to industrial users andother government departments;

- to encourage the transfer of tech-nology to Canadian industry andthe healthy growth of ocean indus-try especially in Atlantic Canada;

- to facilitate contractual relationsfor all aspects of ocean R & Dbetween Canadian industry and theBedford Institute of Oceanography;

- to co-ordinate the review ofunsolicited proposals; and

- to advise industry on federal fund-ing for technology transfer (PILP,COPI, IRAP, etc.).

Data banks have been established atthe Institute for records from currentmeters, tide gauges, wave measuringbuoys, ocean bottom seismometers,and other instruments. Other data aresupplied to national data centres suchas MEDS (Marine Environmental DataService). The Atlantic GeoscienceCentre maintains an extensive open-filesystem for geoscience data, whilemarine geological samples fromregions such as the Grand Banks arehoused in a special Institute Curationfacility. Bathymetric data, in the formof digitized field-sheets, are main-tained to supplement the informationrecorded on published charts. Theseare accessed routinely by industry andothers working on Grand Banks prob-lems. In addition, the BIO Librarymaintains a special collection ofenvironmental assessment literaturecovering offshore regions such as theGrand Banks. This collection, proba-bly the most complete set of suchdocuments available in Canada in thepublic domain, is used extensively byindustry.

Formal links with industry are alsoachieved through various committeesand other bodies. One such committeeon which the Institute is represented isthe Environmental Advisory Commit-tee on Newfoundland and LabradorMarine Transportation. Its purpose is

Brian Nicholls.

to provide information and advice tothe Coast Guard Control Authority onthose aspects of the environment andnatural resources that may be affectedby shipping routes and ship move-ment. Appropriate industry representa-tives, e.g. Dome Petroleum in connec-tion with the shipping of oil from theArctic to southern ports, serve on thecommittee. As another example, BIOstaff are active on several of theEnvironmental Studies Revolving Fundcommittees that are relevant to theGrand Banks. These committees,which comprise government, industry,and university members, identifyresearch priorities, review researchproposals, and appoint scientificauthorities for specific projects. Insti-tute staff serve (or have served) on thefollowing ESRF committees relevant tothe Grand Banks: bottom sedimenttransport; effects monitoring; icebergs;and sea bottom ice scour.

Further reading

In addition to this issue of the BIOReview, two earlier issues should beconsulted: BIO Review ‘81, which dis-cusses how Institute programs respondto the marine issues facing Canada,

and how the priorities of the programsare influenced by evolving nationalneeds for information about theocean; and BIO Review ‘83, which isdevoted to “surveys and services”.Geological Survey of Canada PaperNo. 81-6, “Part I, Marine Geosciencein Canada; A Status Report” providesthe background to some of the earliergeological work on the Grand Banks,while the annual reports of theCanadian Hydrographic Service pro-vide information on surveys and chart-ing pertaining to the Grand Banks.

References

BEANLANDS, G.E. and DUINKER, P.N. 1983.An ecological framework for environmentalimpact assessment in Canada. Halifax, N.S.;Institute for Resource and EnvironmentalStudies, Dalhousie University, and the FederalEnvironmental Assessment Review Office: p. 8.

TELLIER, P.M. 1984. Senate of Canada. InProceedings of the Standing Senate Committeeon Energy and Natural Resources. FirstProceedings on the National Energy Program,Issue No. 1: p. 22.

- H . B . N i c h o l l sHead

Ocean Information Division

11

chapter 2

Geoscience

The Grand Banks of Newfoundlandextend to the east and southeast

of the Island of Newfoundland andcover an area 2.5 times the size of theIsland. They are the most extensiveshallow feature on the continentalshelf of eastern Canada. Because of itsgeomorphological significance and thepotential resources hidden beneath it,the region has been the scene of con-tinuous marine geophysical and geo-logical investigations since surveys inoffshore eastern Canada were initiatedin the mid sixties. In our understand-ing of the formation and developmentof the North Atlantic Ocean, the mar-gins of the Grand Banks provide aunique record of the continentalbreak-up of North America, Africa,and Europe 100-l80 million years ago.As the location of significant sedimen-tary basins formed during the break-up of the ancient continent of Pangea,the Grand Banks provide us with arecord of basin evolution and thepotential for substantial hydrocarbonresources. As a shallow bank present-ing a physical barrier to the southwardflow of large icebergs calving off theglaciers of Greenland, the area pro-vides a major challenge to the exploi-tation of resources beneath the surfaceof the Banks. Extension of explora-tion across the steep margins of theBanks, and future exploitation of anyresources found in these deeper waterareas, faces the added concerns of sta-bility of seabed sediments in thesedeeper water regions and the possibil-ity of submarine landslides such asthose triggered by the 1929 earthquakeon the continental slope off thesouthwestern Grand Banks.

The Chevron et al. discovery of oilat Hibernia P-l5 in 1979 provided anew impetus to hydrocarbon explora-tion at a time when industry interest inthe area had waned considerably after38 dry holes had been drilled. A total

of 13 discoveries have now been madein the Jeanne d’Arc Basin located onthe northeast margin of the Banks.The major oil play in this region, esti-mated to contain nearly 75% of theoil potential, relates to the trans-basinfault zone, which extends from Hiber-nia to Ben Nevis. Currently there areseven significant discoveries on thistrend. A recent hydrocarbon assess-ment of the East Newfoundland Shelf(Proctor et al., 1984), based on allavailable well, seismic, and geochemi-cal data, indicated a 50% probabilityof more than 8.4 billion barrels of oiland 12.2 trillion cubic feet of gas,including the 1.3 billion barrels andmore than 2 trillion cubic feet ofresources already discovered. Althoughthe Hibernia field is in the “giant”class, the engineering constraints todeveloping the field are considerableand must be carefully assessed beforedevelopment.

The increase in industry activity onthe Grand Banks since 1979 hasresulted in an acceleration of theactivities of the Atlantic GeoscienceCentre in the area and the initiation ofa number of studies directed specifi-cally to problems associated with thedevelopment of oil and gas from theHibernia field. Many of these newstudies are being carried out as short-term research projects funded by theOffice of Energy Research and Devel-opment or the Environmental StudiesRevolving Fund. Such research studiesbuild on the Centre’s broad geologicalunderstanding of the region and formpart of the ongoing research carriedout at the Atlantic Geoscience Centre.This work is now co-ordinated withinthe East Coast Task of the FrontierGeoscience Program, which provides aunified geoscience approach to thestudy of frontier resource areas suchas the Grand Banks by integratingdeep crustal studies relating to the

origins of sedimentary basins withdetailed studies of the internal geologyof these basins and the generation,accumulation, and entrapment ofhydrocarbons, and those studies ofpresent-day processes that constrainthe potential development of theseresources.

The program of the Atlantic Geo-science Centre covers all facets offrontier geoscience research in the eastcoast and Arctic offshore areas. Muchof the research is using state-of-the-arttechnology, either developed in housefor specific research, or more oftenthrough co-operative R&D projectswith industry. Research into the geol-ogy of the offshore requires scientiststo be at the forefront of technology inboth the acquisition and interpretationof new information. This in turnrequires close co-operation betweengovernment, university, and industryscientists. The Atlantic GeoscienceCentre is continually seeking opportu-nities for more effective co-operativeprograms with these other sectors ofour society.

The papers included in this chapterof the BIO Review summarize some ofthis research as it applies to the GrandBanks and adjacent continental mar-gins. As well as increasing our fun-damental knowledge of this importantpart of Canada’s landmass, the resultsof these studies are directly applicableto the safe exploration and exploita-tion of the mineral and energyresources so important to Canada’sresource-based economy.

Reference

PROCTOR, R.M., TAYLOR, G.C., andWADE, J.A. 1984. Oil and natural gasresources of Canada - 1983. Geological Surveyof Canada, Paper 83-31: 1-59.

- D . I . R o s sActing Director

Atlantic Geoscience Centre

12

Passive margins: The Grand Banks example

C.E. Keen

T he continental margins encirclingthe Grand Banks were formed by

the break-up and drift of the NorthAmerican, African, and Europeancontinents over a period of about80 million years. As a result, passivemargins of varying age border thesouthern, eastern, and northeasternGrand Banks. Each of these marginsegments exhibits characteristics thatdepend primarily on the timing of con-tinental break-up and the geometry ofthe initial plate motions between theseparating continents.

These plate-tectonic events are illus-trated in the first figure (see also LePichon et al., 1977; Haworth and

Jacobi, 1981). The margin south ofthe Grand Banks formed first asAfrica and North America separated.This margin is one of the world’s bestexamples of a transform margin alongwhich the initial continental motionswere strike-slip. Analogues are themore common transform faults andfracture zones in the ocean basins thatinitially offset segments of the mid-ocean ridges. This shearing betweenthe two continental blocks was not aninstantaneous event but started morethan 175 million years ago and con-tinued until complete separation ofthe continents occurred about 100 mil-lion years ago. The margin becomes

1. The various stages of continental break-up around the Grand Banks aredepicted. Dotted regions are areas of oceanic crust formed by seafloorspreading as the continents separated: solid lines are the positions of activemid-ocean ridges: dashed lines represent the positions of incipient ridgesand major fracture zones. Times are given in the upper right hand corner ofeach panel. (O. K. = Orphan Knoll; F.C. = Flemish Cap; N.R. = South-east Newfoundland Ridge; C.F.Z. = Charlie Fracture Zone.)

progressively younger to the southeast.The passive margin east of the

Grand Banks was formed by the pull-apart motions between the GrandBanks and the Iberian Peninsula(see first figure), which began about120 million years ago. This margin istherefore primarily a rifted as opposedto a transform margin. It is boundedto the south by the SoutheastNewfoundland Ridge and to the northby Flemish Cap. The former featuremay represent a leaky transform faultin oceanic crust, a seaward prolonga-tion of the transform margin. In con-trast, Flemish Cap is a continentalfragment, pulled away from the conti-nent proper during rifting. The sig-nificance of these rather striking fea-tures in the evolution of the margins isunclear and their nature is the subjectof continuing controversy.

The northeastern Grand Banks isbounded by the Orphan Basin, a wide,deep basin underlain by continentalcrust. The ocean-continent transition isnortheast of Orphan Knoll, a highstanding continental remnant similar insome respects to Flemish Cap. Thiscontinental margin was formed by rift-ing between the Grand Banks andwestern Europe with final continentalbreak-up probably occurring about90 to 100 million years ago. The mar-gin north of Orphan Basin is anothertransform margin, the landwardprolongation of the Charlie FractureZone.

In all of these margin segments,the plate tectonic history has beendeciphered largely from the record ofmarine magnetic anomalies, whichallows us to date the oldest seafloorand the geometry of the earliestseafloor spreading under certain cir-cumstances. Reconstructions of thepositions of the continents that matchpre-break-up features are also animportant geometrical constraint.Other geophysical data such as gravityanomalies and seismic data define theposition of the ocean-continent bound-ary approximately. Geological datasuch as the depositional environmentand stratigraphy of sediments in deepexploratory boreholes indicate the ver-tical motions that accompany and fol-low break-up. Thus a full understand-ing of the formation of these marginsrequires the integration of many types

13

2. Two crustal cross-sections across the margins of the Grand Banks; linesGHI and JKL are shown in the third figure. The numbers are seismic veloc-ities in kilometres per second. The gravity and magnetic anomalies alongtrack are shown above each cross-section. Sediments are divided into twogroups: post-rift, which were deposited after rifting stopped, and syn-rift,deposited during rifting. These are shown separated by a wavy line. Thisis an unconformity which suggests uplift between the rift and post-riftstages of margin development. It is common on many (but not all) passivemargins. Deep exploratory wells are indicated by vertical lines into thesediments above which are the corresponding well names.

of information.So far we have described only the

timing and geometry of plate motionsthat provides a partial explanation ofwhere and when the passive marginsformed. We still do not have a goodunderstanding of the forces deep inthe mantle that drive the plates andcause continental break-up. Whilethere is agreement that some form ofconvection probably occurs beneaththe plates and provides the ultimatedriving force, the interaction betweenconvection and continental break-up isnot clear.

Two main theories are currentlybeing championed (Sengor and Burke,1978; McKenzie, 1978; Keen, 1985).The first holds that an upwelling limbof a convection cell acts on the bot-tom of the lithosphere or plate, andprovides thermal and mechanicalenergy that thins the lithosphere frombelow. If thinning is sufficiently dras-tic, continental break-up will occur.The second theory proposes that thelithosphere itself is stretched, perhapsin response to distant changes in plate

14

motions or to extensional forcescreated by uplift of the continentallithosphere. Extension of the litho-sphere would be accompanied bylithospheric thinning, and possiblycontinental breakup.

Observations appear to support theextensional model, but the critical dis-tinguishing tests have not yet beendevised. What is clear, however, isthat extension and thinning do occurin the crust, even though the underly-ing driving mechanism for this is notknown. Stretching has been docu-mented by seismic mapping of exten-sional faults in the basement rocks onmany margins, including those border-ing the Grand Banks. Furthermore,seismic refraction measurements madeby the Atlantic Geoscience Centreshow that the entire continental crustthins as the ocean-continent boundaryis approached to less than half itsthickness under the continents proper(Keen and Hyndman, 1979).

In general terms, the consequencesof continental break-up and the devel-opment of passive margins are accom-

panied by the creation of oceaniclithosphere adjacent to the continent,and by the creation of sedimentarybasins. The latter are the focus ofrecent exploration for petroleum.

The creation of new oceanic litho-sphere and the development of theocean-continent transition have inevita-bly led to the search for that oftenelusive boundary between ocean andcontinent. The nature and develop-ment of this boundary or transitionzone could contribute to our under-standing of the process of continentalbreak-up. The Grand Banks regionprovides many opportunities to studythis feature across a variety of differ-ent margins. Two examples of theresults of such studies are shown inthe second figure. The southern trans-form margin exhibits a fairly sharpbreak between oceanic and continentalcrust, as might be expected from asheared margin. In contrast, the mar-gin northeast of Newfoundland ischaracterized by a broad zone overwhich the continental crust may havebeen stretched and thinned, beforeoceanic crust is reached. This marginmay exhibit a fairly sharp transitionfrom thinned continental to oceaniccrust just seaward of Orphan Knoll asshown in the second figure. The regionrequires more detailed study to confirmthis interpretation.

An understanding of the develop-ment of sedimentary basins on passivemargins is another area of researchcurrently underway at AGC (see forexample, Beaumont et al., 1982;Royden and Keen, 1980; Keen, 1979).The Grand Banks is an interestingregion in this respect as well becauseof the diverse styles and geometries ofthe basins that occur there (see thirdfigure). These basins are elongate nar-row half grabens (from the Germanfor ditch) separated from each otherby basement highs covered by rela-tively little sediment. They trendroughly northeast across the GrandBanks and are filled with sediment asold as the beginning of rifting betweenthe African and North Americanplates, about 200 million years ago.This suggests that their developmentwas concurrent with the developmentof the transform margin, but theirevolution continued after the forma-tion of that margin. We may not have

3. Location of cross sections shown in the second figure and distribution ofthe major sedimentary basins (stippled regions) around the Grand Banks.

defined all of these basins yet: othersmay occur in deep water, at the footof the continental slopes. Flemish Passis an example of such a basin; it hasreceived little sediment and thereforeis partly filled with water instead ofsediment.

In contrast to the narrow halfgrabens that occur to the south, thenortheastern region of the GrandBanks is occupied by the deep, broadOrphan Basin. One interesting ques-tion, particularly in view of petroleumexploration, is whether the Jeanned’Arc Basin (that contains the Hiberniaoil field) continues into the OrphanBasin region. If not, what is thenature of its northern termination? Inco-operation with several oil com-panies, we are currently conductinghigh-resolution mapping of magneticanomalies in the area to answer thesequestions.

How does the crust (and deeperlithosphere) behave beneath thesebasins? The basins themselves are sim-ply holes into which sediment can bedeposited. One must look deeper forclues to the processes that formedthem. We have shown that the wholecrust thins beneath the basins, but themeasurements have not allowed us to

examine how this thinning occurs.Two possible models are shown in thefourth figure (after Wernicke, 1985).The models differ significantly in thevertical motions they would produce,and therefore in the history ofsedimentation and basin subsidence.The subsidence history is closelyrelated to the ability of sediments of agiven age to produce petroleum, sothis is not only of academic interest.

In order to investigate the validityof these and other models for thedevelopment of the basins on the

Grand Banks, we have started the col-lection of deep crustal seismic reflec-tion data. Such data give a detailedcross-section through the earth’s crust,down to depths of 30-40 km or more.Other countries - the U.S., Britain,France, West Germany, and Australia- are involved in similar studies, butuntil 1984 no studies of this kind hadbeen initiated in Canada. Preliminaryresults across the Orphan Basin sug-gest that faulting occurs only in theupper 10 km of the crust; below thisdepth crustal thinning must occur byductile deformation (see fourth figure).

More data of this kind are currentlybeing collected across the other basinson the Grand Banks for there may bemore than one kind of deformationalstyle. Data are also being collectedacross the ocean-continent boundariesto provide better resolution of theseimportant features. These will provideus we hope with some clues on howthe Grand Banks basins developed. Inturn the information will be relevantto petroleum exploration on the onehand and to an understanding of theforces driving continental break-up onthe other.

References

BEAUMONT, C., KEEN, C.E., andBOUTILIER, R. 1982. On the evolution ofrifted continental margins: comparisons ofmodels and observations for the Nova Scotianmargin. Geophysical Journal of the RoyalAstronomical Society 70: 667-715.

4. Schematic illustration of two models of extension in the crust andlithosphere. The stippled areas are the sediments. Note that the two modelsproduce different basin shapes. The arrows indicate the direction of rift-stage vertical motions, which also differ in the two examples. AfterWernicke (1985).

15

HAWORTH, R.T. and JACOBI, R.D. 1983.Geophysical correlation between the geologicalzonation of Newfoundland and the British Isles.In Contributions to the Tectonics andGeophysics of Mountain Chains; Eds.R.D. Hatcher, Jr., et al. Geological Societyof America Memoir 158: 25-32.

KEEN, C.E. 1985. The dynamics of rifting:deformation of the lithosphere by active andpassive driving forces. Geophysical Journal ofthe Royal Astronomical Society 80: 95-120.

KEEN, C.E. 1979. Thermal history and subsi-dence of rifted continental margins - evidencefrom wells on the Nova Scotian and Labradorshelves. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 16:502-522.

KEEN, C.E. and HYNDMAN, R.D. 1979.Geophysical review of the continental marginsof eastern and western Canada. CanadianJournal of Earth Sciences 16: 712-747.

Le PICHON, X., SIBUET, J.C., andFRANCHETEAU, J. 1977. The fit of thecontinents around the North Atlantic Ocean.Tectonophysics 38: 169-209.

MCKENZIE, D.P. 1978. Some remarks on thedevelopment of sedimentary basins. Earth andPlanetary Science Letters 40: 25-32.

Surficial and bedrock geologyof the Grand Banks

G.B.J. Fader

To geologists, the Grand Banks ofNewfoundland are unique in

several ways. They bar the southwardflow of large icebergs from Greenlandand their northern flank is in fact rid-dled with furrows or scours, and pitsformed by grounding icebergs. In thesubsurface below that northern flanklies the Hibernia Oil Field, now esti-mated to hold 500 to 800 million bar-rels of recoverable oil (Mobil Oil,1985). To anchor and fix oil produc-tion structures safely in this offshoreregion and to construct and operateflow lines and gathering lines, all whileavoiding collision with icebergs, posesspecial engineering problems. Yetanother part of the uniqueness ofthe Banks is their sand and gravelsea beds, which hold promise as alarge source of aggregate for theconstruction industry.

The Geological Survey of Canada’sAtlantic Geoscience Centre has beensystematically studying the surficialand bedrock geology of the east coastcontinental shelf for 20 y. Researchwas extended to the Grand Banks inthe early seventies, and the ScotianShelf to the southwest is now largelycompleted from a reconnaissance per-spective. Most current efforts on theGrand Banks are concentrated on theeastern and northern portions becauseof the complex nature of geologicalconditions in the area and the more

16

immediate needs of government andindustry to assess conditions forhydrocarbon exploration anddevelopment at Hibernia.

Major regional geological voyages tothe Grand Banks were conducted in1972, 1975, 1980, and 1985 to collectseismic reflection, sidescan sonar, andmagnetic survey data as well as bed-rock and surficial samples, and to con-duct submersible observations. Fromthis data base we are preparingdetailed surficial and bedrock geologymaps and analyzing major processessuch as iceberg grounding, sedimentdynamics, and seafloor and subsurfacestability. During this period as well,we have provided advice to industryon the suitability and routing of off-shore pipelines, on the construction ofoffshore islands, and on geologicalhazards in the Grand Banks region.Some of the unique geological charac-teristics of the Grand Banks that con-trast it from the Scotian Shelf to thesouthwest and the Labrador Shelf tothe north are discussed below.

A most important bedrock geologi-cal characteristic of the Grand Banksis the distribution of Tertiary “semi-consolidated” bedrock and the land-forms it creates (see first figure, thebedrock map). All of the major banks- St. Pierre, Green, Whale, andGrand - are underlain by shallowTertiary rock. With the exception of

ROYDEN, L. and KEEN, C.E. 1980. Riftingprocess and thermal evolution of the continentalmargin of eastern Canada determined from sub-sidence curves: Earth and Planetary ScienceLetters 51: 343-361.

SENGOR, A.H.C. and BURKE, K. 1978. Rela-tive timing of rifting and volcanism on earthand its tectonic implications. GeophysicalResearch Letters 5: 419-421.

WERNICKE, B. 1985. Uniform sense normalsimple shear of the continental lithosphere.Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 22: 108-125.

some heavily channeled areas under-lying Green and Whale banks, mostother areas have only a thin layer ofsurficial sediment and in many placesTertiary rocks outcrop at the seabed(Fader and King, 1981). This meansthat suitable stable foundations foroffshore exploration and developmentplatforms are available in contrast tothe Scotian Shelf near Sable Islandwhere thick, dynamic (moving)sediments form the seabed.

The inner shelf of the Grand Banksis also unique in that the thickness ofoverlying glacial materials is very thin(less than 2 m on average) over an areaextending from the Avalon Peninsulato the inner edge of Grand Bank.Here the bedrock consists of well-indurated Paleozoic sedimentary rocks,which have been extensively sampledwith the BIO-designed electric rockcore drill. This area is also heavilyscoured by icebergs and the resultingfurrows at the seabed are consideredto be a combination of very old(greater than 15,000 y B.P.) and mod-ern furrows. The exposed bedrock andthe density of iceberg furrows hasprecluded the use of a direct-routepipeline to Newfoundland from theHibernia oil fields (King and Fader,1981). Existing pipeline-burial technol-ogy cannot cross and trench the hardbottom in a cost effective manner. Asouthern “Tertiary bedrock” route,although very long, is geologicallymore favourable.

The Virgin Rocks - Eastern Shoalsarea of the Banks is very shallow(about 4 m water depth), elevated, andrugged. Here, very hard pink andwhite quartzite, tillite, and volcanicrock protrude up to 40 m above the

1. Generalized regional bedrock geology of the Grand Banks of Newfoundl and interpreted from seismic reflectionprofiles and analyses of electric rock core drill samples.

surrounding sandy seabed of theGrand Banks. The area has long beenconsidered potentially suitable as abase for construction of platforms fornavigation, search and rescue, andhydrocarbon development-relatedfacilities.

To the west, south of Newfound-land, the bedrock consists of coal-bearing Pennsylvanian sandstone ofthe Sydney Basin, which extends fromthe on-land coalfields of Nova Scotiato within a few kilometres of thesouthern coast of Newfoundland.These rocks occur beneath RoseBlanche and Burgeo banks and floorthe bottom of Placentia Bay.

The distribution of the surficialsediments on the Grand Banks of

2. Distribution of boulders largerthan approximately 0.5 m, inter-preted on the basis of 100 kHz side-scan sonograms. The distributionportrayed is confined to water depthsabove 150 m on the Grand Banks. Theboulders are up to 7 m in diameter.

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Newfoundland is controlled to a largedegree by the glaciers that crossed theBanks and the lowest stand of postgla-cial sea level and its subsequent rises.From a wide variety of data sources,this lowest sea level is interpreted tobe at a present depth of approximately100 m. Warping of the sea-level ter-race may occur from the southern Tailof the Banks to the nearshore area ofthe Grand Banks possibly because lateglacial ice delayed rebound of the landsurface in the Tail of the Banks area.

The low sea-level stand and its sub-sequent rise or transgression gave mostof the surficial sediments their presentdistribution and character. Vast areasof the Grand Banks were above wateras large islands before sea level beganto rise in early postglacial times. Dur-ing this phase, the sample data suggestthat the Grand Banks supported tun-dra vegetation. Sea-level transgressionvery effectively reworked the surfaceof the Banks: previously deposited gla-cial sediments were largely reworked,sorted, and eroded except for depositspreserved in buried channels or pro-tected depressions. In this way, theBank areas developed their “beach”character of sand and gravel. Thelargest of the sand bodies are calledsand ridges; they are up to 10 m thickand have wavelengths of over 3 km.These features dominate the surface ofGrand Bank. In the troughs of thesand ridges and also at the seafloornear the Hibernia area are zones ofgravel seabed with large boulders upto 7 m in diameter (see second figure).These have been observed on submer-sible dives across the Grand Banks.The glacial and postglacial muddysediments are confined to the deeperareas not transgressed of the inner-shelf such as Downing Basin, AvalonChannel, and Whale Deep whereas theshallow bank areas consist of vastdeposits of sorted and clean sandand gravel.

A wide variety of other seabed fea-tures occur across the Grand Banks.Shell beds, localized circular patchesof dense shells, occur on SoutheastShoal (see third figure). They areacoustically unique and easily identi-fied on sidescan sonograms: it has notbeen determined whether they areliving or dead accumulations of shell-fish. In Downing Basin, an active gas

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3. Sidescan sonogram across the Southeast Shoal on the Grand Banksshowing a light-toned, sandy seabed with numerous dark patches inter-preted as “shell beds”. Some of the shell beds appear to be aligned in abead-like fashion: this may result from control on their distribution by lowrelief bedforms.

seep has been found at the seabed.Bottom photographs show moundingand cracking of the sediments withbubbles escaping from the seabed andmuch particulate matter suspended inthe water column. In Placentia Bay, anew bedform “megaflute” has beenidentified and mapped: these verylarge current scour features are severalhundred metres long and up to 10 mdeep. Through the process of mega-flute erosion, over 3 km3 of sedimenthave been eroded from a narrow 4 x75 km zone along the eastern flank ofPlacentia Bay.

A major question within the geolog-ical community studying the GrandBanks is to what extent glaciationsaffected the area. Answering this ques-tion will tell us what the source of thepresent day sediment was at the sea-bed, help us understand the processesthat have affected the Grand Banks,and shed light on the geotechnicalproperties of the seabed and subsur-face that are of concern for hydrocar-bon development. The western GrandBanks was covered by glacial ice (RoseBlanche - Whale Banks) as evidencedby (1) the presence of till directlydeposited from ice and interbeddedglaciomarine sediments, which indicategrounded ice-sheet and floating ice-shelf environments, (2) the environmen-tal indicators of glacial conditions asrecorded in sediment cores, and (3) thepresence of glacial erratics derivedfrom the province of Newfoundland

across the area (Fader et al., 1982).This ice advance represents the last orWisconsinan glaciation of the area. Incontrast, the question of ice extensionacross the eastern Grand Banks is notentirely resolved as the late Pleistocene-Holocene sea-level transgressionsremoved most of the glacial evidence.However, glaciomarine sediments inburied channels south of Hibernia,together with coarse gravel and boul-ders (up to 1500 per square kilometre)of Newfoundland provenance overmuch of Grand Bank were probablydeposited by glacial ice.

The Grand Banks is the area oftransition between modern iceberg fur-rowing by Greenland-generated ice-bergs and a relict population of ice-berg scours on the Scotian Shelf andadjacent areas from late Wisconsinan,locally generated icebergs. A detaileddiscussion of iceberg furrowing ispresented elsewhere (see article by D.I.Ross and M. Lewis in this chapter).Icebergs grounding on the GrandBanks create linear scours and isolatedpits (Fader and King, 1981). Thelargest iceberg furrow (known assuperfurrow) occurs in the AvalonChannel and is 12.5 m from the top ofthe berm to the trough (fourth figure).The berms consist of a large pile ofboulders with numerous sponges ontheir surface. Isolated pits, a specialtype of iceberg scour, are less com-mon. In the Hibernia area some reacha maximum depth of over 10 m and

are 100 m in diameter (fifth figure).These are interpreted to result fromerosion by grounded icebergs togetherwith slumping, current scour, and soilfailure.

While surveying the southern GrandBanks with the submersible Pisces IV,areas of the seabed were observed tobe covered with white filamentousmaterial. These patches also occur offthe east coast of the United States in

the Gulf of Mexico and off BaffinIsland in areas of active hydrocarbongas or oil seeps (B. MacLean, personalcommunication). The term “whiteslime” has been proposed for thesetype of deposits (Bright and Rezak,1977), which are bacteria mats thatlive on the methane or waxy residuesfrom hydrocarbon venting. To furthersupport the gas venting origin for the“white slime” deposits, subsurface

4. A 70 kHz sidescan sonogram (A) and high-resolution seismic reflectionprofile (B) of “super furrow”, one of the largest iceberg furrows from theGrand Banks of Newfoundland, which occurs in the Avalon Channel eastof the Avalon Peninsula. Its height from the top of the berm to the troughis 12.5 m. The iceberg that formed “superfurrow” is believed to havescoured the seabed through to the bedrock surface, and may be more than20,000 y old. Note the rapid change in direction of the furrow in the uppersonogram (A). (Sonogram courtesy of C.F.M. Lewis.)

seismic reflection profiles from theTail of the Banks area show largeacoustic anomalies (about 300 mdeep), interpreted as gas-charged sedi-ments. This gas may eventuallymigrate through the rocks and bevented from the seabed. In any case,the gas-charged sediments represent apotential shallow hazard to hydrocar-bon exploration in the Tail of theBanks area. In the same area, the“shell beds” described earlier arefound. From studies of gas venting offthe coast of Norway (M. Hovelin, per-sonal communication), large popula-tions of shellfish were found livingand feeding on similar bacteria, whichin turn fed on the hydrocarbon prod-ucts escaping from the seabed. Furtherresearch on the presumed relationshipbetween venting hydrocarbons, bacte-ria, and shellfish is necessary to con-firm the validity of the idea. If true,this would possibly explain why denseshellfish populations exist on thesouthern Grand Banks and on otherareas of the continental shelf.

The systematic mapping of the surfi-cial geology of the Grand Banks willcontinue producing a suite of mapsand reports. Because of an immediateneed for this type of information atthe Hibernia oil field area of theGrand Banks, the mapping programhas been accelerated and a new styleof surficial geology map has been pre-pared (Fader et al., 1985). The mapdisplays surficial sediment distribution,seabed hazards, iceberg furrow densi-ties, bedform distributions, and otherrelevant geological information toassist geologists, engineers, environ-mentalists, and industry in the safeand timely development of resourcesin the area. Through this combinationof long term systematic regional map-ping, together with site specific,detailed, multiparameter mapping, abalanced surficial geological programcan respond to the governmental andindustrial needs on the Grand Banks.

References

BRIGHT, T. and REZAK, R. 1977. Reconnais-sance of reefs and fishing banks of the Texascontinental shelf. In Submersibles and Their Usein Oceanography and Ocean Engineering. NeuYork; Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co.: 134 p.

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FADER, G.B.J. and KING, L.H. 1981. Areconnaissance study of the surface geology ofthe Grand Banks of Newfoundland. GeologicalSurvey of Canada, Paper 81-1A: 45-56.

FADER, G.B.J., KING, L.H., andJOSENHANS, H.W. 1982. Surficial geology ofthe Laurentian Channel and the western GrandBanks of Newfoundland. Marine SciencePaper 21 /Geological Survey of Canada,Paper 81-22: 37 p.

FADER, G.B.J., LEWIS, C.F.M., BARRlE,V., PARROTT, R., COLLINS, W., MILLER,R.O., and D’APPALLONIA, S. In press.Quaternary geology of the Hibernia area ofnortheast Grand Bank, Grand Banks ofNewfoundland, map 14968 Q.G. GeologicalSurvey of Canada, Open File Report.

KING, L.H. and FADER, G.B. 1981. Seabedconditions east of the Avalon Peninsula to theVirgin Rocks - their relationship to the feasibil-ity of a pipeline from the Hibernia P-15 wellsite area to Newfoundland. Geological Survey ofCanada, Open File Report 723.

MOBIL OIL CANADA, LIMITED. 1985.Environmental impact statement, HiberniaDevelopment Project. Mobil Oil Canada Ltd.,No. 1 (Summary): 73 p.

5. A 100 kHz sonogram of an iceberg pit located 100 km east-southeast ofthe Hibernia P-15 well site at a depth of 87 m. The seabed and subsurfacesediments may have been deformed as much as 100 m from the pit itself asindicated by areas of seabed outside the pit berm, which appear as whitepatches (areas of low reflectivity) on the sonogram. Note the smaller pit tothe left of the large pit on the upper sonogram.

of discontinuous lineations that arebelieved to represent partially buriediceberg scours beneath a thin sandveneer (Fader and King, 1981). Thischaracteristic pattern is continuouswith, and grades into, a well-definedintensely scoured seabed in waterdepths greater than 200 m on thenortheast Newfoundland Shelf (Lewisand Barrie, 1981). In water depthsbetween 60 and 160 m or greater onthe northeast Banks, a second sparsepopulation of fresh-looking ice-scourmarks is superimposed over the olderpattern of partially buried scour marks(second figure). These well-definedscour marks appear as elongated linearto curvilinear features that are believedto represent the current episode of icescouring that began on the Banks afterthe rise in sea level approximately10,000 y ago.

Using sidescan sonar and high-resolution seismic profiler data, themorphology of the scour marks thatform the modern Holocene populationhas been well documented and incor-porated into a regional ice scour database (d’Apollonia and Lewis, 1981;Geonautics, in preparation). Thesegeophysical mapping tools, coupledwith direct observations of scour

Iceberg-scour features on theGrand Banks

D.I. Ross and M. Lewis

I cebergs calved from Greenland’sglaciers are carried south along the

Labrador coast by the Labrador Cur-rent and across the northern margin ofthe Grand Banks of Newfoundland.On reaching the Grand Banks, theLabrador Current bifurcates carryingthe icebergs with it along one of twopaths. One path follows the AvalonChannel along the eastern shore of theAvalon Peninsula of Newfoundlandwhile the other crosses the northernmargin of the Banks and travels southalong their eastern margin through theFlemish Pass (first figure). The latterpath carries the icebergs through theprimary exploration area of theHibernia field on the northeasternedge of the Grand Banks. As theycross the shallower areas of the Banks,many of these icebergs trail their keelsacross the seabed, scouring the sea-floor to depths of a few metres. Insome cases they ground, creating

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depressions where they sit on theseafloor and exert large forces on theseabed sediments. An understanding ofthe frequency of impact of icebergswith the seabed and of the forces towhich the seabed is subjected duringimpact is needed to design seafloorinstallations for the production of oiland gas from the Hibernia and adja-cent fields. This understanding startswith identification of iceberg-impactfeatures in the area, evaluation ofthese features in the light of present-day iceberg statistics, measurementof seabed sediment properties, andaccurate modelling of the iceberg-seabed interactions that occur.

Two distinct populations of icebergscours have been described on thenortheast Grand Banks (Fader andKing, 1981; Lewis and Barrie, 1981).A late Wisconsinan relict icebergpopulation in water depths greaterthan 110 m appears as a dense pattern

1. Map showing tidewater glaciers and drift paths of icebergs onto theGrand Banks of Newfoundland. (From Mobil Oil Canada Ltd., 1980, afterRobe 1980.)

marks from manned submersibles,have enabled scientists to develop anin-depth understanding of the charac-teristics of iceberg scours and thephysical processes creating them.

Regional analyses show that theaverage density of the observableHolocene scour population on the

northeast Grand Banks ranges from0-4 scours per square kilometre (thirdfigure) with the highest scour concen-trations occurring in water depths of130 to 160 m (d’Apollonia and Lewis,in preparation). Scours measured fromsidescan sonar records are from 10 to100 m wide with the average maximum

2. A sidescan sonograph of theGrand Banks seabed (at 133-m waterdepth) showing two populations oficeberg scour marks: a younger setof narrow continuous featuressuperimposed on a degraded,discontinuous net work of olderscour berms (ridges).

width increasing from 24 m in waterdepths of 60-80 m to 43 m in depthsof 140-160 m. Scour depth can bemeasured from heave compensatedHuntec deep tow seismic records. Inthe northeast Grand Banks, averagescour depth varies from 0.5 m inwater depths of 60-80 m to 1.2 m indepths of 140-160 m (Lewis andBarrie, 1981). Scour orientations onthe top of the Banks change directionfrequently whereas those in deeperwater tend to be more linear. Thistrend is believed to reflect an increasein the control of ocean currents oniceberg drift patterns in deeper water(King and Gillespie, in press). The

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3. Map of the northeast GrandBanks showing the distribution oficeberg-scour mark density in scoursper square kilometre (heavy con-tours). Tracks of sidescan sonar areshown by the. . . symbol: bathy-metry is in metres (the dashedcontours).

deepest measured scour (9 m) occurson the edge of the Avalon Channel(d’Apollonia and Lewis, 1981). Thedeepest recorded scour feature (5.4 m)is in the greater Hibernia area (Lewisand Barrie, 1981), but some circulardepressions now believed to have beenformed by icebergs have depths exceed-ing 10 m (Barrie et al., in press).

Direct observation of iceberg scoursas they are preserved on the seafloortoday gives little indication of theirage, the number of icebergs that scourthe seafloor in any given year, or infact the physical parameters of thescours at the time of formation. Infill-ing of a scour with sediment or byother processes of degradation can sig-nificantly modify scour appearanceover time. Some indication of the rela-tive age of scours can be obtained inareas of fairly dense scouring whencross-cutting of older scours by morerecent features occurs. Repeat surveysof a specific area over a period ofseveral years can be used to identifynew scours and to evaluate the rate ofdegradation of existing scours. In anarea where scour density is low, how-ever, it may take many years usingsuch a method to obtain a sufficientpopulation of scours for the analysisto be statistically significant.

A method of modelling the scour

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population and the rate of scour addi-tions is therefore required to providean input into risk analyses leading tothe design of oilfield transmission linesand other seabed installations. Such amodel should provide statistical infor-mation on the number of icebergsimpacting a particular area over aperiod of time and the depth of scourto be expected from these impacts,because it is this information that is ofmost relevance in the protection of aseafloor system.

