21Bio-intensive approaches for

management of pests and diseases insmall cardamom and black pepper

Dhanya M.K.1*, Rini C.R.2, Ashokkumar K.1, Murugan M.1, SuryaR.1 and Sathyan T.1

1Cardamom Research Station, Kerala Agricultural University,Pampadumpara, Kerala -685553, India.

2 Agricultural Research Station, Kerala Agricultural University,Thiruvalla, Kerala -689102, India.

*Corresponding author E-mail: dhanya_mk2000@yahoo.co.in

AbstractBlack pepper and cardamom are the two important high value spicecrops that flavor most foods all over the world. Pest and diseases arethe major production constraints for the successful cultivation of thesecrops. To manage these menaces, farmers are over using syntheticchemical pesticides indiscriminately and this result in environmentaldegradation and high pesticide residue levels in the produces. Nowthe focus is on organic spice production, therefore a search for safermeasures of pest and disease management is gaining importance.Integration of various approaches like use of resistant/tolerant varieties,disease or pest free planting materials and exploitation of biologicalmeans such as bio-control agents, bio-pesticides, entomo-pathogens,parasitoids and predators at the right time paved the way to achievethis goal. This enables the farming community to manage the diseasesand insect pests more economically with ecologically safer means.Most of the crop protection technologies needed for farmers are eitheralready available or in its advanced stages of development. This reviewattempts to disclose the major pest and diseases of cardamom and

Bio-intensive approaches: application and effectiveness in the managementof plant nematodes, insects and weeds (2019): 549-585

Editors : M.R. Khan, A.N. Mukhopadhyay, R.N. Pandey, M.P.Thakur, Dinesh Singh,M.A. Siddiqui, Md. Akram, F.A. Mohiddin and Z. Haque

Today & Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002, India

550

black pepper and their symptomatology as well as available bio-intensive measures including viable cultural practices for theirmanagement.

Key words: Pest and disease management, Host plant resistance,Cultural practices and Biological control

Introduction

India has been acclaimed as the land of spices from the timeimmemorial. Black pepper, rightly called as king of spices is one of themost important and most widely used spices in the world (Ravindran 2000).Cardamom across the world recognized as the queen of spices because ofits very pleasant aroma and taste, and is a native of the moist tropicalevergreen forest of the Western Ghats (WG) in southern India. The WGalso considered as center of origin and diversity for black pepper (Ravindran2002). Among pests shoot and capsule borer, thrips, root grub, whitefly,nematodes and diseases like capsule and panicle rot, clump rot, Fusariumrot, leaf blight and viral diseases are reported as major threats to commercialcardamom cultivation. Likewise, pests like pollu beetle, scales, top shootborer, thrips and root mealy bugs as well as diseases such as foot rot, slowwilt, fungal pollu and viral diseases contribute to the loss of black pepper.

Indiscriminate use of synthetic pesticides to manage these pestand diseases results in tremendous buildup of residues in export orientedproduce, which has recently invited debate and queries. This hadsignificantly affected the world wide acceptability of the king and queenof spices. Now, the demand for organic spices is growing among consumersat the rate of 20% annually (Krishnakumar 2015). The mission at themoment is to capture India’s pre-eminent position as spice bowl of theworld by producing and exporting safer spices and spice products to theworld market. For safer and continuous higher sustainable production,attention is needed on good agricultural practices through eco-friendlymanagement of pests and diseases. If India to recapture its lost glory ofspices, there should be considerable sincere efforts to achieve a quantumjump in the productivity of cardamom and black pepper through adoptionof physical/cultural and biological/botanical tools that allow co-existenceof natural enemies and beneficial microorganisms which in turn bring backsthe ecosystem balance in cardamom and black pepper production system.

Diseases of cardamom

Among the fungal diseases capsule and panicle rot, clump rot,Fusarium rot and leaf blight are the major problems. In addition to this,viral diseases like katte and chlorotic streak also seriously affect plant and

551

cause considerable yield loss.

A. Fungal diseases

a) Capsule and panicle rot

This disease popularly known as azhukal is the most serious diseasein cardamom (Menon et al. 1972). Studies on etiology of the diseaseconfirmed that two species of Phytophthora viz., P. meadii and P. nicotianaevar. nicotianae are involved this disease (Murugan et al. 2016).

Symptoms

Disease symptoms appear during the rainy season on leaves, tendershoots, panicles and capsules. On the infected leaves, water soaked lesionsappear first and rotting and shredding of leaves along the veins occurthereafter. The infected capsules become dull greenish brown and rot. Thisemits a foul smell and subsequently shed off. Infection spreads to paniclesand tillers resulting a complete decay of panicles and capsules (Muruganet al. 2016).

Management

Cultural practices

Peethambaran et al. (2008) have informed that proper control ofazhukal could be achieved through phytosanitation, shade regulation andproper drainage. They have reported that application of neem cake aheadof monsoon as a soil amendment has been effective in reducing thepopulation of the pathogen.

Botanicals

Attempts were made recently to manage disease using antagonisticplant products. Ajay et al. (2015) reported that 1% cashew shell is effectivein suppressing P. meadii by 70.8% without inhibiting the growth of T.harzianum in soil.

Biocontrol

Bio-agents play an important role in eco-friendly diseasemanagement system to fight against plant pathogens in a totally safe manneravoiding the use of expensive synthetic chemical fungicides. The isolatesof Trichoderma viride, T. harzianum and Laetisaria sp. harbouring nativecardamom soils have been screened and effective strains for biocontrolpotential have been identified and developed (Bhai et al. 1992; Dhanapaland Thomas, 1996). Thomas et al. (1991) observed inhibition of P. meadii

552

under laboratory condition using T. viride, T. harzianum and Bacillus subtiliswhereas, Bhai et al. (1993) shown significant levels of field control of thisdisease by soil application of the above bioagents even in disease pronesoils. Josephrajkumar et al. (2007) confirmed that pre-monsoon and post-monsoon application of T. harzianum @ 100g (along with 5 kg farm yardmanure and 500g neem cake per plant and as sole application @ 3L-1 plant-

1 respectively) as the best management strategy against the disease. T.harzianum (108 cfu/g) @ 50 g/clump (multiplied in decomposed coffeecompost and mixed with cow dung) applied during May-June and August-September has effectively managed the azhukal disease of cardamom(Devasahayam et al. 2015a). According to Bhai and Sarma (2003), sprayingthe culture suspension of P. fluorescens could effectively check the capsulerot of cardamom. Dhanya et al. (2015) emphasized that prophylacticapplication of Pseudomonas fluorescens (2% spray) along with basalapplication of Glomus fasciculatum (Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi -AMF) @ 50g and T. viride @ 100g/plant at monthly interval during rainyseason significantly managed the capsule and panicle rot disease. Theefficacy of basal application of T. harzianum (MTCC-5179) mixed in ½kg neem cake along with bacterial consortium containing P. fluorescensstrains (IISR-6 and IISR 859) each @ 25g was proved in controlling capsulerot of cardamom (Dhanya et al. 2017).

Application of peat formulation of B. subtilis strain Bs increasedthe activity of phenolic enzymes and phenols in the infected cardamomplants and this bacterial strain could be effectively utilized for themanagement of capsule rot disease in cardamom (Sivakumar et al. 2015a).Soil application of T. harzianum (23 x 106 cfu/g) in carrier media @ 1kg/plant twice a year was effective in reducing the infection by Phytophthoraspp. and decreasing the disease incidence by 83% (Thomas, 2000). Theabove studies support that field control of azhukal disease of cardamomhas become very effective, which is environmentally safe and cost effectivedue to the bio-control potential of Trichoderma spp., P. fluorescens, B.subtilis and AMF.

Resistant cultivars

According to Madhusoodanan (2012) ICRI 5 and ICRI 6 (malabartype) were considered to be moderately tolerant to rot diseases and suitablefor cardamom growing regions of Kerala and parts of Tamil Nadu.

b) Clump rot

Clump rot otherwise called as rhizome rot occurs during monsoon

553

period. This disease is widely distributed across cardamom growing regionsin Kerala and Karnataka as well as heavy rain fall areas of Tamil Nadusuch as the Anamalai hills. The disease was first reported by Park (1936)and later Rao (1938) described it as clump rot disease.

Symptoms

This disease is caused by combined infection of Pythium vexans,Rhizoctonia solani and Fusarium sp. Major symptoms of the disease aredecaying of tillers at the collar region and toppling of tillers as the diseaseadvance. Affected tillers can be pulled out easily. Additionally, discolorationon the basal portion of the infected clump can be seen (Murugan et al.2016).

Management

Cultural practices

Since higher soil moisture levels are conducive for diseasedevelopment irrigation schedule should be made according to that. Removalof mulch from the base of the plant, providing good drainage, weeding andtrashing before the commencement of monsoon as well as removal anddestruction of infected clumps can manage the disease effectively(Peethambaran et al. 2008).

Botanicals

Dhanapal et al. (1993) reported effective use of botanicals likeneem seed extract (neem gold) and garlic extract against the disease.