Two approaches have been used todevelop grounding models. The first(Gaskill et al., 1985) assumes a rela-tionship between scour formation andscour degradation and uses observediceberg scour data with reasonablevalues for sediment infilling to relatethe observed scour parameters to thoseat the time of formation. In this waymeasurements on the scours as theyare now observed on the seabed canbe used to determine the distributionof initial scour depths (i.e., depth attime of formation) as well as the fre-quency at which scouring has occurredover a particular period. The secondmodel (d’Apollonia and Lewis, inpress), uses measured information oniceberg flux and draft together withbathymetry to calculate directly thenumber of iceberg groundings in eachof a number of cells in the area. Thismodel has yielded results (fourth fig-ure) in which the spatial pattern ofmodelled groundings in the northeastGrand Banks is visually similar to thepattern of mapped iceberg scourmarks on the seabed (third figure).

Both mapped scour marks (third fig-ure) and modelled groundings (fourthfigure) are most abundant between the100 m and 200 m isobaths and declinein density both upslope and down-slope. The density ridge of scourmarks (and groundings) between 100and 200 m is interpreted to reflect theroute by which most icebergs passthrough the region via the LabradorCurrent. The upslope decrease maysignify a lesser flow of water and iceonto the Banks relative to the core ofthe Current - hence, fewer ground-ings. The downslope decrease in scourmark density is interpreted as thelimiting zone in which even the deepesticeberg keels contact the seabed infre-quently. Other influences, not yet

4. An example of a modelled outputshowing the number of calculatediceberg groundings per squarekilometre (heavy contours) for a1000-y period given the present meaniceberg flux and draught distributiononto the northeast Grands Banks.Centres of model cells are shown bythe . . . symbol: bathymetry is inmetres (the dashed contours).

modelled or corrected, such as incom-plete scour detection, preferentialscour obliterations by waves and cur-rents, and variations in icebergdraught, flux, or trajectories, etc.,may account for the differencesbetween the third and fourth figures.

Pits or circular depressions in theseafloor have a similar density of dis-tribution to those of modern icebergscours and were first defined by Faderand King (1981) as “iceberg pits”because of their often close associationwith linear iceberg scours. King andGillespie (in press) note that shortscours and pits are commonly observedin a relatively narrow zone at theBanks’ edge wherever the break inslope is sharp. The maximum reportedpenetration of all measured icebergpits into the underlying sediments onthe Grand Banks of Newfoundland is8 m (Mobil Oil Canada Ltd., 1985).(Pits can be up to seven times deeperthan the deepest iceberg scour withinthe 80 to 120 m bathymetric corridor).

Depressions or pits in the seabedhave been documented in numeroussite specific and regional geologicaland geophysical survey lines on theGrand Banks of Newfoundland (Amos and Barrie, 1980; Fader and King,

1981; Lewis and Barrie, 1981; Faderet al., 1985; Barrie et al., in press).These features range in width from30 to 350 m and in depth from 0.5 to8.0 m with an average depth of 3.0 m(Mobil Oil Canada Ltd., 1985). Basedon observations by manned submer-sible, the pits are elliptical to circularin shape.

The origin of these iceberg pits hasbeen a subject of controversy. Theprofiles show a low amplitude berm,which is commonly associated withiceberg scouring mechanisms. It hasalso been suggested that these featurescould be “pockmarks” originatingfrom the erosion of underlying claysinitiated by the ascension of gas orwater (gasturbation) (e.g. King andMacLean, 1970; Josenhans et al.,1979; Hovland, 1981). However therehas been no shallow gas detected inthe Hibernia area (Mobil Oil CanadaLtd., 1985). Another possible mecha-nism suggested has been related tothermokarst (Mobil Oil Canada Ltd.,1985), but there is no evidence tosupport this interpretation.

In October 1984 and August 1985,scientists from the Centre for ColdOcean Resources Engineering ofMemorial University, Atlantic Geo-science Centre, Mobil Oil CanadaLtd., and the Biology Department ofMemorial University participated in aninvestigation of a circular 100-m-widedepression located 11 km east-south-east of the Hibernia P-15 discoverywell. The investigation used the Cana-dian Navy’s SDL-1 submersible and itssupport vessel HMCS Cormorant tovisually supplement sidescan sonar andsubbottom profiler measurements ofthe pit’s size and shape (Barrie et al.,in press). The results of these observa-tions, illustrated in the fifth figure,strongly indicate that the elongateddepressions up to 10 m deep found onthe northeastern Grand Banks areiceberg-formed pits, where the icebergloading on the seabed results in abearing capacity failure and subse-quent pit overdeepening. The particu-lar depression investigated occurred ata depth of 87 m and was 10 m deep.From observations of sediment in thepit, it is considered to have beenformed within the last 100 y. Therecent occurrence of these over-deepened iceberg pits and the process

5. Schematic plan view of a 10-mdeep iceberg pit on the northeastGrand Banks based on submersibleobservations. See previous article(fifth figure) for an interpretation ofthe same feature.

of sediment failure causing the over-deepening are clearly important whenconsidering the design of gravity-basedplatforms for the development of theHibernia field.

REFERENCES

AMOS, C.L. and BARRIE, J.V. 1980. Hiberniaand Ben Nevis seabed study - Polaris V cruisereport, June 1980. Centre for Cold OceanResources Engineering of Memorial University,Data Report 30-17: 40 p.

BARRIE, J.V., COLLINS, W.T., CLARK, J.I.,LEWIS, C.F.M., and PARROTT, D.R. In press.Submersible observations and origin of an ice-berg pit on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland.Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 86-1A.

D’APOLLONIA, S.J. and LEWIS, C.F.M.1981. Iceberg scour data maps for the GrandBanks of Newfoundland between 46°N and48°N. Geological Survey of Canada, OpenFile 819: 13 p.

D’APOLLONIA, S.J. and LEWIS, C.F.M. Inpress. A numerical model for calculating longterm spatial distribution and mean frequency oficeberg ground events. In Proceedings of theEnvironmental Studies Revolving Fund/Officeof Energy Research and Development Ice ScourWorkshop (February 5-6, 1985: Calgary,Alberta); Eds. C.F.M. Lewis et al.. Environ-mental Studies Revolving Fund Report.

FADER, G.B. and KING, L.H. 1981. A recon-naissance study of the surficial geology of theGrand Banks of Newfoundland. GeologicalSurvey of Canada, Paper 81-1A: 45-56.

GASKILL, H., NICKS, L., and ROSS, D.1985. A non-deterministic model of populationsof iceberg scour depths. Cold Regions Scienceand Technology 11(2): 107-122.

GEONAUTICS LIMITED. In press. Regionalice scour data base; Update studies I, GrandBanks region. Environmental Studies RevolvingFund Report.

HOVLAND, M. 1981. Characteristics of pock-marks in the Norwegian Trench. MarineGeology 39: 103-111.

JOSENHANS, H.W., KING, L.H., andFADER, G.B. 1979. A sidescan mosaic of pock-marks on the Scotian Shelf. Canadian Journalof Earth Sciences 15: 1082-1092.

KING, E.L. and GILLESPIE, R.T. In press.Regional iceberg scour distribution and variabil-ity - Eastern Canadian Continental Shelf.Environmental Studies Revolving Fund Report.

LEWIS, C.F.M. and BARRIE, J.V. 1981. Geo-logical evidence of iceberg grounding and relatedseafloor processes in the Hibernia discovery areaGrand Bank, Newfoundland. In Symposium onProduction and Transportation Systems for theHibernia Discovery. Newfoundland PetroleumDirectorate, St. John’s, Newfoundland: 146-177.

MOBIL OIL CANADA LIMITED. 1985. Hiber-nia development project environmental impactstatement; Volume III: a biophysical assessment.St. John’s, Newfoundland; Mobil Oil CanadaLimited: 258 p.

ROBE, R.Q. 1980. Iceberg drift and deteriora-tion. In Dynamics of Snow and Ice Masses;Ed. S.C. Colbeck. New York; Academic Press:211-259.

Seabed stability on the continental slopeadjacent to the Grand Banks

D.J.W. Piper

O n November 18, 1929, a large(magnitude 7) earthquake occurred

on the continental slope off the south-west Grand Banks. Twenty eight liveswere lost in southern Newfoundland asa result of coastal inundation by thetsunami produced by the earthquake(Doxsee, 1948). Submarine landslideswere triggered on the continental slope

within 100 km of the epicentre (Piperet al., 1985) and about 200 km2 ofgravel, sand, and mud were trans-ported many hundreds of kilometres ina powerful turbidity current. Deep-seatelegraph cables were cut almostinstanteously by landsliding near theepicentre, and by the turbidity currentat progressively later times away from

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1. Location of deep water wells and sediment instability features on the eastern continental margin of Canada.Area (1) has abundant surface and subsurface flows: area (2) contains surface features associated with the earth-quake 15,000y ago; and area (3) contains surface features associated with the earthquake of 1929.

the epicentre. The last was cut 13 hafter the earthquake. These more dis-tant cables were presumably cut bythe turbidity current, and allow us toestimate velocities for the turbiditycurrent of up to 65 km/h on the2.5° slopes.

There are a number of immediatequestions that the 1929 earthquakeraises concerning hydrocarbon develop-ment on the Grand Banks. Is anotherearthquake likely in the same area orelsewhere on the Grand Banks? Whatwould be the effect of such an earth-quake on engineering structures on theGrand Banks? How stable is seabedsediment on the steep continentalslope in areas such as Flemish Pass andthe Scotian Slope where exploration isnow taking place?

The probability of future earth-quakes of a given magnitude (but nottheir precise timing) can be estimatedwhere there is good historic data onpast earthquake activity. The EarthPhysics Branch of the Department of

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Energy, Mines, and Resources inOttawa is the agency responsible forthis work: its results are available as aseismic zoning map in the NationalBuilding Code. Unfortunately, becauseof the distant offshore location of theGrand Banks and the small number ofseismographs at adjacent land stations,our knowledge of the distribution ofpast earthquakes is inadequate foraccurate prediction of earthquake riskon the outer part of the Grand Banks(Basham et al., 1983).

Research at BIO has been contribut-ing in two ways to a better under-standing of earthquake activity in thisarea. Ocean bottom seismometersdeveloped at the Institute have beendeployed on the seabed for twomonths in the vicinity of the 1929earthquake epicentre to try to detectvery small modern earthquakes in thisarea: only two local quakes within thedetection limits of the equipment weremonitored.

The other technique has been to use

new, deep-towed, geophysical tech-niques such as sidescan sonar and seis-mic reflection profiling to try to locatethe sites of large earthquakes thatoccurred in the past. This is done byrecognizing landslides and other fea-tures similar to those produced in 1929that formed during earlier earthquakesand have subsequently been buried byyounger sediment. This younger sedi-ment, if dated, provides an estimate ofthe age of the earthquake activity.This type of work shows that largeearthquakes of the size of the 1929event are rare on the eastern Canadiancontinental margin: there was probablyone south of Halifax some 15,000 yago (Piper et al., in press), and onetwice as old as that in Flemish Pass(Pereira et al., 1985). The 1929 earth-quake was probably the only suchevent in as many as 100,000 y in thatarea off the southern Grand Banks.Although our studies are not yet com-plete, and the data base is still inade-quate, there is good geological evi-

2. Seismic reflection profiles showing shallowing diapirism and faulting on the Scotian Slope.

dence that large earthquakes occurvery infrequently around the GrandBanks. It seems likely that for produc-ing hydrocarbon fields on the con-tinental shelf, the forces on structuresdue to icebergs and waves will begreater than those likely from anyearthquake activity.

On the steep continental slope,beyond the edge of the continentalshelf, there may be a greater risk ofseabed landsliding, triggered either byearthquakes or by other geologicalprocesses such as slope oversteepeningas a result of valley erosion, or over-loading by rapid sediment deposition.The geological conditions on the con-tinental slope off eastern Canada aredifferent from those on most otherslopes where hydrocarbon explorationhas taken place, such as in the Gulf ofMexico, so that there is a lack of priorexperience for analyzing slope stabilityin the east coast offshore.

Our studies of submarine landslidesaround the 1929 earthquake epicentre

3. SeaMARC sidescan sonograph showing results of rotational slumpingtriggered by the 1929 Grand Banks earthquake.

25

and on the Scotian Slope show thatsediment instability is closely related tosedimentation that occurred 50,000 yago when large continental ice sheetswere grounded across the continentalshelf (King and Fader, 1985). In manyareas this grounded ice extended towater depths of about 500 m at thetop of the continental slope. The finesand and silty sediments depositedimmediately seawards of the glacialterminus are sensitive to liquefactionunder conditions of cyclic loading.The finer muds deposited rapidly fromsuspension further away from the gla-cier margin may in places be under-consolidated and liable to deformeither by slow surface creep or by theupward movement of subsurfacemasses of mud in shallow diapirs.

In order to better understand thepotential problems posed by sedimentinstability on the continental slope, aprogram of geotechnical sampling andtesting is being carried out, partlyunder contract and partly in co-opera-tion with the Technical University ofNova Scotia and the National ResearchCouncil of Canada, and in a newgeotechnical research laboratory at theAtlantic Geoscience Centre. Thisprogram has required new samplingand measurement techniques, whichare being developed through the inter-national Long Coring Facility co-ordinated by the University of RhodeIsland, and through projects under theNational Research Council’s PILPprogram with Huntec (Seabed II proj-ect) and NORDCO (tripod mountedcone penetrometer).

John Hughes Clarke and David Piper in C.S.S. Hudson’s general-purposelaboratory.

4. Interpretative map of seabedinstability features in Flemish Pass.

References

BASHAM, P.W., ADAMS, J., and ANGLIN,F.M. 1983. Earthquake source models forestimating risk on the Eastern Canadian con-tinental margin. Fourth Canadian Conferenceon Earthquake Engineering, Vancouver, B.C.:495-508.

DOXSEE, W.W. 1948. The Grand Banks earth-quake of November 18, 1929. Publications ofthe Dominion Observatory, Canada 7: 323-336.

KING, L.H. and FADER, G.B. 1985.Wisconsinan glaciation of the continental shelf- southeast Atlantic Canada. Geological Surveyof Canada, Open File 1126.

PEREIRA, C.P.G., PIPER, D.J.W., andSHOR, A.N. 1985. SeaMarc I midrange side-scan sonar survey of Flemish Pass, east of theGrand Banks of Newfoundland. GeologicalSurvey of Canada, Open File 1161.

PIPER, D.J.W., FARRE, J.A., and SHOR,A.N. In press. Late Quaternary slumps anddebris flows on the Scotian Slope. GeologicalSociety of America Bulletin.

PIPER, D.J.W., SHOR, A.N., FARRE, J.A.,O’CONNELL, S., and JACOBI, R. 1985. Sedi-ment slides and turbidity currents on theLaurentian Fan: sidescan sonar observationsnear the epicentre of the 1929 Grand Banksearthquake. Geology 13: 538-541.

26

chapter 3

Physical and chemical oceanography

he Grand Banks is the most popu-T larly known of the Canadian con-tinental shelves due to its importanteconomic role in Canadian historyfrom the early activities of Europeanfishermen through to the present dayinterest in the Hibernia oil field. Froman oceanographic perspective, it is partof the continuous complex of promi-nent continental shelves found alongthe east coast of Canada, shelves thatbecause of their extent have physicaland chemical processes and watercharacteristics of their own. In thisrespect the Grand Banks is no excep-tion. It is the meeting ground of themajor surface currents of the westernNorth Atlantic: the Labrador Current,the Gulf Stream, and the Gulf ofSt. Lawrence outflow. It is also thesouthern boundary of the Labrador icesheet and melting ground for mosteast-coast icebergs. The Labrador Cur-rent with its various branches follow-ing through the Strait of Belle Isle, theAvalon Channel, and the eastern con-tinental slope interacts and mingleswith the waters of the Gulf Streamalong the southern edges of the Banks

and with the estuarine waters of theGulf of St. Lawrence to the west. Themeeting and mixing of these variouswaters in and around the Banks createa relatively complex and challengingarea for physical and chemicaloceanographic research.

The Atlantic OceanographicLaboratory (AOL) with its expertise inphysics, chemistry, and metrology, hasover the past two decades made a sig-nificant effort to improve the descrip-tion and understanding of the Banks.As will be apparent in the followingarticles, the majority of these studiesare multidisciplinary for success in onediscipline today is often criticallydependent upon results or technologyavailable from another. An excellentexample of this is our recent enhance-ment of sea ice and iceberg studies.We have undertaken to developmodels suitable for routine seasonaland interannual forecasting of iceextent near the Hibernia oil field. Themodels of ice distribution require botha prediction of growth and decaylocally and of advection under theinfluence of wind and currents. As

Background levels of petroleum residuesand their origin on the Grand Banks

E.M. Levy

The Grand Banks region, long one tained within the 200-mile territorialof the most important fisheries of limit, Canada has been confronted

the North Atlantic, has recently been with the dilemma of obtaining theshown to hold one of the largest maximum benefit from the petroleumreserves of petroleum in the western resource without unduly jeopardizingworld. As most of the area is con- the fishery. The most obvious threat

indicated above, these major currentsystems can influence water motionand properties (temperature) over thearea of the Banks and each of thesemay be influenced by larger-scaleoceanic or global processes. As such,this ice program is heavily dependentupon the measurements and models ofcurrents, winds, and water propertiesthroughout the east coast system. Tomonitor ice extent and movementwe utilize recently available satelliteimagery and analysis systems andlocation beacons that communicate viasatellite. Our numerical modellingrequires the power of our largest com-puters. Without the broad-basedexpertise and technology availablewithin the Laboratory, tackling thisdifficult problem and many of theothers described in this section wouldnot be possible.

- J . A . E l l i o t tDirector

Atlantic Oceanographic Laboratory

Eric Levy.

27

to living resources is, of course, amajor spill associated with blowoutssuch as those that have occurred in theGulf of Mexico and the North Sea.The Ocean Ranger disaster has alreadyemphasized the hazard inherent inpetroleum exploration and productionin the very hostile environment of theGrand Banks. Less dramatic, but noless damaging environmentally, are thecumulative effects of the day-to-daylosses that are incurred during normaloperations. To maximize the benefitsfrom the resources of the region, itis clear that an “early warning” isneeded to signal when damage torenewable living resources is imminentand corrective action must be taken.Because an essential first componentof the required monitoring programis an assessment of the backgroundlevels of volatile hydrocarbons andpetroleum residues in the region beforeany production of crude oil com-mences, a study of the region wascarried out from CSS Dawson inApril 1981 (Levy, 1983). The studyincluded examination of backgroundlevels of particulate petroleum residuesfloating on the sea surface, of volatilehydrocarbons and of dissolved/dispersedpetroleum residues in the sea-surfacemicrolayer and throughout the watercolumn, and of petroleum residues inthe surficial bottom sediments along aline of stations extending from theLaurentian Channel across the GrandBanks to Flemish Pass and at theHibernia and South Tempest siteswhere exploratory drilling was in pro-gress. In addition, ancillary chemicalanalyses were carried out to identifythe origin of the material responsiblefor the existing background level.

Hydrochemistry and general circulation

The waters of the Grand Banks aredominated by the inshore portion ofthe Labrador Current, which flowsonto the northern portion of the Banksand then spreads southward in a com-plex system of seasonally and locallyvariable currents. In spring, the upperlayers of this water are modified bythe annual influx of cold, low salinitywater from melting sea ice and offreshwater from run-off along theNewfoundland and Labrador coasts.Warmer and more saline water present

1. General bathymetry of Grand Banks area and the locations of stations atwhich sampling was carried out (April 7- 17, 1981).

along the continental slope occasion-ally intrudes onto the Banks in responseto meteorological conditions. Mixingof these waters in conjunction withseasonal warming accounts for thechemical and physical properties of thewater in each of the areas studied andis a major consideration in interpreting

the observed distribution of petroleum-related substances.

The hydrochemistry of the GrandBanks region at the time of the studyis illustrated by the second figure.Slope water (>5.0°, >34.5°/oo,5.1 ml/l) was present below about150 m in the Laurentian Channel and

2. Cross-sections showing (a) temperature, (b) salinity, (c) dissolvedoxygen, and (d) along the southern line.

28

along the western slope of the Bankswhereas a core of Labrador Currentwater, which gave rise to the low tem-peratures throughout the water columnat stations 10 and 11 and near the bot-tom at station 8, was found along theseaward slope of the Banks. Over theGrand Bank (stations 5-8), temper-ature, salinity, and dissolved oxygenconcentrations were very uniform(1.5 ± 0.5°C, 32 ± 0.25°/oo,8.0 ml/l, while the small differencesin the properties of the water east towest over Grand, Green, and St.Pierre banks reflected the admixtureof differing proportions of modifiedLabrador Current water and slopewater. For example, at station 4,which was directly in the flow ofmodified Labrador Current waterthrough the Avalon and Haddockchannels, temperatures were lower andsalinities and dissolved oxygen concen-trations higher than at the neighbour-ing stations on the slope of GreenBank (station 3) and on the slope ofWhale Bank (station 5). Conversely,the higher temperatures at station 7indicate an intrusion of slope wateronto the bank. Throughout the region,vertical mixing from the storms of latewinter and early spring resulted intemperatures and salinities that werealmost uniform, concentrations of dis-solved oxygen that exceeded the satu-ration value, and densities that werealmost invariant throughout the upper50-60 m at each station. Below thishomogeneous layer, the density of thewater over the Banks increased to thebottom because of the increasing salin-ity and decreasing temperature, andthere was a slight decrease in densityin the east to west direction across theBanks.

At the South Tempest grid (thirdfigure), temperatures throughout thewater column were below 0°C exceptat the bottom, and a temperatureminimum layer with values as low as- 1.32°C was present at 80-120 m.Dissolved oxygen concentrations were7.5 - 8.2 ml/l within the layer,>8 ml/l above it, and <7 ml/l belowit. The temperature-minimum layerpresumably was a remnant of theprevious winter’s cooling, while thewater above this was Labrador Cur-rent water modified by meltwater and

3. Representative cross-sectionsshowing (a) temperature, (b) salin-ity, and (c) dissolved oxygen data forthe South Tempest grid.

slight seasonal warming; the waterbelow the layer was relatively unmodi-fied Labrador Current water. At theHibernia grid (fourth figure), whichwas farther from the edge of the con-tinental shelf and where water depthswere considerably less, the unmodifiedLabrador Current water was lessprominent. The general temperaturelevel was appreciably higher becauseof the more advanced seasonal warm-ing at the lower latitude, and tempera-tures increased in the north to southand east to west directions. Negativetemperatures were present near thebottom on the two northern lines but,with the exception of station 25, noton the two southern lines. The proper-ties of the deeper water in this areawere very similar to those at the same

4. Representative cross-sectionsshowing (a) temperature, (b) salin-ity, and (c) dissolved oxygen data forthe Hibernia grid.

depths at the South Tempest grid,although there was no indication of atemperature minimum layer. In bothareas, the upper 50 m was homogene-ously mixed by the stormy conditionsthat prevailed at the time.

Volatile hydrocarbons

Water Column - Methane was theonly volatile hydrocarbon present(detection limit 0.02 nmol/l) in all butonly a very few of the 234 water sam-ples collected on the Grand Banks. Inthe rare cases when ethane, propane,and higher molecular weight volatilehydrocarbons were detected, their con-centrations were never more than afew per cent of that of methane,which suggests that the methane waspredominatly of recent biological

29

origin rather than from natural seep-age or other escape of volatilehydrocarbons from the seabed.

Concentrations of methane rangedfrom 0.41 to 1.8 nmol/l, with the vastmajority of the values in the 0.45 to0.90 nmol/l range. Such highlyskewed data sets are best analyzed bylognormal statistics, and the geometricmean of 0.74 nmol/l is an appropriatemeasure of the general backgroundlevel for the region as a whole. Whensorted geographically, the backgroundsfor the Southern Banks, Hibernia,South Tempest, Flemish Pass, andLaurentian Channel areas were 0.70,0.68, 0.86, 0.90, and 0.65 nmol/l,respectively. At the Hibernia area,methane concentrations were remarka-bly uniform, with 92% of the valuesin the range of 0.69 ± 0.09 nmol/l(fifth figure, part A), reflecting thehigh degree of mixing that was occur-ring throughout the water column atthe time. All the values exceeding thisinterval were encountered at the east-ern and southeastern portion of thegrid and seem to be a feature of therelatively unmodified component ofLabrador Current water. This was alsosuggested by the higher general back-ground level of methane at the SouthTempest grid (fifth figure, part B)where the Labrador Current watermodified by the meltwater dominatedand by the higher concentrations ofmethane at stations 8-11 on the south-ern line (fifth figure, part C) wherethere was a strong component ofLabrador Current water. At the SouthTempest grid, the methane distributionin the water column was more com-plex in keeping with the more heter-ogeneous character of the water. Atthis site the range of concentrationswas greater (0.59-1.75 nmol/l), andconcentrations increased with depth.Along the southern line (fifth figure,part C), concentrations of methane inthe upper 100 m were, for the mostpart, between 0.45 and 0.90 nmol/l.At stations 8-11, however, a patch ofwater contained concentrations of0.90-1.35 nmol/l. This was in the coreof Labrador Current water, and there-fore, its methane concentration wasmore in keeping with that at the SouthTempest grid than those elsewhere onthe Southern Banks and Hibernia grid.

5. Representative cross-sectionsshowing methane concentrations atthe (a) Hibernia grid, (b) SouthTempest grid, and (c) southern line.

Again, it would seem that the slightlyhigher methane concentrations in thewater over the edges of the banks werethe consequence of enhanced biologi-cal processes.

The background level of volatilehydrocarbons in the water of theGrand Banks at this time was only25% of the concentrations reported byLamontagne et al. (1973) in the sur-face waters of the Norwegian Sea(2.3-3.5 nmol/l) and the GreenlandSea (3.3-5.1 nmol/l) and of thosereported by Scranton and Brewer (1977)in the western subtropical NorthAtlantic (1.5-5.7 nmol/l. This,presumably, was a reflection of lowrates of biological activity on theGrand Banks during early spring whenwater temperatures and light levelswere low.

Surficial Bottom Sediments - Totalconcentrations of volatile hydrocarbons

in surficial bottom sediments along thesouthern line and on the Hibernia gridranged from 0.05 to 0.41 mmol/l andfrom 0.81 to 3.2 mmol/l while thoseof methane ranged from 0.45 to2.19 nmol/l (sixth figure). Sedimentsfrom the former area varied widely ingrain size and texture and, at somelocations, were devoid of volatilehydrocarbons. Those collected at theHibernia grid were much more uni-form and the contour plots indicatedthat the highest concentratons were onthe western portion of the grid. It istempting to surmise that this might beindicative of underlying gas and oil,and some credence to this hypothesisis provided by the presence of appre-ciable amounts of ethane, propane,and butane. Indeed, the ratios of theconcentrations of methane to the com-bined concentrations of ethane andpropane were well within the range(0- 10) commonly accepted as indicativeof gas of fossil origin as opposed togases of recent biogenic origin, whichtypically have ratios of 10-3 to 10-4

(Bernard et al., 1977).

Petroleum residues

Surface Slicks - Visual observa-tions of the sea surface failed to detectany oil in the form of slicks along thesouthern line (stations 1-12), althoughmeteorological and oceanographic con-ditions were favourable for their for-mation and detection. During theremainder of the cruise, high windsand rough seas would have preventedthe formation of slicks even if oil hadbeen present.

Floating Particulate Petroleum -Samples for the estimation of floatingparticulate petroleum residues werecollected at the first 27 stations afterwhich it became too rough to deploythe sampler. Concentrations of float-ing tar ranged from 0 to 85 µg/m2

(seventh figure), although almost two-thirds of the samples contained noevidence of tar. Analysis by gas chro-matography suggested that all sampleswere the weathered remains of oildischarged from ships.

Although there were too few data toestimate the background level, datacollected for the northwest Atlanticbetween 1971 and 1974 suggested thatthe background level at that time was

30

higher than the level of 7.5 µg/lobserved in Baffin Bay in 1977 (Levy,1980). This was probably a direct con-sequence of the higher level of humanactivity in the area. Further, as shownby the contour plot (eighth figure), acontaminated area was present at theHibernia site “downstream” from thedrill rig Ocean Ranger and within thezone of its support vessels. Thus, therewas a strong implication that the ele-vated concentrations (up to 440 µg/l)in this area were a direct consequenceof their activities and, with this as themain source, the observed distribu-tion of the surface contamination wasreadily attributable to the south-southwesterly flow of surface water.It is apparent, therefore, that the oilindustry, even at the level of its opera-tions in April 1981 was already havinga detectable effect on the concentra-

25-50 µg/l. The general level of conta-mination as indicated by the geometricmean was 28.9 µg/l, considerably

less than 10 µg/m2 (Levy and Walton,1976). Since tar concentrationsincreased abruptly in waters dominatedby the Gulf Stream and were virtuallyzero to the north, it would seem thatthe tar found at stations 4, 5, and6 had been carried there from thesouth. Thus, the values for the otherstations were probably more represen-tative of the general conditions on theGrand Banks and indicated that thesouthward flow of unpolluted LabradorCurrent Water was continuing tomaintain relatively pristine conditionsinsofar as floating tar was concerned.

Dissolved/Dispersed PetroleumResidues - Concentrations of dis-solved/dispersed petroleum residuesin the sea surface microlayer of theGrand Banks during April 1981 rangedfrom 14 to 440 µg/l, although mostof the values were in the range of

tion of dissolved/dispersed petroleumresidues in the surface microlayer. 6. Area plots showing concentrations (millimolesper litre) of (a) total

Concentrations of dissolved/dispersed volatile hydrocarbons and (b) methane in surficial sediments from the

petroleum residues in the waterGrand Banks area.

column ranged from 0.05 (detectionlimit 0.01) to 4.05 µg/l with most ofthe values near the lower end of therange (only 10 of the 234 valuesexceeded 1 µg/l. Most of the highervalues were encountered along thesouthern line and most, but not all,were in the upper 20 m. The back-

ground levels calculated for the vari-ous areas suggested that that for thesouthern Banks was somewhat higherthan those at the Hibernia and SouthTempest areas, but the differenceswere so small as to be of no sig-

nificance in terms of environmentalquality. Thus, the overall backgroundlevel for the water column of theGrand Banks was 0.18 µg/l. This isthe lowest level found so far in thewaters of any region of eastern

31

7. Area plot showing concentrations (micrograms per square metre) offloating particulate petroleum residues in the Grand Banks area.

8. Area plot showing concentrations (micrograms per litre) of dissolved/dispersed petroleum residues in the sea surface microlayer in the GrandBanks area.

32

Canada; for example, the generalbackground level for the Gulf of St.Lawrence is presently about 0.35 µg/l(Levy, 1985), for the Labrador Shelfabout 0.50 µg/l (Levy, In press), forHudson Bay about 0.45 µg/l (Levy, Inpress), and for the Baffin Island Shelf,0.48 µg/l (Levy, 1980). Because thebackground levels over such a broadgeographical region are so similar, it iscurrently thought that the major inputto the remote areas is a diffuse source,most probably fallout from the atmos-phere of polynuclear aromatic hydro-carbons derived from the high-temperature combustion of organicmaterials. In more accessible areas,localized inputs of oily substancesfrom shipping and other human activi-ties may be superimposed on this dif-fuse background and give rise togreater variability in the data. Thus,the existing background level of dis-solved/dispersed petroleum residues inthe water column of the Grand Banksappears to be derived primarily fromdiffuse sources such as atmosphericfallout, and the oil industry’s activi-ties have not, as yet, had sufficientimpact on the background level to bedetected.

Surficial Bottom Sediments - Con-centrations of petroleum residues inthe surficial bottom sediments rangedfrom 0 to 5.5 µg/g along the southernline and from 0 to 7.25 µg/g on theHibernia grid (ninth figure). By wayof comparison, concentrations in sedi-ments from the continental shelf andthe deep areas of Baffin Bay in 1978were 0-2.5 and 0-7.5 µg/g (Levy,1980) and 0-7.5 and 0-40 µg/g in sedi-ments from Hudson Strait and theLabrador Shelf (Levy, In press).Although sediment types varied sowidely along the southern line thatcomparisons were not meaningful,those at the Hibernia area were muchless varied. Concentrations were high-est at stations 23 and 21, decreasingoutwards from this area, and in thenorthwest and southwest portions ofthe area petroleum residues were notdetected. Since the Ocean Ranger wasoperating just north of station 21 andthe prevailing current was southwest-ward, this distribution pattern was astrong implication that the sedimentsin this area were receiving oily sub-stances from this exploratory activity.

9. Area plot showing concentrations (micrograms per gram) of petroleumresidues in the surficial bottom sediments of the Grand Banks area.

Identity of background material

Hydrocarbons in marine waters andsediments are of two general categor-ies; namely, those of “recent” origin,which have only recently been synthe-sized by naturally occurring biochemi-cal processes, and those of “fossil”origin, which were synthesized bybiochemical processes occurring in thegeological past and have since under-gone substantial change in chemicalcomposition. Recently biosynthesizedhydrocarbons comprise a relativelynarrow range of n-alkanes, generallybetween n-Cl5 to n-C21, in which theconcentrations of compounds havingan odd number of carbon atomsgreatly exceed those with an evennumber. Pristane, an isoprenoidhydrocarbon, is common and abun-dant and there are usually significantamounts of olefinic but virtually noaromatic compounds. Fossil orpetroleum-related hydrocarbons, onthe other hand, contain a very broadhomologous series of n-alkanes extending beyond n-C40 without an odd toeven carbon preference, homologousseries of isoprenoid and naphthenichydrocarbons, series of alkylated aro-matic and polyaromatic compounds,

and heterocyclic compounds containingsulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen. In addi-tion, there are hydrocarbons derivedfrom the combustion of fossil fuelsand other organic materials. Thesecontain polynuclear aromatic com-pounds with 2 to 6 rings, and theunsubstituted compounds are far moreabundant than the alkylated deriva-tives. Hydrocarbons from all thesesources contribute in varying relativeproportions to the mixture that is pres-ent in the marine environment, and itscomposition is further complicatedthrough chemical alteration byweathering processes. Since the analy-tical procedure used to measure back-ground levels of “petroleum residues”is based on the total concentration ofnon-polar aromatic material and be-cause these, rather than the n-alkanes,are the compounds of environmentalimportance, the procedure provides agood measure of environmental qual-ity. However, except for deductionsbased on the interpretation of excita-tion and emission spectra and on thedistributions of the total concentra-tions of aromatic materials and theirvariability, unequivocal identificationof the source of the “petroleum

residues” is not possible. For this pur-pose, the composition of the aliphaticfraction of the non-polar substancesextracted from marine samples oftencontains useful information.

Capillary-gas chromatographicanalyses were done (Gassman andPocklington, 1984) of the aliphatichydrocarbons present in water samplescollected at 1 m depth in the Lauren-tian Channel (station 1) and at theHibernia site (station 13). In bothcases, the chromatograms (tenth fig-ure) show the virtual absence of n-C15

and n-Cl7 alkanes, which are charac-teristic of marine algae, indicatingthat there was little direct input ofhydrocarbons from recent primaryproduction. In the n-C21 to n-C42

range, the distribution of peaks resem-bled those typical of “petroleumresidues”; that is, all members of theseries were present and there was noprominent odd to even preference inthe carbon numbers.

A particularly useful feature for thepurpose of source identification is thenature of the peaks corresponding tothe isoprenoid hydrocarbons (i.e., nor-pristane, pristane, and phytane). Thesecompounds are derived from phytolwhich, in turn, is derived from chloro-phyll. Because of the high specificityof biosynthetic pathways, the chro-matograms of the recently biosynthe-sized compounds contain a single peakcorresponding to a single isomer ofeach of the substances. However, thisstereospecificity is lost through geo-logic maturation and the variousdiastereoisomers (i.e., compounds hav-ing the same structural formulae butwith the atoms arranged somewhatdifferently in space) of the compoundsare formed. Although these isomershave very slightly different physicalproperties, even with the best gaschromatographic techniques only par-tial separation is possible, and each ofthe isoprenoid peaks displays a dou-blet corresponding to two groups ofthe partially separated diastereoiso-mers. In this case (tenth and eleventhfigures), the peaks corresponding tonorpristane and phytane at both theLaurentian Channel and Hibernialocations displayed the doublets typicalof fossil isoprenoid hydrocarbons.Since the heights of the doublets arethe same, the norpristane and phytane

33

10. Gas chromatograph (GC) trace of Laurentian Channel saturated hydrocarbons. Insert shows stereoisomers of(a) norpristane and (c) phytane. ST1 and ST2 are two internal standards (1-chlorohexadecane and methyltricosanoate). GC conditions were the following: 20-m column (0.14 mm i.d., 0.125 µm film thickness of 0V T3)of Duran glass. Injection splitless with a splitless period of 2 minutes. Temperature program was 50°C at1°C/minute to 160°C and then 2°C/minute to 340°C.

11. Gas chromatographic (GC) trace of Hibernia-site saturated hydrocarbons. Inserts show stereoisomers of(a) norpristane, (b) pristane, and (c) phytane. GC conditions as for tenth figure.

are considered to have been derivedsolely from the diagenesis of thebiogenic precursor material with nodetectable contribution from recentlysynthesized biogenic material. How-ever, in the case of pristane, the heightof the second member of the doubletgreatly exceeded that of the first. Thisexcess is interpreted as representing therecent biogenic component as derivedfrom the secretion from herbivorouszooplankton (i.e., the digestive by-product of the chlorophyll moleculescontained in phytoplankton). Thus,there is clear evidence of the presence

34

of contamination from fossil hydrocar-bons at both the Laurentian Channeland Hibernia sites, and the “excess”pristane indicates the contribution ofbiogenic hydrocarbons to the totalhydrocarbon “pool” in both locations.

By considering the total concentra-tions of branched and cyclic alkanes(represented by the small peaks inter-spersed between those of the n-alkane),the total concentration of n-C15 - n-C20

and n-C21, - n-C34 alkanes, the isopre-noids, and polyunsaturated hydrocar-bons, Gassman and Pocklington (1984)attributed the hydrocarbons in these

samples according to their definite andprobable fossil fuel or biogenic source.Although the total concentration ofhydrocarbons at the Hibernia site wasabout twice that at the LaurentianChannel, slightly more than one thirdof the total at the former and slightlyless than one third at the latter wasthought to be of fossil origin. The“definite” fossil component, however,greatly exceeded the “definite” bio-genic component at the Hibernia sitewhereas the reverse was the case at theLaurentian Channel site.