Biocontrol

Attempts of rhizome-rot control by the use of Trichoderma spp.(T. viride and T. harzianum) were made by many researchers (Thomas etal. 1991; Joseph et al. 1993). A study by Sivakumar et al. (2012) confirmedthat rhizome bacterization and soil application of bacterial consortium (P.fluorescens Pf51 and Bacillus subtilis Bs45) could effectively controlrhizome rot of cardamom. Devasahayam et al. (2015a) used T. harzianum(108 cfu/g) multiplied in mixture of decomposed coffee compost andcowdung @ 50g / clump during May – June and August – September tomanage the disease. Decreased incidence of rhizome rot and increase inyield of cardamom for the basal application of T. harzianum, P. fluorescensand B. subtilis from cardamom growing region of Tamil Nadu was alsoreported (Gopakumar et al. 2006). Pot culture experiment on rhizome rotmanagement using endophytes by Peeran et al. (2018) explained that

554

Tulasnella sp. (Alpinia galanga isolate) showed an inhibition of Rhizoctoniasolani and F. oxysporum while Phoma sp. (an isolate from Appangala-1)showed inhibition of Pythium vexans. Endophyte treated plants also showedhigher activities of defense related enzymes like peroxidase and polyphenoloxidase.

Resistant Cultivars

According to these researchers (Peethambaran et al. 2008; Eapenand Bhai 2012) the resistant variety IISR-Avinash can be recommended inhot spot areas of the disease. Aravind et al. (2015) also identified anaccession FGB118 (germplasm collection of IISR regional station atAppangala) as highly resistant to rhizome rot.

(c) Fusarium rot

This disease is also called as stem rot or stem lodging, normallyappears during post - monsoon period. The disease was first reported inthe cardamom plantations of Idukki district by Thomas and Vijayan (2002).

Symptoms

This disease caused by a fungus “Fusarium oxysporum”. Thepathogen usually attacks middle portion of the tillers and produces a palediscoloured lesion leading to dry rotting. The infected tillers are weakenedat the point of infection and leads to partial breakage of the tillers. Thepartially broken tillers bend down and hang from the point of infection.The infected tillers fall off and give lodged appearance if the infectionoccurs at lower part of the tillers (Murugan et al. 2016).

Management

Cultural practices

Phytosanitation as well as providing adequate shade in theplantation areas reduce stem rot disease in cardamom (Anonymous, 2016).

Biocontrol

In vitro and greenhouse studies of Thomas and Vijayan (2002)showed that four biocontrol agents namely T. viride, T. harzianum, B.subtilis and P. fluorescens effectively inhibited the causal organism F.oxysporum and reduced the severity of the disease. Vijayan et al. (2012)also reported that basal application of T. harzianum, along with sprayingand drenching of P. fluorescens provided a significant control of symptoms(root tip rot and leaf yellowing, pseudostem rot and panicle wilt) associatedwith Fusarium rot disease and reduced the population of F. oxysporum to

555

the minimal. Maya et al. (2012) stated that basal application of T. harzianum@ 50g with one kg neem cake and aerial spray with either P. fluorescens orconsortium containing P. fluorescens strains IISR 6 and IISR 859 @ 2%was an effective management strategy against pseudostem rot.

d) Leaf blight

This disease caused by foliar infection of Colletotrichumgloeosporioides is becoming serious especially during post monsoonperiods.

Symptoms

The symptoms develop as brownish spots and patches on the leaflamina which expand and the affected leaf wither and dry (Devasahayamet al. 2015a).

Management

Cultural practices

Providing adequate shade in the plantation could reduce the diseaseincidence (Mathew 2007).

Biocontrol

The disease can be managed by spraying the plants with 1-2 percentP. fluorescens as a prophylactic measure 3-4 times a year (Mathew 2007).

Resistant Cultivars

Manju et al. (2014) stated that cardamom varieties CL-730 andCL-726 showed improved field tolerance to Collectotrichum leaf spot,whereas CL-722, CL-726 and Mudigere-3 showed moderate diseasetolerance.

B. Viral diseases

a) Katte

It is otherwise called as mosaic disease mainly transmitted bybanana aphid (Pentalonia nigronervosa) as well as infected rhizomes. Thevirus comes under ‘Potyvirus’ group (Murugan et al. 2016).

b) Chlorotic streak

This disease is caused by Banana bract mosaic virus and in recentsurveys its widespread prevalence in major cardamom cultivating tracts ofKerala has been noticed (Bhat et al. 2018).

556

Symptoms

The first visible symptom of katte appears on the youngest leaf ofthe affected tiller as slender chlorotic flecks. Later these flecks developinto pale green discontinuous stripes. These stripes run almost parallel toeach other from the mid-rib to the margin of the leaves, which form amosaic pattern. Such stripes are also seen on the leaf sheaths and youngshoots as the disease advance. The infected clumps will be smaller in sizewith fewer tillers. Plants of all stages are susceptible to virus infection andthe infection is systemic in nature (Murugan et al. 2016).

Chlorotic streak disease is characterized with the formation ofspindle shaped intra venous streaks along the veins and mid-ribs. Thisstreak subsequently join together imparting yellow or light green colour tothe veins. The petioles and pseudo-stem of infected plants show spindleshaped mottling. As the disease advances, number of tillers produced inthe infected plants gets reduced (Bhat et al. 2018).

Management

Cultural practices

Raising nursery or planting material multiplication site away fromthe katte affected gardens, use of healthy and virus free planting material,removal of infected plants, weeds and collateral hosts like colocasia andcaladium which might act as reservoirs for the virus and multiplication ofthe vector should be advocated for the management of disease (Bhat et al.2018).

Botanicals

Neem products significantly reduced the population of aphids oncardamom leaves even at 0.1 per cent concentration and were lethal toaphids at higher concentrations (Mathew et al. 1997). Saju et al. (1998)explained the repellant action of turmeric essential oil against the cardamomaphids. Studies of Mathew et al. (1997) detailed the adverse effect ofaqueous extracts of Acorus calamus, Annona squamosa and Lawsoniainermis on the breeding potential of the aphids.

Biocontrol

Entomogenous fungi like Beauvaria bassiana (Bals-Criv) Vuill,Verticillium chlamydosporium Goddard and Paecilomyces lilacinus(Thom.) Samson were promising in suppressing aphid population (Mathewet al. 1998). The cardamom aphid population gets reduced drastically during

557

rainy season due to the infection of Verticillium intertextum (Deshpande etal.1972). Mathew (2007) also reported the beneficial effect of B. bassianaand L. lecanii @ 2% on the control of vectors. Natural enemies such asPeragum indica, Cocinella transversalis, and Ischiodon scutellaris werealso observed to predate over the cardamom aphids (Gopakumar andChandrasekar 2002).

Resistant cultivars

According to Babu (2018) IISR Vijetha and IISR-Appangala-2 weresuitable for mosaic affected areas of Karnataka.

C. Insect pests of cardamom

a) Shoot and capsule borer

The shoot and capsule borer (Dichocrocis punctiferalis) is the mostserious insect pest of cardamom consumes major share of pesticide usedin cardamom (Murugan et al. 2016).

Symptoms

The earlier stages of larvae bore the panicles leading to drying upof the entire panicle and also bore the immature capsules and feed on theinner contents of the seeds which leads to empty capsules. The late stageslarva feed on the central core of the stem and affect the phloem vesselsinterrupting the passage of food materials to the growing parts finallyleading to drying of central leaf tip known as “dead heart” symptom(Murugan et al. 2016).

Management

Cultural practices

Removal and destruction of alternate host plants as well as infestedsuckers during September -October (when the infestation is less than 10%)and collection and destruction of adults reduce the pest infestationconsiderably (Devasahayam et al. 2015a). It is suggested that destroyingthe alternate host plants in and around cardamom plantations duringSeptember-October reduced the pest population (Josephrajkumar et al.(2002a).

Botanicals

Deepthy et al. (2015) described about the effectiveness of 0.2%poneem (1:1 mixture of pungam oil and neem oil) against cardamom shootborer.

558

Biocontrol

Earlier study conducted by David et al. (1964) revealed that undernatural conditions, C. punctiferalis was a host for number of parasites likeAngitia trochanterata (Ichneumonidae), Threonia inareolata, Braconbrevicornis, Apanteles sp. (larval parasite) and Brachymeria emploeae(pupal parasite). Patel and Gangrade (1971) noticed Microbracon hebetoras its larval parasite. Joseph et al. (1973) reported two hymenopterans(Brachymeria nosatoi and B. lasus) parasitizing on C. punctiferalis. Jacob(1981) observed Myosoma sp., Xanthopimpla australis and a nematode asparasites on C. punctiferalis. Additionally, Varadarasan et al. (1990) statedthat Temelucha sp., Agrypon sp. and Friona sp. as parasites of C.punctiferalis. Devasahayam et al. (2015a) said that destruction of adultsand conservation of natural enemies (parasitoids) such as Eriborustrocheanteratus, Xanthopimpla australis, Friona spp. and Agrypone spp.helped reducing the pest infestation. Ali et al. (2015) observed 20-30%natural parasitation of shoot borer by the braconids Apanteles taragamaeand Glyptapanteles. Josephrajkumar et al. (2007) reported two ichnuemonidsolitary parasitoids Agrypon sp. and Temeluchus sp. as well as one mosquitolike unidentified gregarious parasitoid with plumose antennae againstcardamom shoot and capsule borer. About 61.2% parasitization wasreported in this study by ichnuemonids as well as dipterans.

Resistant cultivars

According to Madhusoodanan (2012) tolerant malabar varietyMudigere-1 is suitable for the Malanad areas of Karnataka and moderatelytolerant malabar variety ICRI 6 is preferred to Kerala and parts of TamilNadu. Josephrajkumar et al. (2002a) pointed out that stem girth is one ofthe important features conferring the tolerance to cardamom shoot andcapsule borer as increased diameter accommodates the growing immaturestages of the pest. Therefore, among the three types of cardamominvestigated (malabar, mysore and vazhukka), variety PV-1, (malabar type)having prostrate panicle and lanky stem was found to be tolerant to borerdamage.

b) Thrips

The cardamom thrips (Sciothrips cardamomi) is one of the mostdestructive insect pests of cardamom. The population of this pest buildsup rapidly during the post monsoon and summer months and declines withthe onset of monsoon rains (Bhatti 1969).