Concluding remarks

The results of this study demon-strated that the background level ofpetroleum-related substances, bothlow-molecular weight volatile hydro-carbons and the higher molecularweight aliphatic and aromatichydrocarbons, in the waters and sedi-ments of the Grand Banks area in1981 were among the lowest foundanywhere in eastern Canada includingremote regions of the Arctic. How-ever, the results also provided clearevidence, both qualitative and quan-titative, that the petroleum industrywas already having a detectable, albeitsmall, impact on the existing lowbackground levels of petroleumresidues in the surface microlayer,water column, and bottom sedimentsof the area. Although this is, as yet,no cause for environmental alarm, it isa portent of what can be expected inthe future. In view of the existing pris-tine nature of the area, continued

exploration and eventual production,even in the absence of the inevitablemishap, can only lead to futureincreases in the level of contaminationin this area. This poses no small chal-lenge to governments, regulatory agen-cies, and the oil industry if recovery ofthe petroleum resources of the GrandBanks is to proceed in such a mannerthat the environment is not altered tothe extent that the fishery is eventuallyplaced in jeopardy.

References

BERNARD, B., BROOKS, J.M., andSACKETT, W.M. 1977. A geochemical modelfor characterization of hydrocarbon gas sourcesin marine sediments. In Proceedings of theNinth Annual Offshore Technology Conference,May 2-5, 1977, Houston, Texas: 435-488.

GASSMANN, G. and POCKLINGTON, R.1984. Hydrocarbons in waters adjacent to an oilexploratory site in the western North Atlantic,Environmental Science and Technology 18:869-872.

Sea ice and iceberg movement

S.D. Smith and G. Symonds

The past three years (1983-1985)have been heavy ice years. Ice and

icebergs have impeded the progress ofpetroleum exploration on the GrandBanks and Newfoundland continentalshelf and highlighted the need forimproved forecasts to make offshoreoperations in these waters safer andmore efficient. A broad range of fore-casts is needed covering periods froma few hours to several months withapplications ranging from an individ-ual iceberg and its projected path tothe formation, movement, and defor-mation of sea ice over the entirenortheast Newfoundland shelf. Numer-ical models being developed by theAtlantic Oceanographic Laboratorywill play an important role in meetingthese forecasting needs.

Iceberg drift models can follow twopossible approaches: the statisticalapproach applies a general (statistical)

knowledge of the drift characteristicsof icebergs in the area; the dynamicapproach calculates the balance offorces acting on an iceberg and theacceleration, which is integrated twiceto obtain the velocity and position.However, each of these approacheshas its limitations. The statisticalapproach (e.g., Garrett, 1984) doesnot attempt to forecast variations incurrents and winds, and so the effectsof these variations are not included inthe model output except as statisticallypredictable uncertainty in the drift rateand position. Dynamic models, how-ever, rely on a detailed knowledge ofthe variations of winds and currentsand of the draft and cross-sectionalarea of an iceberg, informationnot available in most operationalsituations.

Equilibrium drift models might beconsidered to be a third category. An

LAMONTAGNE, R.A., SWINNERTON, J.W.,LINNENBOOM, B.J., and SMITH, W.D. 1973.Methane concentrations in various marineenvironments. Journal of Geophysical Research78: 5317-5323.

LEVY, E.M. 1980. Background levels ofpetroleum residues in Baffin Bay and the East-ern Canadian Arctic: role of natural seepage.In Petroleum and the Marine Environment.London; Graham and Trotman Ltd.: 345-362.

LEVY, E.M. 1983. Background levels of volatilehydrocarbons and petroleum residues in thewaters and sediments of the Grand Banks.Canadian Journal of Fisheries and AquaticSciences 40 (Supplement 2): 23-33.

LEVY, E.M. 1985. Background levels of dis-solved/dispersed petroleum residues in the Gulfof St. Lawrence 1970-1979. Canadian Journal ofFisheries and Aquatic Sciences 42: 544-555.

LEVY, E.M. In press. Background levels ofpetroleum residues in the waters and surficialbottom sediments of the Labrador Shelf andHudson Strait/Foxe Basin regions. CanadianJournal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 42.

LEVY, E.M. and WALTON, A. 1976. Highseas oil pollution: Particulate petroleum residuesin the North Atlantic. Journal of the FisheriesResearch Board of Canada 33: 2781-2971.

iceberg is assumed to follow the cur-rent plus a certain fraction of the windspeed, with a Coriolis deflection to theright of the wind direction. The resultsequal those of dynamic models if theiceberg’s response to changes in cur-rents and winds is fast enough tomake the transient response to thesechanges insignificant. The computationtime required to estimate equilibriumdrift rates is much less than fordynamic modelling. Therefore, indynamic modelling it is instructive toinvestigate response times to identifythe range of circumstances in whichusing an equilibrium drift modelwould suffice.

A dynamic iceberg drift model(Smith and Banke, 1983) has beendeveloped at BIO and tested in a hind-cast mode (i.e., on known events)using currents, winds, and iceberg-drifttracks reported from Canadian eastcoast drilling rigs. This model calcu-lates water and wind drag, applies aCoriolis force and a gravitational forcedue to geostrophic sea-surface tilt, andadjusts the air-drag and water-dragcoefficients to obtain a best (least-

35

squares) fit of the modelled track tothe observed drift track. Banke andSmith (1984) have applied this modelto a large quantity of drilling rig dataand have reached conclusions regard-ing the time of response to changes inwind (less than one hour in mostcases) and the values of drag coeffi-cients required to obtain a best fit ofthe modelled and observed tracks. Theconsequences of not towing icebergswere investigated by first modellingthe tracks of 12 icebergs towed duringpart of their tracking periods, andthen removing towing forces from themodel to simulate the track that theiceberg would have followed with-out towing. In two of the cases, itappeared that the drill rig would havehad to move to avoid a collision, butin nearly half of the cases it appearedthat the iceberg would have approachedless closely had it not been towed.

The data on currents taken at a drillrig have two major deficiencies formodelling of iceberg tracks. Firstly,simultaneous tracks of more than oneiceberg show significant differences,presumably due to variations in cur-rents, when separations are greaterthan about 10 km (Garrett et al.,1985). Secondly, the available datawere taken at only one or two levelsand the variation of currents withdepth could not be properly accountedfor in computing water-drag forces.The lack of high-quality data on cur-rent profiles in the vicinity of ice-bergs has limited the development ofdynamic iceberg drift models, althoughSodhi and El-Tahan (1980) successfullymodelled an iceberg trajectory usingcurrent profiles based on data from anearby current-meter mooring.

With support from the Office ofEnergy Research and Development(OERD), an experimental program hasbeen carried out during three voyages(83-018, 84-023, and 85-008) of CSSDawson. We have gathered data onthe drift of ten icebergs of widelydifferent shapes and sizes. Currentprofiles were measured in detail usingnewly acquired Ametek doppler acous-tic current-profilers, with CSS Dawsonholding station 1 to 2 km from theiceberg. This process provides unprece-dented detail about variation of cur-rent with depth, and a preliminarylook at the data clearly shows the

1. Observed and modelled hourlypositions of a small, pinnacled ice-berg in the Strait of Belle Isle from0500 to 1700 GMT on June 24, 1983.Iceberg travelledfrom left to right(i.e., to the east).

inadequacy of using measured currentstaken at only one or two levels.

A multilayer version of our dynamiciceberg model has been developed andtested using some of the data obtainedin 1983. The first figure shows anobserved and modelled track for asmall iceberg; the iceberg is shown inthe second figure. The iceberg drifted15 km during this period and themodel was able to reproduce theobserved track with a root-mean-square error of 0.5 km. The 1984 and1985 voyage data are now being anal-yzed (September 1985), and furtherdevelopment of the drift hindcastmodel is in progress. When site-specific current forecasts are available,

it will be possible to apply this modelin a forecast mode. Eventually ahybrid dynamic/statistical model maybe developed, in which those terms notamenable to dynamic modelling can behandled statistically.

Whereas iceberg forecasting focuseson predicting the motion of individualicebergs, sea-ice forecasts are con-cerned with a field of pack ice com-posed of a large number of ice floesof various shapes and sizes. Themotion of an individual floe is onlyimportant insomuch as it reflects themotion of the entire pack. For thisreason, modelling the motion of seaice differs from iceberg modelling intwo ways. Firstly, in addition to windsand currents, sea ice motion is modi-fied by stresses within the ice packitself due to floe-floe interactions. Forexample, sea ice resists compressionthrough the process of ridging, whichcreates thicker, stronger ice that willresist further compression. Alterna-tively, open water leads may formwhen ice diverges. Secondly, thermo-dynamic forcing is an important factorin determining the mass balance andthickness distribution of the pack-icefield. Atmospheric cooling in wintercreates new ice in leads between floesor on the underside of existing floes,while oceanic heat flux and atmos-

2. A small iceberg tracked in the Strait of Belle Isle, June 24, 1983. Mass is85,000 tonnes, height 19 m above waterline, length 66 m, draft 54 m.

36

pheric warming in spring and summerprovide heat to melt the ice.

Both statistical and dynamicalapproaches to sea ice modelling arebeing pursued within the sea-ice pro-gram of the Atlantic OceanographicLaboratory (AOL). A statistical modelof sea ice motion was described byColony and Thorndike (1985) in whichthe trajectory of an individual floe wasmodelled as a “random walk”. Theensemble of all possible trajectoriesallows one to answer variations of thequestion: “If a particle occupiesregion R at time t, what is the proba-bility that it will occupy region R ‘attime t’ “? This same model wasapplied to modelling sea ice trajecto-ries through the Greenland Sea(Colony et al., 1985), a situationwhich in many respects is similar tothe northeast Newfoundland shelfwhere too few data presently exist toprovide the necessary input for themodel. The model has an advantageover dynamic models in that medium-to long-range forecasts can be given interms of a probability with a knownerror. A disadvantage, in terms ofoperational forecasts, is that the natu-ral variability of the trajectories leadsto a spreading of the probability distri-bution over a broad region after onlya few time steps (1 month).

Shown in the third figure are thetrajectories of satellite-tracked buoysplaced on the ice off Nain andMakkovik, Labrador, during Januaryand February 1985. The positions ofthese buoys are obtained via satelliteapproximately ten times per day. Dur-ing the course of the winter the buoysshow a mean longshore drift of20 cm/s. Of the 11 buoys deployed,2 drifted out of the main pack intothe Labrador Sea where the ice wouldmelt rapidly, one went through theStrait of Belle Isle into the Gulf ofSt. Lawrence, one grounded on anisland off Nain, and the remainderdrifted south toward the Grand Banksand eventually into open water eastand northeast of the Grand Banks.Although these data are insufficient toobtain statistically reliable estimates,they do serve to illustrate the meanand variability of ice-floe trajectoriesover the northeast Newfoundlandshelf. This program is expected to con-tinue over the next few years to obtain

3. Sea ice trajectories from Januaryto April 1985. Solid circles show thestarting locations and arrows indi-cate direction of motion at the endof each trajectory. Plotted linesindicate ice extent on January 1 andMarch 1.

statistically reliable estimates ofthe mean and variance of ice driftthroughout the region shown in thefigure.

The spreading of the probability dis-tribution can be reduced by introduc-ing a known component of the varia-bility that may be predicted in adeterministic manner. For example,the tidal component of the variabilitycould be predicted and removed fromthe random fluctuations. Over a two-day period, deterministic models of icemotion can provide forecasts that areat best as good as the data input toobtain them. Over longer periods oftime, the deterministic models can beused in a hindcast mode to aid inidentifying the major factors con-tributing to the variability in icemotion. A dynamic/thermodynamicmodel described by Hibler (1979)has been applied to the northeastNewfoundland shelf with the aim ofmodelling the seasonal advance andretreat cycles of sea ice. In particular,we would like to be able to identifythe major factors that determinewhether any given year will experiencea heavy or light ice season. Thermo-dynamic forcing is particularly impor-tant since in our study area all of theice eventually melts each year. Modelsof the radiation balance at theatmosphere-ice interface provide esti-

mates of the growth and decay ratesof sea ice due to atmospheric coolingand heating. In our study area, thethermodynamic processes are com-plicated by spatial variations in ther-mal forcing and by advection of icebetween regions with greatly differingheat and mass budgets. Of the trajec-tories shown in the first figure, twowere advected into the Labrador Seawhere warmer ocean temperaturesrapidly melted the ice. Finally, icegrowth and heat exchange are stronglyinfluenced by ice thickness, which isaffected by strain due to spatial varia-tions in the ice velocity field that inturn forms ridges and leads.

To provide reliable forecasts, a cou-pled atmosphere-ice-ocean model isrequired and, as with iceberg model-ling, a dynamic/statistical model mayprovide the optimum forecasting tool.Much more data on the formation,movement, and deformation of sea iceare required both for model verifica-tion and also to provide input forforecasting models. The reliability ofany forecast is often only as good asthe input data, and a detailed monitor-ing network will have to be maintainedto provide the necessary atmosphere,ice, and ocean information.

References

BANKE, E.G. and SMITH, S.D. 1984. A hind-cast study of iceberg drift on the Labradorcoast. Canadian Technical Report ofHydrography and Ocean Sciences No. 49.

COLONY, R. and THORNDIKE, A.S. 1985.Sea ice motion as a drunkard’s walk. Journalof Geophysical Research 90: 965-914.

COLONY, R., MORITZ, R.E., andSYMONDS, G. 1985. Random ice trajectories inthe Greenland Sea. In Proceedings of the 8thInternational Conference on Port and OceanEngineering under Arctic Conditions, POAC 85,Narssavssuaq, Greenland, 1985.

GARRETT, C.J.R. 1984. Statistical predictionof iceberg trajectories. Iceberg Research l(7):3-7.

GARRETT, C.J.R., MIDDLETON, J.,HAZEN, M., and MAJAESS, F. 1985. Tidalcurrents and eddy statistics from iceberg trajec-tories offlabrador. Science 227: 1333-1335.

HIBLER, W.D., III. 1979. A dynamic-thermodynamic sea ice model. Journal ofPhysical Oceanography 9:815-846.

SMITH, S.D. and BANKE, E.G. 1983. Theinfluence of winds, currents, and towing forceon the drift of icebergs. Cold Regions Scienceand Technology 6(3): 241-255.

SODHI, D.S. and EL-TAHAN, M. 1980.Prediction of an iceberg drift trajectory duringa storm. Annals of Glaciology 1: 77-82.

37

Mean and variable currents over theGrand Banks

B.D. Petrie

0 n April 14, 1912, the ocean linerTitanic struck an iceberg south of

the Grand Banks of Newfoundlandand sank with the loss of 1513 lives.This incident prompted the formationof the International Ice Patrol to pro-vide better protection for trans-Atlantic steamers against the menaceof Arctic ice and icebergs. This was tobe accomplished through icebergobservation reports and studies of theoceanography and meteorology ofBaffin Bay, the Labrador Sea, and thecontinental shelves off the Canadianeast coast. Of particular interest wasthe Labrador Current in the vicinity ofthe Grand Banks of Newfoundland.

D.J. Matthews, on the steamshipScotia, carried out the first systematicinvestigation of the waters of theGrand Banks and adjacent areas in1913. Some of the main results ofMatthew’s study were: (1) theLabrador current splits into three partson the northern edge of the GrandBanks: the westerly branch flowsthrough Avalon Channel and aroundCape Race; the middle and mostimportant arm follows the easternedge of the Grand Banks; the easternarm flows eastward to the north ofFlemish Cap; (2) the Grand Banksthemselves are not dominated by asingle definite current, the generaltendency of the circulation appearingto be a slow southeastwardly drift;and (3) the velocities of the LabradorCurrent are as a rule relatively weak.

Smith et al. (1937) expanded andquantified this earlier work andproduced a map (first figure) of theprimary circulation over the GrandBanks based on an interpretation oftemperature and salinity observations.The western branch of the currentmoves through Avalon Cannel andturns westward following the coastline.In the vicinity of 55° W, the flow turnseastward moving toward the strongerbranch along the eastern edge of theshelf. On meeting this branch, the cur-rent over the shelf first moves south-

38

1. Primary circulation over theGrand Banks as depicted by Smithet al. (1937).

ward then west along the shelf breakcreating a clockwise gyre over thesoutheast Grand Banks centered at44°30’N, 50°W. Smith et al. estimateda water transport of 0.4 x 106 m3/s forthe inshore (western) branch of the

Labrador Current and equal transportsof 2 x 106 m3/s through Flemish Passand north of Flemish Cap. All flowswere subject to considerablevariability.

The work of Smith et al. remainsthe standard reference frame for anyprograms to collect physical oceano-graphic data in the area. It is particu-larly useful for studies addressing themean circulation of the Grand Banks,less useful for programs dealing withvariable currents.

Recent measurements of the meancirculation

Since 1937 the International IcePatrol has continued to gather hydro-graphic data in the Grand Banksregion with particular emphasis on theoffshore Labrador Current. Theirrecent efforts as well as those of oilcompanies, universities, and govern-ment agencies have involved the use ofsatellite-tracked drifting buoys andcurrent meters (Petrie and Anderson,1983). The buoys are fitted with alarge drogue so that they will movewith the currents in the upper 20 m ofthe water column. The current metersare moored at fixed locations and canmeasure current speed, direction, tem-perature, and salinity. However, theGrand Banks are so large that, todate, only a small portion of them hasbeen surveyed with these instruments.

2. Contours of the current through Flemish Cap and the Avalon Channelderived from archived current meter and drifting buoy data. The dot withina circle represents flows toward the reader (i.e., out of the page) while the xwithin a circle represents currents away from the reader (i.e., intothe page).

The major deployment of moorings sofar has taken place roughly along47°N in Flemish Pass and off St.John’s in the Avalon Channel. Theover 200 km in between have not beensampled nor has much of the rest ofthe Banks.

The second figure shows a compos-ite picture of current-meter observa-tions and drifting-buoy-derived cur-rents for the branches of the LabradorCurrent in Flemish Pass (offshore) andAvalon Channel (inshore). The formerbranch obviously transports signifi-cantly more water than does the latter.The core of the offshore branch islocated above the steep topography ofthe continental slope and not over the100 m isobath as depicted by Smithet al. Countless hydrographic surveysand numerous drifting-buoy trackshelp to confirm this. Another mooringto the south on the 490-m isobathshowed a mean velocity of 46 cm/s atthe 110 m depth over 80 days. Fur-thermore, while the average speed cal-culated from all drifter tracks of thenear surface flow along the easternouter edge of the Grand Banks isabout 30 cm/s, individual buoys haveaveraged 85 cm/s along this length.This would not be considered a rela-tively weak flow as described byMatthews. The figure also shows anorthward flow on the western side ofFlemish Pass - a feature of theregion that has become known sinceSmith et al. did their work. Theinshore branch of the Labrador Cur-rent appears to be confined tightly tothe coast.

A large number of fixed-pointmoorings would be necessary to showthe circulation patterns on the GrandBanks. On the other hand, we can getan idea of the spatial variability byplotting the paths taken by satellite-tracked drifting buoys. They mightdescribe the routes followed by parcelsof water. In the third figure, selectedbuoy tracks from 1984-85 are shown.They do point out some of the fea-tures noted by Smith et al. For exam-ple, the branches of the Labrador Cur-rent through Flemish Pass and northof the Cap are depicted by tracks B-E,H, and I. Perhaps drifter F capturessome of the clockwise flow around thesoutheastern Grand Banks. It is alsoone of the few examples of drifters

3. The curves correspond to the path of nine satellite-tracked drifting buoyson the Grand Banks.

that have moved westwards afterreaching the Tail of the Banks; mostare deflected to the east. However,there does not appear to be a welldefined inshore branch of the Currentand the details of the movement ofdrifters on the Banks often oppose theSmith et al. view. In general, the meancurrents on the Banks are quite small,amounting to a few centimetres persecond. Drifters tend to remain in thearea for a long time; one lasted for205 days before being entrained in theoffshore branch of the LabradorCurrent.

Variable flows

Some of the complexity of themovement of drifting buoys on theGrand Banks can be accounted for bythe time-varying currents. Processes

that could contribute to the variabilityinclude changes of the circulation dueto the freshwater run-off cycle, sea-sonal changes in weather, storms,instabilities in the various branches ofthe Labrador Current, and tides. Per-haps several of these processes actedtogether to produce the complex tem-perature structure seen in the infraredpicture shown in the fourth figure.This image from April 1983 shows anoffshore Labrador Current with someevident splitting around Flemish Cap.The Current also has smaller scale spa-tial variability (eddies), which could beassociated with instabilities in themean flow. The inshore branch alsopossesses evident variability similar tothat of the offshore branch. The twobranches appear to surround theGrand Banks. Perhaps these eddies

39

4. This satellite infrared image of the Grand Banks region depicts the seasurface temperature with lighter areas corresponding to coolertemperatures.

are one of the mechanisms wherebywater is exchanged between the shelfand the slope areas. In fact, a recentstudy of the salinity budget and ice-berg populations of the Grand Banksand the Labrador Current does pointto eddy-induced exchange as an impor-tant process contributing to thedistribution of those properties.

Wind can also have a marked effecton the currents over the Grand Banksthrough direct forcing in the energetic3-10 day “storm” band and throughthe generation of inertial-period (about16 h on the Grand Banks) motions. Acomparison of the mean and variable

flows over the Banks based on satellitedrifting buoy data indicates that thevariable currents generally exceed themean by a factor of three. At theHibernia oil exploration site, the fac-tor can be as great as 10. Thus, if forexample you need to predict the pathof an iceberg for the next several days,it may be more important to be ableto predict the time-varying flow thanto know the mean. However, to fore-cast wind driven currents there firstmust be a good prediction of winds, adifficult and at times uncertain task initself. At present, hindcast wind-drivencurrent models are being considered.

5. The figure shows annual and interannual variability of adjusted sea levelat St. John’s, Newfoundland.

These allow for model verificationand examination of worst-case stormsthat can be applied to offshoredevelopment problems.

Tidal currents are generated by theaction of well-known gravitationalforces on the ocean and so can bepredicted more confidently. Theefforts of oil companies and the BIOin the past several years have producedaccurate tidal models for the waters ofthe Grand Banks.

The variability considered so far hasbeen of the short-term variety. Thereis convincing evidence that seasonaland interannual variability significantlyaffect the water properties of theGrand Banks. One manifestation ofthis is in the low-frequency fluctua-tions of sea level at St. John’s shownin the fifth figure. Over the 9-y spanin the diagram, the eye can easily pickout the consistent variation over a yearand changes from one year to another.These variations have been linked tothe annual freshwater discharge mainlyfrom Labrador and the Canadian Arc-tic. Measurements in Avalon Channel(see second figure for the mean) haveshown that the transport changes fromabout 0.3 x 106 m3/s in July andAugust to about 0.6 x 106 m3/s afterthe arrival of the main part of the dis-charge in September and October.These measurements were made foronly one cycle however and do showsignificant variability; consequently thetransport increase must be taken witha grain of salt.

The mean and time-varying currentsover the Grand Banks are the result ofmany processes acting together to pro-duce a complicated spatial and tem-poral structure. In recent years thedeployment of new oceanographicinstruments has led to an improvedpicture of the mean flow and anappreciation of the processes responsi-ble for the variable currents. Consider-able progress has been made in theunderstanding of the latter and effortsto improve the state of understandingare continuing.ReferencesPETRIE, B. and ANDERSON, C. 1983. Circu-lation on the Newfoundland continental shelf.Atmosphere-Ocean 21 (2): 207-226.SMITH, E., SOULE, F., and MOSBY, O. 1937.The Marion and General Greene expeditions toDavis Strait and the Labrador Sea. Bulletin ofthe United States Coast Guard 19: 259 p.

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chapter 4

Biology

I t is clear that the Grand Banks area rich source of both renewable and

non-renewable resources. The richnessof the fishery has long been a matterof comment, and the potential forextraction of fossil fuel has recentlybeen convincingly demonstrated. Allare concerned that Canadians shouldbe able to extract maximum benefitfrom both types of resource, whilemanaging the fishery effectively andextracting the hydrocarbons withoutdamage to the environment.

Direct investigation of the details ofthe fish stocks, their sizes, seasonalmigrations, and interactions with eachother is the responsibility of theNorthwest Atlantic Fisheries Centre inSt. John’s, Newfoundland, and we arepleased to include in this chapter anaccount of that work by two scientistsfrom the Centre. The particular con-cern of the Marine Ecology Labora-tory at BIO is with the interacting webof natural events that leads to fishproduction: the utilization of solarenergy by the phytoplankton, thetransport of fertilizing nutrients to thesurface waters, and the passage ofenergy-rich organic compoundsthrough all the steps in the food webuntil they arrive at fish, birds, andmammals of economic importance.

With financial assistance from theOffice of Energy Research and Devel-opment (OERD), the Marine EcologyLaboratory undertook to examineclosely the question of how oilaccidentally released into the marineenvironment might affect this complexnatural fish-producing mechanism.Others had already examined thedirect effects of oil on fish, but MELstaff now wished to look more deeplyat indirect effects of oil on the totalecosystem. Viewing the food web as acomplex mechanism, they asked: Howdoes this mechanism work, and what

would be the effect of oil on itsfunctioning?

As the article by K.F. Drinkwatershows, it is necessary to look farbeyond the boundaries of the GrandBanks to understand what makes themso productive. They are strongly underthe influence of the Labrador Currentfrom the north, and the chemical andbiological constituents of this Currentare in turn strongly influenced by theamount of fresh water entering andleaving Hudson’s Bay. Surprising as itmay seem, fish production on theGrand Banks is influenced by theamount of precipitation in the north-ern regions of Manitoba, Ontario, andQuebec. The unravelling of this storyrequires expertise in physical, chemi-cal, and biological oceanography, andintegration of all three disciplines isthe hallmark of the work of theMarine Ecology Laboratory. The abil-ity to make long-term predictionsabout trends in the fish stocks wouldundoubtedly benefit the fishing indus-try, and it is now clear that an impor-tant term in the equation is year-to-year variability in the freshwater run-off of the Hudson Bay catchmentarea, although more work is needed tofill in the details.

One way of finding out whether wehave sufficient understanding of anecosystem is to attempt to reproduceits chief features in a computer model.Not only can the performance of thenatural system be modelled, but exist-ing knowledge of the effect of oil onbacteria, phytoplankton, zooplankton,or benthos can be incorporated as per-turbations of the natural system, giv-ing at least an indication of probableeffects in nature. The section onmodelling by W. Silvert should beread in conjunction with that on heter-otrophic activity on the Grand Banksby M.A. Paranjape and R.E.H. Smith.

Early in the attempt to model theGrand Banks ecosystem, it becameapparent that there were seriousdoubts whether the conventional wis-dom of biological oceanography (thatprimary production is mainly by dia-toms and secondary production ismainly by copepods) could be appliedto the Grand Banks. With assistancefrom OERD a second project waslaunched to investigate the biologicalsubmodel. The results of several majorvoyages to the Grand Banks clearlyshowed that the diatom-copepod para-digm applies only to a short period inspring. For the remainder of the yearproduction is dominated by smallphytoplankton cells, which in turn aregrazed by microzooplankton. Largeamounts of phytoplankton productionare released into the water in solubleform and taken up by bacteria thatare in turn consumed by small animalsand used to support the food webleading to fish.

This new understanding of theGrand Banks ecosystem permits MELscientists to proceed with more confi-dence to the construction and testingof an ecosystem model. Meantime,those whose job it is to make environ-mental impact assessments have showna keen interest in ecosystem modellingas a technique for integrating thediverse and disparate evidence broughtforward during environmental impacthearings, and for considering whethera number of small impacts on differ-ent parts of an ecosystem mightamount to a significant perturbationof the total fish-producing system.

R.G.B. Brown of the SeabirdResearch Unit (DOE at BIO) has con-tributed yet another biological per-spective on the Grand Banks ecosys-tem. Not only does he report the basicdata about what species of birds arepresent, and what are their seasonal

41

migrations, so that we may understandthe risks to the bird flocks of a poten-tial oil spill, but he suggests interestingways in which bird distributions maygive us clues to ecosystem functioning.For example, oceanographic zonescharacterized by upwelling of nutrient-rich water tend to be frequented byflocks of dovekies. These birds feedon zooplankton. Is the zooplanktonthere because the nutrient upwellingsets off a highly productive food

chain, or does the upwelling simplyforce the zooplankton from deeperwater to congregate near the surface?

In this chapter we are remindedonce again that while we may framesimple questions like “Is hydrocarbonextraction harmful to Grand Banksfisheries?“, the answers are never sim-ple and straightforward. We can testthe toxicity of oil for fish and comeup with an answer of sorts, but assoon as we dig beneath the surface of

Stock assessment andrelated fisheries research on the Grand Banks

L. W. Coady and S. A. Akenhead

Regular stock inventories are takento produce the best current estimatesof stock abundance for predictionof yields and for annual quotaadjustments.

We are very pleased to include this guest article in our issue ofBIO Review devoted to the Grand Banks. Within our Department ofFisheries and Oceans, the mandate to provide effective management ofthe fisheries resources of Atlantic Canada is handled by various decen-tralized establishments with specific regional responsibilities. It is theNewfoundland Region of the Atlantic Fisheries Service that is responsiblefor those resources on the Grand Banks. BIO regularly undertakes scien-tific investigations in co-operation with the Newfoundland Region as itdoes in other locations with the Quebec, Gulf, and Scotia-Fundy regionsof the Fisheries Service. Part of the latter region is, in fact, housed atBIO and is routinely represented in the pages of the Review.

Fisheries management is an activelydeveloping field and the stock assess-ment procedures of 1985 are muchmore sophisticated than those of tenyears ago. Recent analyses considermixed-species catches and species inter-actions. Fishing-effort and catch-rateindices are now derived from mixturesof boat sizes and gear types and con-sider a wide variety of fish abundanceestimates, all of them ‘noisy’ from astatistical standpoint.

The Newfoundland Region’s research facilities are at the North westAtlantic Fisheries Centre on the White Hills overlooking St. John's. Witha professional and technical staff of about 160 and access to three DFOresearch vessels (Wilfred Templeman, Shamook, and Marinus) as well asthe chartered Gadus Atlantica, they conduct a diverse program ofresearch. Here, the authors have provided an overview of their Centre’scurrent efforts that demonstrates the diversity of biological problemsfaced by fisheries scientists in the Grand Banks area.

The development of statistical modelsunderlying stock assessment analysespresently involves, at St. John’s,exploring predictors of recruitment dis-tributions that avoid parameter-fittingapproaches. In addition, life history-strategy theory is being used to esti-mate the natural mortality rate offishes (an important input to manage-ment models) from the schedules ofgrowth and reproduction through thelife of a fish species.

F isheries research on the GrandBanks addresses several related

questions: How large are the fishpopulations? Where do they spawn?Where do they migrate? How do theyinteract with other species? What fac-tors affect their growth and survival?The fundamental aim of the researchis the provision of advice for use inthe development of fishing plans,quotas, and other management strate-gies that will ensure the conservationof marine resources. For that reason,80% of research activities in the

42

Newfoundland Region are tied to the In evaluating a total allowablepopulation dynamics of commercial catch, an accurate assessment isfish stocks and the effects of present needed of the number of young fishand projected exploitation rates. that will recruit to the fishery in the

Detailed observations on ground- year for which the TAC is being set.fish stocks and their environment are Juvenile flatfish, for instance, poserecorded during regular research-vessel special sampling problems and a #41.5trawling surveys that utilize commer- Yankee shrimp trawl has been selectedcial gear modified to sample pre-recruit to evaluate their distribution andabundance. These are supplemented by abundance. An attempt is now beingregular studies at principal landing made to develop an index of year-classports of catches by commercial fisher- strength (from research surveys) aties as well as commercial sampling of some age before recruitment to theforeign and Canadian vessels at sea. fishery occurs. In the course of these

the problem we come across areas ofvery fundamental uncertainty. Answer-ing outstanding questions involves the-oretical modelling, field investigations,and a thorough familiarity with thelatest ideas and techniques in theworldwide scientific community.

- K.H. MannDirector

Marine Ecology Laboratory

Capelin in fish tanks. (Courtesy of theCentre)

studies, valuable information is beingcollected on the general biology anddynamics of juvenile flat fish: length-at-age, weight-at-age, distribution as itrelates to the adult population, matu-rity, feeding behaviour, and predationby other species.

The general question of how manyfish? is being considered in the contextof seasonal distributions. In the past,all fish stocks under quota controlwere subject to a stratified randomtrawl-survey once a year and suchsnapshots provided little informationon seasonal variability. A project wasmounted in 1984 to quantify the effectof seasonal variability (in distributionand abundance) on biomass estimatesof the major groundfish species in thenorthern Grand Bank area (Div. 3L).The project will also address temporalvariability in biological parameters. Toensure adequate survey coverage andto encompass all important groundfishspecies in the area, approximately300 random-stratified stations are sur-veyed over a 6-week period in eachquarter of the year.

Understanding year-class strengthand recruitment processes in marinefishes remains the outstanding researchpriority in fisheries science. The physi-cal transport of nutrients from thedeeps east of the Grand Bank up ontothe shallow sunlit waters of the South-east Shoal controls the production offood and planktonic predators of lar-val fish, and ultimately controls thesurvival of fish eggs into demersaljuveniles. Lessons learned from early-life history studies of cod and redfish

on the Flemish Cap have been put togood use in production studies of theSoutheast Shoal. Present work is de-signed to reveal the processes deter-mining the early-life history of thelarval yellowtail flounder (Limandaferruginea) and the stock’s subsequentyear-class strength. This involves deter-mining growth, feeding, distribution,and abundance relative to biologicaland physical oceanographic conditions.

The patterns of nutrients and waterdensity revealed in the Southeast Shoalcruises provided several surprises.Nutrient levels were much higher thanpredicted by early versions of a GrandBanks model (see article by Silvert,this chapter). It also seems thatchlorophyll levels near the shelf breakare high year round due to the buoy-ancy and turbulence of the LabradorCurrent. Patterns of community ecol-ogy are clearly organized by the strik-ing frontal features of the area. And. . . yes, the production is sustaininglarval fish!

The Southeast Shoal is visited byspectacular hordes of whales, seabirds,

Technicians from the North westAtlantic Fisheries Centre sample atrawl catch of fish aboard a researchvessel. (Courtesy of the Centre)

and, in the past, Russian trawlers,which came to exploit the large schoolsof capelin that spawn in the area.Pelagic researchers mount two hydro-acoustic voyages for capelin over theGrand Banks each year: one in Aprilcovers the northern Grand Banks(Div. 3L) and another in June coversthe entire area (i.e., Div. 3LNO).These voyages provide a reliable basisfrom which we can identify and pre-dict fluctuations in population abun-dance and predict relative distributions.A modified dual-beam transducer isnow being prepared to generate dataon in-situ fish target strength andthus dramatically improve our abilityto estimate fish abundance reliably.

The success of capelin studies hasled to research on recruitment predic-tion. In a collaborative effort withMcGill University, the ecology ofcapelin early-life history on the GrandBank is being investigated by consider-ing, among other hypotheses, howlarge waves might mix the shallowSoutheast Shoal waters to the bottom,resuspending the sediments and freeingcapelin larvae that hatched in thosesediments. In co-operation with BIO,the submersible Pisces was deployed inthe area in 1985 to investigate larvalcapelin dynamics and examine tiltangles of adult capelin (an importantconsideration in hydroacousticresearch).

While biologists are aware that codconcentrate on offshore spawninggrounds in the spring, very little isknown about how they disperse afterspawning and how they move inshore.Commencing in 1983, cod schoolswere followed inshore from offshorespawning sites on the northern GrandBanks. Research vessels equipped withhigh-powered sonar are able to locatecod and capelin and follow them forseveral days (see first figure). Whilethe picture is not completely clear, itseems that cod move inshore along thebottom. The cod move shoreward atdepths between 250 m and the shal-lower cold (0 to - 1.7°C) waters ofthe Labrador Current. These migratingcod tend to remain where the tempera-ture is around 0°C to 3°C althoughoccasionally they may be found inwaters as cold as -0.5°C.

Cod-tagging studies conducted sincethe late seventies have answered

43

in even large cod suggests highproductivity in this area.

Previous studies (Lear, 1976) indi-cated the presence of Atlantic salmon(Salmo salar) in the area of the GrandBank of Newfoundland and their pos-sible relationship to inshore fisheries inCanada. In the spring of 1979 andagain in 1980, locations thought suita-ble for salmon were fished. In total,341 salmon were caught over thesouthern end of the Grand Bank andto the east of the Bank beyond the200 m isobath. The distribution of tagreturns indicated that some of thesesalmon were from rivers in the Mari-times and Maine, USA. The conditionof gonads indicated that some of thefish would have matured as grilse hav-ing spent only one winter at sea. Thisis the first recorded capture in theNorthwest Atlantic (other than incoastal fisheries) of l-sea-wintersalmon that would eventually matureas grilse. More work is planned. Thebiology, ecology, and populationdynamics of snow crab on the GrandBanks is being studied. Crab fisher-men have extended operations out to60-120 miles eastward and northwardto southern Labrador. Since 1982,snow crab landings on the northernGrand Bank (Div. 3L) have declinedprecipitously. Size-frequency and shell-condition analyses from springresearch cruises have shown thatrecruitment into the crab fishery virtu-ally ceased after 1981. Bottom temper-atures from Station 27, near the com-mercial crab grounds, show a severelowering of water temperatures begin-ning in 1982 and continuing to thepresent. It appears that these cold tem-peratures (below - 1.0°C) interruptedthe moult cycle of snow crab causingthe failure of the fishery after thestanding stock of legal-sized animalswas depleted.

1. Acoustic tracing of cod migrating inshore to reach the warmerbottom waters of the Grand Banks. (Courtesy of W.H. Lear, unpublished data)

several key questions dealing with theseasonal movements of cod. Adult codtagged on spawning grounds on thenorthern slope of the Grand Banks aresometimes recaptured in the inshorefishery in the same year, and provideestimates of the proportions of codtaken in the inshore fishery. Taggingefforts, concentrated on the northernGrand Bank component of the north-ern cod stock complex, have revealedthat only 2-3% of this component isactually harvested inshore. The codinhabiting the southern slopes of theGrand Bank (Div. 3NO) in winter areconsidered a separate stock. Generally,these cod remain on the bank through-out the year and, while they dispersenorthward across the surface of theBank in spring, there is very littlemovement westward and the 3NOstock does not contribute significantlyto the Newfoundland inshore codfishery.

In the summer and fall, adult andjuvenile cod have also been tagged ininshore areas. Recaptures by the off-shore fleet provide information on themigrations of cod returning to spawn-ing areas. Cod clearly home to nearlythe same areas as they were spawned,much like salmon returning to homerivers.

Predatory fishes compete withfishermen! When one commercial spe-cies such as cod eats other commercialspecies such as capelin, shrimp, or

44

snow crab, there is an interest in theeffect increasing numbers of one willhave on the other. Cod feeding isstudied by examining stomach con-tents, whose interpretation requires anunderstanding of selection, digestion,and the partitioning of food energyinto growth, activity, and reproduc-tion. Very few measurements of fishbioenergetics have been carried out atthe - 1.0 to 3.0°C temperatures thatare typical of the Grand Banks codhabitat. Feeding studies using moderncomputers and analyses can be veryrevealing. A statistical clusteringapproach has been developed to ana-lyze stomach contents and identifydiet types more accurately than old-fashioned groupings by length or trawlsample could. Cod-diet preferences cannow be sorted out and prey abun-dance, as perceived by cod, mappedfor the Grand Bank area.