559

Symptoms

The adults and larvae lacerate the tissues of leaves, shoots, panicles,flowers and immature capsules and feed on the exuding sap resulting inshedding of flowers and immature capsules as well as scab formation onmature capsules (Murugan et al. 2016).

Management

Cultural practices

Removal of dried leaf sheaths, drooping leaves and older plantparts during January - February, regulation of shade level in the plantationby pruning lower branches of shade trees and removal of collateral hostlike (Panicum longipes, Amomum spp., Aframomum sp. Colocasia sp. andAlocasia sp.) in the vicinity of plantations helps reducing the build-up ofthrips population in the field (Murugan et al. 2016).

Botanicals and biorationals

Josephrajkumar et al. (2002b) observed that among the bio-rationals evaluated, fish oil insecticidal soap (Na) 2.5% + tobacco extract2.5% significantly reduced the damage caused by cardamom thrips. Thestudies conducted by Jacob et al. (2014) indicated the potential of naturalproduct spinosad 0.0135% (derived from Sacharopolyspora spinosa) forthirps management in cardamom.

Biocontrol

The entomopathogenic fungus Lecanicillium psalliotae is effectivefor the management of cardamom thrips (Kumar et al. 2015 and 2018;Devasahayam et al. 2015a). Jacob and Bhai (2007) found an anthocoridbug and chrysoperla sp. that feed on the thrips.

Resistant cultivars

According to Madhusoodanan (2012) tolerant malabar varietyMudigere-1 is suitable for Malanad areas of Karnataka and moderatelytolerant variety ICRI 6 (malabar type) is recommended to Kerala and partsof Tamil Nadu. Murugan et al. (2016) reported the suitability of thripstolerant variety PV-1 (malabar type) for endemic areas of pest infestation.Higher concentration of 1,8 cineole and ratio of 1,8, cineole to α-terpinylacetate in kattelam and malabar types of cardamom provided enhancedtolerance to thrips infestation (Josephrajkumar et al. 2002b).

560

c) Root grub

The root grub (Basilepta fulvicorne) is one of the serioussubterranean insect pests in cardamom plantations (Murugan et al. 2016).

Symptoms

The larvae feed on young roots and the above ground symptomsstart as yellowing of leaves, which later result in the drying up and deathof the plant (Anonymous 2016).

Management

Cultural practices

Collect the beetles using hand nets or sticky traps at the time ofmass emergence (March-April and August-September) and destroy themmanually. This can reduce the pest population in the field considerably(Anonymous 2016).

Biocontrol

Murugan et al. (2016) recommended entomopathogenic fungi,Metarrhizium anisopliae @ 2 % and entomopathogenic nematode,Heterorhabditis indicus @ 100IJs/grub that effectively control the rootgrubs. The entomopathogens, M. anisopliae and B. bassiana (infection onbeetles and grubs) and Heterorhabditis spp. (infection on grubs) werenoticed to play an important role in reducing the population of the pest inthe field (Devasahayam et al. 2015a).

d) Whitefly

Recently, the cardamom whitefly (Kanakarajiella cardamomi) isfast becoming a serious insect pest in Kerala and Tamil Nadu, especiallyduring the dry and summer seasons (Devasahayam et al. 2015a).

Symptoms

Colony of nymphs and adults desap from the lower surface of theleaves. Chlorotic patches appear initially on leaves, which turns yellowand become necrotic in the advanced stages. Nymphs secrete sticky honeydew which drop on the lower leaves. This invites sooty mould fungi toinvade thereby interrupts photosynthetic efficiency (Murugan et al. 2016).

Management

Cultural practices

Josephrajkumar et al. (2007) reported about the use of yellow

561

sticky traps as well as application of neem oil @ 0.5% on the leaves for thesuppression of cardamom whitefly population whereas, Devasahayam etal. (2015a) observed yellow sticky trap and 5 % neem oil spray as bettermanagement strategy. A chitin based bio-pesticide (Eco-1) was found tobe effective against nymphs and adults of white fly as reported by Ali et al.(2014).

Biocontrol

Under natural environmental conditions, whitefly has been foundsusceptible to a number of natural enemies such as predators like Malladabonninensis, an unidentified neuropteran, dipteran, coleopteran and mite;parasitoids such as Encarsia septentrionalis and E. dialeurodes, and apathogen Aschersonia placenta (Selvakumaran et al. 1996a).Josephrajkumar and Murugan (2001) also strongly advocated the use ofentomopathogenic fungi Aschersonia placenta and Verticillium sp. againstcardamom whitefly.

D. Nematode

Nematode infestation in cardamom is a major problem oftenamounting to heavy crop loss. The root knot nematode, Meloidogyneincognita causes severe damage to crop that is widely observed in almostall cardamom plantations, while the lesion nematode Pratylenchus coffeaeand the burrowing nematode Radopholus similis are noticed in mixedplantations (Ramana and Eapen 1992).

Symptoms

Infested plants exhibit stunting, reduced tillering, reduced leaf size,yellowing of foliage, immature capsule drop and increased incidence ofrhizome rot (Ramana and Eapen 1992).

Management

Cultural practices

Present research efforts on the bio-intensive management of pestsand diseases of cardamom include cultural practices, use of tolerant orresistant cultivars as well as application of bioagents. Cultural control whichbasically involves the exploitation of agro-techniques utilized for enhancingcrop productivity, is a safe and powerful tool for pests and diseasesuppression. Various cultural practices being followed in cardamomplantations to contain the pests and diseases and their effects were briefedas Table 1.

562

Table 1: Cultural operations that significantly influence the pests and diseases of cardamom(Eapen and Bhai 2012)

Cultural operation Impact on Pest and disease

Trashing Reduces thrips and root grub damage

Roguing Restricts the spreads of Katte, white fly

Mulching Minimizes chenthal disease

Weeding Lessens viral disease and thrips infestation

Earthing up Contracts root grub damage

Providing drainage Decreases clump rot and azhukal incidence

Disease free planting materials Diminishes the incidence of viral and soilborne diseases

Shade regulation Declines capsule rot, clump rot, chenthaldisease, leaf blotch and root grub attack

Avoiding planting of alternate hosts like Shortens population of aphids spreadingbanana, colocasia, jack and dadaps katte, lace wing bugs, root grubs and root

knot nematodes

Excess application of nitrogenous fertilizers Aggravates spider mites, white flies, shootand capsule borers

Use of yellow sticky traps Decreases whiteflies

Mechanical collection of adult beetles/ Lowers root grub populationlarvae of caterpillars and Irrigation @15-20 l/plant

Mulching the plant base with leaves of weeds like wild sunflower,Eupatorium, Clerodendron etc. reduces the nematode population in soil(Mathew 2007). Planting of nematode-free seedlings, application of organicmanures and neem cake twice a year @ 250-1000 g also recommended forreducing the nematode populations (Devasahayam et al. 2015a). Ali (1985)also suggested application of neem cake to reduce nematode populationand increase the yield of cardamom.

Biocontrol

Experiments by Eapen and Venugopal (1995) revealed thatbioagents like Trichoderma spp. and Paecilomyces lilacinus controllednematode in cardamom. Studies conducted by Narayana et al. (2011) provedthat Jeevamrutha @ 10 l along with Azospirillum and T. viride (10g each)/plant increased plant growth and yield of nematode infested cardamomplantation. Mathew (2007) achieved good results by dipping the cardamom

563

rhizomes in 1% mixture of P. fluorescens and Azadirachtin solution for 10minutes along with the application of cow dung + Neem cake + Marotticake + AMF + P. lilacinus (90 kg: 5 kg : 2 kg :2 kg :1 kg) mixture @ 1 kg/pit before planting. Two AMF fungi viz., G. fasciculatum and Gigasporamargarita were also found effective in minimizing the root knot nematodeproblems in cardamom seedlings (Thomas et al. 1989). According to Sheela(2007), P. lilacinus reduced root knot nematodes by 48.5 to 57 percent inpot culture studies and by 19.7 per cent in filed studies. She also reportedthat native isolates of T. harzianum and other Trichoderma spp. were potentantagonists of root knot nematode.

Diseases of black pepper

The diseases of black pepper were reviewed by Sarma et al. (1991)and they reported at least seventeen diseases that are known to affect blackpepper. In India, foot rot is the major disease causing severe economic loss(Sarma et al. 1992). Other important diseases include slow decline,anthracnose and viral diseases like stunted disease (Sarma et al. 1991) andwrinkled leaf disease (Kueh and Sim, 1992).

A. Fungal diseases

a) Foot rot

Foot rot caused by Phytophthora capsici is the most destructive ofall diseases causing an annual crop loss of 5-10% (Kueh, 1990) and upto95 % for individual farmers (Manohara et al. 2004). In India, the disease(previously known as quick wilt) was first reported as early as 1902 byMenon (1949).

Symptoms

All parts of the vine are vulnerable to this disease. On leaves, oneor more black spots having distinctive fimbriate margin appear, whichrapidly enlarge and cause defoliation. The entire vine wilts fast followedby shedding of leaves and spikes when the main stem at the collar region isinfected. Infection of feeder roots causes their rotting and degenerationresulting in yellowing, defoliation and drying up of whole plant (Anandaraj,2000).

Management

Cultural practices

Soil moisture plays an important role in the buildup of inoculumof Phytophthora, besides predisposing the plant to infection (Anandaraj,

564

1997). Providing adequate drainage, raising pepper cuttings in solarizedsoil fortified with biocontrol agents, planting healthy cuttings in the field,removal of dead vines along with the root system and removal of infectedplants form the management strategy against the disease (Peethambaran etal. 2008). Since the disease initiation and spread is found to be more nearthe previously infected plants, removal of such infected plants would reducethe infection and spread of the fungus. At the onset of monsoon, loppingof the branches of support trees is essential to allow penetration of sunlightand avoid buildup of high humidity favouring the disease (Anandaraj, 2000).To prevent soil splashes and consequent disease initiation, live mulch inthe form of legume or grass cover are suggested (Ramachandran et al.1991; Sarma et al. 1992). But after the rainy season, it is better to removethe weed mulch and rake up the soil to conserve soil moisture and toeliminate the saprophytic survival of P. capsici on weeds (Anandaraj, 1997).Mulching with polythene may aid in creating a congenial environment forprofuse development of Trichoderma and divert the excess rain water awayfrom the root zone avoiding wet foot conditions which is favourable forPhytophthora (Hegde and Hegde, 2015).

Different organic amendments like FYM, neem oil cake, groundnut cake etc., added to soil as nutritional supplements serve both as a nutrientsource for boosting the health of vine as well as a medium for profusedevelopment of Trichoderma. The competitive saprophytic ability of P.capsici is very low and addition of organic matter to the soil containing P.capsici enhances the growth of saprophytes and P. capsici population dropsto undetectable level (Anandaraj, 1997).

Botanicals

Experiment by Manohara et al. (1992) revealed that root exudatesof some plants such as Allium spp. were inhibitory to zoospores ofPhytophthora. Garlic clove extracts and leaf extracts of Chromolaenaodorata, neem and lantana were found to be toxic to P. capsici (Anandarajand Leela, 1996; Shashidhara et al. 2008). An antifungal substance β-asarone, isolated from ethyl acetate extract of Acorus calamus L. hascompletely inhibited mycelial growth of P. capsici (Suvarna et al. 2011)

Biocontrol

As the Phytophthora inoculum is soil borne, the population buildup could be reduced by efficient strains of bio-agents such as Trichoderma,Gliocladium and Pseudomonas. (Rajan et al. 2002; Dhanapal et al. 2012;Sivakumar et al. 2014). In a study conducted by Diby et al. (2005),

565

fluorescent Pseudomonas and Trichoderma sp. were isolated from blackpepper roots and rhizosphere soil collected from different places in Kerala,Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Sikkim revealed the potentialof these strains for nursery management of black pepper, especially toprotect the plants from P. capsici infection. Devasahayam et al. (2015a)recommended T. harzianum around the base of the vine @ 50 g/ vine (108

cfu/g) with the onset of monsoon (May-June and August-September) inKerala. In order to ensure proliferation of Trichoderma in the rhizosphereof black pepper, Anandaraj and Bhai (2015) suggested commercial productof T. harzianum to be given around the base of the vine @ 50 g/vine alongwith organic manure (neem cake, farmyard manure, decomposed coffeepulp or coir pith) twice in an year with the onset of monsoon. The applicationhas to be repeated for 2-3 consecutive years to check the pathogen spread.Parallel growth, coiling, penetration, hyphal vacuolization, sporangialparasitism, deformation and proliferation as well as shortening of hyphaltips were observed as antagonistic interaction of Trichoderma with P.capsici by Saju and Sarma (2015). According to Sivakumar et al. (2015b),T. harzianum has effective action against the pathogen and the fungi couldbe utilized for the integrated management of Phytophthora foot rot in blackpepper. Anith and Manomohandas (2001) proved the role of T. harzianumand Alcaligenes sp. strain AMB as sole or in combination against theincidence of P. capsici induced nursery rot disease of black pepper. Anithet al. (2003) conducted a rapid screening assay on shoots for the selectionof efficient bacterial antagonists which can colonize and protect the plantingmaterial against P. capsici-induced wilt of black pepper in the nursery. Inthe assay, fluorescent pseudomonad, isolate PN-026 was the most efficientantagonist showing highest suppression of lesion development in thenursery. According to Anandaraj and Sarma (2003), among isolates ofTrichoderma sp. the percent inhibition of P. capsici varied from 0 to 84per cent and isolates of bacteria inhibited P. capsici up to 50 per cent underin vitro evaluation. The role of actinomycetes in foot rot management hasalso been established (Bhai et al. 2014; Bhai et al. 2015). According tothem, the inhibition of Phytophthora sp. by actinomycetes was 89.69%.

Incorporation of AMF alone or in combination with other beneficialmicroorganisms like Azotobacter and Azospirillum enhanced rooting andgrowth of pepper vine (Govindan and Chandy, 1985). AMF @ 1000 cc kg-

1 and solarized soil spiked with T. harzianum and AMF registered minimumincidence of foot rot in black pepper (Josephrajkumar et al. 2007). Similarfindings with AMF inoculation were also made by Anandaraj and Sarma(1994) and Sivaprasad et al. (1995). It is highly recommended to apply

566

native AMF, Trichoderma and P. fluorescens at the time of planting andduring the pre-monsoon period in the established plantations to controlfoot rot (Anonymous, 2016).

Several strains of biocontrol agents effective in protecting pepperagainst P. capsici have been isolated, screened and mass multiplied oninexpensive carrier media and applied in the field with promising results(Anandaraj and Sarma, 1995; Sarma et al. 1996). Mature coconut water,which is an agricultural waste, supports good growth of Trichoderma spp.and P. fluorescens and could be used as a cheaper nutritional liquid mediumfor the mass multiplication of these antagonistic organisms (Anandarajand Sarma, 1997; Sally et al. 2010; Vidya et al. 2015). Anith et al. (2014)also developed a cheap and farmer-friendly method for mass multiplicationof P. fluorescens using boiled coconut water under non sterile condition.

Resistant cultivars

Use of Phytophthora tolerant lines such as IISR- Shakthi, IISRThevam and Panniyur 8 is recommended for Phytophthora prone areas(Anandaraj, 2005; Devasahayam et al 2015b). IISR Shakti is an openpollinated seedling progeny of Perambramundi (Bhai et al. 2007) and IISRThevam is a clonal selection of Thevanmundi which have shown fieldtolerance to Phytophthora foot rot disease coupled with high yield andsuited to both high altitudes and plains (Sasikumar et al. 2004). Panniyur 8is a hybrid (HB20052) of Panniyur 6 x Panniyur 5 and, was released ashigh yielding variety tolerant to P. capsici and drought. Among the cultivars,Narayakkodi, Kalluvally, Balankotta, Neelamundi, Mundi and Uthirankottahave been identified as tolerant to Phytophthora (Sarma and Anandaraj1997; Anandaraj, 2000). The hybrids involving Panniyur 1 × Karimunda,and Narayakkodi × Neelamundi have shown tolerant reaction (Sarma etal. 1994). Piper spp such as P. colubrinum and P. obliquum are reported tobe highly resistant to foot rot disease caused by P. capsici (Turner, 1971;Vanaja et al., 2007). To develop foot rot tolerant planting material, P.colubrinum has been identified as the most promising species for graftingwith rooted stem cuttings.

b) Slow wilt

It is a debilitating disease of pepper found in all pepper growingareas of Kerala and Karnataka. The affected plants survive for severalyears and death of the plant occurs gradually over a period of 3-4 years.The etiology of disease is fungal-nematode complex coupled with moisturestress and malnutrition (Anandaraj 2000).

567

Symptoms

The affected vines exhibit foliar yellowing initially. With the onsetof south west monsoon, some of the affected vines recover and put forthfresh foliage. However, with the depletion of soil moisture during the postmonsoon season, the symptoms reappear and they exhibit defoliation anddie-back. The vines gradually lose their vigour and productivity and finallydeath of the vine occurs. The roots degenerate/rot due to the infestation ofnematodes. Vines infested with M. incognita exhibit inter-veinal chlorosisand galling in roots. R. similis causes necrotic lesions on feeder roots whichlead to disintegration of distal portion of the roots (Peethambaran et al.2008).

Management

Cultural practices

Green mulching with Eupatorium odoratum at the rate of 45 tons/ha and selection of standards that are tolerant or resistant to nematodessuch as Garuga pinnata and Erythrina indica would reduce the slow wiltincidence (Peethambaran et al. 2008). Sarma et al. (1987) opined that massproduction of disease free planting material can be achieved in black peppernurseries by raising planting materials in disinfected soil by soil fumigationof potting mixture. Ramana and Mohandas (1987) suggested host plantssuch as Artocarpus heterophyllus, A. hirsutus, Ailanthes malabarica,Mesopsis emini, Peltophorum pterocarpum, Swietenia macrophylla,Tamarindus indica, Garuga pinnata and Macaranga peitata resistant toM. incognita could be used as live standards for black pepper. Crop rotation,mulching with organics, soil amendments, flooding, fallowing,phytosanitation, planting nematode free plants were some of the culturalpractices recommended for nematode management (Ramana and Eapen,2000). In the main fields, uprooting and destruction of diseased vines alongwith roots and exclusion of susceptible intercrops and support treesminimized nematode infestation.

Biocontrol

P. l ilacinus, Verticillium chlamydosporium (Pochoniachlamydosporia) and Bacillus spp. has been found effective against rootknot nematodes in black pepper (Ramana and Eapen, 1992; Ramana, 1994;Eapen and Venugopal, 1995). Application of antagonistic fungi, such asPo. chlamydosporia and T. harzianum around base of the vine @ 50 g/vine (108cfu/g) with the onset of the monsoon (May-June and August-September) is recommended by Devasahayam et al. (2015b). Talc based

568

formulation (106 cfu/g) of B. macerans @10g/vine at the time of plantingof vines or just before the monsoon period in established plantations forcontrolling burrowing and root knot nematode is also suggested(Anonymous, 2016).