Predators can also be viewed as col-lecting tools. Although the view theyprovide is distorted the informationthat can be gained about the distribu-tion, relative abundance, and sizes ofprey can be very useful, especially inan area as poorly studied as the GrandBanks. For example, large quantitiesof euphausiids were found in codstomachs in the area of the VirginRocks in the spring of 1979. Concen-trations of euphausiids have not previ-ously been reported in this area, andtheir presence in large quantities

The short-finned squid (Illexillecebrosus) is a seasonal migrant tothe Newfoundland area. Incidentalcatches have been made during May-July groundfish surveys on the GrandBank. In July to November, squidmay support a lucrative inshore fish-ery. Some years, squid are numerousand profitable; other years they arescarce. Over the past few years theinshore abundance of squid atNewfoundland has been successfully

forecast for the fishing industry.Midwater trawl and plankton surveys(February-March) were undertakenwithin the Gulf Stream System in thearea between the Grand Bank andScotian Shelf, as an index of the rela-tive abundance of pre-recruit (larvaland juvenile) Illex. In June, stratifiedrandom surveys on the southwest slopeof the Grand Bank provide furtherinformation on the relationshipsbetween catch rate, hydrography, andinshore squid abundance in the com-ing months.

The ocean climate for the regionnorth of the Laurentian Channel isknown mainly from Station 27, anoceanographic station near CapeSpear, the most easterly point ofNorth America. Attempts to start atime series for ocean climate correla-tions in the thirties (following Hjort’sadvice) were unsuccessful but, sinceNewfoundland joined Canada in 1949,voluntary occupation of Station 27 byresearch vessels entering and leavingSt. John’s has provided 20 to 40 obser-vations each year, more than enoughto track the interannual swings insalt and heat content of theLabrador Current (see second figure).

Among the fisheries ecology projectsthat have used the Station 27 data setare a successful analysis of the north-ern cod year-class strength (Sutcliffeet al., 1983), of inshore cod catches(Akenhead et al., 1981; Lear et al.,In press), and of the collapse of thesnow crab fishery on the Grand Bank(Taylor et al., In press). Ocean climateinformation is particularly useful inthis region, because many Grand Bankspecies are at the edge of their temper-ature range in this transition zonefrom boreal to arctic conditions. Had-dock, yellowtail flounder, cod, andother resident species survive throughthe winter off Newfoundland only byavoiding the freezing waters. Manycommercially important species (squid,mackerel) temporarily migrate into theregion in summer, in abundances thatvary according to ocean climate condi-tions as well as absolute abundance.

High technology offers new tools tomake exploring the marine biology ofthe vast Grand Banks less costly andtime-consuming, especially remotesensing through satellite sensors. Whilefew satellites offer data valuable to

marine biologists (ocean physicists arebetter served), sea-surface-colour dataare slowly becoming available fromNASA archives. Researchers studyingthe Grand Bank are fortunate that alarge ground-truth data base existsfrom the expeditions that Mobil OilCorporation supported in 1980. In aco-operative project with the Instituteof Ocean Sciences in British Columbia,we are comparing the chlorophyll andprimary production data from 1980 tothe digital data of nine sea-surfacecolour images from the Nimbus 7satellite.

It may be that satellite images canbe analyzed to reveal relative primaryproduction in spite of being unable tomap subsurface chlorophyll. The abil-

2. The 10-m mean salinity andtemperature for each month atStation 27 (St. John’s) is comparedto the long term mean (centre of 5solid lines). Plus and minus 1 and 25standard deviation lines indicatehow unusual each month‘s departurefrom the mean is. About 16% ofobservations will be more than onestandard deviation higher than themean, but only 2.3% of monthlymeans are expected to be more thantwo standard deviations from thelong- term mean.

ity to map regions of high primaryproductivity would be a valuable stepforward in understanding the biologyof the Grand Banks. As an example,the satellite coverage will refine thecurrent estimates of annual primaryproduction on the Grand Bank(175 g C/m2/year), and thus setimportant constraints upon the expec-tations of maximal yield for thefisheries there.

Some research is aimed at theo-retical multispecies or ecosystem con-siderations. Two examples are theexamination of trophic dynamics inmultispecies marine systems, and therelationship of the structure of marinetrophic webs to the relative degree ofstability or chaotic behaviour of the

Larry Coady and Scott Akenhead.

45

systems. A more practical approachuses the extensive research vessel database, obtained since the mid-forties, todocument changes in fish distributionand community structure on theGrand Bank.

Scientists at the Northwest AtlanticFisheries Centre and BIO havepioneered the development of abiochemical technique - the so-calledmixed function oxygenase (MFO)enzyme system - which can be usedas a sensitive monitoring tool forpetroleum pollution when developmentbegins on the Grand Banks of New-foundland (see article by Paranjapeand Smith). The earliest field studiesdemonstrating an association betweenMFO enzyme induction in fish andhydrocarbon pollution were carriedout in Newfoundland in the early1970s. During the last decade otherfield studies investigating the relation-ship between MFO enzyme inductionand sources of petroleum or mixed-organic pollution have been carriedout in the North Sea, the mid-Atlantic, the Pacific, the Adriatic Sea,and the Great Lakes. In addition tosuch supporting field studies, inves-tigators from laboratories both inSt. John’s and Dartmouth have stud-ied induction potentials in a variety offish species common to this area ofthe Northwest Atlantic.

Fisheries scientists have beeninvolved in the Hibernia DevelopmentProject’s environmental impact assess-ment and in the review of the manysupporting documents. Evaluating theeffects of hydrocarbon developmenton the fisheries is one of the chiefaims of fish habitat research at theNorthwest Atlantic Fisheries Center.For example, a mixed-function oxidaseenzyme may indicate exposure tohydrocarbons of fish at the Hiberniasite. Researchers are also exploring thesuite of hydrocarbon metabolites infish gall bladders as an indicatorof exposure of wild stocks ofhydrocarbons.

Future research, in keeping with thetrend toward ecosystem management,will emphasize co-ordination amongspecializations. Efforts will be acceler-ated to improve the precision of esti-mates of total allowable catch, catchrates, stock forecasts, and other out-puts from stock assessment. Theexpected development of the Hiberniaoil field will create added pressures toexamine baseline environmental condi-tions and to ensure that the interestsof the fishing industry are protected.

Selected BibliographyAKENHEAD, S.A., CARSCADDEN, J.,LEAR, H., LILLY, G.R., and WELLS, R.1981. 0n the cod-capelin interaction off north-east Newfoundland and Labrador. Northwest

How the Labrador Current and Hudson Bayrun-off affect the ecology

of the Grand Banks

K.F. Drinkwater

The Labrador Current has a pro-found influence on the Grand

Banks of Newfoundland. Entering thisregion from the north, the current car-ries cold, low salinity water. Thechilled and often ice-infested watersoff Newfoundland are strong tes-timony to the Current’s influence onthe physical environment. Less knownand understood is the effect of theCurrent on the biology of the Grand

46

Banks. Studies conducted by Sovietscientists in the early sixties showclearly that cod larvae spawned on thesouthern Labrador Shelf are trans-ported by the Current into the GrandBanks region. Recent studies by scien-tists from the Marine Ecology Labo-ratory have probed further into theeffects of the Labrador Current on thebiological production of the LabradorShelf and the distribution of fish there,

Atlantic Fisheries Organization, ScientificCouncil Report 811 (Series N264): 18 p.

COADY, L.W. and MAIDMENT, J.M. 1985.Publications of the Fisheries Research Branch,Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Centre, St. John’s,Newfoundland - 1931 to 1984. Canadian Man-uscript Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences1790: v + 159 p.

LEAR, W.H. 1976. Migrating Atlantic salmon(Salmo salar) caught by otter trawl on the New-foundland continental shelf. Journal of the Fish-eries Research Board of Canada 33: 1202- 1205.

LEAR, W.H., BAIRD, J.W., RICE, J.C.,CARSCADDEN, J.E., LILLY, G.R., andAKENHEAD, S.A. In press. An examination offactors affecting catch in the inshore cod fisheryof Labrador and eastern Newfoundland.Canadian Atlantic Fisheries Scientific AdvisoryCommittee, Research Document.

LILLY, G.R. and RICE, J.C. 1983. Food ofAtlantic cod (Gadus morhua) on the northernGrand Bank in spring. Northwest AtlanticFisheries Organization Scientific Council Report8387 (Series N753): 35 p.

PINHORN, A.T. (Editor). 1976. Living marineresources of Newfoundland-Labrador: status andpotential. Bulletin of the Fisheries ResearchBoard of Canada 194: 64 p.

SUTCLIFFE, W.H., JR., LOUCKS, R.H.,DRINKWATER, K.F., and COOTE, A.R.1983. Nutrient flux onto the Labrador Shelffrom Hudson Strait, and its biological conse-quences. Canadian Journal of Fisheries andA quatic Sciences 40: 1692- 1701.

TAYLOR, D.M., O’KEEFE, P.G., andFITZPATRICK, C. In press. A snow crab(Chionoecetes opilio) recruitment failure off thenortheast coast of the Avalon Peninsula and apossible cause. Canadian Atlantic FisheriesScientific Advisory Committee, ResearchDocument.

and on the biological consequences ofthese effects on the Grand Banks.

The journey begins over 1000 kmnorth of the Grand Banks in theHudson Strait and Ungava Bay area(see first figure). Owing to the size,shape, and bathymetry of UngavaBay, resonance occurs there at tidalfrequencies and creates high tidalranges, strong tidal currents, andintense vertical mixing. The latterprocess produces a water mass that isan admixture of three water massesentering the area: (1) cold (less than0°C) water of polar origin, whichflows southward along eastern BaffinIsland; (2) relatively warm (approxi-mately 4°C) water from the LabradorSea; and (3) low salinity water flowing out from Hudson Bay (Dunbar, 1951;

1. The Grand Banks and Labrador Shelf showing the North west AtlanticFisheries Organization (NAFO) Subarea boundaries. The insert shows themajor surface ocean currents in the northern region.

Kollmeyer et al., 1967). The resultantmixture is transported by the residualcirculation onto the northern end ofthe Labrador Shelf and then south-ward by the Labrador Current. Thetemperature and salinity characteristicsundergo only slight modifications enroute to the southern Labrador con-tinental shelf (Lazier, 1982), whichsuggests that mixing is weak over theshelf. Hudson Strait, therefore, hasbeen termed the birthplace of theLabrador shelf waters (Dunbar, 1951).

The intense mixing in the vicinity ofeastern Hudson Strait also has impor-tant biological effects, because itproduces nutrient-enriched surfacewaters (Kollmeyer et al., 1967). Theuptake of nutrients from sea water isan essential requirement for primaryproduction. At most Arctic or temper-

ate latitudes, depletion of the availablenutrients by phytoplankton during thespring or early summer bloom usuallylimits algal growth through the sum-mer and fall unless new sources ofnutrients arise. Sutcliffe et al. (1983)argued that the high surface nutrientsfrom Hudson Strait are advected ontothe Labrador shelf and represent theprimary source of new nutrients ontothe shelf in summer. The nutrient fluxfrom Hudson Strait to the Labradorshelf is relatively continuous. Sutcliffeand his co-workers also formed thehypothesis that a food chain developson the Labrador shelf progressively‘downstream’ from this nutrient sourceduring the time required for develop-ment, and with the southward advec-tion by the Labrador Current. Theysuggested that the estimated two

months necessary for water to travelfrom Hudson Strait to the GrandBanks would be sufficient for develop-ment from phytoplankton to largezooplankton and small fish. The tran-sit speed of approximately 20 kmper day is consistent with measuredcurrents over the shelf.

If the Sutcliffe et al. (1983) hypothe-sis is correct and the primary sourceof new nutrients to the Labrador shelfenters from the north, a southwarddecrease in primary production can beexpected. Available surface-productiondata from Irwin et al. (1978), althoughlimited in both spatial and temporalcoverage, do show decreased produc-tion towards the south (see secondfigure). The hypothesis also predictsincreasing abundance of zooplanktonand fish to the south. Qualitativezooplankton data with which to testthe hypothesis are unavailable; how-ever, fisheries data do exist. The meancatch of the major commercial species,expressed as either weight or weightper unit area, increases dramaticallyin southern Labrador with catchesremaining high through to the GrandBanks (see third figure). The dominantcommercial species is Atlantic cod. Itis possible that such a representationusing catch statistics is misleadingbecause it may reflect only fishingeffort. This is especially true in thenorthern Labrador regions where thelocal population is small and the dis-tance to the home port of any com-mercial fishing fleet is long. For thisreason Sutcliffe et al. (1983) examinedseabird abundance along the coast.

2. Surface production rate as a func-tion of longitudinal distance alongthe Labrador Shelf.

47

3. Fish catch, fish catch per unitarea, and bird abundance as a func-tion of longitudinal distance alongthe Labrador-Newfoundland Shelf.

The seabirds nest at the shore andfeed upon small fish, thereby, requir-ing for at least a short time a depend-able supply of food. The parallelbetween the abundance of bird andfish catch is striking (see third figure).It is not a reflection of available nest-ing sites, inclement weather, or exist-ing ice conditions. The interpretationis that there is a scarcity of small fishin the northern Labrador shelf for thebirds to feed upon.

The hypothesis of Sutcliffe et al.(1983) further suggests that the size ofzooplankton increases to the south.Again, qualitative zooplankton dataare lacking, but indirect evidence isavailable. Prey size is known to be akey factor in determining the maxi-mum size attained by fish (Kerr,1979). On the Labrador shelf andGrand Banks, cod length (at ‘largestsize’) increases to the south, with codon the northern Labrador shelf beinglittle more than 60% of the size ofthose on the southern shelf and on theGrand Banks (May et al., 1965).

Phytoplankton production, fishabundance, fish size, and bird abun-dance along the Labrador shelf allsupport the hypothesis that nutrientsfrom Hudson Strait initiate a chain ofevents that culminates in higher fishproduction on the southern shelf andoff northern Newfoundland. Extendingthe hypothesis further one mightexpect that interannual fluctuations innutrient supply may produce year-to-year changes in fish production.Unfortunately, nutrient data forHudson Strait and the Labrador Shelf

are not available over a long time-series. However, more-abundantnutrients are associated with highsalinity water and salinity records areavailable. Data have been collectedat Station 27, 4 km off St. John’s,Newfoundland, on a regular basissince the early fifties. While the sta-tion is located further south thandesired, no long-term salinity measure-ments are available on the LabradorShelf. Comparison of Station 27upper-layer salinities with annual esti-mates of age-four cod abundance inthe offshore of southern Labradorand northern Newfoundland and theGrand Banks is revealing (see fourthfigure). Eighty per cent of the variancein cod abundance from 1958-1976 canbe explained by the summer-time salin-ity levels during the first three years ofa cod’s life. In years of higher salinity(and therefore higher nutrients), codabundance increases.

4. Measured abundance of Atlanticcod in the southern Labrador-northern Newfoundland Shelf areaand abundance calculated fromcorrelations with salinities.

water to travel from Hudson Bay toeastern Newfoundland. Assuming asimilar inverse relationship existsbetween Hudson Bay run-off andsalinity at interannual time scales,decreased cod catches will follow yearsof high run-off (that is low salinityand low nutrients). This is consistentwith the salinity-cod relationship notedabove. The proposed mechanism isthat, in high discharge years, theincreased stratification suppresses mix-ing of deeper water into the surfaceeuphotic zone and thereby lowersnutrient concentrations. This reducesprimary production and eventuallylowers the amount of food availableto the cod. Unfortunately, sufficienthydrological, meteorological, andoceanographic data are as yetunavailable to test this hypothesis.

In the late summer of 1985, a voy-age on CSS Hudson was conducted tofurther test the validity of the Sutcliffeet al. (1983) hypothesis that a foodchain develops downstream fromHudson Strait. Abundance and sizedata on the bacteria, phytoplankton,zooplankton, and fish over theLabrador shelf were collected and willbe used to investigate the predictedlongitudinal gradients. Comparisonswill be made to determine the relativeimportance of the longitudinal grad-ients to the cross-shelf gradients andthe difference between topographicfeatures, such as those on the banks,in troughs, and along the continentalslopes. Analysis of the data will becompleted in the near future andshould provide significant new insightsinto the impact of the Hudson Straitoutflow and the Labrador Current onthe biology of the Labrador shelf, andtheir possible effects on the GrandBanks.

The low salinity outflow fromHudson Bay, one of the three mainconstituents of the Labrador shelfwater, also affects the biology of theLabrador shelf. Monthly mean fresh-water discharge into the Bay shows aninverse relationship with the seasonalupper layer salinities off St. John’s,given an appropriate lag time for the

References

DUNBAR, M.J. 1951. Eastern Arctic waters.Bulletin of the Fisheries Research Board ofCanada 88: 131 p.

IRWIN, B., EVANS, P., and PLATT, T. 1978.Phytoplankton productivity experiments andnutrient measurements in the Labrador Sea from15 Oct. to 31 Oct. 1977. Canada Fisheries andMarine Service Data Report 83: 40 p.

KERR, S.R. 1979. Prey availability, metaphoete-sis, and the size structure of lake trout stocks.Investigation Pesquera 43: 187- 198.

48

KOLLMEYER, R.C., MCGILL, D.A., andCORWIN, N. 1967. Oceanography of theLabrador Sea in the vicinity of Hudson Strait in1965. U.S. Coast Guard Oceanographic ReportNo. CG373-12: 92 p.

LAZIER, J.R.N. 1982. Seasonal variability oftemperature and salinity in the Labrador

Current. Journal of Marine Research 40(Supplement): 341-356.

MAY, A.W., PINHORN, A.T., WELLS, R.,and FLEMING, A.M. 1965. Cod growth andtemperature in the Newfoundland area. ICNAFSpecial Publication 6: 545-555.

SUTCLIFFE, W.H., Jr., LOUCKS, R.H.,DRINKWATER, K.F., and COOTE, A.R.1983. Nutrient flux onto the Labrador Shelffrom Hudson Strait, and its biological conse-quences. Canadian Journal of Fisheries AquaticSciences 40: 1692- 1701.

The Grand Banks modelling project

W. Silvert

I n 1983 the Marine Ecology Labora-tory undertook to develop a model

of the Grand Banks ecosystem thatwould assist in the evaluation of possi-ble ecological risks associated with oilproduction on the Grand Banks, par-ticularly at the Hibernia site. Thisproject was funded by OERD and isone of several initiated at MEL toimprove our understanding of the eco-logical implications of offshore energydevelopments on the Grand Banks andother shelf systems.

The Grand Banks modelling projectis organized in three phases: (1) devel-opment of a highly aggregated modelrepresenting the dynamics and majortrophic pathways of the Grand Banksecosystem; (2) identification andmodelling of the significant interac-tions through which oil spills couldaffect the biota on the Grand Banks;and (3) elaboration of the model forpredictive modelling of the effects ofoil spills, given uncertainties in theparameter estimates and the possibilitythat available data may not be suffi-cient to resolve the structure of all ofthe submodels. Phase (1) of the proj-ect was completed in 1985, and phase(2) should be completed in 1986.

Model development

The basic model structure wasdefined at a workshop at the North-west Atlantic Fisheries Centre in April1984. At this and later workshops, aneffort was made to include individualsfrom many different areas of marineecology, as well as physical oceanog-raphers familiar with the transportproperties of the area. A major func-tion of a model like this is to facilitate

communication between specialists;consequently, discussions were largelycarried out in plenary sessions ratherthan in specialist working groups.

This planning workshop was fol-lowed by a full modelling workshop atAcadia University in July 1984. Themain objective here was to develop apreliminary working model of theGrand Banks ecosystem that incorpo-rated the concepts put forward by theparticipants and represented a realisticpicture of the processes that governthe system. This included the identifi-cation of the major interactions, par-ticularly nutrient flows (mainly carbonand nitrogen). It was also decided touse the model at an early stage forsensitivity analysis in order to identifythe most critical parameter values fordetermining model performance.

General description

It was agreed at the April workshopto work with a highly aggregatedmodel at the outset, and to adopt amore detailed structure only for thoseparts of the model for which it wasclearly needed and supported by ade-quate data. This “top down”approach has been used for much ofthe ecosystem modelling work atMEL, and the workshop participantsagreed that the data available on theGrand Banks ecosystem are such thata more detailed approach wouldprobably not be fruitful.

In keeping with this philosophy, themodel structure is built around threebroad biological categories arrived atthrough a compromise between ecosys-tem considerations and the practicalneeds that a model of this type must

Bill Silvert.

address. One category consists of fish,macrobenthos, and their predators,including mammals, birds, and fisher-men: another includes zooplankton(except for ichthyoplankton, whichwere grouped with fish) and meioben-thos: the third category consists ofphytoplankton and bacteria.

Within each of these three generalgroups, the organisms are further clas-sified by size. For the preliminarymodelling stage we decided to uselarge size groupings covering a factorof 10 in linear dimension. Most parti-cle size studies use a factor of 2 inequivalent spherical volume, which isan order of magnitude finer on a loga-rithmic scale: however, this wouldhave meant using 20 to 30 size classesfor the model, which was felt to beimpractical. The decade scale cor-responds roughly to functional group-ings. For example, within the “fish”grouping, the size range from 1 mm to1 cm consists mainly of ichthyoplank-ton, from 1 cm to 10 cm of smallpelagic fish, and from 10 cm to 1 mof groundfish; (these are equivalentspherical diameters, not lengths). The

49

1. Size classes used in the workshopmodel.

scheme used is shown in the firstfigure.

Feeding behaviour is assumed todepend only on size, with each preda-tor consuming organisms between2 and 3 orders of magnitude smallerthan itself. For example, pelagic fishfeed on herbivores, microplankton,and large phytoplankton according tothe size categories shown in the firstfigure. These descriptive terms areused only in a crude sense of course.Many trophic interactions do not fitinto this simple scheme.

It was decided at the April work-shop to use four spatial compart-ments, three on the Grand Bank itselfand one corresponding to the easternbranch of the Labrador Current. Thefour main compartments are shown inthe second figure, with the location ofthe boundary regions indicated. Theboundary conditions actually cor-respond to water masses rather thanspecific geographic regions.

The structure of the model is asfollows: the main subroutine calls atotal of nine lower level subroutines,listed below:INIT - Initialization routines

called only at start ofsimulation.

PHYS - Calculation of water tem-perature and solar radia-tion at each time step.

SPILL - Calculation of oil distri-butions, based on differ-ent oil spill scenarios.

BOUNDS - Compute values of statevariables in boundarycompartments.

VERTMX - Compute vertical distri-bution of nitrate due tovertical mixing.

EXCHG - Compute advective anddiffusive transportbetween compartments.

RECYCL - This subroutine handles

50

2. Compartments (1-4) and boundaries (5-7) for the model as agreed on atthe July 1984 workshop.

the remineralization ofnitrogen.

SRPHYT - Biological subroutinefor microbes andphytoplankton.

SRZOOP - Biological subroutine forzooplankton and meio-benthos.

SRFISH - Biological subroutine forfish and marinemammals.

EXPORT - Loss of fish to the com-mercial fishing fleet,birds, etc.

We have tried to keep the numberof state variables in the model as smallas possible. As mentioned above, thesize classes are much broader than isusual in size-spectrum analysis. Themodel includes only 11 state variables,defined as follows (sizes refer to

equivalent spherical diameters):BACT - Microbes.PHYT2 - Small phytoplankton,

1-10 µm.PHYT3 - Larger phytoplankton,

10-100 µm.ZOOPl - Microzooplankton,

10-100 µm.ZOOP2 - Mostly herbivorous

zooplankton,100 µm-1 mm.

ZOOP3 - Mostly carnivorouszooplankton,1 mm-l cm.

FISH1 - Ichthyoplankton.FISH2 - Small fish, mostly

pelagic.FISH3 - Large fish (mostly

demersal) and residentmarine mammals.

ANTGN - Nitrogen in the mixed

layer (available tophytoplankton).

BNTGN - Nitrogen below themixed layer, which ismade available tophytoplankton onlythrough vertical mixing.

The ZOOP and FISH variables alsoinclude benthic fauna. An additionalstate variable is currently beingintroduced to describe non-livingorganic material, which is a majorsource of carbon in marine ecosys-tems. There are of course many othervariables used in the simulation, butthese are the only ones modelleddynamically.

Results from the current model

The simulations shown in the thirdfigure constitute a typical set of runs.Each plot covers one year, starting onMarch 1, with a standard set of initialconditions. Much of the behaviour ofthe system as described by these runscan easily be changed by small param-eter changes in the model and, because

no effort has yet been made to opti-mize the parameter estimates, quan-titative assessment of these results isnot meaningful now. Except for thenutrient curves, which are expressed inmicrogram-atoms of nitrogen per litre,all of the results are expressed asgrams of carbon per cubic metre.Sizes are all expressed as equivalentspherical diameters (ESD).

Primary production and nutrients

Primary production, nutrients, andthe benthic component appear to bethe most critical parts of the model atpresent. The current submodel is verysensitive to environmental parameters,which makes the “tuning” of this partvery important in determining theoverall behaviour of the completemodel. Examining the reasons for thishas proven instructive, and we arepursuing this problem further in thecoming year. Unfortunately there islittle independent evidence on howrobust the algal component of the sea-sonal cycle is, information that would

be provided by interannual time serieson primary production; thus, much ofthe information needed for validationof the predicted sensitivities mustcome from indirect evidence.

In the present version of the modelthere is no nutrient limitation duringthe winter, and the initiation of thespring bloom is caused by a combina-tion of enhanced light and rising tem-peratures, both of which increase thegrowth rate. This means that the onsetof the spring bloom is determined bythe difference between graduallychanging factors, so that the timing isvery sensitive to small changes inenvironmental factors or grazing.Thus, in the simulations shown in thefourth figure, the bloom occurs tooearly. This can be corrected easily bymaking small changes in these drivingvariables or by tuning physiologicalparameters such as the dark respira-tion rate of phytoplankton, but wefeel that it is important to determinewhether the timing of the springbloom really is so sensitive to these

3. Simulated results.

51

factors, or whether it is governed bychanges more directly associated withstratification of the water column orsome other dominant driving force.This determination is especially criticalfor a model that is to be used for pre-dicting the effects of oil spills, becausethe effects of a spill, if it affects phys-iological parameters to which the sys-tem is very sensitive, could be greatlymagnified.

It is commonly accepted that thespring bloom is associated with stabili-zation of the water column due tostratification. Detailed models ofphytoplankton growth usually treatprimary production as a balancebetween net growth in parts of thewater column where both light andnutrient supplies are adequate, andlosses due to grazing and respiration inthe light- and nutrient-limited parts.This work involves modelling the verti-cal structure of the plankton in moredetail than seemed feasible in the con-text of our present work, given thelimited data base and the lack ofdetailed physical oceanographic infor-mation on vertical mixing processesthroughout the year. At the Julyworkshop, it was assumed that thereduction in vertical mixing in springwould increase the mean amount oflight to which phytoplankters areexposed, but field measurements ofchlorophyll concentrations suggest thatthe opposite occurs: in many parts ofthe Grand Banks the chlorophyll con-centrations are found at depths greaterthan the mean mid-winter mixingdepth. Various ways of relating thespring bloom to stratification in termsof aggregated variables have not con-vincingly resolved this problem, and itis likely that a more detailed submodelof algal growth and respirationthroughout the diurnal cycle may berequired to understand the processesinvolved.

The model does not include severalof the threshold effects commonlyused in models of this type, but forwhich empirical evidence is weak.Some of the workshop participantsrecommended that various thresholdson nutrient uptake and grazing ratesbe incorporated, and it has been estab-lished that these could stabilize themodel and could also be used effec-tively for tuning it. It is likely that

52

several control features of this typewill be incorporated into the modelduring the coming year, but becauseof the lack of detailed informationabout threshold behaviour in natureand doubts that such behaviour can bereliably duplicated under laboratoryconditions, we feel that it is necessaryto study the behaviour of the systemwithout this regulatory feature first.Thresholds may also be especially sen-sitive to the effects of oil contamina-tion, which would weaken the predic-tive power of any model in which theyplayed a major role.

According to the Mobil Oil Canadastudy and work on similar ecosystems,the end of the spring bloom cor-responds with the exhaustion of avail-able nitrate in the water column, andduring the summer the levels in thesurface waters fall below the minimummeasurable value of about 0.1 µg-atN/l. Field data show that there is stillsome nitrate present at depth, and atthe July workshop it was agreed todivide the nitrogen variable into twocomponents: ANTGN available forplant growth, and a bottom compo-nent, BNTGN, which cannot be uti-lized by algae but can be convertedinto ANTGN by vertical mixing. Itwas assumed that the dividing linebetween these strata was at thepycnocline, and again the problemarises that the chlorophyll maximumin summer frequently falls below thepycnocline: except for the southerntransect (44°N) there is generallyenough nitrate available at depthswhere chlorophyll is available to sup-port primary production. This indi-cates that the cells found at depth maybe moribund, and that production isoccurring only in the surface waters. Ifso, then the producing cells may haveto be more efficient at scavengingnutrients from the water column thanthe Michaelis-Menton kinetics nowused in the model predict. It has beenhypothesized that, under oligotrophicconditions, algae can exploit smallpockets of excreta in the wake ofswimming zooplankters even when themean nutrient concentrations in thewater are effectively zero, and it maybe that nutrient uptake should bemodelled in this way, rather thanin terms of the observed nutrientconcentrations.

The phytoplankton biomass curves,PHYT2 and PHYT3, show a smallautumn bloom. Because there was noOctober voyage in the Mobil study, itis not certain whether this bloom com-monly occurs. However, the existenceof the bloom in the model depends onthe timing of the breakdown of strati-fication in the fall, as a rapid break-down quickly introduces a large quan-tity of nutrients into the surface water,which causes a strong bloom, while aslow breakdown gives the smallerherbivores time to consume the bloomas it develops.

In the simulation shown in thefourth figure, the ANTGN levels donot fall below about 0.5 µg-at N/l,owing mainly to the use of uptakethresholds to stabilize the runs. Thephytoplankton biomass tends to dieoff too early in the summer, and thereare spurious oscillations in theANTGN and BNTGN levels for Com-partment 3 in late winter due to thefact that the BNTGN variable is verysmall and turns over in less than aday. These numerical problems furthercomplicate the analysis, but it appearsthat the modelling of nutrients andprimary production is central tounderstanding the workings of theGrand Banks ecosystem and will haveto receive very careful attention beforethis part of the ecosystem can beadequately incorporated in the model.

Zooplankton and fish

As should be expected in a size-structured model, the three zooplank-ton classes differ in their rates ofresponse to the dominant forcingeffect during the year, which is thespring bloom. Only the smallest sizeclass exhibits any structure in thisresponse. It is however noteworthythat the middle class, ZOOP2, has abiomass 4-5 times higher than each ofthe other two classes. This probablyreflects a feeding advantage, sinceZOOP2 can eat both size classes ofphytoplankton.

The adult fish classes, FISH2 andFISH3, are the only components ofthe model that have not come close toequilibrating during the second yearsimulation shown in the fourth figure.While the values in Compartment 4(Labrador Current) remain fairly high, the other values continue to drop

rapidly. It appears that the GrandBank itself does not produce enoughenergy to support fish populationsat observed levels of abundance,although the relative ordering of thelevels is consistent with observation:Compartment 2 (SW slope) is leastproductive, and FISH2, which ismostly small pelagic fish like capelin,is fairly high in Compartment 3(Southeast Shoal). However, this simu-lation does not include migration, andit has been suggested that some of thefish and zooplankton populations onthe Grand Banks overwinter in thericher waters of the Labrador Current.These simulation results, while tenta-tive and not quantitatively reliable,may lend support to this hypothesis,a factor to be considered in futuremodel development.

If migration between Compart-ment 4 and the other compartmentsplays a significant role in determiningthe productivity of the Grand Banks,then the potential impact of an oilspill at the Hibernia site, located as itis close to the centre of the hypothe-sized migrations, could be increased.

Summary of model results

Several areas of the present modelmust be analyzed before appropriatesubmodels can be constructed. Theinterplay between nutrient dynamicsand primary production, particularlythe role played by microbes, is notwell understood and will be a majorfocus for attention. The linking

between the pelagic component of theecosystem and benthic organisms isanother area where much informationis lacking, and this is reflected inuncertainty on how best to model theinteraction. A third critical area is themodelling of feeding rates: while thesehave been extensively studied in thelaboratory and some in situ studieshave been carried out, the role ofpatchiness in enhancing feeding effi-ciencies has received very little atten-tion. One problem faced in dealingwith these uncertainties is that all ofthese concerns could involve interac-tions that are potentially vulnerable tooil-spill impacts, and if they are incor-rectly modelled one could arrive atincorrect conclusions about the vulner-ability of the ecosystem, even if theresulting model gave good resultswhen calibrated against existing timeseries.

Future research and applications

Bringing the model to its presentstage of development has resulted in agreater understanding of the complex-ity of the forcing functions on con-tinental shelf ecosystems. While it wasapparent before this project startedthat data on the Grand Banks werescarce and incomplete, the modellingprocess has identified those gaps in thedata most critical to our understandingof how the Grand Banks ecosystemfunctions. Further work with themodel will help to identify more ofthese critical parameters and determine

Microheterotrophic activity on theGrand Banks: The biological submodel

M.A. Paranjape and R.E.H. Smith

P rimary production by phytoplank- large crustacean herbivores were con-ton forms the basis of all major sidered to be the major producers and

pelagic food webs. Organic carbon consumers of organic carbon, butproduced by the photosynthetic recent studies of the role played byactivity of phytoplankton is used by bacteria and microzooplankton as con-pelagic herbivores as a source of sumers of organic carbon no longerenergy for growth and metabolism. support this traditional view. ScientistsUntil lately, large phytoplankton and now believe that planktonic bacteria

the accuracy with which they must bedefined, thus providing direction tofuture research in the area. We hopethat the model will eventually beadapted to other continental shelf eco-systems as a means of collating andsynthesizing existing data and planningnew fisheries related research.

Other federal government depart-ments, who are responsible for theassessment of environmental impacts,have demonstrated an interest in theapplication of ecosystem modelling tothe impact assessment process. Presentmethods of assessment are largelyunstructured and do not considerimpacts on the whole ecosystem result-ing from a measurable impact on asmall part of the ecosystem. Themodelling approach is capable ofintegrating all of the potential impacts.It also provides a structure that can bebuilt upon as understanding of theecosystem grows and as the type andmagnitude of perturbations caused bythe development change. Assessmentof the applicability of this ecosystemmodelling approach to environmentalimpact assessment will begin in 1986.Perturbations will be input to themodel based on the pollutant-inputscenarios described in Mobil OilCanada Ltd.‘s Hibernia DevelopmentProject Environmental Impact State-ment. Information obtained from themodelling process on potential impactswill be compared with the impactpredictions.

may consume one half or even moreof the primary production in manyareas. Similarly, the microzoo-plankton, by virtue of their small size,would be expected to have high ratesof consumption to support their dis-proportionately high specific rates ofgrowth and metabolism. If this isgenerally true, the activity of smallconsumers or microheterotrophs in thepelagic zone, with the apparent inser-tion of additional steps or sidebranches in the food chain, raisesimportant questions about the overalltrophodynamic efficiency of plankton production.

53

The microheterotrophic communityincludes bacteria and microzooplank-ton. Bacteria are usually less than1 µm in size while microzooplanktonare defined as animals that passthrough a 200 µm mesh opening.These latter include a variety of ciliates,nanoflagellates, sarcodines, and larvalstages of many metazoan phyla.

In the last 15 y, using new tech-niques of microscopy, combined withfluorescent stains to aid identification,estimates of bacterial abundance frommany coastal and shelf waters havebecome much more precise. One mil-lion cells or more per millilitre ofwater are commonly measured. If nat-ural bacterial populations as abundantas this have comparable metabolicactivity to those observed in thelaboratory cultures, then bacteria maywell be a significant component ofplankton secondary production. How-ever, it has often been suggested thatthe metabolic rates of bacteria innature are low because substrates forgrowth are scarce, and therefore mostbacteria in the sea are metabolicallydormant. This is still a much debatedissue.

Many new techniques to measurebacterial activity have been developedin the last ten years. Some depend onmeasuring the rate of assimilation of amajor constituent of the bacterial cellsuch as the DNA precursor, thymidine,or the substrate of dissolved organiccarbon derived from algal cells. Othermethods depend on measuring the fre-quency of division of bacterial cells orthe specific measure of some metabolicindex such as respiration. In manycases, the resulting estimates of bac-terial activity are much larger than hasbeen assumed historically.

The microzooplankton communityis even more heterogeneous than thebacteria. As early as 1908, HansLohmann pointed out that microzoo-plankton are often dominant in theanimal plankton, but for manydecades his work was not followed upanywhere. Recently, however, morecareful methods of collection, preser-vation, and enumeration have beenemployed to study the patterns of dis-tribution and abundance. In the tem-perate waters, we now know that themicrozooplankton often make up asmuch as 40% of the macrozooplank-54

ton biomass in the inshore as well asin the oceanic areas and at times canexceed it by an order of magnitude.Despite their obvious importance,microzooplankton have been littlestudied experimentally. Unfortunately,most are inconspicuous and too deli-cate to be manipulated successfully forlaboratory experimentation. At anyrate, they are so diverse in size, feed-ing habits, and reproductive patternsthat the few laboratory-derived experi-mental results cannot be successfullyapplied to natural situations. As aresult, the impact of the totalmicrozooplankton community aspotential grazers on small primaryproducers is usually estimatedindirectly.

In our study of microheterotrophicactivity on the Grand Banks, we useddifferent approaches to separate theactivities of the two components of thecommunity. From our earlier measure-ments, we found that phytoplanktonin the bacterial size-range are oftenactive on the Grand Banks. We alsofound that active bacterial cells able toassimilate glucose and/or amino acidsmay comprise only a small fraction ofthe total bacterial population. Thus,we separated the bacteria from the restof the plankton by screening waterthrough filters of different definedporosities, and measured the rate ofoxygen consumption in different sizefractions. We simultaneously measuredthe photosynthetic activity as well asassimilation of glucose and aminoacids in different size-fractions. In thisway, we were able to discriminate thecontribution of bacteria and otherphytoplankton to the total communitymetabolism.

The oxygen uptake approach obvi-ates the need to assume values forbacterial growth efficiency, theproportion of the population which isphysiologically active, and the meta-bolic efficiencies of the bacteria. Itreturns an answer directly on theproportion of community metabolismdue to bacteria. However, great ana-lytical precision is required to measurethe small oxygen changes caused bynatural plankton communities. Wesolved this problem at BIO by con-structing an advanced oxygen analysissystem capable of delivering state-of-the-art precision. This instrument per-

mitted us to measure oxygen consump-tion rates for the Grand Banks micro-plankton in incubations of 24 h orless, at the ambient temperature.

We were able to separate bacterialfrom phytoplankton metabolismclearly on many occasions. The firstfigure, for example, shows that virtu-ally all metabolism during the latestages of the spring phytoplanktonbloom was accomplished by organismssmaller than a 5 µm nominal dimen-sion. This size range includes virtuallyall the bacterial activity, as evidencedby assimilation of glucose and aminoacids in the dark, but very little of thephytoplankton activity, as evidencedby photosynthetic carbon assimilation.It is accordingly reasonable to attrib-ute most of the community metabo-lism to bacteria rather than tophytoplankton or other relatively largeorganisms. Additional measurementsin spring, summer, and fall showedthat bacterial metabolism probablyaveraged about one half or more oftotal microplankton metabolism in thesurface mixed layer, and a similarshare of primary production appearedto be consumed by bacteria.

The other component of the micro-heterotrophic community is the micro-zooplankton, which feeds primarilyon the small-sized phytoplankton.By feeding on that part of thebiomass spectrum not utilized effi-ciently by the larger crustaceangrazers, they make the production ofnanoplankton (and probably pico-plankton as well) accessible to thelarger grazers such as copepods andlarval fish.

To estimate the grazing impact ofthe total microzooplankton communityon phytoplankton, we used a recentlydeveloped dilution method, whichinvolved minimum handling of theprey and the predator components inthe sea water. The method is elegantin its simplicity. Several dilutions ofnatural sea water prepared with fil-tered sea water are incubated at theambient temperature and light-level,and changes in chlorophyll, as anindex of phytoplankton biomass, aremonitored. The dilution series reduceschances of predator-prey encountersbetween microzooplankton and phyto-plankton populations as well as reduc- ing competition for nutrients in the

1. Cumulative size distributions of plankton biomass and activity insamples collected in April 1985 near the Southeast Shoal on the GrandBanks. Sizes are defined by the size of mesh through which the water wasfiltered before measurement of biomass of activity. By definition, thelargest class (< 200 µm) contains 100% and the smaller classes (< 5, < 10,< 20 µm) some fraction of the total microplankton. The properties shownare dark O2 consumption rates (x, with bars showing 95 % confidence inter-val), chlorophyll a concentrations (closed circles), 14C - CO2 assimilation(open circles), and bacterial biomass (triangles). When most of a propertyis due to the smallest organisms, then random statistical error can cause theamount in small-size fractions to appear greater than 100% at times(e.g., O2 consumption for April 12).

phytoplankton population. Rates of The results of the experiments per-phytoplankton growth and grazing formed on the Grand Banks are shownmortality can then be calculated from in the second figure. In spring, water-the observed changes in the chloro- column stratification and increasedphyll a, because the rates of change in light levels lead to an intense floweringchlorophyll at different dilutions are of phytoplankton. Chlorophyll levelslinearly related to the dilution factors. reach greater than 10 µg/l in theThe negative slope of this relationship mixed layer. Boreal and arctic speciesis the grazing coefficient for the of chain-forming diatoms dominatemicrozooplankton and the y-axis inter- the phytoplankton. Almost 85% of thecept, where no grazing occurs, is the chlorophyll is found in the speciesinstantaneous growth rate of phyto- greater than 20 µm in size. Most of itplankton (see second figure). Both of is not useful to microzooplanktonthese coefficients can be used further because they cannot usually eat suchto calculate the grazing by the micro- large cells. However, they daily con-zooplankton community on the initial sumed about 25% of the standingstanding stock and potential primary stock and 60 to 80% of the produc-production of phytoplankton. tion of phytoplankton of less than

20 µm size. Nevertheless, the grazingimpact on the total phytoplanktoncommunity was only about 3% and15% of the standing stock andproduction, respectively.

In summer and fall the situation wasreversed. The phytoplankton biomasswas generally less than one microgramof chlorophyll per litre, and the flagel-lates of less than 20 µm size were pre-dominant. This is the preferred sizerange of food particles for microzoo-plankton. As a result, during theseseasons, they consumed about 15% ofthe standing stock and 35% of theprimary production daily.

Thus it appears that bacteria and

2. The relationship between theapparent growth rate of chlorophylland the dilution factor is depicted.The experiments were performed inthree different seasons. The negativeslope defines the grazing coefficientfor microzooplankton and the inter-cept gives the doubling time of thechlorophyll.

5 5

microzooplankton together could easilyremove about one half of the standingstock and almost 60 to 70% of theproduction in spring and another 15 to20% more in summer and fall.

We do not have estimates of whatlarger crustacean grazers on the GrandBanks might consume. Their biomass,however, appears to be low in most

seasons. Consequently, their grazingimpact on phytoplankton can probablybe assumed to be low as well. It isnow clear that the classical linearfood-chain concept where large phyto-plankton are the major producers andlarge grazers are the major consumersdoes not seem to apply to the GrandBanks ecosystem. Except in the few

Seabirds and the Grand Banks

R.G.B. Brown

The abundant seabirds of the GrandBanks have been known to seamen

and fishermen for centuries. The 1728edition of the English Pilot, describing“Some Directions which ought to betaken Notice of by those sailing toNewfoundland,” says: “There is alsoanother thing to be taken Notice of bywhich you may know when you areupon the | Grand | Bank. I have readan Author that says, in treating of thisCoast, that you may know this by thegreat quantities of Fowls upon theBank, viz. Sheer-waters | greater andsooty shearwaters Puffinus gravis andP. griseus |, Willocks | common andthick-billed murres Uria aalge and U.lomvia |, Noddies | northern fulmarsFulmarus glacialis |, Gulls | probablyblack-legged kittiwakes Rissa tridac-tyla | and Pengwins | great auksPinguinus impennis |, &c. withoutmaking any Exceptions; which is amistake, for I have seen these Fowls100 Leag. off this Bank, the Pengwinsexcepted. It’s true that all these Fowls

are seen there in great quantities, butnone are to be minded so much as thePengwin, for these never go without|i.e. away from| the Bank as theothers do, for they are always on it,or within it, several of themtogether . . .” The Great Auk hasbeen extinct since 1844, but everythingelse still holds good today.

The fishermen of that period usedto put the Grand Banks seabirds to amore immediate practical use, killingthem for bait or for their own food.Captain J.W. Collins, a redoubtableGloucester skipper, vividly describesthe Banks schooners of the mid19th century, their shrouds hung withrow upon row of dead shearwaters,ready for the pot. (DiscriminatingNewfoundland gourmets, he says, pre-ferred sooty to greater shearwaters.)Nowadays our concerns are morehumane. We worry about the actual orpotential effects of such man-madehazards as offshore oil spills, the mas-sive drownings of alcids in gill-nets,

Great Auks, which became extinct in 1844. (Sketchesfrom the English Pilot;The Fourth Book; Describing the West India Navigation, from Hudson’s Bay to the RiverAmazones; London; 1767 or earlier.)

weeks of the spring months, smallphytoplankters are the dominantproducers and microheterotrophs arethe major consumers. The pathway bywhich the secondary production ofmicroheterotrophs becomes availableto the higher trophic levels on theGrand Banks is not yet clear.

and the competition between birds andfishermen for a common prey, thecapelin Mallotus villosus.

The shortest distance between thewestern edge of the Grand Banks andthe closest point of land is about60 km, and this is probably outsidethe foraging range of most of the sea-birds that breed in the very large colo-nies in eastern Newfoundland. Themajority of the birds we see on theBanks are either non-breeding sub-adults, or adults outside the breedingseason. Recoveries of banded birds,combined with taxonomic evidence,show that it is a catchment area notonly for the colonies in AtlanticCanada, but also for populationsbreeding as far away as Greenland,Russia, and Antarctica. The greaterand sooty shearwaters’ and Wilson’sstorm-petrels Oceanites oceanicus,which swarm on the Grand Banks insummer, are emigrants from thesouthern hemisphere winter; theybreed, respectively, in Tristan daCunha, the Falklands, and Antarctica.Banding suggests that most of thenewly fledged juvenile Atlantic puffinsFratercula arctica from southwestIceland, the largest breeding centrefor the species, migrate directly toNewfoundland waters. They presuma-bly mingle there with puffins from thecolonies in southeast Newfoundland.The kittiwakes that winter on theBanks include birds from west Green-land, Britain, Spitsbergen, and thewestern Russian Arctic. The dovekiesAlle alle come from northwest Green-land and the thick-billed murres fromcolonies in Lancaster Sound, HudsonStrait, and west and east Greenland.These complex and far-ranging migra-tions have clear implications for sea-bird conservation and management in

56

A Humpback whale on the GrandBanks; in the background are two ofthe many vessels that were in thearea fishing capelin at that time.

Canadian waters. Any man-inducedchanges in the marine environment ofthe Grand Banks may affect popula-tions that breed thousands ofkilometres away.

Seabirds may only reliably be cen-sused at their breeding sites, and it ishard to estimate the numbers of thesenon-breeding birds on the Banks. Wecan, however, make some order-of-magnitude guesses. The world popula-tion of greater shearwaters’ and thenorthwest Greenland population ofdovekies exceed, respectively, 5 millionand 14 million birds; all of these prob-ably visit the Grand Banks at one sea-son or another. So do some 4 millionthick-billed murres from colonies inthe Arctic, as well as a proportion ofthe 1.5 million common murres and0.8 million puffins from easternNewfoundland. To judge from theseincomplete figures, the total biomassof seabirds on the Grand Banks is atleast 10,000 t. A preliminary calcula-tion suggests that the fish-eating spe-cies take an annual total of 250,000 t,mainly capelin, from the Grand Banksand eastern Newfoundland waterscombined. This is the same orderof magnitude as the annual capelinconsumption by both fin whales

Balaenoptera physalus and harpseals Pagophilus groenlandicus inNewfoundland waters, and of the peakcatch in the offshore capelin fishery ofthe 1970s. It is an order of magnitudeless than the annual total taken byAtlantic cod Gadus morhua.

Seabirds occur everywhere on theGrand Banks, as the English Pilotpointed out. However, modern quan-titative observations made from BIOand other research vessels show thattheir distributions are often verypatchy. Dovekies, for example, arecommonest along the eastern andsouthwest slopes, and are relativelyscarce over the main ‘plateau’ of theBank. When the greater shearwatersfirst arrive at the end of May, theyform very large, local flocks on theSoutheast Shoal, near the southern tip.On the other hand, murres, outsidethe breeding season, are spread fairlyevenly across the whole ‘plateau’.Evidently, so also were Great Auks.

As one might expect, this patchinessreflects the distributions of the birds’prey and, at one or more removes, theunderlying oceanographic and otherfactors that control them. At the sim-plest level, the distributions of themore generalized feeders, such as ful-mars and kittiwakes, are largely deter-mined by the operations of the fishingfleets from which they scavenge offal.Dovekies are more specialized sea-birds; they feed on zooplankton fairlyclose to the surface. Their prey notonly occurs at high densities at theedge of the Banks, but is apparentlyforced up into the surface layers, andconcentrated there, by upwelling alongthe slope. The dovekies are presuma-bly able to maximize their foragingefficiency by feeding in this zone.Shearwaters feed on fish, squid, andthe larger zooplankton, but they arepoorly adapted to diving; they canprobably reach the bottom only insuch shallow parts of the Bank as theVirgin Rocks and the Southeast Shoal.Specifically, their arrival at the Shoalappears timed to coincide with that ofthe very large schools of capelin thatspawn there. The birds seem to use the

fish as a superabundant food supplywhile they moult and build up theenergy reserves depleted during theirbreeding season and their long migra-tion up from the South Atlantic.Murres, by contrast, are proficientdivers, able to reach depths of morethan 100 m - the maximum depth ofwater over most of the ‘plateau’. Intheory, therefore, they are able tohunt for fish throughout the waters ofthe Grand Banks.

The ultimate aim of the CanadianWildlife Service’s research on the sea-birds of the Grand Banks is to under-stand their place in the Grand Banksecosystem as a whole. We have beenaccumulating quantitative data ontheir distributions there since 1969,and we may reasonably claim to knowroughly where the birds are at anygiven season. But, as the essentiallyqualitative nature of the interpreta-tions of these distributions shows, wehave barely begun to understand theirpelagic ecology. However, we can atleast make some preliminary, testablepredictions, and define problems forfuture research. There is, for example,the suggested association betweendovekies and shelf-edge upwelling.These upwelling zones can be locatedby satellite imagery. Do they havequantitative or qualitative biologicalproperties in common, such as a highlocal density of copepods, or a distinc-tive zooplankton species community?If so, how do these fit in with thequantitative and qualitative foodrequirements of the dovekies? Aredovekies invariably associated withthese zones? It would be informativeto compare the physical and biologicalcharacteristics of an upwelling that isused by dovekies, with one that is not.To what extent do seasonal variationsin zooplankton distribution and bio-mass influence the timing of the birds’arrival on, and departure from, theBanks? We hope that the GrandBanks Ecosystems Modelling Projectdescribed earlier in this chapter andwith which our seabird research isintegrated will provide some of theanswers to these questions.

57

chapter 5

Charting the Grand Banksand adjoining areas

C anada’s history of hydrographicsurveying and charting of the

Grand Banks of Newfoundland andthe island of Newfoundland is notvery long. Apart from the CanadianHydrographic Service’s efforts during

the Second World War, the island Canada. The charting of Newfound-and its surrounding waters were not land prior to this was done mostly byincluded in the Service’s mandate until the British Admiralty. The coast was1949 when Newfoundland became a surveyed adequately enough to meetprovince and its territorial waters the needs of the commerce of thebecame the eastern boundary of island, which was mostly waterborne

1. Charts of Newfoundland waters that were prepared by other countries and reproduced by the CanadianHydrographic Service are denoted.

58

and supported by vessels much smallerthan those of today. Although theAdmiralty charts are remarkablyaccurate for their time, they do notmeet the needs of today’s marine com-munity. During the 1950s, the CHSassumed responsibility to maintainthese charts, which are now publishedas Canadian reproductions (see firstfigure).

quate to allow for the entry of war-ships there. Other work by the CHS

The first Canadian chart ofNewfoundland - Mortier Bay - wasproduced in 1941 from quickly col-lected survey results. At that time, theharbour was tentatively chosen as ameeting place for Prime MinisterChurchill and President Roosevelt, andthe Admiralty was concerned that theprevious survey of 1876 was not ade-

during World War II included surveysand charts of Bay Bulls (on the eastcoast of the Avalon Peninsula), wherea marine slip had been built to serveCanadian warships, and of the activeports of St. John’s, Harbour Grace,and Holyrood.

on recent hydrographic survey work(see second figure).

Newfoundland has undergone manychanges since 1949. The fleets of fish-ing schooners known as saltbankershave been replaced by a moderntrawler fleet, outports have beenclosed and roads built, and the econ-omy has developed into a resource-export based one that has changed thepattern of shipping around the prov-ince. These and other changes havecreated a need to provide new, moreaccurate nautical charts that are based

The development of the Hibernia oilfields will once again affect shippingpatterns along the southeast coast ofNewfoundland. St. John’s has servedas a focal point in the exploration fornatural resources on the Grand Banks.During this time, its waterfront, whichtraditionally has supported foreignfishing fleets, has expanded to serveand supply drilling platforms andseismic survey vessels. During thedevelopment and production of theHibernia fields, St. John’s will remainat the centre of the activity.

A number of other natural ports inPlacentia Bay have been proposedbecause of their location, deep water,and year-round access for use in thepre-production phase of the Hiberniafields. The Marystown Shipyard,located in Mortier Bay on the west

2. Charts published by the Canadian Hydrographic Service based on a new scheme are available as indicated forthe Grand Banks of Newfoundland.

59

side of Placentia Bay, has already con-tributed to the exploration phase withthe construction of supply vessels andthe outfitting of oil rigs anchorednearby. Presently, an oil-rig repairfacility is under construction at theeastern end of Mortier Bay.

Arnold’s Cove, close to Come ByChance near the head of PlacentiaBay, has been suggested as a locationfor the fabrication of a fixed-production platform. The site of theformer U.S. naval base at Argentiawill likely see more activity in years tofollow. The port already serves as analternate supply base and drilling plat-forms usually anchor off Argentiaduring the spring ice invasions on theGrand Banks.

In 1980, the Atlantic Region of theCanadian Hydrographic Service (CHSAtlantic) embarked on a program toproduce new charts of the GrandBanks and coastal Newfoundland.These have been newly schemed suchthat adjacent charts show coverage atthe same scale; when the program is

completed, the total number of chartsthat cover the area will be reducedfrom the present ones. Depths are por-trayed using contour lines and, wheresoundings are shown, they are inmetres and decimetres. Also, in com-plying with Canadian governmentpolicy, all information is printed inboth English and French.

Once a chart is produced, relevantinformation must be constantlyreviewed so that the marine commu-nity may be informed of any changesto it. Such information may includemarine hazards such as wrecks,reported shoals, or Canadian CoastGuard changes to the aids to naviga-tion (buoys, lights, fog horns, etc.).Other information may include newmarine terminals, drydock facilities, ordredged channels. Charts are updatedby a program known as chart main-tenance and relevant changes areadvertised weekly in Notices toMariners, which are published by thefederal Department of Transport.

Significant physical changes to the

The lighthouse at Cape Spear, Newfoundland, is the most easterly suchguide for navigators in North America.

shoreline or sea bottom must first besurveyed and CHS Atlantic maintainsa revisory survey program for this pur-pose. The oil-rig repair facility atMortier Bay, a new synchrolift, andchanges to depths along the waterfrontin St. John’s Harbour are changestypical of the work involved in therevisory survey program.

Canada’s charting of the GrandBanks began in 1957. Prior to this,Admiralty charts from surveys datedto the 19th Century were widely used.The development of conventionalDecca as a shipboard navigation sys-tem in the 1950s allowed for the firstsurvey of the Grand Banks using aland-based, horizontal positioning sys-tem. The results of the survey, pub-lished by CHS in 1959, included themost accurate positions to date of theVirgin Rocks and Eastern Shoals,which are the greatest hazards tomarine navigation on the Banks. Sub-sequent surveys from 1963 to 1966were performed using Decca/Lambda,an unconventional but more accuratenavigation system. These surveys pro-vided sufficient information for thefirst Canadian chart of the GrandBanks, published in 1969. As Loran C,Hi-Fix, and MRS became superiorpositioning systems in the early 1970s,a more detailed survey of the VirginRocks and Eastern Shoals soonfollowed.

Under an agreement with the federalDepartment of Energy, Mines, andResources in 1975, CHS and theAtlantic Geoscience Centre at BIObecame jointly responsible for offshoremultiparameter surveys. Such surveysgather bathymetric, gravimetric, andmagnetic profiles simultaneously. Theresulting data serve many users withinformation in the form of nauticaland fisheries charts, natural resourcemaps, maps in the Natural EarthScience Series, and the internationalGeneral Bathymetric Charts of theOceans (GEBCO).

Multiparameter surveys involve therunning of parallel survey lines atspacings of 1 to 20 nautical miles. Fol-lowing detailed surveys of the waterssurrounding Sable Island, multiparam-eter surveys were extended in 1984 at10-mile line-spacings in the offshorefrom Sable Island to the Grand Banks.

60

In 1985, more detailed bathymetricsoundings on the St. Pierre Bank tothe south of Newfoundland wereobtained. Further work will involvegathering bathymetry to delineate theedge of the juridical shelf beyondCanada’s 200 mile resource manage-ment zone, as defined in Article 76 ofthe Law of the Sea Treaty.

The federal Department of Trans-port commissioned the installation ofa Loran C transmitter at Fox Harbour,Labrador, at the end of December1983. This created the Labrador Seachain (replacing the North AtlanticChain) with the Master Station at FoxHarbour and Slave Station transmit-ters at Angissoq, Greenland, and CapeRace, Newfoundland. Loran C cover-age was thus extended from eastern

and the Canadian East Coast Chain,for which Fox Harbour is a SlaveStation, was improved along the southand west coasts of Newfoundland.

For CHS to meet its mandate,Loran C lattices must be drawn onsome 20 large-scale coastal charts andabout half that number of smallerscale offshore and fisheries charts. Off-shore charts at scales of 350,000:l orsmaller show lattices based on pre-dicted receiver values. However, whenlatticing large scale charts, the land-path correction cannot be predictedwith enough accuracy.

During July 1984, three weeks ofcalibration work was done aboard theCanadian Coast Guard Ship Bernier inthe area of Cape Race-Cape Freels-Virgin Rocks. The NAVSTAR Global

Newfoundland to the Grand Banks, Positioning System was used to refer-

ence the correct position of theLoran C lines of position. These data,together with calibration points meas-ured along the coastline, will producechart lattices that have a maximumlattice error of less than 3 mm at chartscale.

The first of the new charts, CapePine to Cape St. Mary’s, was pro-duced in 1982. Adjoining charts fromCape Pine through to Bay Bulls havesubsequently been released, andgeneral charts extending the samecoverage to the Virgin Rocks will beavailable by mid-1986 (third figure).

- R . P i e t r z a kAtlantic Region

Canadian Hydrographic Service

3. The status of surveys by the Canadian Hydrographic Service in and around the Grand Banks area issummarized.

61

chapter 6

Charts and publications

CHART PRODUCTIONThe Atlantic Region of the Canadian

Hydrographic Service has a cartographicstaff of 27 and responsibility for 424 nauti-cal charts covering Canada’s east coastfrom Georges Bank to Prince of WalesStrait in the Arctic.

The charts produced can be divided intothree types. A New Chart is the first chartto show an area at that scale or to coveran area different from any existing chart.These charts are now constructed to themetric contour style in bilingual form usingnew formats. A New Edition is a new issueof an existing chart showing new naviga-tional information and including amend-ments previously issued in Notices toMariners. New navigational informationmay include new Loran C lattices from arecent extension in coverage, new shippingterminals, or a new International Boundarysuch as the one through Georges Bank. AReprint is a new print of a current editionthat incorporates amendments previouslyissued in Notices to Mariners.

CHS Atlantic completed another success-ful year of chart production in 1984. Inaddition to those New Charts and NewEditions listed below, 93 chart amendmentsand 15 paste-on patches were issuedthrough Notices to Mariners from thereview of some 10,000 chart related items.

New Charts40984099484448455042504350475373

New Editions4315 Sydney Harbour4316 Halifax Harbour4364 Beaver Harbour4391 LaHave River4392 Sydney Harbour (South Arm)4447 Pomquet and Tracadie Harbours4614 Argentia Harbour

Sable Island (Eastern Portion)Sable Island (Western Portion)Cape Pine to Renews HarbourRenews Harbour to Motion BayCutthroat to Quaker HatQuaker Hat to Cape ChidleyHopedaleApproaches to George River

New Editions (Loran C)4128 Approaches to Saint John Harbour4340 Grand Manan4385 Osborne Head to Betty Island4486 Chaleur Bay4574 Approaches to St. John’s

PUBLICATIONSWe present below an alphabetical listing byauthor of BIO publications for 1984,including some earlier publications notlisted in previous editions. Articles pub-lished in scientific and hydrographic jour-nals, books, conference proceedings, andvarious series of technical reports areincluded. For further information on anypublication listed here please contact:Publication Services, Bedford Institute ofOceanography, P.O. Box 1006,Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, CanadaB2Y 4A2.

ADDISON, R.F. 1984. Hepatic mixedfunction oxidase (MFO) induction in fishas a possible biological monitoring system.In Contaminant Effects on Fisheries; Eds.V. W. Cairns et al. New York; John Wileyand Sons, Inc.: 51-60.

ADDISON, R.F., DOE, K., andEDWARDS, A. 1984. Effects of oil baseddrilling mud cuttings on winter flounder(Pseudopleuronectes americanus): Absenceof acute toxicity or mixed function oxidaseinduction. Canadian Technical Report ofFisheries and Aquatic Sciences No. 1307.

ADDISON, R.F. 1984. Marine ecotoxico-logical testing in Canada - a personalassessment. In Ecotoxicological Testingfor the Marine Environment; Eds.G. Persoone et al. State University ofGhent and Institute for Marine ScientificResearch, Bredene, Belgium: 163-177.

ADDISON, R.F. 1984. Organohalogencompounds. In Health of the the North-west Atlantic [ A report to the Inter-departmental Committee on EnvironmentalIssues]; Eds. R.C.H. Wilson and R.F.Addison. Department of the Environment/Department of Fisheries and Oceans/Department of Energy, Mines andResources: 77-84.

Foredeck operations aboard C.S.S.Hudson at a station off the coast ofLabrador.

ADDISON, R.F. 1984. River input of pol-lutants to the western North Atlantic. InHealth of the Northwest Atlantic [A reportto the Interdepartmental Committee onEnvironmental Issues ]; Eds., R.C.H.Wilson and R.F. Addison. Department ofthe Environment/Department of Fisheriesand Oceans/Department of Energy, Minesand Resources: 42-43.

ADDISON, R.F., and BRODIE, P.F.1984. Characterization of ethoxyresorufinO-De-Ethylase in grey seals (Halichoerusgrypus). Comparative Biochemistry andPhysiology 79C(2): 26l-263.

ADDISON, R.F., BRODIE, P.F., ZINCK,M.E., and SERGEANT, D.E. 1984. DDThas declined more than PCBs in easternCanadian seals during the 1970’s. Environ-mental Science and Technology 18(12):935-937.

ALAM, M., PIPER, D.J.W., andCOOKE, H.B.S. 1983. Late Quaternarystratigraphy and paleo-oceanography onthe Grand Banks continental margin,eastern Canada. Boreas 12: 253-261.

AMOS, C.L. and KING, E.L. 1984. Bed-forms of the Canadian Eastern Seaboard:A comparison with global occurrences. In

62

Sedimentation On High-Latitude Continen-tal Shelves; Eds. B.D. Bornhold andA. Guilcher. Marine Geology 57(14):167-208.

ANDERSEN, F.O. and HARGRAVE,B.T. 1984. Effects of Spartina detritusenrichment on aerobicanaerobic benthicmetabolism in an intertidal sediment.Marine Ecology - Progress Series 16(12):161-171.

ANDREWS, D. and HARGRAVE, B.T.1984. Close interval sampling of interstitialsilicate and porosity in marine sediments.Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 48:711-722.

ASCOLI, P. 1984. Epistominid biostrati-graphy across the Jurassic-Cretaceousboundary on the northwestern AtlanticShelf. In Benthos ‘83: International Sym-posium on Benthic Foraminifera (2nd:1983: Pau, France); Ed. H.J. Oertli. Pauet Bordeaux; The Conference: 27-34.

ASPREY, K.W. and JOHNSTON, B.L.1984. Report on CSS Hudson Cruise83-028, Baffin Island Fjords. GeologicalSurvey of Canada, Open File Report 1004.

AUFFRET, G., BUCKLEY, D., LAINE,E., SCHUTTENHELM, R., SEARLE, R.,and SHEPHARD, L. 1984. NEA seabedworking group status on site qualificationfor nuclear waste disposal within deep-seasediment. Alburquerque, N.M.; SandiaNational Laboratories, SAND 83-2037:64 p.

AUFFRET, G., BUCKLEY, D., LAINE,E., SCHUTTENHELM, R., SEARLE, R.,and SHEPHARD, L. 1984. Site qualifica-tion studies. In Seabed Disposal of High-Level Radioactive Waste; A Status Reporton the NEA Coordinated ResearchProgramme. Paris; Nuclear EnergyAgency, Organization for EconomicCooperation and Development: 13-93.

BANKE, E.G. and SMITH, S.D. 1984. Ahindcast study of iceberg drift on theLabrador Coast. Canadian TechnicalReport of Hydrography and OceanSciences No. 49.

BARRIE, J.V., LEWIS, C.F.M., FADER,G.B., and KING, L.H. 1984. Seabedprocesses on the northeastern Grand Banksof Newfoundland: Modern reworking ofrelict sediments. In Sedimentation onHigh-Latitude Continental Shelves; Eds.B.D. Bornhold and A. Guilcher. MarineGeology 57(14): 209-227.

BATES, S.S. and PLATT, T. 1984.Fluorescence induction as a measure ofphotosynthetic capacity in marinephytoplankton: Response of Thalassiosirapseudonana (Bacillariophyceae) andDunaliella terttolecta (Chlorophyceae).Marine Ecology - Progress Series 18(12):67-77.

BELL, J.S. 1984. Dynamics of oil and gasaccumulations, by A. Perrodon[ Book Review ]. Episodes 7 (1): 72-73.

BENOIT, J., EL-SAHB, M.I., andTANG, C.L. 1985. Structure and seasonalcharacteristics of the Gaspe current.Journal of Geophysical Research 90(C2):3225-3236.

BEZANSON, D. and VANDALL, P.E.,Jr. 1984. An investigation of surface drifton the Labrador Coast. Canadian Techni-cal Report of Hydrography and OceanSciences No. 51.

BIRKHEAD, T.R., GREENE, E.,BIGGINS, J.D., and NETTLESHIP, D.N.1984. Breeding site characteristics andreproductive success in Thick-billed Murres(Uris lomvia). Canadian Wildlife ServiceStudies on Northern Seabirds, ManuscriptReport 178.

BIRKHEAD, T.R., KAY, R., andNETTLESHIP, D.N. 1985. A new methodfor estimating the survival rates of theCommon Murre. Journal of WildlifeManagement 49: 496-502.

BIRKHEAD, T.R. and NETTLESHIP,D.N. 1984. Alloparental care in theCommon Murre (Uris aalge). CanadianJournal of Zoology 62: 2121-2124.

BIRKHEAD, T.R. and NETTLESHIP,D.N. 1984. Egg size, composition and off-spring quality in some Alcidae (Aves:Charadriiformes). Journal of Zoology202(2): 177-194.

BIRKHEAD, T.R. and NETTLESHIP,D.N. 1984. Plumage variation in youngrazorbills (Alca torda) and murres (Urisspecies) in eastern Canada. Canadian Wild-life Service Studies on Northern Seabirds,Manuscript Report 175.

BIRKHEAD, T.R. and NETTLESHIP,D.N. 1984. Food intake and weight incre-ments of Common Guillemot chicks (Urisaalge): A comment. Ibis 126: 421-422.

BISHOP, C.A. and GAVARIS, S. 1984.Analysis of cod stocks in NAFO Division2GH. Canadian Atlantic FisheriesScientific Advisory Committee, ResearchDocument 84/68.

BISHOP, C.A., GAVARIS, S., andBAIRD, J.W. 1984. Assessment of the codstock in NAFO Divisions 3NO. NorthwestAtlantic Fisheries Organization, ScientificCouncil Research Document 84/VI/52.

BISHOP, C.A., GAVARIS, S., andBAIRD. J.W. 1984. An assessment of thecod stock in Subdivision 3Ps. NorthwestAtlantic Fisheries Organization, ScientificCouncil Research Document 84/VI/53.

BLASCO, S.M. 1984. A perspective on thedistribution of subsea permafrost on theCanadian Beaufort continental shelf. InPermafrost; International Conference (4th;1983; Fairbanks, AK); Final Proceedings.Washington; National Academy Press:83-86.

BOWEN, A.J., NORMARK, W.R., andPIPER, D.J.W. 1984. Modelling of tur-bidity currents on Navy Submarine Fan,

California Continental Borderland.Sedimentology 31(2): 169-185.

BRANDON, E.W. and YEATS P.A. 1984.Contaminant transport through the marineenvironment. In Health of the NorthwestAtlantic [A report to the InterdepartmentalCommittee on Environmental Issues]; Eds.R.C.H. Wilson and R.F. Addison. Depart-ment of the Environment/Department ofFisheries and Oceans/Department ofEnergy, Mines and Resources: 44-55.

BRODIE, P.F. 1984. A surface area orthermal index for marine mammal ener-getic studies. Acta Zoologica Fennica 172:153-155.

BRODIE, P.F. 1984. Review of status ofknowledge of marine mammal energetics.University of Alaska, Alaska Sea GrantReport 84- 1.

BRODIE, P.F. 1984. White Whales. InThe Encyclopedia of Mammals; Ed.D. Macdonald. New York; Facts on FilePublications: 200-203.

BROWN, R.G.B. 1984. Seabirds in theGreenland, Barents and Norwegian Seas,February-April 1982. Polar Research 2:1-18.

BROWN, R.G.B. and NETTLESHIP,D.N. 1984. The seabirds of northeasternNorth America: Their present status andconservation requirements. In Status andConservation of the World’s Seabirds;Eds. J.P. Croxall et al. InternationalCouncil for Bird Preservation, TechnicalPublication 2: 85-100.

BROWN, R.G.B. and NETTLESHIP,D.N. 1984. Capelin and seabirds in theNorthwest Atlantic. In Marine Birds: TheirFeeding Ecology and Commercial FisheriesRelationships; Eds. D.N. Nettleship et al.Ottawa; Canadian Wildlife Service:184-194.

BUCKLEY, D.E. 1984. Hai yang ke xuezhong de duo xue ke yan jiu, guojia haiyang ju di er hai yang yan jiu suo bian yi(Multidisciplinary studies in marinesciences) translated by Second Institute ofOceanography, National Bureau of Ocean-ography. Beijing: Hai Yang Chu Ban She(China Ocean Press); 115 p.

BUCKLEY, D.E. 1984. Silicon Geochemis-try and Biogeochemistry [Book Review].Geoscience Canada 11(2): 97-98.

BUCKLEY, D.E. 1984. Southern Naresabyssal plain. In International NEA/Seabed working group meeting (8th: 1983:Varese, Italy); Ed. D.R. Anderson. SandiaNational Laboratories, SAND-83-2122:57-70.

BUCKLEY, D.E., YU GUOHUI, CHENWEIYUE, LIN YIAN, HUANG DEPEI,ZHU FENG-GUAN, ZHU JIANXIN.1983. Initial investigation of thegeochemistry of surficial sediments on thesubmarine Changjiang River Delta.Proceedings of International Symposiumon Sedimentation on the Continental Shelf

63

with special reference to the East ChinaSea. China Ocean Press - SpringerVerlag: 752-762.

BUCKLEY, D.E., and WINTERS, G.V.1983. Geochemical transport through theMiramichi Estuary. Canadian Journal ofFisheries and Aquatic Sciences 40(2)(Supplement): 162-182.

BUERKLE, U. 1984. Calibration of time-varied gain sounder receivers. CanadianTechnical Report of Fisheries and AquaticSciences No. 1298.

BUGDEN, G.L. 1985. Oceanographicobservations from the Bay of Fundy forthe pre-operational environmental monitor-ing program for the Point Lepreau, N.B.,nuclear generating station. Canadian DataReport of Hydrography and OceanSciences No. 27.

BUJAK, J.P. 1984. Cenozoic dinoflagellatecysts and acritarchs from the Bering Seaand northern North Pacific, DSDP Leg 19.Micropaleontology 30(2): 180-212.

CAMPANA, S.E. 1984. Comparison ofage determination methods for the starryflounder. Transactions of the AmericanFisheries Society 113 (3): 365-369.

CAMPANA, S.E. 1984. Lunar cycles ofotolith growth in the juvenile starryflounder, Platichthys stellatus. MarineBiology 80 (3): 239-246.

CAMPANA, S.E. 1984. Microstructuralgrowth patterns in the otoliths of larvaland juvenile starry flounder, Platichthysstellatus. Canadian Journal of Zoology62(8): 1507-1512.

CAMPANA, S.E. and SIMON, J. The 4Xcod fishery: A biological update. CanadianAtlantic Fisheries Scientific AdvisoryCommittee, Research Document 84/83.

CAMPBELL, J.A. and YEATS, P.A.1984. Dissolved chromium in theSt. Lawrence estuary. Estuarine, Coastaland Shelf Science 19(5): 513-522.

CARROTHERS, P.J.G. 1984. Canadianactivity report, 1983, to ICES Fish CaptureCommittee. In International Commissionfor the Exploration of the Sea, DocumentC.M. 1984/B: 1.

CLARKE, R.A. 1984. Changes in thewestern North Atlantic during the decadebeginning in 1965. International Commis-sion for the Exploration of the Sea,Document C.M. 1984 Gen: 17.

CLARKE, R.A. 1984. Transport throughthe Cape Farewell - Flemish Cap section.In Hydrobiological Variability in the NorthAtlantic and Adjacent Seas; Eds.J. Meinke et al. Rapports et Procès-Verbaux des reunions, Conseil Interna-tional pour I’Exploration de la Mer 185:120-130.

CONOVER, R.J. and MAYZAUD, P.1984. Utilization of phytoplankton byzooplankton during the spring bloom ina Nova Scotia inlet [Bedford Basin].

64

Canadian Journal of Fisheries andAquatic Sciences 41(2): 232-244.

CONRAD, C.D.W., STRAIN, P.M., andLEVY, E.M. 1984. A method for thequantitative determination of oil from oil-based drilling fluids in well cuttings andseawater and its application to toxicity test-ing of cuttings from the Alma well. Cana-dian Technical Report of Hydrography andOcean Sciences No. 45.

COOKE, R.C. and KEPKAY, P.E. 1984.Apparent calcite supersaturation at theocean surface: Why the present solubilityproduct of pure calcite in seawater doesnot predict the correct solubility of the saltin nature? Marine Chemistry 15(1): 59-69.

CORNER, E., BROCKMANN, U.,GOLDMAN, J.C., JACKSON, G.A.,LEBORGNE, R.P., LEWIS, M., andYAYANOS, A. 1984. Excretion andmineralisation processes in the open sea. InFlows of Energy and Materials in Marine

Ecosystems: Theory and Practice; Ed.M.J.R. Fasham. NATO Conference Series;IV. Marine Sciences. New York; PlenumPress: 663-669.

COTE, B. and PLATT, T. 1984. Dailyphytoplankton productivity experimentsand nutrient measurements in BedfordBasin, Nova Scotia, from 18 May to26 July 1975. Canadian Data Report ofFisheries and Aquatic Sciences No. 425.

COTE, B. and PLATT, T. 1984. Utility ofthe light-saturation curve as an operationalmodel for quantifying the effects ofenvironmental conditions on phytoplanktonphotosynthesis. Marine Ecology -Progress Series 18(12): 57-66.

DALZIEL, J.A. and YEATS, P.A. 1985.Reactive mercury in the central NorthAtlantic Ocean. Marine Chemistry 15:357-361.

DAVIDSON, S. 1984. SEDlD: A sedimenttransport model for the continental shelf.

A dory from C.S.S. Hudson passes in front of an iceberg in Baffin Bay.

Geological Survey of Canada, Open File1113.

DAVIES, E.H., AKANDE, S.O., andZENTILLI, M. 1984. Early Cretaceousdeposits in the Gays River lead-zinc mine,Nova Scotia. Geological Survey ofCanada, Paper 84-1A: 353-358.

DAVIES, E.H. and AVERY, M.P. 1984.A system for Vitrinite reflectance analysison dispersed organic matter for offshoreeastern Canada. Geological Survey ofCanada, Paper 84-1A: 367-372.