Anandaraj et al. (1991) recommended VAM fungi viz., G.·fasciculatum, G. etunicatum and Acaulospora laevis against root knotnematodes in black pepper. Bhai et al (2017) deployed Curtobacteriumluteum (TC10) for mitigating foot rot and slow decline diseases of blackpepper. The efficacy of Streptomyces spp. for the management of slowdecline disease has been reported by Bhai et al. (2016). Streptomyces spp.when used as consortium enhanced the growth of black pepper in additionto disease suppression (Bhai et al., 2014).

Resistant cultivars

IISR variety Pournami, which is a selection from Ottaplackal wasfound tolerant to root knot nematode (Devasahayam et al. 2015b).

c) Fungal pollu

Anthracnose or pollu disease caused by Colletotrichum spp. isincreasingly becoming serious at higher altitudes (Kurien et al. 2000). Thedisease is seen throughout the crop season in plantations and maximumdamage is caused during August to September and ranges from 28% to34% (Nair et al. 1987). The damage on the berries due to C. gloeosporioidesresulted in 100% yield loss (Santhakumari and Rajagopalan 2000).

Symptoms

The fungus causes damage to the plant both in the nurseries andmain fields. On older vines in the field, leaves, spikes and berries wereaffected. On the leaves, angular to irregular yellowish brown to dark brownspots with chlorotic halo appears. Infection on spikes resulted in spikeshedding, whereas, infection on immature berries caused shrinking anddevelopment of hollow (pollu) berries. Formations of brownish splits onthe berries were also seen. Spike shedding is more severe at higherelevations (Sainamole et al. 2008). The disease when combined with heavyshade, lack of pollination and delayed emergence of spikes resulted inlarge scale spike shedding.

Management

Cultural practices

Irrigation of vines 4-5 times at an interval of 5-7 days commencing

569

from the third week of March, followed by shade regulation of supporttrees was effective for managing spike shedding (Anonymous, 2016).

Biocontrol

Isolates of P. fluorescens developed by the Kerala AgriculturalUniversity is highly effective for the management of fungal pollu of blackpepper (Anonymous, 2016). Dipping cuttings in Pseudomonas slurry, soildrenching and spraying the affected plants with 1% P. fluorescens culturecould be practiced for managing the disease.

B. Viral diseases

a) Stunt disease

Due to varied symptoms, diseases induced by viruses are alsoknown by different names such as mosaic, little leaf, wrinkled leaf andstunted disease in different black pepper growing areas. The disease causedby Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) and Piper yellow mottle virus (PYMoV)has drawn much attention especially at high altitudes. CMV is transmittedby aphids where as mealybugs (Ferrisia virgata and Planococcus citri)transmit PYMoV.

Symptoms

The diseased vines exhibit shortening of internodes and the leavesbecome narrow, leathery in texture, puckered and crinkled. Chlorotic spotsand streaks also appear on the leaves. Severe symptoms are seen in plantsthat are subjected to abiotic stresses such as nutrition and high temperature(35°C) (Bhat et al. 2018).

Management

Cultural practices

Use of virus-free planting materials, vector control and culturalmethods are required for the management of viral diseases (Bhat et al.2018). Virus-free cuttings are to be used for propagation under insect-proof conditions and planting. Sasi and Bhat (2018) reported eliminationof PYMoV from infected black pepper plants through meristem-tip culture.Regular inspection and removal of infected plants and replanting withhealthy plants should be resorted to in the field (Peethambaran et al. 2008).Srinivasan et al. (2017) opined that mild/ moderately virus infected plantscan be rejuvenated by adopting proper soil and plant health managementpractices whereas severely infected plants need to be removed and burntor buried deep in soil. They suggested correction of soil acidity using soil

570

amendments and soil test based nutrient application along with farm yardmanure at the rate of 10-15 kg per standard to improve the health of infectedplants.

Biocontrol

Application of black pepper specific PGPR consortia andTrichoderma, either fortified with FYM at the rate of 10-15 kg or asdrenching at the rate of 2-3 litres per standard during June and Septemberwas recommended by Srinivasan et al. (2017) to revive and sustain thehealth and yield of mild or moderately virus infected plants.

C. Insect Pests of black pepper

In India, black pepper is known to be infested by at least 56 genera/species of insects causing damage to various parts of the vine such asroots, stems, shoots, leaves, spikes and berries. Among them, based on thenature and extent of damage, pollu beetle, scale insects, top shoot borer,leaf gall thrips and root mealy bugs are considered as the major insectpests (Devasahayam 2000).

a) Pollu beetle

Lanka ramakrishnai formerly called as Longitarsus nigripennis isthe most destructive insect pest of black pepper in the lower elevation(Devasahayam and Koya 1994).

Symptoms

The adult beetle feeds on tender shoots, leaves and spikes resultingin black patches on the tender shoots and spikes and small irregular circularholes on younger leaves. The larva (grub) bores into developing spikesand berries and feed on the internal contents. The infested spikes developnecrotic patches and the berries turn black and crumble when pressed. Thepest infestation is severe in heavily shaded areas across plantations(Ravindran 2000).

Management

Cultural practices

Lowering shade levels in the plantation by lopping-off branchesof support and shade trees with the onset of pre-monsoon rains helpsreducing the build-up of pest population.

Botanicals

Leaf extracts of Chromolaena odoratum and Strychnos nuxvomica

571

and seed kernel extract of custard apple possessed significant antifeedantactivity against pollu beetle in laboratory bioassays (Devasahayam andLeela 1997). In the plantation, spraying the vines with neem product(Neemgold 0.6% and Neemazal-F 0.05%) during August, September andOctober was promising in reducing the damage caused by pollu beetle(Devasahayam et al. 2015a).

Biocontrol

Entomopathogenic fungi such as B. bassiana has been foundsuccessful for the control of the grubs of the pest (Devasahayam 2000).

b) Scale insects

Scale insects such as mussel scale (Lepidosaphes piperis) andcoconut scale (Aspidiotus destructor) are becoming serious insect pests ofblack pepper at higher altitudes under changing climatic scenario(Selvakumaran et al. 1996b).

Symptoms

The mussel scale encrusts main stems, lateral branches, matureleaves and berries resulting in chlorotic patches, yellowing and drying ofleaves and mortality of young vines. The infested branches wilt and dryresulting in vacant spaces in the canopy. The coconut scale infests matureleaves leading to chlorotic patches and sometimes also infests berries. Thepest infestation was higher during post-monsoon and summer months(Selvakumaran et al. 1996b).

Management

Botanicals

Natural products such as neem oil (0.3%) or neemgold (0.3%) orfish oil rosin (3%) are effective for the management of scale insects duringinitial stages of infestation (Devasahayam et al. 2015a). As per Anonymous(2016), two sprays of Azadiractin (5000 ppm) at 15 days interval after theincidence of scale insect can manage the pest. Sreekanth (2013) reportedthe effectiveness of leaf extract (5%) of Cleome gynandra (Spider flower)and Azadirachta indica (Neem) in reducing the mussel scale population inblack pepper. He also explained that, Ageratum conyzoides (Goat weed),Annona squamosa (Custard apple), Parthenium hysterophorus (Congressweed) and Lantana camara (Yellow sage) could also be used for reducingthe population of scale insects.

572

Biocontrol

Selvakumaran et al. (1996b) recorded seventeen predators and fourparasitoids against scale insects infesting black pepper (Table 2). Amongthem were, Aphytis sp. (parasitoids) and Pseudoscymnus sp. (predator ofA. destructor) and Chilocorus circumdatus (predator of A. destructor andL. piperis) the most common natural enemies (Selvakumaran et al. 1996b;Devasahayam, 2000).Table 2. Natural enemies recorded on scales infesting black pepper (Sivakumar et al.1996b)

Sl.No. Natural enemy Order : family Host

a. Predators

1 Bdella sp. Acarina : Bdellidae L. piperis : A. destructor

2 Genus et sp. indet. Heteroptera : Miridae A. destructor

3 Aeolothrips fasciatus Thysanoptera: L. piperis : A. destructor(Frank.) Phlaeothripidae

4 Karnyothrips melaleucus Thysanoptera: L. piperis : A. destructor(Bagn.) Phlaeothripidae

5 Mallada boninensis Neuroptera: Chrysopidae A. destructor(Okamoto)

6 Cybocephalus sp. Coleoptera : Nitidulidae L. piperis : A. destructor

7 Chilocorus circumdatus Coleoptera : Coccinellidae L. piperis : A. destructor(Gyllen.)

8 C. nigrita(Fab.) Coleoptera : Coccinellidae L. piperis

9 Pharoscymnus horni Coleoptera : Coccinellidae L. piperis(Wiese)

10 Pseudoscymnus Coleoptera : Coccinellidae A. destructordwipakalpa Ghorpade

11 Pseudoscymnus sp.1 Coleoptera : Coccinellidae A. destructor

12 Pseudoscymnus sp.2 Coleoptera : Coccinellidae L. piperis : A. destructor

13 Pseudoscymnus sp.3 Coleoptera : Coccinellidae A. destructor

14 Sticholotis exsanguis Coleoptera : Coccinellidae L. piperisSicard

15 Genus et sp. indet Coleoptera L. piperis

16 Genus et sp. indet. Coleoptera L. piperis

17 Lestodiplosis sp. Diptera : Cecidomyiidae A. destructor

573

b. Parasitoids

18 Adelencyrtus sp. Hymenoptera : Encyrtidae A. destructor

19 Aphytis sp. Hymenoptera : Aphelinidae A. destructor

20 Encarsia citrina (Craw.) Hymenoptera : Aphelinidae L. piperis

21 E. lounsburyi (Berlese Hymenoptera : Aphelinidae A. destructor& paoli)

b) Top Shoot borer

The top shoot borer (Cydia hemidoxa Meyr.) is one of the majorinsect pests on young black pepper vines (1-2 years) causing up to 100%terminal shoot damage. The pest infestation causes up to 57% reduction ingrowth when the vines were infested during June- December. The pestinfestation is higher during July-November when numerous tender shootswere available on the vines.