DICKIE, L.M., BOUDREAU, P.R., andFREEMAN, K.R. 1984. Influences ofstock and site on growth and mortality inthe blue mussel (Mytilus edulis). CanadianJournal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences41(1): 134-140.

DICKIE, L.M., DOWD, R.G., andBOUDREAU, P.R. 1984. Acoustic esti-mates of demersal fish using a dual-beamtransducer in laboratory and field. Journalof the Acoustical Society of America 76(4):1175-1183.

DIXON, J., MCNEIL, D.H., DIETRICH,J.R., BUJAK, J.P., and DAVIES, E.H.1984. Geology and biostratigraphy of theDome Gulf et al. Hunt Kopanoar M-13Well, Beaufort Sea. Geological Survey ofCanada, Paper 82-13.

DOBSON, D. and PETRIE, B. 1984.Long-term temperature monitoring pro-gram, 1983, Newfoundland Region.Canadian Data Report of Hydrographyand Ocean Sciences No. 21.

DOBSON, D. and PETRIE, B. 1984.Long-term temperature monitoring pro-gram 1983, Scotia-Fundy, Gulf Regions.Canadian Data Report of Hydrographyand Ocean Sciences No. 22.

DOBSON, F.W. 1984. The oceans andhow they affect our climate. Chinook 6(4):88-91.

EASTERBROOK, K.B. and SUBBA RAO,D.V. 1984. Conical spinae associated witha picoplanktonic procaryote. CanadianJournal of Microbiology 30(5): 716-718.

EATON, R.M., ANDERSON, N.M., andEVANGELATOS, T.V. 1984. The elec-tronic chart. In Proceedings of the SecondInternational Hydrographic TechnicalConference, Plymouth, England, Septem-ber, 1984: The Royal Institution ofChartered surveyors and The HydrographicSociety.

EMERY, W.J. and IKEDA, M. 1984. Acomparison of geometric correctionmethods for AVHRR imagery. CanadianJournal of Remote Sensing 10(1): 46-56.

EXTON, J. and GRADSTEIN, F.M. 1984.Early Jurassic stratigraphy andmicropaleontology of the Grand Banks andPortugal. In Jurassic-Cretaceous Biochro-nology and Paleogeography of NorthAmerica; Ed. G.E.G. Westerman. Geologi-cal Association of Canada, Special Paper27: 13-30.

FADER, G.B. 1984. A geophysical surveyof the Georges Bank, Georges Basin andNortheast Channel area of the Gulf ofMaine. Geological Survey of Canada,Open File 978, 3 v.

FADER, G.B., KING, L.H., andJOSENHANS, H.J. 1982. Surficial geol-ogy of the Laurentian Channel and westernGrand Banks of Newfoundland. GeologicalSurvey of Canada, Paper 81-22.

FANNING, P. 1984. Preliminary analysisof Alfred Needler - Lady Hammondcomparative fishing experiments (SilverHake, 1983). Northwest Atlantic FisheriesOrganization, Scientific Council ResearchDocument 84/VI/82.

FENERTY, N.E. 1984. A camera systemfor deep-sea photography from drifting icestations. In Underwater Photography;Scientific and Engineering Applications;compiled by P.E. Smith. New York;Van-Nostrand Reinhold: 321-334.

FORBES, D.L. 1984. Coastal geomor-phology and sediments of Newfoundland.Geological Survey of Canada,Paper 84-1B: 11-24.

FRANK, K.T. and LEGGETT, W.C.1984. Selective exploitation of capelin(Mallotus villosus) eggs by winter flounder(Pseudopleuronectes americanus): Capelinegg mortality rates, and contribution ofegg energy to the annual growth of floun-der. Canadian Journal of Fisheries andAquatic Sciences 41(9): 1294-1302.

FU, T. and POCKLINGTON, R. 1984.Marine organic chemistry: Master referencelist. Canadian Data Report of Hydrogra-phy and Ocean Sciences No. 24.

GAGNE, J.A. and O’BOYLE, R.N. 1984.The timing of cod spawning on the ScotianShelf. In The Propagation of Cod (Gadusmorhua L.); Eds. E. Dahl. et al. Flodevi-gen Rapportser 1: 501-517.

GAGNE, J.A., SINCLAIR, A.F., andDALE, C. 1984. The 1984 assessment of4VSW cod: A completely revised proce-dure. Canadian Atlantic Fisheries ScientificAdvisory Committee, Research Document84/78.

GASSMAN, G. and POCKLINGTON, R.1984. Hydrocarbons in waters adjacent tothe exploratory site in the western NorthAtlantic Ocean. Environmental Science andTechnology 18: 869-872.

GAVARIS, S. and BISHOP, C.A. 1984.Calculation of partial selection for cod inSubdivision 3Ps. Northwest Atlantic Fish-eries Organization, Scientific CouncilResearch Document 84/VI/50.

GAVARIS, S., BISHOP, C.A., andBAIRD, J.W. 1984. Assessment of the codstock in Divisions 2J + 3KL. NorthwestAtlantic Fisheries Organization, ScientificCouncil Research Document 84/VI/73.

GILBERT, R.L.G. 1984. Field trials ofDOLPHIN. In Remotely Operated Vehi-cles; Rov ‘84 Conference and Exposition

(1984: San Diego, Ca). San Diego; TheMarine Technology Society, San DiegoSection: 348-355.

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PIATT, J.F., NETTLESHIP, D.N., andTHRELFALL, W. 1984. Net-mortality ofcommon Murres and Atlantic Puffins inNewfoundland, 1951-81. In Marine Birds:Their Feeding Ecology and CommercialFisheries Relationships; Eds. D.N.Nettleship et al. Ottawa; Canadian WildlifeService: 196-207.

PINHORN, A.T. and HALLIDAY, R.G.1984. A framework for identifying fisheriesmanagement problems associated with theinfluence of environmental factors on thedistribution, movements and migration ofmarine species. Northwest Atlantic Fisher-ies Organization, Scientific Council ReportDocument 84/VI/72.

PIPER, D.J.W. 1984. Geological processesand factors. In Health of the NorthwestAtlantic, [A Report to the Interdepartmen-tal Committee on Environmental Issues];Eds. R.C.H. Wilson and R.F. Addison.Department of the Environment/Depart-ment of Fisheries and Oceans/Departmentof Energy, Mines, and Resources: 31-41.

PIPER, D.J.W. 1983. 4. University. InMarine Geoscience in Canada; A statusreport. Geological Survey of CanadaPaper 81-6: 60-67.

PIPER, D.J.W., LETSON, J.R.J., DEIURE, A.M., and BARRIE, C.Q. 1983.Sediment accumulation in low sedimenta-tion, wave dominated glaciated inlets.Sedimentary Geology 36: 195-215.

PIPER, D.J.W., STOW, D.A.V., andNORMARK, W.R. 1984. The LaurentianFan: Sohm Abyssal Plain. Geo-MarineLetters 3(24): 141-146.

PIPER, D.J.W., WILSON, E., VILKS,G., MUDIE, P.J., and WAGNER, F.J.E.1984. Surficial geology of the upperScotian Slope west of Verrill Canyon.Geological Survey of Canada, Open FileReport 939.

PLATT, T. 1984. Primary productivity inthe central North Pacific: Comparison tooxygen and carbon fluxes. Deep-SeaResearch 31(11A): 1311-1319.

PLATT, T., LEWIS, M., and GEIDER,R. 1984. Thermodynamics of the pelagicecosystem: Elementary closure conditionsfor biological production in the openocean. In Flows of Energy and Materialsin Marine Ecosystems; Theory andPractice; Ed. M.J.R. Fasham. (NATOConference Series; IV. Marine Sciences13). New York; Plenum Press: 49-84.

POCKLINGTON, R. and KEMPE, S.1983. A comparison of methods for POCdetermination in the St. Lawrence River.Mitteilungen aus dem Geologisch -Palaeontologischen Institut der Univer-sitaet, Hamburg, SCOPE/UNEPSonderband, Heft 55: 145-151.

POCKLINGTON, R. and PEMPKOWIAK,J. 1983. Contribution of humic substancesby the Vistula River to the Baltic Sea.Mitteilungen aus dem Geologisch -Palaeontologischen Institut derUniversitaet, Hamburg, SCOPE/UNEPSonderband, Heft 55: 365-370.

PRINSENBERG, S.J. 1983. Effects of thehydroelectric developments on the oceano-graphic surface parameters of HudsonBay. Atmosphere-Ocean 21(4): 418-430.

PRINSENBERG, S.J. 1984. Freshwatercontents and heat budgets of James Bayand Hudson Bay. Continental ShelfResearch 3(2): 191-200.

PROCTER, R.M., TAYLOR, G.C., andWADE, J.A. 1984. Oil and natural gasresources of Canada 1983. Geological Sur-vey of Canada, Paper 83-3 1: 59 p. (Alsoissued as Geological Survey of Canada,Open File Report 966.)

QUINLAN, G.M. and BEAUMONT, C.1984. Appalachian thrusting, lithosphericflexure, and the Paleozoic stratigraphy ofthe eastern interior of North America.Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 21(9):973-996.

RAY, S. and BEWERS, J.M. 1984. Distri-bution and bioavailability of heavy metalsin the marine environment. In Health ofthe Northwest Atlantic [A Report of theInterdepartmental Committee on Environ-mental Issues]; Eds. R.C.H. Wilson andR.E. Addison. Department of the Environ-ment/Department of Fisheries andOceans/Department of Energy, Mines andResources: 121-137.

ROBERTSON, A.I. and MANN, K.H.1984. Disturbance by ice and life-historyadaptations of the seagrass Zosteramarina. Marine Biology 80(2): 131-141.

ROOTS, W.D. and SRIVASTAVA, S.P.1984. Origin of the marine magnetic quietzones in the Labrador and Greenland seas.Marine Geophysical Researches 6(4):395-408.

ROSS, C.K. 1984. Temperature-salinitycharacteristics of the “Overflow” water inDenmark Strait during “Overflow ‘73”. InHydrobiological Variability in the NorthAtlantic and Adjacent Seas; Eds., J.Meincke et al. Rapports et Procès- Verbaux

69

Aerial view of the North west Atlantic Fisheries Centre on the White Hillsoverlooking St. John’s, Newfoundland. (Courtesy of the Centre)

des reunions, Conseil International pourI’Exploration de la Mer 185: 111-119.

ROSENBERG, G., PROBYN, T.A., andMANN, K.H. 1984. Nutrient uptake andgrowth kinetics in brown seaweeds:Response to continuous and single addi-tions of ammonium. Journal ofExperimental Marine Biology andEcology 80: 125-146.

ROWELL, T.W., TRITES, R.W., andDAWE, E.G. 2984. Larval and juveniledistribution of the short-finned squid (Illexillecebrosus) in relation to the Gulf Streamfrontal zone in the Blake Plateau and CapeHatteras area. Northwest Atlantic FisheriesOrganization, Scientific Council ReportDocument 84/IX/111.

RYALL, P.J.C. and HARGRAVE, B.T.1984. Attraction of the Atlantic wreckfish(Polyprion americanus) to an unbaitedcamera on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.Deep-Sea Research 31(1A): 79-83.

RYDER, R.A. and KERR, S.R. 1984.Reducing the risk of fish introductions -a rational approach to the management ofcold water communities. European InlandFisheries Advisory Council Technical paperNo. 42, Supplement, Vol. 1, UnitedNations Food and AgriculturalOrganization, Rome: 510-533.

SAMEOTO, D.D. 1984. Environmentalfactors influencing diurnal distribution ofzooplankton and ichthyoplankton. Journalof Plankton Research 6(5): 767-792.

SAMEOTO, D.D. 1984. Vertical distribu-tion of zooplankton biomass and species innortheastern Baffin Bay related to temper-ature and salinity. Polar Biology 2(4):213-224.

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70

Scotian Shelf - a nutrient pump at work.Journal of Geophysical Research 89(C4):6415-6425.

SCHAFER, C.T. 1984. The Newfoundlandslope at 49-50°N: Nature and magnitude ofcontemporary marine geological processes.Geological Survey of Canada, Paper84-1 A: 563-566.

SCHAFER, C.T. and BLAKENEY, C.P.1984. Baffin Islands fjords. Sea Frontiers30(2): 94-105.

SCHAFER, C.T. and COLE, F.E. 1984.The Baffin Island fiords: Modern calcare-ous foraminiferal assemblages. In AnnualArctic Workshop (13th: 1984: Institute ofArctic and Alpine Research, Boulder, Co).Boulder, Co; The Workshop: 60-61.

SCHAFER, C.T., SMITH, J.N., andSEIBERT, G. 1983. Significance of naturaland anthropogenic sediment inputs to theSaguenay Fjord, Quebec. SedimentaryGeology 36: 172-194.

SCHEIBLING, R.E. and STEPHENSON,R.L. 1984. Mass mortality of Stron-gylocentrotus droebachiensis (Echinoder-mata: Echinoidea) off Nova Scotia,Canada. Marine Biology 78: 153-164.

SCOTT, D.B. and GREENBERG, D.A.1983. Relative sea-level rise and tidaldevelopment in the Fundy Tidal System.Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 20(10):1554-1564.

SCOTT, D.B., MUDIE, P.J., VILKS, G.,and YOUNGER, D.C. 1984. LatestPleistocene-Holocene paleoceanographictrends on the continental margin of easternCanada: Foraminiferal, dinoflagellate andpollen evidence. Marine Micropaleontology9(3): 181-218.

SCOTT, J.S. 1984. Canadian ResearchReport 1983, Section 11. Northwest Atlan-

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SCOTT, J.S. 1984. Program of researchby Canada (Scotia-Fundy) in the NAFOarea for 1984. Northwest Atlantic FisheriesOrganization, Circular Letter 84/037.

SCOTT, J.S. 1984. Juvenile haddockabundance and water temperature on theScotian Shelf in 1983. Northwest AtlanticFisheries Organization, Scientific CouncilResearch Document 84/VI/64.

SCOTT, J.S. 1984. Short-term changes indistribution, size, and availability of juve-nile haddock around Sable Island, NovaScotia. Journal of Northwest AtlanticFisheries Sciences 5(2): 109-112.

SHELDON, R.W. 1984. Phytoplanktongrowth rates in the tropical ocean.Limnology and Oceanography 29(6):1342-1346.

SHERIDAN, R.E., GRADSTEIN, F.,et al. (Editors). 1983. Site 534: Blake-Bahama Basin. In Initial Reports of theDeep Sea Drilling Project. Washing-ton:U.S. Government Printing Office,v. 76.

SHOTTON, R. and BAZIGOS, G.P. 1984.Techniques and considerations in thedesign of acoustic surveys. Rapports etProés- Verbaux des reunions, ConseilInternational pour l’Exploration de la Mer184: 34-57.

SILVERT, W. 1982. The theory of powerand efficiency in ecology. EcologicalModelling 15: 159-164.

SILVERT, W. 1983. Amplification ofenvironmental fluctuations by marineecosystems. Oceanologica Acta (Proceed-ings of the 17th European Marine Biologi-cal Symposium): 183-186.

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SILVERT, W. and POWLES, H. 1983.Applications of operations research to thedesign of field sampling programs. In Sam-pling Commercial Catches of Marine Fishand Invertebrates; Eds. W.G. Doubledayand D. Rivard. Canadian Special Publica-tion of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 66:268-278.

SIMON, J. and CAMPANA, S. 1984. The1983-84 4Vn herring biological update.Canadian Atlantic Fisheries ScientificAdvisory Committee, Research Document84/66.

SINCLAIR, A. 1984. Catch rate variationsin the French winter cod fishery. North-west Atlantic Fisheries Organization,Scientific Council Report SCR 84/VI/83.

SINCLAIR, A.F. and SMITH, S.J. 1984.A review of the 4VN (May-December) codfishery in 1983. Canadian AtlanticFisheries Scientific Advisory Committee,Research Document 84/75.

SINCLAIR, M., MAGUIRE, J.J.,KOELLER, P., and SCOTT, J.S. 1984.Trophic dynamic models in light of currentresource inventory data and stock assess-ment results. Rapports et Procès- Verbauxdes réunions, Conseil International pourl’Exploration de la Mer 183: 269-284.

SMITH, J.N. 1984. Radioactivity in themarine environment. In Health of theNorthwest Atlantic; a report to the Inter-departmental Committee on EnvironmentalIssues; Eds. R.C.H. Wilson and R.F.Addison. Department of the Environ-ment/Department of Fisheries andOceans/Department of Energy, Minesand Resources: 56-69.

SMITH, J.N. and SCHAFER, C.T. 1984.Bioturbation processes in continental risesediments delineated by Pb-210, micro-fossil, and textural indicators. Journal ofMarine Research 42(4): 1117-1145.

SMITH, P.C., LIVELY, R.R., andBROWN, K.C. 1984. An intercomparisonof near-surface measurements withAanderaa and AMF VACM current metersin strong tidal currents. Canadian Techni-cal Report of Hydrography and OceanSciences No. 48.

SMITH, R.E.H., GEIDER, R.J., andPLATT, T. 1984. Microplankton produc-tivity in the oligotrophic ocean. Nature(London) 311(5983): 252-254.

SMITH, R.E.H. and PLATT, T. 1984.Carbon exchange and 14C tracer methodsin a nitrogen-limited diatom, Thalassiosirapseudonana. Marine Ecology - ProgressSeries 16(1/2): 75-87.

SMITH, S.D. and ANDERSON, R.J.1984. Spectra of humidity, temperature,and wind over the sea at Sable Island,Nova Scotia. Journal of GeophysicalResearch 89(C2): 2029-2040.

SMITH, S.D. and DOBSON, F.W. 1984.The heat budget at ocean weather stationBravo. Atmosphere-Ocean 22(1): 1-22.

SMITH, S.D. and JONES, E.P. 1985.Evidence for wind-pumping of air-sea gasexchange based on direct measurements ofCO2 fluxes. Journal of GeophysicalResearch 90(C1): 869-875.

SMITH, S.J. 1984. Comment on Optimiz-ing survey design for determining agestructure of fish stocks. Canadian Journalof Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 41(5):826-827.

SMITH, S.J. 1984. Statistical consulting infisheries science. Fisheries 9(5): 16-18.

STEIGER, T. and JANSA, L.F. 1984.Jurassic limestones of the seaward edge ofthe Mazagan carbonate platform, north-west African continental margin, Morocco.In Initial reports of the Deep Sea DrillingProject; Eds. K. Hinz, E.L. Winterer,et al. Washington, D.C.; U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office 79: 449-477.

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STOFFYN, M. 1984. Vertical distributionof trace elements in the surface waters off-shore Nova Scotia. Estuarine, Coastal andShelf Science 18(4): 433-445.

STOFFYN-EGLI, P. and MACKENZIE,F.T. 1984. Mass balance of dissolvedlithium in the oceans. Geochimica etCosmochimica Acta 48(4): 859-872.

STOW, D.A.V., ALAM, M., and PIPER,D.J.W. 1984. Sedimentology of theHalifax Formation, Nova Scotia: LowerPalaeozoic fine-grained turbidites. In Fine-grained Sediments: Deep-Water Processesand Facies; Eds. D.A.V. Stow andD.J.W. Piper. Oxford; Published for theGeological Society by Blackwell ScientificPublications: 127-144.

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TANG, C.L. 1983. Cross-front mixing andfrontal upwelling in a controlled quasi-permanent density front in the Gulf ofSt. Lawrence. Journal of PhysicalOceanography 13(8): 1468-1481.

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72

chapter 7

Voyages

C.S.S. HUDSON

VOYAGEYEAR -

NUMBER

84-001

84-010

84-012

84-021

84-024

84-026

VOYAGEDATES

Jan. 24 to Feb. 8

Apr. 9 to 19

Apr. 27 to May 15

May 25 to Jun. 15

Jun. 18 to 22

Jun. 22 to Jul. 7

OFFICERIN

CHARGE

G.L. Bugden, AOL

T. Platt, MEL

R.M. Hendry, AOL

C.E. Keen, AGC

C.F.M. Lewis, AGC

J.R.N. Lazier, AOL

AREAOF

OPERATION

Gulf of St. Lawrence

Grand Banks ofNewfoundlandGulf Stream south ofNova ScotiaContinental Margin

Avalon Channel area;Western Banks ofNewfoundland

Hamilton Bank,Southern LabradorShelf

= The C.S.S. Hudson is a diesel-electricdriven ship designed and used for multi-disciplinary oceanographic research. Theship is owned by the federal Departmentof Fisheries and Oceans.

= Principal Statistics - Lloyds Ice Class Ihull . . . built in 1963 . . . 90.4 m overalllength . . . 15.3 m overall beam . . . 6.3 mmaximum draft . . . 4870 tonne displace-ment . . . 3721 gross registered tons . . .17 knot full speed . . . 13 knot cruisingspeed in Sea State 3 . . . 80 day enduranceand 23,000 n. mile range at cruising speed. . . scientific complement of 26 . . . 205 m2

of space in four laboratories . . . twoHP1000 computer systems . . . heliport andhangar . . . twin screws and bow thrusterfor position holding . . . four surveylaunches

= 225 days at sea and 30,978 n. milessteamed in 1984

VOYAGEOBJECTIVES

Reoccupy standard grid of iceforecast stations; recover satellitebuoys; sampling and datacollectionBiological survey

Recover and redeploy currentmeter moorings; CTD surveyHeat flow measurements; seismicsurveyGeophysical mapping andgeological sampling; test shallowrefraction seismic system anddeep-sea video systemReplace moorings; CTD/Batfishsurvey; biological sampling

73

84-029

84-030

84-035

84-035

84-038

84-040

84-045

84-046

84-049

Jul. 18 to 25

Jul. 27 to Aug. 26

Aug. 28 to Sep. 11(Phase I)

Sep. 11 to 28(Phase II)

Sep. 28 to Oct. 4

Oct. 6 to 23

Oct. 30 to Nov. 9

Nov. 10 to 29

Dec. 1 to 18

C.S.S. BAFFIN

G.B. Fader, AGC

S.P. Srivastava,AGC

C.T. Schafer, AGC

B. MacLean, AGC

J.R.N. Lazier, AOL

D.J.W. Piper, AGC

P.J.C. Ryall,Dalhousie University

D.E. Buckley, AGC

T. Platt, MEL

Bedford Basin; ScotianShelf and slope

Labrador Sea

Flemish Pass; SackvilleSpur; Hamilton Spur;Labrador Slope;Eastern Edge ofMakkovic BankLabrador - southeastBaffin Shelf and Slope

Hamilton Bank,Southern LabradorShelfEastern Valley ofLaurentian Fan;Scotian Slope

St. Georges, Bermuda

Southern Nares AbyssalPlain, BarbadosCaribbean and U.S.continental shelf

Test Seabed II deep oceanmapping system; evaluateHydrostar range bearingreceiver; collect shallow watersidescan sonograms, seabedsamples, and bottomphotographs from Sable IslandBankSeismic reflection and refractionsurveys; collect sediment cores;heat flow measurements;magnetic measurementsStudy surficial geology andmorphology of slope and riseusing SeaMARC I deep-tow sidescan sonar system

Study continental shelf andslope using SeaMARC I deep-tow systemReplace moorings; CTD survey;collect cores in Lake Melville

Study sediment depositionprocesses; collect data toimprove acoustic stratigraphyusing SeaMARC I deep-towsystemTest rock-core drill and towedT.V. camera; box coring

Study deep sea sediments andbenthic biologyPlankton biology; squid larvalsurvey

= The C.S.S. Baffin is a diesel driven shipdesigned for hydrographic surveying butalso used for general oceanography. Theship is owned by the federal Departmentof Fisheries and Oceans.

= Principal Statistics - Lloyds Ice Class Ihull . . . built in 1956 . . . 87 m overalllength . . . 15 m moulded beam . . . 5.7 mmaximum draft . . . 4986 tonne displace-ment . . . 15.5 knot full speed . . . 10 knotcruising speed in Sea State 3 . . . 76 dayendurance and 18,000 n. mile range atcruising speed . . . complement of29 hydrographic staff . . . drafting,plotting, and laboratory spaces provided. . . two HP1000 computer systems . . .heliport and hangar . . . twin screws andbow thruster for position holding . . . sixsurvey launches

= 231 days at sea and 29,870 n. milessteamed in 1984

VOYAGEYEAR -

NUMBER

84-004

84-015

84-031

84-039

84-044

VOYAGEDATES

Mar. 13 to 30

May. 1 to 31(Phase I)Jun. 4 to 15(Phase II)Jun. 19 to Jul. 26(Phase III)Aug. 14 to Sep. 25(Phase IV)

Jul. 29 to Aug. 14

Sep. 25 to Oct. 12

Oct. 19 to Nov. 30

OFFICERIN

CHARGE

D. Bowen, DFO,St. John’s, Nfld.V.J. Gaudet, CHS

V.J. Gaudet, CHS

V.J. Gaudet, CHS

V.J. Gaudet, CHS;A.R. Ruffman(GeomarineAssociates Ltd.)J.N. Smith, AOL

C.K. Ross, AOL

G. Henderson, CHS

AREAOF

OPERATION

Southeast Labrador

Sable Island

Scotian Shelf

Notre Dame Bay, Nfld.

Jones Sound

Baffin Bay; ThuleHarbour

Baffin Bay

Green Bank, St. PierreBank, and LaurentianChannel

VOYAGEOBJECTIVES

Collect data on harp andhooded sealsStandard navigational charting

Standard navigational charting

Hydrographic survey

Standard navigational chartingSurficial geology survey

Collect water samples, sedimentcores, and biota for radionuclideanalysisRecover and deploy moorings;CTD surveyMultidisciplinary survey tocollect bathymetry, gravity, andmagnetics data

C.S.S. DAWSON

= The C.S.S. Dawson is a diesel driven ship designed and usedfor multidisciplinary oceanographic research, hydrographicsurveying, and handling of moorings in deep and shallowwater. The ship is owned by the federal Department ofFisheries and Oceans.

= Principal Statistics - built in 1967 . . . 64.5 m overall length. . . 12 m moulded beam . . . 4.9 m maximum draft . . . 1940tonne displacement . . . 1311 gross registered tons . . . 14 knotfull speed . . . 10 knot cruising speed in Sea state 3 . . . 45 dayendurance and 11,000 n. mile range at cruising speed . . .scientific complement of 13 . . . 87.3 m2 of space in fourlaboratories . . . computer suite provided . . . twin screws andbow thruster for position holding . . . one survey launch.

= 244 days at sea and 25,809 n. miles steamed in 1984

VOYAGEYEAR -

NUMBER

84-002

84-003

84-005

84-006

VOYAGEDATES

Feb. 16 to 22

Feb. 17 to Mar. 6

Mar. 8 to 16

Mar. 19 to 24

OFFICERIN

CHARGE

G. Fowler, AOL

D. Bidgood, NSRF

C. Amos, AGC

B. Johnson,Dalhousie University

AREAOF

OPERATION

Bedford Basin

St. Pierre Bank

Sable Island Bank;Banquereau BankSable Island Bank;Banquereau Bank

VOYAGEOBJECTIVES

Test Dalhousie Deep TV Systemand Nordco DrillPiston coring and high-resolution seismic reflectionprofiling; sidescan system testingHigh resolution shallow seismicand sidescan sonar surveySeismic site surveying for oil/gasdevelopment; equipmentevaluation; zooplanktonsampling

75

84-007

84-008

84-009

84-011

84-016

84-017

84-020

84-023

84-025

84-027

84-028

84-033

84-034

84-036

84-037

84-041

84-042

84-043

84-048

84-050

76

Mar. 27 to Apr. 4

May 22 to 29

Apr. 6 to 19

Apr. 24 to Mar. 1

May 2 to 8

May 10 to 16

Jun. 21 to Jul. 7

Jun. 5 to 20

Jun. 10 to 16

Jul. 16 to 22

Sep. 29 to Oct. 12

Jul. 24 to 31(Phase I)

Jul. 31 to Aug. 2(Phase II)

Aug. 15 to Sep. 1

Sep. 5 to 19

Oct. 15 to 29

Nov. 1 to 7

Sep. 20 to 27

Nov. 14 to 27

Nov. 29 to Dec. 7

Dec. 7 to 15

N.S. Oakey, AOL

P.C. Smith, AOL

A.W. Herman, AOL

D. Scott, Dalhousie

K.T. Frank, MEL

D.L. McKeown,AOL

H. Miller, MemorialUniversity

S.D. Smith, AOL

J.N. Smith, AOL

K.T. Frank, MEL

T. Platt, MEL

T. Chriss andD. Huntley,Dalhousie University

R. Boyd, DalhousieUniversityJ.A. Elliott, AOL

R.M. Hendry, AOL

D.D. Sameoto,MEL

J.K. McRuer, MEL

T. Chriss, DalhousieUniversityP.C. Smith, AOL

G.L. Bugden, AOL

G. Gartner andA. Hay, MemorialUniversity

Laurentian Fan

Browns Bank

Laurentian Channel,Scotian Shelf

Northern Scotian Shelf

Brown’s Bank,southwest Nova Scotia

Scotian Shelf/Slope

Newfoundland’s southcoast; Placentia Bayand Bay St. GeorgeNewfoundland Shelf

Pt. Lepreau area,Bay of FundyBrowns Bank,southwest Nova Scotia

Southern Grand Banks

Emerald Basin region

Eastern Shore, N.S.

Scotian Shelf Edge

Gulf Stream at39°30’N, 59°W

Eastern Scotian Shelfand western GrandBanksSouthwest Nova Scotia

Emerald Basin andSable Island BankSouthwest Nova Scotia

Scotian Shelf, Gulf ofSt. LawrenceBaie d’Espoir, FortuneBay, and HermitageBay, Newfoundland

Study mixing processes, andturbulence in the mixed layer;test and evaluate EPSONDE IIRecover and redeploy moorings;hydrographic survey; biologicalsampling in the surface layer;track and recover surfacedriftersZooplankton and phytoplanktonsurveying; equipment trials; testsof optical plankton counter andservo-controllerSeismic surveying and pistoncoring

Measure production processesrelated to fishery by intensivebiological and physical samplingusing mini-BIONESS andAmetek Doppler current profilerEvaluate acoustic positioningequipment; conduct mooringengineering experiments; test anin-situ particle samplerUnderwater gravity survey; heatflow measurements anddeployment of current metersObtain data for iceberg driftcomputer model; recover tidegauge mooring and weatherbuoyEnvironmental monitoring

Mini-BIONESS sampling;Ametek profiling; planktontows; test high frequencyacoustic equipmentStudy distribution and growthdynamics of microplanktonTest and gather bottomturbulence data using tripod-based instrumentation system;obtain stereo bottomphotographs; CTD and rosettecastsSidescanprofiling

and seismic subbottom

Study the current surgesresulting from high amplitudeinternal wavesStudy Gulf Stream variability;CTD/XBT survey; recoverengineering mooring; watersampling -Study the distribution ofchlorophyll and zooplankton

Measure production processesrelated to fisheriesCollect bottom turbulence dataand data on seabed conditionsRecover and deploy short-termand long-term surface moorings;drift experiments; CTD surveyRecover tide gauges; CTDsurvey; moor satellite buoysBiological sampling; CTD andphotographic surveys; seismicsurveys

C.S.S. MAXWELL

= The C.S.S. Maxwell is a diesel-driven ship designed and usedfor inshore hydrographic surveying. The ship is owned by thefederal Department of Fisheries and Oceans.

= Principal Statistics - built in 1962 . . . 35 m overall length . . .7.6 m moulded beam . . . 2.1 m maximum draft . . . 270 tonnedisplacement . . . 262 gross registered tons . . . 12.2 knot fullspeed . . . 10 knot cruising speed in Sea State 2 . . . 10 dayendurance and 2400 n. mile range at cruising speed . . . scientificcomplement of 7 . . . drafting and plotting facilities . . . twosurvey launches

= 167 days at sea and 5,683 n. miles steamed in 1984

VOYAGEYEAR -

NUMBER

84-013

84-018

VOYAGEDATES

Jun. 12 to 26

May 1 to Jun. 8(Phase I)

Jun. 26 to Aug. 2(Phase II)

Aug. 7 to Nov. 2(Phase III)

OFFICERIN

CHARGE

M. Eaton, CHS

D. Blaney, CHS

D. Blaney, CHS

D. Blaney, CHS

AREAOF

OPERATION

Halifax/Sydney

Bay of Fundy

Bay of Fundy

Strait of Belle Isle;Argentia, Nfld.

VOYAGEOBJECTIVES

Loran-C calibration; NAVSTARtestingStandard navigational charting

Standard navigational charting

Standard navigational charting

C.S.S. NAVICULA

= The C.S.S. Navicula is a wooden-hulled fishingvessel owned and operated by the federalDepartment of Fisheries and Oceans and used forresearch in biological oceanography.

= Principal Statistics - built in 1968 . . . 19.8 moverall length . . . 5.5 m moulded beam . . . 110 tondisplacement . . . 78 gross registered tons

= 142 days at sea and 3,580 n. miles steamed in 1984

VOYAGEYEAR -

NUMBER

84-014

84-014

84-022

VOYAGEDATES

May 7 to 29(Phase I)

Sep. 8 to Oct. 26(Phase II)

Jun. 1 to Jul. 31

OFFICERIN

CHARGE

G. Rockwell, CHS

G. Rockwell, CHS

T. Lambert, MEL

AREAOF

OPERATION

Northumberland Strait

Northumberland Strait

St. Georges Bay

VOYAGEOBJECTIVES

Navigational chart revisions

Navigational chart revisions

Ichthyoplankton sampling

77

LADY HAMMOND

VOYAGEYEAR -

NUMBER

H l l l

H112H113H114Hl l5H116H117

H118H119

H120H121

H122

H123

H124

H125

H126H127H128H129

VOYAGEDATES

Jan. I5 to 17

Feb. 7 to 24Mar. 2 to 6Mar. 22 to 30Apr. 2 to 13Apr. 17 to 26May 2 to 11

May 14 to 24May 28 to Jun. 8

Jun. 12 to 22Jun. 25 to Jul. 18

Jul. 20 to Aug., 10

Aug. 15 to 31

Sep. 4 to 16

Sep. 18 to 27

Oct. 6 to 22Oct. 10 to Nov. 5Nov. 8 to 19Nov. 22 to Dec. 10

OFFICERIN

CHARGE

T. Rowe11

P. HurleyG. McClellandP. HurleyK. ZwanenburgP. HurleyW. Hickey

P. HurleyA. Gascon, AFSQUEBECP. HurleyP. Rubec, AFSGULFS. Akenhead, AFSNFLD.G. Sharp

L. Savard, AFSQUEBECA. Frechette, AFSQUEBECD. WaldronR. HallidayP. HurleyJ. McGlade

= The Lady Hammond, a converted fishing trawler,is chartered by the Department of Fisheries andOceans from Northlake Shipping Ltd. and usedspecifically for fisheries research. The ship isoperated by DFO’s Atlantic Fisheries Service(Scotia-Fundy Region): its main user is the MarineFish Division, which has components at BIO andin St. Andrews, N.B. Except as otherwise notedbelow and in the remainder of this chapter,“officers in charge” are affiliated with the AtlanticFisheries Service’s Scotia-Fundy Region. Staff ofother regions (Quebec, Gulf, or Newfoundland) areidentified separately.

= Principal Statistics - built in 1972 . . . 54 m overalllength . . . 11 m overall beam . . . 5.5 m maximumdraft . . . 306 gross registered tons . . . 13.5 knotmaximum speed . . . 12 knot cruising speed.

AREAOF

OPERATION

NAFO 4X, SA5 toFloridaNAFO 4X, 5ZeNAFO 4XNAFO 4X, 5ZeNAFO 4VWX, 5ZeNAFO 4X, 5ZeNAFO 4VWX

NAFO 4X, 5ZeNAFO 4s

NAFO 4X, 5ZeNAFO 4T

NAFO 2J, 3KLMNOP

NAFO 4X

NAFO 4RST

NAFO 4RST

NAFO 4X, 5Z, YNAFO 4VWXNAFO 4XNAFO 4WX, 5Z, Y

VOYAGEOBJECTIVES

Squid survey, Gulf Stream

Ichthyoplankton surveyCollections of parasite studyIchthyoplankton surveyRedfish surveyIchthyoplankton surveySquare/diamond meshcomparisonsIchthyoplankton surveyCod tagging

Ichthyoplankton surveyRedfish survey

Oceanographic survey

Lobster larval survey and geartrialsShrimp survey

Stomach collection,ichthyoplanktonSilver hake trawl surveyDeep sea trawlingGear trialsPollock trawl survey

7 8

E.E. PRINCE

406 gross registered tons.

= Principal Statistics - built in 1966 . . . 39.9 moverall length . . . 8.2 m overall beam . . . 3.6 mmaximum draft . . . 421 ton displacement . . .

= The E.E. Prince is a steel stern trawler used forfisheries research, and experimental andexploratory fishing. The ship is owned by thefederal Department of Fisheries and Oceans, and itis operated by DFO’s Atlantic Fisheries Service(Scotia-Fundy Region).

VOYAGEYEAR -

NUMBER

P300

P301P302

P303

P304

P305P306P307

P308

P309

P310P311P312P313P314P315P316

VOYAGEDATES

Jan. 21 to Feb. 21

Feb. 27 to Mar. 16Mar. 21 to 29

Apr. 2 to 9

Apr. 16 to 27

Apr. 4 to May 12May 15 to 26May 30 to Jun. 8

Jun. 15 to 29

Jul. 3 to 20

Jul. 23 to 27Jul. 31 to Aug. 22Sep. 5 to Oct. 4Oct. 9 to 16Oct. 19 to 27Nov. 1 to 15Nov. 19 to 28

OFFICERIN

CHARGE

U. Buerkle

J. SochaskyL. Dickie, MEL

W. Hickey

J. Worms, AFSGULFR. MohnW. LundyW. Hickey

J. Dawe, AFSNFLD.C. Taylor, AFSNFLD.R. MohnJ. RobertD. Clay, AFS GCJ. TremblayM. EtterM. PowerD. Wildish

LF

AREAOF

OPERATION

NAFO 4VW

NAFO 4XNAFO 4X

NAFO 4W

NAFO 4T

NAFO 4VMNAFO 4VWXNAFO 4VM

NAFO 3PsLNO

NAFO 3KL

NAFO 4VMNAFO 5Ze, 4XNAFO 4T (inshore)NAFO 4XNAFO 4VMNAFO 4XNAFO 4X

VOYAGEOBJECTIVES

Herring acoustic survey,Chedabucto BayLarval herring surveyAcoustic experiment with MELecologySquare/diamond meshcomparative studyCrab survey

Shrimp surveyScallop surveySquare/diamond meshcomparative studySquid survey

Snow crab survey

Shrimp surveyScallop surveyWhite hake surveyScallop larvae surveyShrimp surveyLarval herring surveyBenthic survey

M. V. ALFRED NEEDLER

. . . equipped with up-to-date communicationsystems, electronics, navigational aids, researchequipment, and fishing gear.

= Principal Statistics - built in 1982 . . . 50.3 moverall length . . . 10.9 m beam . . . 925.03 grossregistered tons . . . complement of 10 scientific staff

= The M. V. Alfred W.H. NEEDLER is a diesel-driven ship owned by the federal Department ofFisheries and Oceans, and used for fisheriesresearch. It is operated by the DFO’s AtlanticFisheries Service (Scotia-Fundy Region).

79

VOYAGEYEAR -

NUMBER

N021

N022

N023N024-25N026

N027

N028

N029N030

N031-32N033

N034

N035

N036N037N038

VOYAGEDATES

Jan. 16 to 22

Jan. 27 to Feb. 5

Feb. 13 to 28Mar. 2 to 27Apr. 9 to 18

Apr. 26 to May 10

May 17 to 21

Jun. 4 to 14Jun. 18 to Jul. 7

Jul. 10 to Aug. 2Aug. 7 to 18

Sep. 6 to 13

Sep. 17 to Oct. 10

Oct. 9 to 18Oct. 22 to Nov. 2Nov. 5 to 30

OFFICERIN

CHARGE

L. Dickie, MEL

M. Ahrens, AFSGULFW. SmithJ. Neilson / J. ScottJ.W. Baird, AFSNFLD.C.A. Rose, AFSNFLD.G.H. Kean, AFSNFLD.J. NeilsonJ.J. Maguire, AFSGULFS. Smith / J. HuntM. Ahrens, ASFGULFL.M. Dickie, MEL

J. Young

S. SmithM. StrongM. Ahrens, AFSGULF

AREAOF

OPERATION

NAFO 4WX

NAFO 4VN

NAFO 4X, 5ZeNAFO 4VWNAFO 3Ps

NAFO 3NO

NAFO 3L

NAFO 5X, 5ZeNAFO 4T

NAFO 4WX, 5ZeNAFO 4T

NAFO 4X

NAFO 4VWX, 5Ze

NAFO 4VMNAFO 4WXNAFO 4T

GADUS ATLANTICA**The Gadus Atlantica is a vessel chartered by the Newfoundland Region of DFO’s Atlantic Fisheries Service.

VOYAGEYEAR -

NUMBER

GA92

VOYAGEDATES

Feb. 16 to 28

OFFICERIN

CHARGE

W.D. Smith

AREAOF

OPERATION

NAFO 4X and 5Z

VOYAGEOBJECTIVES

Acoustic experiment withECOLOGHerring Survey

Cod and haddock taggingGroundfish trawl surveyGroundfish survey

Groundfish survey

Groundfish survey

Juvenile haddock surveyMackerel larvae survey

Groundfish trawl surveyJuvenile herring survey

Acoustic experimental survey(MEL)Squid abundance trawlingsurvey, tagging and gear trials.Groundfish trawl surveyGroundfish trawl surveyHerring acoustics survey

VOYAGEOBJECTIVES

Tag, measure, and releasespawning cod

CO-OPERATIVE VOYAGESDuring 1984, the Marine Fish Division participated in co-operative voyages aboard the USSR’s research vessel Let Kievu (abbreviatedas LK below)

VOYAGEYEAR -

NUMBER

LK03/04

VOYAGEDATES

Sep. 17 to Oct. 26

OFFICERIN

CHARGE

B. Wood,P. Perley

AREAOF

OPERATION

NAFO 4VWX

VOYAGEOBJECTIVES

Determine the abundance ofO-group silver hake on theScotian Shelf

80

chapter 8

Organization and staff

BIO is a research institute of the Government of Canada oper-ated by the Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO), both onits own behalf and for the other federal departments that main-tain laboratories and groups at the Institute. Research, facilities,and services are co-ordinated by a series of special and generalcommittees.

BIO also houses the office of the Northwest Atlantic FisheriesOrganization (Executive Secretary - Captain J.C.E. Cardoso);the analytical laboratories of the Department of the Environ-ment’s (DOE) Environmental Protection Service (Dr. H.S.Samant); and the Atlantic regional office of the Canada Oil and

Gas Lands Administration of the Department of Energy, Minesand Resources (DEMR). In leased accommodation at BIO are thefollowing marine-science related private companies: Huntec Ltd.,Wycove Systems Ltd., and Franklin Computers Ltd.

We present below the major groups at BIO together with theirmanagers and a list of Institute staff as at July 1985. Telephonenumbers are included in the first list: note that Nova Scotia’sarea code is 902 and the BIO exchange is 426. In the staff list,the group or division for which an individual works is given inabbreviated form following his/her name: the abbreviations usedare defined in the list of major groups immediately below.

A.R. LonghurstDG - Director-General . . . . . . . . . . . 3492

OID - Ocean Information DivisionH.B. Nicholls, Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3246Public RelationsC.E. Murray, Manager . . . . . . . . . . . 3251

MS - Management ServicesG.C. Bowdridge, Manager . . . . . . . . 6166Administrative ServicesJ. Broussard, A/Chief . . . . . . . . . . . 7037Financial ServicesE. Pottie, Chief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7060Materiel Management ServicesR.J. Stacey, Chief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3487

P - Personnel ServicesJ.G. Feetham, Manager . . . . . . . . . . 2366

AOL - Atlantic OceanographicLaboratory

J.A. Elliott, Director . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7456AOL - 1. Chemical OceanographyJ.M. Bewers, Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2371AOL - 2. Coastal OceanographyC.S. Mason, Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3857AOL - 3. MetrologyD.L. McKeown, Head . . . . . . . . . . . . 3489AOL - 4. Ocean CirculationR.A. Clarke, Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2502

CHS - Canadian Hydrographic Service(Atlantic Region)

A.J. Kerr, Director . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3497T.B. Smith, Assistant Director . . . . 2432CHS - 1. Field Surveys

MFD - Marine Fish Division

W.D. Bowen, Chief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8390

CAFSAC - Canadian Atlantic FisheriesScientiJtc Advisory Committee -

SRU - Seabird Research Unit (CanadianWildlife Service)D.N. Nettleship, Head . . . . . . . . . . . 3274

R.C. Lewis, A/Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2411CHS - 2. Chart Production

Secretariat D. Geddes . . . . . . . . . . . . 8486

T.B. Smith, A/Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2432CHS - 3. Hydrographic DevelopmentR.G. Burke, Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3657CHS - 4. NavigationR.M. Eaton, Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2572CHS - 5. Planning and RecordsR.C. Lewis, Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2411CHS - 6. TidalS.T. Grant, Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3846

MEL - Marine Ecology LaboratoryK.H. Mann, Director . . . . . . . . . . . . 3696MEL - 1. Biological OceanographyT.C. Platt, Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3793MEL - 2. Environmental QualityB.T. Hargrave, Head . . . . . . . . . . . , 3188MEL - 3. Fisheries OceanographyD.C. Gordon, Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3278

AGC - Atlantic Geoscience Centre(Geological Survey of Canada)M.J. Keen, Director . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2367D.I. Ross, Assistant Director . . . . . . 3448

IF - Institute FacilitiesR.L.G. Gilbert, Manager . . . . . . . . . 3681IF - 1. ShipsJ. Parsons, Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7292IF - 2. Engineering ServicesD.F. Dinn, Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3700IF - 3. Computing ServicesD.M. Porteous, Head . . . . . . . . . . . . 2452IF - 4. Library ServicesJ.E. Sutherland, Head . . . . . . . . . . . 3675IF - 5. Publication ServicesM.P. Latremouille, Head . . . . . . . . . 5947

AGC - 1. AdministrationC. Racine, Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2111AGC - 2. Eastern Petroleum GeologyJ.S. Bell, Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2730AGC - 3. Environmental Marine GeologyD.J.W. Piper, Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7730AGC - 4. Program SupportK.S. Manchester, Head . . . . . . . . . . . 3411AGC - 5. Regional ReconnaissanceC.E. Keen, Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3413

81

STAFF LISTINGABRIEL, James AOL-1ACKER, Queenie MSADAMS, Al IF-lADDISON, Richard MEL-2AHERN, Patrick MEL-2ALLEN, Lorraine MEL-3AMIRAULT, Byron AOL-1AMOS, Carl AGC-3ANDERSON, Bob AOL-4ANDERSON, Debbie MSANDERSON, George MSANNAND, Christine MFDANNING, Jeff MEL-1ARCHER, Barbara OIDARCHIBALD, Chris MSARMITAGE, Fred IF-2ARNOLD, Russell DawsonASCOLI, Piero AGC-2ASPREY, Ken AGC-3ATKINSON, Karen AOL-2ATKINSON, Tony AGC-4AVERY, Mike AGC-2AVEY, David HudsonAWALT, Garon IF-2

BAKER, Lloyd IF-1BARSS, Sedley AGC-2BATES, Steve MEL-1BEALS, Carol CHSBEANLANDS, Brian AOL-3BEANLANDS, Diane MFDBEAVER, Darrell AGC-4BECK, Brian MFDBECK, Vince IF-3BELANGER, Roger IF-5BELL, Bill DawsonBELL, Sebastian AGC-2BELLEFONTAINE, Larry AOL-2BELLEFONTAINE, Linda MSBELLIVEAU, Don AOL-3BENNETT, Andrew AOL-3BENNETT, Bert OIDBERKELEY, Tom CHS-3BEST, Neville HudsonBETLEM, Jan AOL-3BEWERS Michael AOL-1BLAKENEY, Claudia AGC-3BLANCHARD, Elaine MSBLANEY. Dave CHS-1BLASCO, Steve AGC-3BONANG, Faye MSBONANG, Linda MSBOND, Murray MSBOUDREAU, Gerry AOL-4BOUDREAU, Henri CHS-1BOUDREAU, Paul MEL-3BOWDRIDGE, Gordon MSBOWEN, Don MFDBOWEN, Eileen MSBOWMAN, Garnet CHS-1BOWSER, Mike IF-2BOYCE, Rick AOL-2BOYCE, William AGC-4BRANTON, Bob MFDBRINE, Doug IF-3BRODIE, Paul MEL-3BROUSSARD, Joan MSBROWN, Carolyn AGC-1BROWN, Dick SRUBUCKLEY, Dale AGC-3BUGDEN, Gary AOL-2BURGESS, Frank CHS-1BURHOE, Meg MSBURKE, Robert CHS-3BURKE, Walter CHS-1

CALDWELL, Glen IF-2CAMERON, Rose MS

82

CAMPANA, Steve MFDCARMICHAEL, Fred CHS-6CARR, Judy MFDCARSON, Bruce AOL-4CASEY, Deborah IF-3CASHIN, Elmo IF-1CASSIVI, Roger AOL-3CAVERHILL, Carla MEL-1CHAMBERLAIN, Duncan IF-1CHAPMAN, Borden AGC-4CHARLTON, Beverly MFDCHASE, Barry IF-1CHENIER, Marcel CHS-2CHIN-YEE, Mark IF-2CHRISTIAN, Harold AGC-3CLARKE, Allyn AOL-4CLARKE, Tom IF-2CLATTENBURG, Donald AGC-3CLIFF, John BaffinCLOTHIER, Rodney BaffinCLUNEY, Fred IF-2COADY, Vernon AGC-4COCHRANE, Norman AOL-3COLE, Flona AGC-3COLEMAN, Don Hudson

Mary Lewis

COLFORD, Brian MSCOLLIER, Kathie AOL-3COLLINS, Gary IF-3COLLINS, Mike CHS-1COMEAU, Ernest CHS-1COMEAU, George Maxwell

Mchel Goguen.

CONNOLLY, Gerald AOL-3CONOVER, Bob MEL-1CONRAD, Bruce HudsonCONRAD, David AOL-1COOK, Gary AGC-2COOKE, Gary IF-2COSGROVE, Art IF-5COSTELLO, Gerard CHS-1COTA, Glenn MEL-1COTTLE, Wayne IF-1COURNOYER, Jean IF-2COX, Brian HudsonCRANFORD, Peter MEL-2CRANSTON, Ray AGC-3CRAWFORD, Keith CHS-2CREWE, Norman AOL-1CRILLEY, Bernard AGC-2CRUX, Elizabeth CHS-2CUNNINGHAM, Carl AOL-1CUNNINGHAM, John CHS-2CURRIE, Randy IF-3CUTHBERT, Jim IF-3

DABROS, Jean AGC-3DALE, Carla MFDDALE, Jackie MELDALEY, Bob BaffinDALZIEL, John AOL-1DANIELS, Marilyn IF-4

DANEAU, Joan IF-1DEARNLEY-DAVISON, Jack IF-2DEASE, Ann MSDEASE, Gerry IF-2DeLONG, Bob IF-2DEMONT, Leaman IF-2DENMAN, Dick IF-2DENNIS. Pat AGC-1D’ENTREMONT, Paul AOL-2DEONARINE, Bhan, AGC-3DESCHENES, Mary Jean IF-3DESSUREAULT, Jean-Guy AOL-3DICKIE, Lloyd MEL-3DICKIE, Paul MEL-1DICKINSON, Ross DawsonDINN, Donald IF-2DOBSON, Des AOL-2DOBSON, Fred AOL-4DOWD, Dick MEL-3DRINKWATER, Ken MEL-3DUFFEY, Sean CHS-1DUGAS, Theresa CAFSACDUNBRACK, Stu CHS-1DUNPHY, Paul AOL-4DURVASULA, Rao MEL-1

EATON, Mike CHS-4EDMONDS, Roy MELEDWARDS, Bob PEDWARDSON, Greg DawsonEISENER, Don IF-2ELLIOTT, Jim AOLELLIS, Kathy AOL-1ETTER, Jim IF-2

FADER, Gordon AGC-3FAHIE, Ted IF-2FANNING, Paul MFDFAULKNER, Pat MSFEETHAM, Jim PFENERTY, Norman IF-5FENN, Guy AGC-4FENSOME, Rob AGC-2FERGUSON, Carol IF-1FERGUSON, John CHS-1FINDLEY, Bill IF-1FISHER, Carmelita AGC-3FITZGERALD, Bob AGC-3FLEMING, Dave CHS-2FLYNN, Rhonda IF-4FODA, Azmeralda MEL-2FOOTE, Tom AOL-2FORBES, Donald AGC-3FORBES, Steve CHS-3FOWLER, George AOL-3FRANK, Ken MEL-3FRASER, Brian MEL-1FRASER, Jack MaxwellFRASER, Sharalyn PFREEMAN, Burton MFDFREEMAN, Ken MEL-3FRICKER, Aubrey AGC-2FRIIS, Mike MSFRIZZLE, Doug CHS-2FROBEL, David AGC-3FROST, Jim MEL-1FULLERTON, Anne MEL-3

GALLANT, Celesta MSGALLANT, Roger IF-2GALLIOTT, Jim AOL-2GAMMON, Gary MSGAUDET, Victor CHS-1GEDDES, Dianne CAFSACGIDNEY, Betty CHS-2GILBERT, Reg IFGILROY, Dave IF-2GIROUARD, Paul AGC-5GLAZEBROOK, Sherman AOL-4GODSELL. Janet MFD

Peter Vass.

GOODWIN, Winston IF-2GOODYEAR, Julian CHS-1GORDON, Don MEL-3GORVEATT, Mike AGC-4GRADSTEIN, Felix AGC-2GRANT, Al AGC-2GRANT, Gary AGC-2GRANT, Steve CHS-6GREENBERG, David AOL-2GREGORY, Don AOL-4GREGORY, Doug AOL-2GREIFENEDER, Bruno AOL-4GUILDERSON, Joan DG

HAASE, Bob CHS-1HACQUEBARD, Peter AGC-2HACKETT, Dave AGC-4HACKETT, Jennifer AOL-4HALE, Ken IF-5HALLIDAY, James IF-1HALLIDAY, Ralph MFDHALVERSON, George IF-2HAMILTON, Jim AOL-3HANTZIS, Alex CHS-2HARDING, Gareth MEL-2HARDY, Iris AGC-4HARGRAVE, Barry MEL-2HARMES, Bob AGC-3HARRIS, Cynthia MFDHARRIS, Jerry DawsonHARRIS, Leslie MEL-lHARRISON, Glen MEL-IHARTLING, Bert AOL-2HARVEY, David AOL-3HAYDEN, Helen AOL-2HAYES, Terry AGC-1HEAD, Erica MEL-1HEATH, Robin BaffinHEFFLER, Dave AGC-4HENDERSON, Gary CHS-1HENDERSON, Terry AGC-1HENDRY, Ross AOL-4HENDSBEE, Dave AOL-4HENNEBERRY, Andy MEL-2HEPWORTH, Deborah CHS-2HERMAN, Alex AOL-3HILL, Phil AGC-3HILLIER, Blair AGC-4HILTZ, Ray AOL-1HILTZ, Sharon MSHINDS, Jim HudsonHODGSON, Mark MEL-1HOGANSON, Joan HSHOLMES, Wayne IF-2HOLT, Donna AGC-4HORNE, Ed MEL-1HORNE, Jack IF-2HOWIE, Bob AGC-2HUGHES, Mike AGC-4HURLEY, Peter MFD

IKEDA, Motoyoshi AOL-4IRWIN, Brian MEL-1

JACKSON, Art AGC-2JACKSON, Ruth AGC-5JAMAEL, Mike HudsonJAMIESON, Steve PJANSA, Lubomir AGC-2JARVIS, Lawrence HudsonJAY, Malcolm CHS-2JENNEX, Rita MSJODREY, Fred AGC-4JOHNSON, Sue SRUJOHNSTON, Larry AGC-4JOLLIMORE, Shirley IF-4JONES, Peter AOL-1JONES, Roger CHS-2JORDAN, Francis AOL-2JOSENHANS, Heiner AGC-3

Don Chandler.

KARG, Marlene IF-3KAVANAUGH, Anita IF-4KAY, William AGC-5KEDDY, Lil MSKEEN, Charlotte AGC-5KEEN, Mike AGCKEENAN, Pat AOL-2KEIZER, Paul MEL-2KELLY, Bruce IF-2KEPKAY, Paul MEL-2KERR, Adam CHSKERR, Steve MEL-3KING, Donna MFDKING, Graeme CHS-5KING, Rollie IF-1KOELLER, Peter MFDKOZIEL, Nellie AGC-2KNOX, Don AOL-3KRANCK, Kate AOL-2

Joe Howlett.

LAKE, Diana MSLAKE, Paul AGC-2LAMBERT, Tim MEL-3LAMPLUGH, Mike CHS-1LANDRY, Marilyn MEL-1LANGDON, Deb AGC-4LANGILLE, Neil NaviculaLAPIERRE, Mike IF-2LAPIERRE, Richard IF-1LAROSE, Jim CHS-2LARSEN, Ejnar MEL-1LATREMOUILLE, Michael IF-5LAWRENCE, Don AOL-2LAZIER, John AOL-4LeBLANC, Bill AGC-3LeBLANC, Cliff MaxwellLeBLANC, Paul IF-2LEJAWA, Adam BaffinLEJEUNE, Diane MSLEJEUNE, Hans MSLEONARD, Jim AOL-1LEVAC, Carol IF-3LEVY, Eric AOL-I

Tom Foote.

LEWIS, Mary MEL-1LEWIS, Mike AGC-3LEWIS, Reg CHS-5LI, Bill MEL-1LISCHENSKI, Ed CHS-2LITTLE, Betty PLIVELY, Bob AOL-2LOCK, Stan BaffinLOCK, Tony SRULOCKE, Don AGC-4LOCKHART, Judy CHS-2LODER, John AOL-4LONCAREVIC, Bosko AGC-5LONGHURST, Alan DGLORING, Douglas AOL-1LUTWICK, Graham CHS-6

MacDONALD, Al MEL-1MacDONALD, Barry MSMacDONALD, Gerry IF-2MacDONALD, Judy MSMacDONALD, Kirk CHS-5MacDONALD, Linda CHS-6MacDONALD, Rose CHS-2MacGOWAN, Bruce CHS-1MacGREGOR. Robert IF-2MacHATTIE, George IF-2MacHATTIE, Sheila PMaclSAAC, Mary MFDMacKAY, Bob HudsonMacKINNON, Bill AGC-4MacLAREN, Florence P

MacLAREN, Oswald AOL-3MacLAUGHLIN, John IF-2MacLEAN, Bernie AGC-2MacLEAN, Brian AGC-3MacLEAN, Carleton BaffinMacLEOD, Grant CHS-2MacMILLAN, Bill AGC-2MACE, Pamela MFDMACFARLANE, Andrew SRUMACNAB, Ron AGC-5MAHON, Robin MFDMALLET, Andre MEL-3MALONE, Kent CHS-1MANCHESTER, Keith AGC-4MANN, Ken MELMARTELL, Jim MSMARTIN, Bud MSMARTIN, Harold DawsonMASON, Clive AOL-2MATTHEWS, Bennny DawsonMATTHEWS, Gordon HudsonMAUGER, Fred HudsonMAZERALL, Anne, IF-4McALLISTER, Archie BaffinMcALPINE, Don AGC-2MCCARTHY, Paul CHS-1McCORRISTON, Bert CHS-2McGINN, Pete CHS-6McGLADE, Jacquie MFDMcKEOWN, Dave AOL-3McKINNON, Bill AGC-4McKlNNON, Terry BaffinMcMILLAN, Jim MFDMcNEIL, Beverley CHSMcRUER, Jeff MEL-3MEHLMAN, Rick CHS-1MEISNER, Patsy CHS-2MELBOURNE, Ron CHS-2MERCHANT, Susan AGC-4MILLER, Bob AGC-3MILLER, Frank CHS-2MILLET, David BaffinMILLIGAN, Tim AOL-2MILNE, Mary AGC-2MITCHELL, Michel AOL-3MOEN, Jon AOL-2MOFFATT, John AOL-1MOIR, Philip AGC-2MOORE, Bill IF-1MORAN, Kate AGC-3MORGAN, Peter AGC-3MUDFORD, Bret AGC-5MUDIE, Peta AGC-3MUISE, Fred IF-2MUISE, Laura MSMURPHY, Bob AGC-4MURRAY, Ed OIDMURRAY, Judith IF-3MYRA, Valerie MFDMYERS, Steven IF-1

NEILSEN, Judith PNELSON, Rick AOL-1NETTLESHIP, David SRUNICHOLLS, Brian OIDNICHOLS, Brian AGC-5NICHOLSON, Dale CHS-1NICKERSON, Bruce, AOL-3NICKERSON, Carol MSNICOLL, Michael IF-1NIELSEN, Jes AGC-4NOADE, Gerry IF-2NORTON, Neil BaffinNOSEWORTHY, Karen MS

OAKEY, Neil AOL-4O’BOYLE, Bob MFDO’NEILL, John AOL-4O’REILLY, Charles CHS-6

83

O’ROURKE, Mike IF-2ORR, Ann MEL-3

PALMER, Nick CHS-2PALMER, Richard CHS-1PARANJAPE, Madhu MEL-1PARNELL, Cheryl AGC-1PARROTT, Russell AGC-3PARSONS, Art IF-2PARSONS, John IF-1PATON, Jim MSPAYZANT, Linda AOL-2PEER, Don MEL-2PENNELL, Charles HudsonPERRIE, William AOL-2PERROTTE, Roland CHS-2PERRY, Steve AGC-5PETERSON, Ingrid AOL-4PETRIE, Brian AOL-2PETRIE, Liam MEL-3PHILLIPS, Georgina MEL-2PHILLIPS, Ted AOL-3PIETRZAK, Robert CHS-5PINSENT, Bruce AOL-2PIPER, David AGC-3PLATT, Trevor MEL-1POCKLINGTON, Roger AOL-1POLSON, Carl IF-2PORTEOUS, Dave IF-3POTTIE, Dennis AOL-1POTTIE, Ed MSPOZDNEKOFF, Peter AOL-4PRIME, Wayne AGC-5PRINSENBERG, Simon AOL-2PRITCHARD, John AOL-2PROCTOR, Wally AOL-3PROUSE, Nick MEL-2PURDY, Phil MS

QUON, Charlie AOL-4

RACINE, Carol AGC-1RAFUSE, Phil BaffinRAIT, Sue MSRANTALA, Reijo AOL-1RASHID, Mohammed AGC-3REID, Ian AGC-5REID, Jim MFDREIMER, Dwight MEL-3REINHARD, Harry MSREINIGER, Bob AOL-4RICHARD, Wayne IF-3RIPPEY, Jim HudsonRITCEY, Jack BaffinROBERTSON, Kevin AGC-3ROCKWELL, Gary CHS-1RODGER, Glen CHS-1ROOP. David CHS-1ROSE, Charlie IF-2ROSS, Charles AOL-4ROSS, David AGC-1ROSS, Jim CHS-2ROSSE, Ray MSROZON, Chris CHS-1RUDDERHAM, Dave MEL-1RUMLEY, Betty AOL-2RUSHTON, Laurie MEL-1RUSHTON, Terry IF-2RUXTON, Michael CHS-1RYAN, Anne CHS-1

SABOWITZ, Norman IF-4SADI, Jorge DawsonSAMEOTO, Doug MEL-1SANDSTROM, Hal AOL-4SAUNDERS, Jo-Anne IF-4SCHAFER, Charles AGC-3SCHIPILOW, Cathy CHS-2SCHWARTZ, Bernie IF-2SCHWINGHAMER, Peter MEL-2SCOTNEY, Murray AOL-2SCOTT, Ray IF-1

84

SEIBERT, Gerald OIDSELIG, Byron HudsonSHATFORD, Lester AOL-3SHAY, Juanita IF-2SHELDON, Ray MEL-3SHERIN, Andy AGC-4SHIH, Keh-Gong AGC-5SHOTTON, Ross MEL-3SILVERT, Bill MEL-3SIMMONS, Carol MEL-2SIMMS, Judy AOL-1SIMON, Jim MFDSIMPSON, Pat MFDSINCLAIR, Alan MFDSLADE, Harvey IF-5SMITH, Alan CHS-2SMITH, Burt CHS-lSMITH, Bill MFDSMITH, Don DawsonSMITH, Fred IF-1SMITH, John AOL-1SMITH, John MEL-1SMITH, Marion AOL-2SMITH, Michelle SRUSMITH, Peter AOL-2SMITH, Steve MFDSMITH, Stu AOL-4SMITH, Sylvia MEL

Bill Findley.

SONNICHSEN, Gary AGC-3SPARKES, Roy AGC-3SPENCER, Florence AGC-4SPENCER, Sid IF-2SRIVASTAVA, Shiri AGC-5STACEY, Russ MSSTEAD, Gordon CHS-2

Gerry Connolly.

STEELE, Trudi AOL-4STEEVES, George IF-2STEPANCZAK, Mike AOL-3STILO, Carlos BaffinSTIRLING, Charles CHS-1STOBO, Nancy MFDSTOBO, Wayne MFDSTOCKMAL, Glen AGC-5STODDART, Stan HudsonSTOLL, Hartmut IF-2STRAIN, Peter AOL-1STRUM, Loran HudsonSTUART, Al IF-2STUIFBERGEN, Nick CHS-4SUTHERLAND, Betty IF-4SWIM, Minard CHS-1SYMES, Jane PSY MONDS, Graham AOL-4SYVITSKI, James AGC-3

TAN, Francis AOL-1TANG, Charles AOL-2TAYLOR, Bob AGC-3TAYLOR, George MEL-3TEE, Kim-Tai AOL-4TEMPLEMAN-KLUIT, Dirk AGCTHOMAS, Frank AGC-2TILLMAN, Betty PTINSLEY, Beth AGC-1TOLLIVER, Deloros AGC-1TOMS, Elaine IF-4TOPLISS, Brenda AOL-2TOTTEN, Gary IF-1

TOULANY, Bechara AOL-2TRITES, Ron MEL-3

VANDERMEULEN, John MEL-2VARBEFF, Boris IF-2VARMA, Herman CHS-1VASS, Peter MEL-2VAUGHAN, Betty IF-2VAUTOUR, Jean-Claude CHS-1VERGE, Ed AOL-2VETESE, Barb AGC-1VEZINA, Guy IF-2VILKS, Gus AGC-3VINE, Dick IF-2VIOLETTE-HARVEY, Claire IF-2

WADE, John AGC-2WALDRON, Don MFDWALKER, Bob AOL-2WALSH, Carl IF-1WARD, Brian IF-2WARDROPE, Dick IF-2WARNELL, Margaret IF-3WATSON, Nelson MEL-1WEBBER, Shirley MSWELLS, Richard CAFSACWENTZELL, Cathy MSWESTHAVER, Don IF-2WESTON, Sandra CHS-2WHITE, George MFDWHITE, Joe, MSWHITE, Keith CHS-3WHITEWAY, Bill AOL-3WHITMAN, John AOL-3WIECHULA, Marek IF-3WIELE, Heinz IF-5WILE, Bruce AOL-4WILLIAMS, Doug MSWILLIAMS, Graham AGC-2WILLIAMS, Pat AOLWILLIS, Doug MEL-2WILSON, George HudsonWILSON, Jim IF-2WINTER, Danny IF-2WINTERS, Gary AGC-3WOOD, Rick BaffinWOODSIDE, John AGC-5WRIGHT, Dan AOL-4WRIGHT, Morley IF-2

YEATS, Phil AOL-1YOULE, Gordon AOL-3YOUNG, Gerry MFDYOUNG, Scott AOL-3

ZEMLYAK, Frank AOL-1ZINCK, Maurice MEL-2ZWANENBURG, Kees MFD

Phil Rafuse.

chapter 9

Project listing

We present below a current listing of theprojects (A,B,C, etc.) and individual inves-tigations (1,2,3, etc.) being undertaken bythe four major components of the BedfordInstitute of Oceanography: the AtlanticOceanographic Laboratory, MarineEcology Laboratory, Atlantic GeoscienceCentre, and Atlantic Region of theCanadian Hydrographic Service. For moreinformation on these projects and those ofother BIO components, feel free to writeto Publication Services, Bedford Instituteof Oceanography, P.O. Box 1006,Dartmouth, Nova Scotia B2Y 4A2.

ATLANTICOCEANOGRAPHICLABORATORYA. SURFACE AND MIXED-LAYEROCEANOGRAPHY

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9 .

Humidity exchange over the sea(HEXOS) programme (S.D. Smith,R.J. Anderson)Studies of the growth of wind waves inthe open sea (F. W. Dobson)Wave climate studies (W. Perrie,B. Toulany)Oil trajectory analysis (D. J. Lawrence,J.A. Elliott)Iceberg drift track modelling(S.D. Smith)Microstructure studies in the ocean(N.S. Oakey)Near-surface velocity measurements(N. S. Oakey)Investigations of air-sea fluxes of heatand momentum on large space andtime scales using newly calibrated bulkformulae (F. W. Dobson, S.D. Smith)Labrador coast ice (G. Symonds)

10. Gulf of St. Lawrence ice studies(G. L. Bugden)

11. Marginal ice zone experiment(MIZEX): Wind stress and heat fluxin the ice margin (S.D. Smith,R.J. Anderson)

12. Small-scale structure in a Gulf Streamwarm core ring (C.L. Tang,A.S. Bennett, D.J. Lawrence)

13. Sea ice dynamics - MIZEX(G. Symonds)

14. Wind sea dynamics (W. Perrie,B. Toulany)

The Gadus Atlantica under steam.(Courtesy of the Norrhwest AtlanticFisheries Centre)

15. Current measurements near the oceansurface (P.C. Smith, D.J. Lawrence,J.A. Elliott, D.L. McKeown)

B. LARGE-SCALE DEEP-SEAOCEANOGRAPHY

1.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

Labrador sea water formation(R.A. Clarke, N.S. Oakey,J. -C. Gascard (France))Modelling the Labrador Sea (C. Quon)Labrador current variability(R . A. Clarke)Age determinations in Baffin Baybottom water (E.P. Jones)Moored measurements of Gulf Streamvariability: A statistical and mappingexperiment (R.M. Hendry)Newfoundland basin experiment(R.A. Clarke, R.M. Hendry)Problems in geophysical fluid dynamics(C. Quon)Northwest Atlantic atlases(R.F. Reiniger, D. Gregory,R.A. Clarke, R.M. Hendry)Norwegian/Greenland sea experiment(R.A. Clarke, J.A. Swift (ScrippsInstitution of Oceanography), J. Reid,(Scripps Institution of Oceanography),N.S Oakey, E.P. Jones, R. Weiss(Scripps Institution of Oceanography))Baseline hydrography: North Atlanticat 48°N (R.M. Hendry)Studies of the North Atlantic currentand the seaward flow of Labradorcurrent waters (J.R.N. Lazier,D. Wright)Geochemical tracer studies(G. T. Needler, D. Wright)

13. Ship of opportunity expendablebathythermography programme forstudy of heat storage in the NorthAtlantic Ocean (F. W. Dobson)

14. /Gulf Stream extension experiment(R . M. Hendry)

C. CONTINENTAL SHELF ANDPASSAGE DYNAMICS

1. Circulation off southwest NovaScotia: The Cape Sable Experiment(P.C. Smith. D. Lefaivre (OSSQuebec), K.T. Tee, R. W. Trites)

the

2. The Shelf Break Experiment: A studyof low-frequency dynamics and mixingat the edge of the Scotian Shelf(P.C. Smith, B.D. Petrie)

3. Flow through the Strait of Belle Isle(B.D. Petrie, C. J. R. Garrett (DalhousieUniversity), B. Toulany, D. Greenberg)

4. Shelf dynamics - Avalon Channelexperiment (B.D. Petrie, C. Anderson)

5. Current surges and mixing on thecontinental shelf induced by largeamplitude internal waves(H. Sandstrom, J.A. Elliott)

6. Batfish internal waves (A.S. Bennett)7. Theoretical investigations into

8

9.

circulation and mixing on GeorgesBank: Dynamics of tidal rectificationover submarine topography(J. W. Loder, D. Wright)Numerical models of residualcirculation and mixing in the Gulf ofMaine (D.A. Greenberg, J. W. Loder,P.C. Smith, D. Wright)Theoretical investigations intocirculation and mixing on GeorgesBank: Mixing and circulation onGeorges Bank (J. W. Loder, D. Wright)

10. Circulation and dispersion on BrownsBank: The physical oceanographiccomponent of the Fisheries EcologyProgram (P.C. Smith)

D. CONTINENTAL SHELF ANDPASSAGE WATER-MASS ANDTRANSPORT STUDIES

1. Analyses of the physical oceanographicdata from the Labrador Current(J.R.N. Lazier)

2. Flemish Cap Experiment (C.K. Ross)3. Long-term monitoring of the Labrador

Current at Hamilton Bank(J.R.N. Lazier)

4. Long-term temperature monitoring(D. Dobson, B.D. Petrie)

85

Collecting water samples from C.S.S. Hudson’s sampling platform on awinter’s night.

5. Data management and archival(D. N. Gregory)

6. Development of a remote sensingfacility in the Atlantic OceanographicLaboratory (C.S. Mason, B. Topliss,L. Payzant)

7. Oceanography of the Newfoundlandcontinental shelf (B.D. Petrie,J. Moen)

8. Eastern Arctic physical oceanography(C.K. Ross)

9. Water transport through and in theNorthwest Passage (S.J. Prinsenberg,B. Bennett)

10. Heat and salt budget studies for theGrand Banks Program (J. W.Loder,K.F. Drinkwater, B.D. Petrie)

E. OCEANOGRAPHY OF ESTUARIESAND EMBAYMENTS

1. Saguenay Fjord study (G.H. Seibert)2. Gulf of St. Lawrence frontal study

(C. Tang, A.S. Bennett)

86

3. Seasonal and interannual variabilityin the Gulf of St. Lawrence(G. L. Bugden)

4. Laurentian Channel currentmeasurements (G.L. Bugden)

5. The Gulf of St. Lawrence -Numerical modelling studies(K. T. Tee)

6. Tidal and residual currents 3-Dmodelling studies (K.T. Tee,D. Lefaivre)

7. Bay of Fundy tidal power - Studiesin physical oceanography(D. A. Greenberg)

8. Physical dynamics of particulatematter (K. Kranck)

9. Bottom and surface drifters(D. Gregory, F. Jordan, L. Petrie)

10. Suspended sediment modelling(D. A. Greenberg, C. L. Amos)

11. Winter processes in the Gulf ofSt. Lawrence (G.L. Bugden)

12. Modelling historical tides(D. A. Greenberg, D. Scott (DalhousieUniversity), D. Grant (GSC Ottawa))

13. Storm surges (D.A. Greenberg,T.S. Murty (OSS Pacific))

14. Circulation and air/sea fluxes ofHudson Bay and James Bay(S. J. Prinsenberg)

15. Foxe Basin mooring observationprogram to study tidal current, meancirculation, and water mass formationand transport (S.J. Prinsenberg)

16. Tidally induced residual current -Studies of mean current-tidal currentinteraction (Y. Tang, K.T. Tee)

F. SENSOR DEVELOPMENT

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

Anemometers for drifting buoys(J.-G. Dessureault, D. Harvey)CTDs and associated sensors(A. S. Bennett)Thermistor chains on drifting buoys(G.A. Fowler, J.A. Elliott)Towed biological sensors(A. W. Herman, M.R. Mitchell,S. W. Young, E.F. Phillips, D. Knox)The dynamics of primary andsecondary production on the ScotianShelf (A. W. Herman, D.D. Sameoto,T. Platt)Vertical profiling biological sensors(A. W. Herman, M.R. Mitchell,S. W. Young, E.F. Phillips)Zooplankton grazing andphytoplankton production dynamics(A. W. Herman, A.R. Longhurst,D.D. Sameoto, T. Platt)Real-time data acquisition(A.S. Bennett)CTD sensor time constantmeasurements (A.S. Bennett)Moored biological sensors(A. W. Herman, M. R. Mitchell,S. W. Young, E.F. Phillips)Satellite estimations of primaryproductivity (B.J. Topliss, T.C. Platt)Optical properties of Canadian waters(B.J. Topliss)

G. SURVEY AND POSITIONINGSYSTEM DEVELOPMENT

1. Bottom-referenced acousticpositioning systems (D. L. McKeown)

2. Ship-referenced acoustic positioningsystems (D. L. McKeown)

3. Multifrequency acoustic scanning ofthe water column (N.A. Cochrane)

4. Doppler current profiler(N.A. Cochrane)

H. OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTDEVELOPMENT

1. Mooring system development(G.A. Fowler, A.J. Hartling,R.F. Reiniger, J. Hamilton)

2. Handling and operational techniquesfor instrument/cable systems(J. -G. Dessureault, R.F. Reiniger,D.R. Harvey)

3. In-situ sampling of suspendedparticulate matter (D. L. McKeown,B. Beanlands, P.A. Yeats)

1. NEARSHORE AND ESTUARINEGEOCHEMISTRY

1. Estuarine and coastal trace metalgeochemistry (P.A. Yeats,D.H. Loring)

2. Atmospheric input into the ocean(P.A. Yeats, J.A. Dalziel)

3. Sediment geochronology andgeochemistry in the Saguenay Fjord(J.N. Smith, K. Ellis, R. Nelson,D. Nelson)

4. Organic carbon transport in majorworld rivers: The St. Lawrence River,Canada (R. Pocklington, F.C. Tan)

5. Physical-chemical controls ofparticulate heavy metals in a turbidtidal estuary (D.H. Loring)

6. Organic carbon sinks in shelf andslope sediments (R. Pocklington,E. Premuzic)

7. Arctic and west coast fjords(J.N. Smith, K. Ellis, C. T. Schafer,J.P.M. Syvitski)

8. Chemical pathways of environmentaldegradation of oil (P.M. Strain,E.M. Levy)

9. Climate variability recorded in marinesediments (J.N. Smith, K. Ellis,C.T. Schafer)

10. Isotope geochemistry of major worldestuaries (J.M. Edmond(Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology), F.C. Tan)

11. Review of chemical oceanography inthe Gulf of St. Lawrence(J.M. Bewers, C. Cosper, E.M. Levy,D.H. Loring, R. Pocklington,J.N. Smith, F.C. Tan, P.A. Yeats)

12. Radioecological investigations ofplutonium in an arctic marineenvironment (J.N. Smith, K.M. Ellis,A. Aarkrog)

J. DEEP OCEAN MARINECHEMISTRY

1. Nutrient regeneration processes inBaffin Bay (E.P. Jones)

2. The carbonate system and nutrients inArctic regions (E.P. Jones)

3. Distribution of sea-ice meltwater inthe Arctic (F.C. Tan, P.M. Strain)

4. Trace metal geochemistry in theNorth Atlantic (P.A. Yeats,J.A. Dalziel)

5. Natural marine organic constituents(R. Pocklington, J.D. Leonard)

6. Paleoclimatological studies of LakeMelville sediment cores (F.C. Tan,G. Vilks)

7. Comparison of vertical distribution oftrace metals in the North Atlantic andNorth Pacific oceans (P.A. Yeats)

8. Radionuclide measurements in theArctic (J.N. Smith, K. Ellis,E.P. Jones)

9. Carbon isotope studies on particulateand dissolved organic carbon in deepsea and coastal environments(F.C. Tan, P.M. Strain)

A conference in progress in BIO’smain auditorium.