Symptoms

The caterpillars of the moth bore into tender terminal shoots andfeed on internal tissues resulting in blackening and decaying of the affectedshoots. When successive new shoots are attacked, the growth of the vine isaffected (Devasahayam and Koya 1994).

Management

Biocontrol

Devasahayam and Koya (1994) reported five genera/species ofparasitoids among which Apanteles cypris Nixon (Braconidae) was themost common parasitizing 20% of larvae of the pest. The other naturalenemies recorded include Goniozus sp. (Bethylidae) and Trombidium sp.(Trombidiidae). Hexamermis sp (Mermithidae), an entomopathogenicnematode and Clinotrombium sp., a parasitic mite that has been identifiedagainst top shoot borer larvae.

d) Leaf gall thrips

Infestation by leaf gall thrips (Liothrips karnyi Bagn.) is moreserious at higher altitudes, especially in younger vines and also in nurseriesin the plains (Devasahayam and Koya 1994).

Symptoms

The thrips feed on the leaves causing the leaf margins to curl

574

downwards and inwards leading to formation of the marginal leaf galls.The infested leaves become thick, malformed and crinkled (Ravindran2000). In severe cases of infestation, the growth of younger vines andcuttings in the nursery is affected.

Management

Biocontrol

A number of predators of leaf gall thrips have been identified inthe field among which, Montandoniola moraguesi and Androthrips flavipesare the most common and widely distributed that feed on all stages of thepest. The other predators include Geogarypus sp. and Lestodiplosis sp.,which feed on the juvenile stages (Devasahayam 2000).

Host resistance

Kalluvally is the least susceptible cultivar to the pest (Banerjee etal. 1981).

e) Root mealy bugs

Mealybugs (Planococcus sp., P. citri, P. lilacinus, Dysmicoccusbrevipes and F. virgata) were found infesting the roots and basal portionof stem of black pepper vines (Mani et al. 2016).

Symptoms

Infested plants show slow or poor growth. Leaves wilt later andbecome pale or turn yellow or grey. Wax deposit is seen around the rootsas well as on the soil or on the side of the pots. The infestation is generallysevere during the post monsoon (Mani et al. 2016)

Management

Cultural practices

Since root mealybugs are very difficult to detect and control, effortshould be made to prevent their spread and establishment. Use of cleanplanting material, removal of alternate host plants, disallowing irrigationwater from infested areas, and disposal of the infested plant debris providereduction in population of root mealybugs (Mani et al. 2016).

Botanicals

Devasahayam et al. (2010) observed that alcoholic extracts (3%)of Azadirachta indica and Vitex negundo, tobacco extract (3%), custardapple seed extract (2%) and agro spray oil (3%) cause up to 75% reduction

575

in root mealybug population at 30th day of treatment. He also found thatamong the neem products, Nimbicidine (0.5%) was most effective resultingin 60% reduction in the population of root mealybugs after 30 days ofdrenching. Drenching tobacco extract (2%) under the situation of mildinfestations were suggested by Devasahayam et al. (2015b).

Biocontrol

The larvae of Spalgis epius (Apefly) were observed to predate onpepper root mealybug colonies (Devasahayam et al. 2010).

Conclusion and future prospects

Organic farming technologies and practices that are low inputdemanding, energy efficient and cause little or minimum disturbance tothe production system need to be developed. Keeping in view of theeconomics of disease management as well as discouraging the syntheticchemical control measures, the identification and use of locally evolvedcultivars with multiple resistant genes capable of moderately yieldingcould be the most effective and viable option. Development and cultivationof varieties and types that are tolerant to noxious pests and diseases ofcardamom and black pepper would be a panacea to achieve this goal.Standardization of ready to use formulation of effective botanicals or biopesticides against major pests and diseases are indeed imperative for thesuccessful cultivation of these crops. Exploitation of bio-rationals likehighly specific insect growth regulators and pheromones especially forshoot and capsule borer, thrips and root grubs adult in cardamom and pollubeetle in black pepper are required. Growing knowledge on the role ofbeneficial microbes in triggering defense mechanisms in host plant offersadditional importance for shifting from toxic pesticides to more eco-friendlymethods involving biological control agents (Anandaraj 2018). In the caseof cardamom and black pepper, very limited work has been done on therole of endophytes in pests and disease management. Also, the suitabilityof documented natural enemies especially parasitoids and predators hasreceived much attention, but studies of environmental impact as well astechniques for their easy mass multiplication and field application arelimited. The possibility of transgenic plants can be explored for the pestsand diseases where management with organic packages is extremelydifficult.

ReferencesAjay D, Vijayan AK, Francis MS, Dhanapal K, Mathews AA, Sudharsan MR (2015) Effect

of cashew shell on in vitro growth and soil infestation of Phytophthora meadii

576

infecting small cardamom. In: Mathew J, Roy BC, Jacob KC, Ramachandran N(eds) Phytophthora diseases of plantation crops, 1st edn. Westville PublishingHouse, New Delhi, pp 91-93

Ali MAA, Nagarajan K, Thiyagarajan P (2014) Evaluation of insecticide and bio-pesticidemolecules for the management of whitefly in small cardamom. In: Dinesh R, EapenSJ, Kumar CMS, Nair RR, Devasahayam S, John ZT, Anandaraj M (eds) proc. ofInternational symposium of plantation crops (PLACROSYM XXI) at Calicut,Kerala, December, 10-12, 2014, pp 166 – 167

Ali MAA, Manoharan T, Kuttalam S, Paramaguru P, Nakkeeran S (2015) Effect of changingclimatic factors and management practices on pests, pollinators and natural enemiesof small cardamom. In: Krishnamurthy KS, Biju CN, Jayashree E, Prasath D, DineshR, Suresh J, Babu NK (eds) Souvenir and Abstracts of “Towards 2050-Strategiesfor Sustainable Spices Production” SYMSAC VIII at Coimbatore, India, December,16-18,2015, pp 131

Ali SS (1985) Preliminary observations on the effect of some systemic nematicides andneem oil cakes in a cardamom field infested with root knot nematodes. In: SethurajMR (ed) proc. of International symposium of plantation crops (PLACROSYMVI) at Indian Society for Plantation Crops, Kasaragod, Kerala, India, 1984, pp215- 223

Anandaraj M (1997) Ecology of Phytophthora capsici, causal organism of foot rot ofblack pepper (P. nigrum L.). Ph.D. Thesis, University of Calicut, p 154

Anandaraj M (2000) Diseases of black pepper. In: Ravindran PN (ed) Black pepper (Pipernigrum), vol 13. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants-Industrial Profiles, HarwoodAcademic Publishers, The Netherlands, pp 239-265

Anandaraj M (2005) Management of fungal diseases of black pepper. Focus on Pepper. JPepper Ind 2: 27

Anandaraj M (2018) Plant health management strategies for organic spices developmentin North Eastern region. In: Krishnamurthy KS, Biju CN, Prasath D et al (eds)Souvenier and Abstracts of “Spices for doubling farmer’s income Symposium onspices, medicinal and aromatic crops” SYMSAC IX at School of AgriculturalSciences and Rural Development, Nagaland University, Medziphema, Nagaland,March, 15-17, 2018, pp 142-148

Anandaraj M, Sarma YR (1994) Effect of vesicular arbuscular mycorrhiza on rooting ofblack pepper (Piper nigrum L.). J Spices Aromat Crops 3: 39-42

Anandaraj M, Sarma YR (1995) Diseases of black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) and theirmanagement. J Spices Aromat Crops 4: 17-23

Anandaraj M, Leela NK (1996) Toxic effect of some plant extracts on Phytophthora capsici,the foot rot pathogen of black pepper. Indian Phytopathol 49: 181-184

Anandaraj M, Sarma YR (1997) Mature coconut water for mass culture of bio-controlagents. J Plant Crops 25: 112–114

Anandaraj M, Sarma YR (2003) Annual report 2002-03, Indian Institute of Spices Research,Calicut, Kerala, p 70

Anandaraj M, Bhai RS (2015) Management strategies for Phytophthora diseases of spices.In: Mathew J, Roy BC, Jacob KC, Ramachandran N (eds) Phytophthora diseases

577

of plantation crops. Westville Publishing House, New Delhi, pp 79-84

Anandaraj M, Ramachandran N, Sarma YR (1991) Epidemiology of foot rot disease ofblack pepper (Piper nigrum L.) in India. In: Sarma YR, Premkumar T (eds) Diseasesof Black Pepper. National Research Centre for Spices, Calicut, India, pp 113-135

Anith KN, Manomohandas TP (2001) Combined application of Trichoderma harzianumand Alcaligenes sp. strain AMB 8 for controlling nursery rot disease of black pepper.Indian Phytopathol 54: 335-339

Anith KN, Radhakrishnan NV, Manomohandas TP (2003) Screening of antagonisticbacteria for biological control of nursery wilt of black pepper (Piper nigrum L.).Microbiol Res 158: 91-97