K. MARINE POLLUTIONCHEMISTRY

1. Petroleum hydrocarbon components(E.M. Levy)

2. Point Lepreau environmentalmonitoring program (J.N. Smith,K. Ellis, R. Nelson, J. Abriel)

3. Canadian marine analytical chemistrystandards program (J.M. Bewers,P.A. Yeats, J.A. Dalziel)

4. International activities (J.M. Bewers,E.M. Levy, D.H. Loring, J. N.Smith)

5. Joint Canada/FRG Caissonexperiments (D.H. Loring,R. Rantala, F. Prosi)

6. Marine emergencies (E.M. Levy)7. Heavy metal contamination in a

Greenland fjord (D.H. Loring)8. Intercalibration of petroleum residues

in the water column and sea-surfacemicrolayer (E.M. Levy)

9. ICES intercalibration for trace metalsin sediments (D.H. Loring)

10. Petroleum residues in the easternCanadian Arctic (E.M. Levy)

Brian Petrie and Linda Payzant dis-cuss a satellite image in BIO’s imageanalysis centre.

MARINEECOLOGYLABORATORY

A. PRIMARY PRODUCTIONPROCESSES

1.

2.

3.

4.

Biotropical properties of the pelagicocean (T. Platt)Physiology and biochemistry ofphotosynthesis, respiration, andgrowth in marine phytoplankton(J.C. Smith, T. Platt)Respiration, nutrient uptake, andregeneration in natural planktonpopulations (W.G. Harrison,J.C. Smith, T. Platt)Physical oceanography of selectedfeatures in connection with marineecological studies (E.P. W. Horne)Physiology of marine micro-organisms (W.K. W. Li)Picoplankton in the marine ecosystem(D. V. Subba Rao)Biological oceanography of the GrandBanks (E.P. W. Horne and others)

B. SECONDARY PRODUCTIONPROCESSES

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Carbon and nitrogen utilization byzooplankton and factors controllingsecondary production (R.J. Conover)Ecology of microzooplankton in theBedford Basin, Nova Scotia(M.A. Paranjape)Development of profiling equipment(BIONESS) and LHPR for planktonand microplankton (D.D. Sameoto)Secondary production and thedynamic distribution of micronektonand zooplankton on the Scotian Shelf(D.D. Sameoto, A.W. Herman,N. Cochrane)Nature and significance of verticalvariability in zooplankton profiles(A.R. Longhurst)Nutrition and biochemistry in marinezooplankton (E.J.H. Head)BIOSTAT program: Zooplankton andmicronekton (D.D. Sameoto)Feeding studies on zooplanktongrown in an algal chemostat(E.J.H. Head, R.J. Conover)

C. ATLANTIC CONSHELF ECOLOGY1. Scotian Shelf resources and the Shelf

ichthyoplankton program: Dataacquisition over large spatial and longtemporal scales (R.J. Conover)

2. Seasonal cycles of abundance anddistribution of microzooplankton onthe Scotian Shelf (M.A. Paranjape)

3. Comparison of methods used forcalculation of secondary productionfrom zooplankton population data(R.J. Conover)

4. Comparative studies of functionalstructure of pelagic ecosystems(A.R. Longhurst)

D. EASTERN ARCTIC ECOLOGICALSTUDIES

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

E.

Shore-based studies of under-icedistribution of zooplankton, theirreproduction and growth, and therelative importance of epontic andpelagic primary production in theirpreparation (R.J. Conover)Summertime shipboard studies in theeastern Canadian Arctic(E.J.H. Head)Feeding dynamics of zooplankton andmicronekton of the eastern Arctic(D.D. Sameoto)Distribution and abundance ofmicrozooplankton in the Arctic(M.A. Paranjape)Ecophysiological aspects of marinemicrobial processes (W.K.W. Li)Field and laboratory studies ofdiapause in copepods(N. H. F. Watson)

ECOLOGY OF FISHERIESPRODUCTION

1. Acoustic analysis of fish populationsand development of survey methods(L.M. Dickie and others)

2. Genetics of production parameters.I. Information from breedingexperiments and electrophoreticanalyses (L.M. Dickie, A. Mallet)

3. Genetics of production patterns.II. Variations in genotypes amongmarine environments and year-classes(L.M. Dickie, A. Mallet)

4. Metabolism and growth of fishes(S.R. Kerr, K. Waiwood)

5. Mathematical analysis of fishproduction systems (W. Silvert)

6. Size-structure spectrum of fishproduction (S.R. Kerr and others)

7. Plankton growth rates in relation tosize and temperature (R.W. Sheldon)

8. Bioenergetics: Marine mammals(P.F. Brodie)

9. Feeding strategies and ecologicalimpact of bivalve larvae (C. AbouDebs)

10. Mathematical analysis of fishpopulation interactions (S.R. Kerr,L.M. Dickie)

11. Marine mammal - Fisheriesinteraction (P.F. Brodie)

12. Grand Banks ecosystem models(W. Silvert and others)

F. ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABILITYEFFECTS

1. Residual current patterns on theCanadian Atlantic Continental Shelfas revealed by drift bottles andseabed drifters (R.W. Trites)

2. Water-type analyses for NAFO areas(R.W. Trites, K.F. Drinkwater)

3. Effects of Hudson Bay outflow onthe Labrador Shelf (K.F. Drinkwater)

4. Larval transport and diffusion studies(R.W. Trites, T. Rowell, E. Dawe)

5. Oil distribution in relation to windsand currents following the break-up

Troubleshooting electronic instru-m e n t s - Alex Herman and ScottYoung.

of the KURDISTAN (D.J. Lawrence,R.W. Trites, J.H. Vandermeulen)

6. Environmental variability-Correlations and response scales(R.W. Trites)

7. Climatic variability in the NAFOareas (R.W. Trites, K.F. Drinkwater)

8. Baffin Island fjords (R. W. Trites)

G. FISHERIES RECRUITMENTVARIABILITY

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

Steady state model and transientfeatures of the circulation ofSt. Georges Bay (K.F. Drinkwater)The decline of lobster stocks off theAtlantic coast of Nova Scotia(G.C.H. Harding and others)Nutrition and growth of micro-,macro-, and ichthyoplankton(R.W. Sheldon)Vertical movement of plankton,suspended matter, and dissolvednutrients in the water column ofcoastal embayments (G.C.H. Hardingand others)Characterization of water masses byparticle spectra as a means ofpredicting larval fish survival(R.W. Sheldon)Langmuir circulation and small-scaledistribution of the plankton(T. Lambert and others)Primary production dynamics(K.F. Drinkwater)Coupling of pelagic and benthicproduction systems(P. Schwinghamer, R.W. Sheldon,S. R. Kerr)Instrument development for surveysof particle size distributions(R.W. Trites)Trophic relations in nearshore kelpcommunities (K.H. Mann)Mixing and the temperature-salinitycharacteristics of the water in thesoutheastern Magdalen Shallows(K.F. Drinkwater)Fish reproductive strategies(T. Lambert)

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

Recruitment of larval lobsters alongsouthwest Nova Scotia, Bay ofFundy, and Gulf of Maine(G.C.H. Harding and others)Fine-scale measurements of larvalsurvival (K.T. Frank)Dispersal strategies of marine fishlarvae (K.T. Frank)Broad-scale spatial coherence ofreproductive success among discretestocks of capelin (K.T. Frank,W. Leggett, J. Carscadden)Southwest Nova Scotia fisheriesecology-benthic production processes(P. Schwinghamer, D.L. Peer,J. Grant)

H. SUBLETHAL CONTAMINATIONAND EFFECTS

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

MFO induction by PCBs and PCBreplacements (R.F. Addison)Organochlorines in seals(R.F. Addison)Fate, metabolism, and the effects ofpetroleum hydrocarbons in the marineenvironment (J.H. Vandermeulen)Organochlorine dynamics in themarine pelagic ecosystem(G.C.H. Harding, R.F. Addison)Transfer of metalloids through themarine food chain (J.H. Vandermeulen)Hazard assessment of “new”environment contaminants(R.F. Addison)“Calibration” of MFO system inwinter flounder as an effectsmonitoring tool (R.F. Addison)

I. BAY OF FUNDY ECOLOGICALSTUDIES

1. Ice dynamics in the upper reaches ofthe Bay of Fundy (D.C. Gordon)

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

Primary production in the Bay ofFundy (D.C. Gordon, P.D. Keizer,N. Prouse)Concentration, distribution, seasonalvariation, and flux of inorganicnutrients and organic matter inshallow waters and intertidalsediments in the upper reaches of theBay of Fundy (D.C. Gordon andothers)Intertidal primary production andrespiration and the availability ofsediment organic matter(B. T. Hargrave, P. Schwinghamer,C. Hawkins)Microbial ecology of the Bay ofFundy (L. Cammen, P. Schwinghamer)Subtidal benthic ecology of the Bayof Fundy (P. Schwinghamer,D. L. Peer)Intertidal benthic ecology of theupper reaches of the Bay of Fundy(P. Schwinghamer and others)Zooplankton studies in CumberlandBasin (N. Prouse)Production, export, and ecologicalimportance of Bay of Fundysaltmarshes (D.C. Gordon and others)

88

10. Modelling of Bay of Fundyecosystems (D.C. Gordon and others)

J. DEEP OCEAN ECOLOGY1. Deep ocean benthic community

studies (P. Schwinghamer)2. Mobility of radionuclides and trace

metals in sediments (P.E. Kepkay)3. Activity of scavenging amphipods in

transfer of material in the deep ocean(B.T. Hargrave)

4. Vertical fluxes under the Arctic icecap (B.T. Hargrave, D.C. Gordon,G. C. H. Harding)

5. Microbial metabolism at interfaces(P.E. Kepkay)

ATLANTICGEOSCIENCECENTRE

A. COASTAL PROGRAM1.

2.

Consulting advice on physicalenvironmental problems in the coastalzone (R.B. Taylor)Morphology, sedimentology, anddynamics of Newfoundland coast(D.L. Forbes),

3.

4.

5.6.

Coastal environments and processesin the Canadian Arctic Archipelago(R.B. Taylor)Sediment dynamics and depositionalprocesses in the coastal zone(D.L. Forbes)Beaufort Sea coast (P.R. Hill)Permafrost processes in Arcticbeaches (R.B. Taylor)

B. COASTAL INLETS1. The physical behaviour of suspended

particulate matter in natural aqueousenvironments (J.P.M. Syvitski)

2. Sedimentology of fjords(J.P.M. Syvitski)

3. Sediment dynamics - Head of theBay of Fundy (C.L. Amos)

4. The Recent paleoclimatic andpaleoecologic records in fjordsediments (C.T. Schafer)

5. Satellite calibration for suspendedsediment concentration in marinecoastal environments (C.L. Amos)

C. SOUTHEASTERN CANADIANMARGIN

1. Bedrock and surficial geology, GrandBanks and Scotian Shelf (G.B. Fader)

2. Ice scouring of continental shelves(C.F.M. Lewis)

3. Stability and transport of sedimentson continental shelves (C.L. Amos)

4. Quaternary geologic processes oncontinental slopes (D.J.W. Piper)

5. Facies models of modern turbidites(D.J.W. Piper)

6. Engineering geology of the Atlanticshelf (C.F.M. Lewis)

7. Marine geotechnical study of the 4. Seismicity studies of the easternCanadian eastern and Arctic Canadian margins (I. Reid)continental shelves and slopes 5. Ocean Drilling Program site survey,(K. Moran) Labrador Sea (S.P. Srivastava)

D. EASTERN ARCTIC ANDSUBARCTIC

1. Eastern Baffin Island shelf bedrockand surficial geology mappingprogram (B.C. MacLean)

2. Surficial geology, geomorphology,and glaciology of the Labrador Sea(H.W. Josenhans)

3. Quaternary methods in marinepaleontology (G. Vilks)

4. Near-surface geology of the Arcticisland channels (B.C. MacLean)

5. Quantitative Quaternarypaleoecology, eastern Canada(P.J. Mudie)

I. THEORETICAL MODELLING1. Rift processes and the development of

passive continental margins(C.E. Keen)

1.

J. BASIN ANALYSIS ANDPETROLEUM GEOLOGY

2.

6. Temporal and spatial variation ofdeep ocean currents in the westernLabrador Sea (C.T. Schafer)

7. Ice-island sampling and investigationof sediments (ISIS) (P.J. Mudie)

3.

4.

E. WESTERN ARCTIC1. Surficial geology and geomorphology,

Beaufort Sea (S.M. Blasco)2. Beaufort Sea boundary dispute

studies (P.R. Hill)

5.

F. GEOCHEMISTRY1. Environmental geology of the deep

ocean (D.E. Buckley)

6.

7.

G. REGIONAL GEOPHYSICALSURVEYS

8.

Regional subsurface geology of theMesozoic and Cenozoic rocks of theAtlantic continental margin(J.A. Wade)Geological interpretation ofgeophysical data as an aid to basinsynthesis and hydrocarbon inventory(A.C. Grant)Compilation of geoscientific data inThe Upper Paleozoic basins of south-eastern Canada (R.D. Howie)Stratigraphy and sedimentology of theMesozoic and Tertiary rocks of theAtlantic continental margin(L. F. Jansa)Reconnaissance field study of theMesozoic sequences outcropping onthe Iberian Peninsula (L.F. Jansa)Evolution of east coast PaleozoicBasins (J.S. Bell)Sedimentary basin evolution of thecontinental margin of Newfoundland,Labrador, and Baffin Bay(D. McAlpine)Geology of the eastern margin ofCanada and other parts of theCanadian offshore (G.L. Williams)1.

2.

3.

4.

East coast offshore surveys(R.F. Macnab)Evaluation of Kss-30 gravimeter(B.D. Loncarevic)An earth science atlas of thecontinental margins of easternCanada (S.P. Srivastava)Arctic Ocean seismic refraction andrelated geophysical measurements(H.R. Jackson)Potential fields data base operation(J.M. Woodside)Seismic refraction along the CanadianPolar margin (H.R. Jackson)Satellite altimetry applications formarine gravity (J.M. Woodside)Regional geophysics of the Mesozoic-Cenozoic of Baffin Bay and LabradorMargin

H. DEEP STRUCTURALINVESTIGATIONS

1. Comparative studies of thecontinental margins of the LabradorSea and the North Atlantic(S.P. Srivastava)

2. Seismic studies of continental margins

3

and ocean basins of the NorthAtlantic (LASE) (I. Reid)Surficial geology and crustal structureof the Alpha Ridge, Arctic Ocean(H.R. Jackson)

K.1.

2

34

5

L.1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

RESOURCE APPRAISALHydrocarbon inventory of thesedimentary basins of eastern Canada(J.S. Bell)Rank and petrographic studies of coaland organic matter dispersed insediments (P.A. Hacquebard)Maturation studies (J.S. Bell)Interpretation of geophysical datafrom the Scotian margin and adjacentareas as an aid to basin synthesis andto estimation of hydrocarbonpotential (B.C. MacLean)Sedimentological and geochemicalstudies of hydrocarbon reservoirs,offshore eastern Canada

BIOSTRATIGRAPHYIdentification and biostratigraphicinterpretation of referred fossils(S.M. Barss)Palynological zonation of theCarboniferous and Permian rocks ofthe Atlantic provinces, Gulf ofSt. Lawrence, and northern Canada(S.M. Barss)Biostratigraphy of the Atlantic andrelevant areas (R.A. Fensome)Taxonomy, phylogeny, and ecologyof palynomorphs (R.A. Fensome) ,DSDP dinoflagellates (G.L. Williams)

89

6.

7.

8.

9

M1

2.

3.4.

Biostratigraphic zonation(Foraminifera, Ostracoda) of theMesozoic and Cenozoic rocks of theAtlantic shelf (P. Ascoli)Biostratigraphic data-processingdevelopment (S.M. Barss)Quaternary biostratigraphic methodsfor marine sediments (G. Vilks)Quantitative stratigraphy in paleo-oceanography and petroleum basinanalysis (F.M. Gradstein)

DATA BASESGeological Survey of Canadarepresentative on steering committeefor the Kremp palynologic computerresearch project (M.S. Barss)Information base-offshore east coastwells (G.L. Williams)Data inventory (I. Hardy)Coastal information systemdevelopment (D. Forbes)

N. TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT1. Sediment dynamics monitor -

RALPH (D.E Heffler)2. Development of Vibracorer/drill for

geotechnical, geological, andengineering studies (K.S. Manchester)

3. Development and implementation ofcable handling and maintenanceprocedures (K.S. Manchester)

4. Seabed II (G.B. Fader)5. Digital single channel seismic data

(B. Nichols)6. CIGAL - Computer Integrated

Geophysical Acquisition and Logging(B.D. Loncarevic)

0. SPECIAL PROJECTS1. Ocean Drilling Program planning

(D.I. Ross)2. Boundary disputes: St. Pierre and

Miquelon; Beaufort Sea (D.I. Ross)

Gordon Fader and Bob Milleraboard C.S.S. Hudson.

ATLANTIC REGION,CANADIANHYDROGRAPHICSERVICE

A. FIELD SURVEYSCoastal and Harbour Surveys:St. Mary’s Bay, N.S. (D.A. Blaney)Saint John Harbour, N.B.(D.A. Blaney)Strait of Belle Isle, Nfld.(D.A. Blaney)Argentia, Nfld. (D.A. Blaney)St. John’s Harbour, Nfld.(D.A. Blaney)Halifax Harbour, N.S. (C. Stirling)Goose Bay, Labrador (K. Malone)Yarmouth Harbour, N.S.(S. Dunbrack, D.A. Blaney,J. Ferguson)Notre Dame Bay, Nfld. (V. Gaudet)Jones Sound, N.W.T. (V. Gaudet)New Brunswick - North ShoreHarbours (E.J. Comeau)Offshore Scotian Shelf (V. Gaudet)

3. St. Pierre Bank (G.W. Henderson)4. Revisory Survey of Pictou, N.S., to

Chaleur Bay, N.B. (G. Rockwell)5. Miramichi River (G. Rockwell)6. Nachvak Fiord, Labrador

(E.J. Comeau)7. Longstaff Bluff, Foxe Basin

8

9

10

(E.J. Comeau)Navy Board Inlet, N.W.T.(C. Stirling)Contract survey of Notre Dame Bay,Nfld. (K. Malone)Contract survey of Roche Bay andApproaches, N.W.T.(G.W. Henderson)

B. TIDES, CURRENTS, AND WATERLEVELS

1.

2.

3.

4.

Ongoing support to CHS FieldSurveys and Chart Production(S.T. Grant, C. O‘Reilly,L. MacDonald, C. P. McGinn,G.B. Lutwick, F. Carmichael)Operation of the Permanent Tidesand Water Levels Gauging Network(S.T. Grant, C. P. McGinn, G. B.Lutwick, F. Carmichael,L. MacDonald)Review and update of 1986 TideTables and Sailing Directions(S.T. Grant, C. O‘Reilly)Tidal and Current Surveys andNumerical Modelling Projects(S.T. Grant)- Numerical tidal model of Hudson

Strait/Ungava Bay (under contractto Martec Ltd.)

5.

6.

ICo-tidal Chart Study of YarmouthHarbour (C. O’Reilly)P.I.L.P program to transfer tidalsurvey technology to MacAuleySurveys, Moncton, N.B. (S.T. Grant,C.P. McGinn)

C. NAVIGATION

- Tidal and current survey of HudsonStrait/Ungava Bay (under contractto Terra Surveys Ltd.)

- Co-tidal study of MiramichiRiver/Estuary (under contract toDiscovery Consultants Ltd.)

- Tidal Survey of MiramichiRiver/Estuary (under contract toMarinav Ltd.)

1. Loran-C calibrations in AtlanticCanada for large-scale charts(R.M. Eaton)

2. Loran-C error accuracy-enhancementfor Atlantic Canada (N. Stuifbergen)

3. Navstar evaluations (R.M. Eaton)4. Upgrading BIONAV (H. Boudreau)5. Development of electronic charting

(R.M. Eaton)

D. CHART PRODUCTION1. Production of 8 New Charts,

7 Standard New Editions, and 5 NewEditions for Loran-C (T.B. Smith,S. Weston)

E. SAILING DIRECTIONS1. Publication of the Small Craft Guide,

Saint John River, Third Edition(R. Pietrzak)

2. Revisions to Sailing Directions,Nova Scotia (SE Coast), and Bay ofFundy (R. Pietrzak)

F. HYDROGRAPHIC DEVELOPMENT1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

G.1.

Implementation of a portableNavitronic vertical acoustic sweepsystem (R.G. Burke, S.R. Forbes)Design specifications for a dedicatedsweep vessel (R.G.Burke, S.R. Forbes)DOLPHIN Trials - Sable IslandBank (R.G. Burke, K. Malone)Enhancing automated field surveys(H. Varma, K.T. White)Enhancing computer-assisted chartproduction (S.R. Forbes)

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENTARCS - Development of anAutonomous Remotely ControlledSubmersible for use in the Arcticunder ice cover (under contract toInternational Submarine EngineeringLtd.)

90

chapter 10

Excerpts from the BIO log

= 1984 at BIO began with triple honours for the MarineEcology Laboratory (MEL): papers published in the sixties byBob Conover, Lloyd Dickie, and Ken Mann were selected asCitation Classics, the most cited papers in their particulardisciplines over decades.

= Early in the year, Felix Gradstein of the Atlantic Geo-science Centre (AGC) taught a course on new concepts andmethods in stratigraphy at the University of Kharagpur inIndia: Trevor Platt of MEL, together with American andChilean colleagues, taught a course on pelagic ecology at theCatholic University of Chile. At the invitation of the People’sRepublic of China, Francis Tan and Charles Quon of theAtlantic Oceanographic Laboratory (AOL) conductedseparate lecture tours at various Chinese institutions anduniversities.

= Based on work done by BIO staff, the Canadian Hydro-graphic Service (CHS) published the 3rd edition of the SmallCraft Guide for the Saint John River in New Brunswick: thissupplement to the Small Craft Chart included, for the firsttime, oblique aerial photographs and historical notes on theRiver.

= CSS Hudson began her 1984 voyages [voyage 84-001,January 24 through February 8] with a 2-week multidisciplin-ary survey of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Under AOL seniorscientist Gary Bugden, 6 scientific parties made a variety ofmeasurements, many the first of their kind taken in the Gulfduring winter, that permitted scientists to compare seasonalvariations in the biological, physical, and chemical processesat work in the Gulf.

= Using the icebreaker CCGS Labrador, the Atlantic Regionof CHS completed field sheets for a new route connectingDavis Inlet to Nain, Labrador, which cuts 6 hours from thesteaming time between these two northern communities andprovides a sheltered navigation corridor expected to be ice-free earlier in the shipping season than was the previouslyused route.

= A team of 5 biologists from the Marine Fish Division(MFD) spent February on Sable Island counting and taggingthe year’s crop of grey seal pups: 5824 pups were produced ofwhich 5188 were tagged. Of the total produced, 700 diedfrom natural causes before they could begin their lives at sea.

= During March, CSS Baffin worked the front in the icefields off southern Labrador. Two parties conducted inde-pendent studies from the ship: scientists from MEL, DFO’sNorthwest Atlantic Fisheries Centre, and the SmithsonianInstitution (USA) collected data on harp and hooded sealswhile other MEL oceanographers investigated the physiologyof phytoplankton below the late-winter ice cover just as solarradiation increased and growth of plant life was imminent.

= From March 17-22, a major international meeting washeld at Lava1 University: organized by Ken Mann and TrevorPlatt of MEL at the request of the Scientific Committee onOceanic Research, it brought together leading theoreticiansfrom many disciplines. Some of the potential applications ofthermodynamics, information theory, flow analysis, andstatistical mechanics to biological oceanography wereoutlined for the audience of mainly biological specialists.

Ken Mann, Lloyd Dickie, and Bob Conover. C.S.S. Hudson, the largest vessel in our fleet.

9 1

AOL‘s Bruce Pinsent advises Korean engineer HoKyung Jun. AOL is helping Korean Ocean Research andDevelopment Institute develop its ocean study capabili-ties under a UN. Development Program.

= Each year, CHS at BIO conducts courses on navigationusing Loran C and Satnav and on surveying of tides and cur-rents for both BIO staff and external users. This year, 43 per-sons from as far east as St. John’s and as far west as QuebecCity attended February’s navigation courses and 27 mostlyexternal participants enrolled in March’s tidal/currentsurveying course.

= In April, AGC geologists collected some 500 m ofcontinuous rotary-core samples for various geological studiesfrom the Hibernia I-46 oil well. All hydrocarbon maturationdata from the East Newfoundland Basin’s 9 wells are beinganalysed to allow a hydrocarbon generation model for thearea to be constructed.

= In late May, it was learned that BIO Review ‘82 and itseditor, Michael Latremouille, had won the 1983 Distin-guished Technical Communication Award from the Societyfor Technical Communication’s Eastern Ontario Chapter.

Michael Latremouille, editor of the BIO Review.

= A major new edition of Chart 4910 (Miramichi River,New Brunswick) was released in May depicting the newnavigational channel and associated navigational aids. Thispublication capped a 3-year, multimillion dollar program bythe departments of Public Works, Transport, and Fisheriesand Oceans to provide a safer and deeper navigationalchannel for marine interests in the area.

= A comprehensive review was completed by AGC staff ofall geological data pertinent to the Labrador ContinentalShelf: these data will form the basis for a 1:2,000,000 Quater-nary sediment-map to be published in a new edition of theGeology of Canada, a multivolume work now being preparedas a periodic review of Canada’s geology and as a Canadiancontribution to the Geological Survey of America’s centen-nial project known as “The Decade of North AmericanGeology”.

= Ray Sheldon of MEL, in recognition of his outstandingresearch on the linear biomass spectrum of the ocean, was

Aerial view of the Saint John River, New Brunswick.

92

The transportable “‘sweep” system provides total bathy-metric survey coverage for charting of harbours.

awarded the degree of Doctor of Science by the University ofManchester.

= BIO’s quadrennial Open House Days were held May 30ththrough June 3rd. Over 30,000 visitors came to view the manyexhibits, tour research vessels, witness equipment demonstra-tions, and attend a popular series of lectures by scientists ontopics of interest to the public such as offshore oil and gaspotential and Bay of Fundy tidal power and its environmentalimplications.

= The 2nd joint annual congress of the CanadianMeteorological and Oceanographic Society and the CanadianGeophysical Union was attended by over 400 people fromMay 29th through June 1st at Dalhousie University inHalifax. BIO staff contributed to and benefitted from thecongress’s success in many ways: over 45 papers werepresented or co-authored by BIO staff, over 60 BIO scientistsparticipated including 9 who served on organizing commit-tees, and delegates were given a special preview tour of BIO’sopen house days.

= In a very successful test voyage aboard CSS Hudson inJune, the prototype Seabed II deep ocean mapping systemfirst described in BIO Review ‘83 was put through its paces. Itreturned high-quality data and yielded new scientific findingson the Verrill Canyon. Seabed II, the first totally Canadiandeep-ocean technology, was developed in a specialgovernment-industry project by Huntec ‘70 Ltd.

= Since the late 70s, AOL has been working to develop cur-rent meter moorings that can be deployed and safely recov-ered after one year or longer. Safe mooring-exposure timeswere less than 3 months but, in June, five 470-m long moor-ings of 4 current meters each were recovered after an exposureof 1 year in the Gulf Stream off eastern Canada.

= In July, visiting scholar Rong Wang of the Institute ofOceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, completed al-year project with MEL’s Bob Conover that resulted in dis-covery of an improved method for determining zooplanktongrazing rates in the oceans.

= Using Office of Energy Research and Development funds,AOL engineers completed development of technology toincrease the operating depth of the Batfish towed vehiclefrom 200 to 425 m at a towing speed of 8 knots. Thisenhancement permits much deeper and more detailed surveysof the ocean’s surface layers to be made.

= During the summer of 1984, AOL installed an in-houseimage-analysis system as a research tool for oceanographicapplications. The cover illustration for this edition of BIOReview was prepared on this system, which comprises aVAX-750 computer and Adage colour image terminaltogether with software developed by Perceptron ComputingLtd. of Toronto. BIO scientists have now been trainedon the system and University of Miami software containingoceanography-specific image analysis routines is beingbrought in.

= A BIO “total coverage” bathymetric survey system devel-oped through Arctic Transportation R&D funds was given itsfirst operational Arctic trials in August. The transportablesweep system functioned well under Arctic conditions andvaluable experience was gained on deploying it from a ship’slaunch.

= In August, AGC staff completed aerial video coverage ofalmost the entire coast from Tuktoyaktuk Peninsula to theAlaska border and collected other data that will provideinformation on the long-term rates of coastal erosion for theBeaufort Sea.

= The Marine Fish Division reviews the annual fish stockassessments it has conducted through the Canadian AtlanticFisheries Scientific Advisory Committee each year to identifyand resolve problems. At a workshop in late August, theycompleted the most comprehensive and generalized review oftheir methods and programs to date. As a result, significantimprovements were made to the 1985 assessments.

= Scientists from AOL participated in the international mar-ginal Ice Zone Experiment (MIZEX) aboard the Germanicebreaker Polarstern in Fram Strait between Spitzbergen and

Grey seals on Sable Island during breeding season. The German (F. D.R.) research vessel Polarstern wasused during the international Marginal Ice ZoneExperiment.

93

The Seabed II deep ocean mapping system during its seatrials.

Greenland through June and July. The experiment wasdesigned to study the meteorology and oceanography of areasnear the edges of large ice-fields.

= In early September, a special session on the biology andecology of squids in the Northwest Atlantic was held at BIO.Organized by the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization,it brought together 45 specialists from Canada, Cuba,Denmark, the Federal Republic of Germany, France, Japan,Norway, Poland, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and theUnited States to review the many advances of recent years incephalopod biology and to discuss directions for futureresearch.

= In early October, BIO hosted the annual meeting of theMadrid-based International Commission for the Conserva-tion of Atlantic Tunas. This was followed by a special scien-tific session on the status of the bluefin tuna of the NorthwestAtlantic, a topic of great interest to us here in the Maritimes.

= The 686-page report “Update on the marine environmen-tal consequences of tidal power development in the upperreaches of the Bay of Fundy” was published in October[see Chapter 6, Gordon and Dadswell, 1984]. The report,expected to be referred to for years to come, summarizes allthe Fundy research projects conducted since 1976 that wereco-ordinated by the Atlantic Provinces Council on theSciences and in which many MEL staff participated.

= The fourth Offshore Technology Exposition(CORE) was held in Halifax in mid-October. Both AGC andDFO at BIO exhibited. One AGC display was a diode-lit oiland gas map of offshore eastern Canada depicting the loca-tions of all exploratory wells drilled and their status. DFO atBIO displays included the prototype ARCS vehicles forunder-ice surveys and a model of the storm that sank theOcean Ranger.

Space walker Kathy Sullivan visited BIO in 1984.

= Trevor Platt of MEL and Farooq Azam of the ScrippsInstitution of Oceanography were joint winners of the1984 Rosenstiel Award in Oceanographic Science presentedby the University of Miami and the American Associationfor the Advancement of Sciences. They were cited forhaving "spearheaded" the most significant advances inbiological oceanography over the past ten years”.

= By late November, CSS Baffin had completed a 33-daycombined hydrographic-geophysical survey south ofNewfoundland in which over 6600 nautical miles of trackdata were collected at 10-mile line spacings. The projectwas jointly undertaken by the Gravity, Geothermics, andGeodynamics Division of DEMR’s Earth Physics Branch,AGC, and the Atlantic Region of CHS.

= This year, for the first time, BIO scientists had directaccess to a Cray ‘super-computer’ through the DOE/AESfacility in Dorval, Quebec. BIO use of the facility was much

numerical solving of a finite difference equationlithospheric deformation.

heavier than forecast for studies such as modelling of large-scale ocean circulation and baroclinic wave structure and

related to

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Dr. Wally Broecker, a geochemist at the Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory, was the ninth recipi-ent of the A. G. Huntsman silver medal for excellence inthe marine sciences. He received the medal for his wideranging research into the chemical processes operatingin the oceans, particularly his use of radioisotopes indating minerals, ocean sediments, and sea water. Hiswork eventually led to investigations tracing the slowdeep flow within the oceans and estimating the rates atwhich the ocean exchanges its waters over the entireglobe.

= During the year, AOL continued its assistance, begun in1981, in the development of Korean ocean study capabilities.Under a United Nations Development Program, 5 AOL tech-nologists will spend about 34 weeks over the next 3 years atKORDI, the Korean Ocean Research and Development Insti-tute, and 4 KORDI engineers will spend a total 50 weeks overthat period at AOL and at the DFO Marine EnvironmentalData Services Branch in Ottawa.

= AOL was a major participant in the Pilot Experiment ofthe Humidity Exchange Over the Sea (HEXOS) program thatwas carried out in November at an offshore research platformin the North Sea, 10 km off the coast of the Netherlands.

= Among the visitors to BIO during 1984 were:Dr. Terence Armstrong of the Scott Polar Research Institute;President Eanes of Portugal and senior members of his staff;the Canada-United States Military Co-operation Committee,

which comprised some 20 senior officers from both countries;Mr. Christopher Trump, Vice President of SPAR Aerospace;participants in the fourth summer training camp in oceanmanagement conducted this year in Halifax by the Interna-tional Ocean Institute of Malta in co-operation with theCentre for Foreign Policy Studies at Dalhousie University;Professor Wolfgang Krauss of the Institut fur Meereskunde,FRG; Captain A. Civetta, Chief Hydrographer of the ItalianNavy with his staff and the Italian military attache;Dr. Warren Godson, Senior Science Advisor with theAtmospheric Environment Service (DOE) in Downsview,Ontario; Dr. Andrew Y. Carey, Jr., Professor of Oceanog-raphy at the College of Oceanography, Oregon StateUniversity; Professor Yoshiaki Toba of the GeophysicalInstitute of Tohoku University in Japan; and Dr. KathrynSullivan, a mission specialist on NASA’s 1984 shuttle flight41G and a graduate of Dalhousie University.

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BIOMAILBIO’s Marine Advisory and Industrial Liaison office, or BIOMAIL forshort, is there to:l assist in obtaining oceanographic information for youl help you solve your problems with any aspect of oceanographyl smooth the transfer of our know-how to your companyl facilitate joint projects with BIO and industryl bring the right people together for an expansion of

oceanographic industry.

BIOMAIL’s scope is not limited to local or Canadian aspects; wehave access to global ocean information and expertise. The office ishere to serve the interests of Canadian industry for the benefit ofCanadian citizens.CONTACT:BIOMAILBedford Institute of OceanographyP.O. Box 1006Dartmouth, Nova ScotiaCANADA B2Y 4A2 Phone: (902) 426-3698 Telex: 019-31552

THE BEDFORD INSTITUTE OF OCEANOGRAPHY(BIO) is the principal oceanographic institution in Canada;it is operated within the framework of several federalgovernment departments; its staff, therefore. are publicservants.

BIO facilities (buildings, ships, computers, library, work-shops, etc.) are operated by the Department of Fisheriesand Oceans. The principal laboratories and departments are:Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO)= Canadian Hydrographic Service (Atlantic Region)= Atlantic Oceanographic Laboratory= Marine Ecology Laboratory= Marine Fish DivisionDepartment of Energy. Mines and Resources (DEMR)= Atlantic Geoscience CentreDepartment of the Environment (DOE)= Seabird Research Unit

BIO operates a fleet of three research vessels, togetherwith several smaller crafts. The two larger scientific ships,Hudson and Baffin, have global capability, extremely longendurance. and are Lloyds Ice Class I vessels able to workthroughout the Canadian Arctic.

BIO has four objectives:(1) To perform fundamental long-term research in all fields

of the marine sciences (and to act as the principal Cana-dian repository of expertise).

(2) To perform shorter-term applied research in response topresent national needs, and to advise on the manage-ment of our marine environment including its fisheriesand offshore hydrocarbon resources.

(3) To perform necessary surveys and cartographic work toensure a supply of suitable navigational charts for theregion from George’s Bank to the Northwest Passage inthe Canadian Arctic.

(4) To respond with all relevant expertise and assistance toany major marine emergency within the same region.

W.D. Bowen - Chief, Marine Fish Division,DFO

M.J Keen - Director. Atlantic GeoscienceCentre. DEMR

A.J. Kerr - Director, Atlantic Region. CanadianHydrographic Service, DFO

K.H. Mann - Director, Marine EcologyLaboratory, DFO

J.A. Elliott - Director, .Atlantic OceanographicLaboratory. DFO

D.N. Nettlehip - Seabird Research Unit. CanadianWildlife Service, DOE

Fisheries Pêchesand Oceans et Oceans

Energy, Mines andResources

Énergie, Mines etRessources

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