Anith KN, Soumya VG, Anjana S, Arya RR, Radhakrishnan NV (2014) A cheap and farmer-friendly method for mass multiplication of Pseudomonas fluorescens. J Trop Agric52: 145-148

Anonymous (2016) Package of practices recommendations: Crops. 15th edn. KAU, Thrissur,Kerala, India, p 392

Aravind S, Biju CN, Ankegowda SJ, Senthilkumar R, Peeran MF (2015) Screening offield gene bank accessions of small cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton) formorphological, yield, drought and diseases. In: Krishnamurthy KS, Biju CN,Jayashree E, Prasath D, Dinesh R, Suresh J, Babu NK (eds) Souvenir and Abstractsof “Towards 2050-Strategies for Sustainable Spices Production” SYMSAC VIIIat Coimbatore, India, December, 16-18, 2015, pp 66

Babu NK (2018) Spices for doubling farmer’s income. In: Krishnamurthy KS, Biju CN,Prasath D, Kumar CMS, Kandiannan K, Maiti CS, Alila P, Sema A, Zhimomi A,Babu NK (eds) Symposium of spices medicinal and aromatic crops, SYMSAC-IXat Nagaland, India, March, 15-17, 2018, pp 10-16

Banerjee SK, Koya KMA, Premkumar T, Gautam SSS (1981) Incidence of marginal gallforming thrips on pepper in south Wayanad. J Plant Crops 9: 127–128

Bhai RS, Joseph T, Naidu R (1992) Evaluation of promising selections of cardamomagainst azhukal disease. J Plant Crops 20: 90-91

Bhai RS, Thomas J, Naidu R (1993) Biological control of ‘Azhukal’ disease of smallcardamom caused by P. meadii Mc.Rae. J Plant Crops 21:134-139

Bhai RS, Anandaraj M, SarmaYR, Veena SS, Saji KV (2007) Screening black pepper(Piper nigrum L.) germplasm for resistance to foot rot disease caused byPhytophthora capsici Leonian. J Spices Aromat Crops 16: 115-117

Bhai RS, Lijina A, Prameela TP (2014) Streptomyces spp. for better growth promotion inblack pepper. In: Dinesh R, Eapen SJ, Kumar CMS, Nair RR, Devasahayam S,John ZT, Anandaraj M (eds) proc. of International Symposium of plantation crops(PLACROSYM XXI) at Calicut, Kerala, December, 10-12, 2014, pp 166-167

Bhai RS, Prameela TP, Mahantesh V, Anandaraj M (2015) Potential of actinomycetes forthe bio-control of Phytophthora foot rot in black pepper (Piper nigrum L.). In:Mathew J, Roy B, Jacob KC, Ramachandran N (eds) Phytophthora diseases ofplantation crops, 1st edn. Westville Publishing House, New Delhi, pp 33-38

Bhai RS, Lijina A, Prameela TP, Krishna PB, Anushree T (2016) Biocontrol and growthpromotive potential of Streptomyces spp. in black pepper (Piper nigrum L.). J Biol

578

Control 30: 177-189

Bhai RS, Eapen SJ, Kumar A, Aravind R, Pervez R, Varghese EM, Krishna PB, Sreeja K(2017) Mitigating Phytophthora foot rot and slow decline diseases of black pepperthrough the deployment of bacterial antagonists. J Spices Aromat Crops 26: 69-82

Bhai RS, Sarma YR (2003) In vitro effect of Pseudomonas fluorescens on capsule rot ofcardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton) caused by Phytophthora meadii. In:Reddy M S, Anandaraj M, Eapen SJ, Sarma YR, Kumar A (eds) Abstracts andShort Papers of 6th International Workshop on Plant Growth Promoting Bacteriaat Indian Society for Spices, Calicut, October, 5-10, 2003, pp 74-78

Bhat AI, Biju CN, Srinivasan V, Ankegowda SJ, Krishamurthy KS (2018) Current statusof virus diseases affecting black pepper and cardamom. J Spices Aromat Crops 27:1-16. https://doi : 10.25081/josac.2018.v27.i1.1009

Bhatti JS (1969) The taxonomic status of Megalurothrips Bagnall (Thysanoptera:Thripidae). Orient Insects 3: 239-244

David BV, Narayanaswami PS, Murugesan M (1964) Bionomics and control of the castorshoot and capsule borer Dichocrocis punctiferalis Guen. in Madras State. IndianOil Seeds J 8: 146-158

Deepthy KB, Narayana R, Dhanya MK, Maya T, Murugan M (2015) Evaluation of newinsecticides/bio-pesticides in cardamom against thrips and shoot and capsule borer.In: Krishnamurthy KS, Biju CN, Jayashree E, Prasath D, Dinesh R, Suresh J,Babu NK (eds) Souvenir and abstracts of “Towards 2050-Strategies for SustainableSpices Production” SYMSAC VIII at Coimbatore, India, December 16-18, 2015,pp 130-131

Deshpande RS, Vishwanath S, Rahman MV (1972) A new entomogenous fungus on bananaaphid (Pentalonia nigronervosa Coq.) vector of katte disease of cardamom(Elettaria cardamomum Maton). Mysore J Agri Sci 6: 54

Devasahayam S (2000) Insect pest of black pepper. In: Ravindran PN (ed) Black pepper(Piper nigrum), vol 13. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants-Industrial Profiles, HarwoodAcademic Publishers, The Netherlands, pp 309-334

Devasahayam S, Koya KMA (1994) Natural enemies of major insect pests of black pepper(Piper nigrum L.) in India. J Spices Aromat Crops 3: 50–55

Devasahayam S, Leela NK (1997) Evaluation of plant products for antifeedant activityagainst pollu beetle (Longitarsus nigripennis Motschulsky) a major pest of blackpepper. National symposium on pest management in crops: Environmentalimplications and thrusts at Bangalore, 1997, p 85

Devasahayam S, Koya KMA, Anandaraj M, Tresa T, Preethi N (2010) Distribution andecology of root mealybugs associated with black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) inKarnataka and Kerala, India. Entomon 34: 147-154

Devasahayam S, Bhai RS, Eapen SJ (2015a) Sustainable plant protection technologies inspice crops. In: Krishnamurthy KS, Biju CN, Jayashree E, Prasath D, Dinesh R,Suresh J, Babu NK (eds) Souvenir and abstracts of “Towards 2050-Strategies forSustainable Spices Production” SYMSAC VIII at Coimbatore, India, December16-18, 2015, pp 96-104

Devasahayam S, Zachariah JT, Jayashree E, Kandiannan K, Prasath D, Eapen SJ, Sasikumar

579

B, Srinivasan V, Bhai S R (2015b) Thomas L, Rajeev P (eds) Black pepper -Extension pamphlet. ICAR-Indian Institute of Spices Research, Kozhikode, Keralap 24

Dhanapal K, Thomas J (1996) Evaluation of Trichoderma isolates against rot pathogensof cardamom. In: Rao MK, Mahadevan A (eds) Recent trends in biocontrol ofplant pathogens. Today and Tomorrow Publishers, New Delhi, pp 65-67

Dhanapal K, Joseph T, Naidu R (1993) Antifungal properties of neem products againstrhizome rot of small cardamom. World Neem Conference at Bangalore, February,28, 1993, Med Aromatic Plants Abstracts, 15: 485

Dhanapal K, Kannan VR, Udayan K (2012) Studies on management of rot diseases ofblack pepper. In: Radhakrishnan B, Rajkumar R, Palani N, Premkumar R, IlangoRVJ, Kumar SM, Krishnakumar V, Krishnakumar R (eds) proc. of InternationalSymposium of plantation crops (PLACROSYM XX) at Coimbatore, India,December, 12-15, 2012, pp 98

Dhanya MK, Sivakumar G, Murugan M, Narayana R (2015) Comparative efficacy ofchemical and biological methods in controlling capsule rot of small cardamom(Elettaria cardamomum). In: Mathew J, Roy BC, Jacob KC, Ramachandran N(eds) Phytophthora diseases of plantation crops. Westville Publishing House, NewDelhi, pp 71-73

Dhanya MK, Murugan M, Anjumol KB, Kumari KSM (2017) Efficacies of fungicidesand biocontrol agents on the management of rot disease of small cardamom. JMycol Plant Pathol 47: 346-354

Diby P, Jisha PJ, Sharma YR, Annadurai M (2005) Rhizospheric Pseudomonas fluorescensas rejuvenating and root proliferating agents in black pepper. J Biol Control 19:173-178

Eapen SJ, Bhai RS (2012) Pests of cardamom- integrated management. In: Sasikumar B,Dinesh R, Anandaraj M (eds) The capsule golden jubilee souvenir. Indian Instituteof Spices Research, Kozhikode, pp 63-68

Eapen SJ, Venugopal MN (1995) Field evaluation of Trichoderma spp. and Paecilomyceslilacinus for control of root knot nematodes and fungal diseases in cardamomnurseries. Indian J Nematol 25: 15-16

Gopakumar B, Chandrasekar SS (2002) Insects pests of Cardamom. In: Ravindran PN,Madhusoodanan KJ (eds) cardamom the genus Elettaria. Taylor and Francis,London, UK, pp 180-206

Gopakumar B, Dhanapal K, Joseph T, Thomas J (2006) Potential consortium of biocontrolagents for disease management in small cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton).J Plant Crops 34: 476-479

Govindan M, Chandy KC (1985) Utilization of the diazotroph, Azospirillum for inducingrooting in pepper cuttings (Piper nigrum) Curr Sci 54: 1186 - 1188

Hegde HG, Hegde GM (2015) Innovative strategy to manage Phytophthora capsici,incidence of foot rot of black pepper. In: Mathew J, Roy BC, Jacob KC,Ramachandran N (eds) Phytophthora diseases of plantation crops. Westvillepublishing house, New Delhi, India, pp 97-101

Jacob SA (1981) Biology of Dichocrocis punctiferalis Guen. on turmeric. J Plant Crops 9:

580

119-123

Jacob JA, Bai H (2007) Emerging trends in cardamom pest management. In: JosephrajkumarA, Backiyarani S, Sivakumar G (eds) Gleanings in cardamom. Kerala AgriculturalUniversity, pp 56-57

Jacob TK, Kumar CMS, D’Silva S, Devasahayam S, Ranganath HR, Sujeesh ES, BijuCN, Praveena R (2014) Field evaluation of natural products and insecticides fortheir bio-efficacy against cardamom thrips. In: Dinesh R, Eapen SJ, Kumar CMS,Nair RR, Devasahayam S, John ZT, Anandaraj M (eds) proc. of Internationalsymposium of plantation crops (PLACROSYM XXI) at Kozhikode, Kerala,December, 10-12, 2014, p 170

Joseph KJ, Narendran TC, Joy PJ (1973) Studies on Oriental Brachymeria (Chalacidoidae)Report, P.L. 480 Research Project, Taxonomic studies on the oriental species ofBrachymeria (Hymenoptera: Chalcididae).University of Calicut, Calicut, India

Joseph T, Bhai RS, Vijayan AK, Naidu R (1993) Evaluation of antagonists and their efficacyin managing rot diseases of small cardamom. J Biol Control 7: 29-36

Josephrajkumar A, Murugan M (2001) New record of an entomopathogenic fungusVerticillium sp. against cardamom white fly Kanakarajjella cardamomi (Davidand Subramaniam). Pest Mgmt Hort Ecosys 7: 66-67

Josephrajkumar A, Backiyarani S, Murugan M (2002a) PV-1, a pseudostem borer tolerantcardamom variety. Insect Environ 7: 155-156

Josephrajkumar A, Kurian PS, Backiyarani S, Murugan M (2002b) Evaluation ofbiorationals against thrips (Sciothrips cardamomi Ramk.) and shoot and capsuleborer (Conogethes punctiferalis Guen.) in cardamom. J Spices Aromat Crops 11:132-134

Josephrajkumar A, Backiyarani S, Sivakumar G (2007) Fifty years of cardamom researchstation, Pampadumpara - An update. In: Josephrajkumar A, Backiyarani S,Sivakumar G (eds) Gleanings in cardamom. Kerala Agricultural Universitypublication, pp 9-18

Krishnakumar NK (2015) Spices-way forward. In: Krishnamurthy KS, Biju CN, JayashreeE, Prasath D, Dinesh R, Suresh J, Babu NK (eds) Symposium on spices, medicinaland aromatic crops. SYMSAC- VIII at TNAU, Coimbatore, December, 16-18,2015, p 6

Kueh TK (1990) Major diseases of black pepper and their management. Planter 66: 59-69

Kueh TK, Sim SL (1992) Occurrence and management of wrinkled–leaf disease of blackpepper. In: Wahid P, Sitepu D, Deciyanto S, Superman U (eds) proc. of Internationalworkshop on black pepper diseases at Institute for spice and medicinal crops, Bogor,Indonesia, pp 227-233

Kumar CMS, Jacob TK, Devasahayam S, D’Silva S, Kumar NKK (2015) Isolation andcharacterization of a Lecanicillium psalliotae isolate infecting cardamom thrips(Sciothrips cardamomi) in India. Biocontrol 60: 363-373

Kumar CMS, Jacob TK, Devasahayam S, Thomas S, Geethu C (2018) Multifarious plantgrowth promotion by an entomopathogenic fungus Lecanicillium psalliotae.Microbiol Res 207: 153-160

Kurian PS, Josephrajkumar A, Backiyarani S, Murugan M (2000) Case study of “Pollu”

581

disease epidemic of black pepper in high ranges of Idukki District. In: proc. of 12th

Kerala science congress at Kumily, 2000, pp 497-498

Madhusoodanan KJ (2012) Vistas in breeding cardamom. In: Sasikumar B, Dinesh R,Anandaraj M (eds) The capsule golden jubilee souvenir. Indian Institute of SpicesResearch, Kozhikode, pp 59-60

Mani M, Smitha MS, Najitha U (2016) Root mealybugs and their management inhorticultural crops in India. Pest Mgmt Hort Ecosys 22: 103-113

Manju MJ, Hegde L, Shankarappa TH, Gowda A, Lokesh MS, Naik N (2014) Evaluationof fungicides and varietal resistance for the management of leaf blight disease ofcardamom. In: Dinesh R, Eapen SJ, Kumar CMS, Nair RR, Devasahayam S, JohnZT, Anandaraj M (eds) proc. of International symposium of plantation crops(PLACROSYM XXI) at Calicut, Kerala, December, 10-12, 2014, pp 169

Manohara D, Kasim R, Sitepu D (1992) Current research status of foot rot disease inIndonesia. In: Wahid P, Sitepu D, Deciyanto S, Superman U (eds) proc. of theinternational workshop on black pepper diseases at Institute for Spice and MedicinalCrops, Bogor, Indonesia, 1992, pp 144-154

Manohara D, Mulya K, Wahyuno D (2004) Phytophthora disease on black pepper andtheir control measures. Focus on Pepper (Piper nigrum L). J Pepper Ind1: 37-49

Mathew MJ, Saju KA, Venugopal MN (1997) Management of Pentalonia nigronervosaf. caladii Van der Goot, vector of cardamom mosaic virus (Katte) and cardamomvein clearing virus (Kokke kandu) through eco-friendly vector control measures.Symposium on economically important plant diseases at Bangalore, December,18–20, 1997, p 59

Mathew MJ, Saju KA, Venugopal MN (1998) Efficacy of entomogenous fungi on biologicalsuppression of Pentalonia nigronervosa f. caladii Van der Goot of cardamom(Elettaria cardamomum Maton). J Spices Aromat Crops 7: 43-46

Mathew AV (2007) Biocontrol of cardamom diseases. In: Josephrajkumar A, BackiyaraniS, Sivakumar G (eds) Gleanings in cardamom. Kerala Agricultural Universitypublication, p 82

Maya T, Kuriakose KP, Dhanya MK, Deepthy KB (2012) Three decades of cardamomresearch at CRS, Pampadumpara. In: Sasikumar B, Dinesh R, Anandaraj M (eds)The capsule golden jubilee souvenir. Indian Institute of Spices Research, Kozhikode,pp 93-101

Menon KK (1949) Survey of pollu (hollow berry disease) and root diseases of pepper.Indian J Agric Sci 19: 89-136

Menon MR, Sajoo BV, Ramakrishnan CK, Ramadevi L (1972) A new Phytophthora diseaseof cardamom. Agric Res J Kerala 11: 93-94

Murugan M, Dhanya MK, Deepthy KB, Preethy TT, Aswathy TS, Sathyan T, Manoj VS(2016) Compendium on Cardamom, 2nd edn. Kerala Agricultural University,Cardamom Research Station, Pampadumpara, p 66

Nair PKU, Sasikumaran S, Pillai VS (1987) Time of application of fungicides for controlof anthracnose disease of pepper. J Trop Agric 25: 136–139

Narayana R, Sreeja CA, Nisha MS, Dhanya MK (2011) Management of Nematodesinfecting cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton). In: Anil S (ed) proc of

582

National symposium on nematodes: a challenge under changing climate andagriculture at Nematological society of India, November, 16-18, 2011, pp 82

Park M (1936) Report on the work of the mycological division. Admn Rep Div AgricCeylon. pp 1728-1735

Patel RK, Gangrade GA (1971) Note on the biology of castor capsule borer, Dichocrocispunctiferalis. Indian J Agric Sci 41: 443–444

Peeran MF, Biju CN, Praveena R (2018) Isolation, characterization and evaluation offungal endophytes against major diseases of small cardamom. In: KrishnamurthyKS, Biju CN, Prasath D, Kumar CMS, Kandiannan K, Maiti CS, Alila P, Sema A,Zhimomi A, Babu NK (eds) Symposium of spices, medicinal and aromatic crops,SYMSAC-IX at Nagaland, India, March, 15-17, 2018, pp176

Peethambaran K, Girija VK, Umamaheswaran K, Gokulapalan C (2008) Diseases of cropplants and their management. Kerala Agricultural University, College of Agriculture,Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, p 321

Rajan PP, Anandaraj M, Sarma YR (2002) Management of foot rot disease of black pepperwith Trichoderma spp. Indian Phytopathol 55: 34-38

Ramachandran N, Sarma YR, Anandaraj M (1991) Management of Phytophthora infectionin black pepper. In: Sarma YR, Premkumar T (eds) Diseases of Black pepper.National Research Centre for Spices, Calicut, India. pp 158-174

Ramana KV, Mohandas C (1987) Plant parasitic nematodes associated with black pepper(Piper nigrum L.) in Kerala. Indian J Nematol 17: 62-66

Ramana KV, Eapen SJ (1992) Plant parasitic nematodes of black pepper and cardamomand their management. In: proc. of National seminar on black pepper and cardamomat Calicut, Kerala, 1992, pp 43-47

Ramana KV, Eapen SJ (2000) Nematode induced diseases of black pepper. In: RavindranPN (ed) Black pepper (Piper nigrum). vol 13. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants-Industrial Profiles, Harwood Academic Publishers, The Netherlands, pp 239-265

Rao SMK (1938) Report of the mycologist 1937-38. Admn Rept Teasci united Plant AssocIndia, pp. 28-42

Ravindran PN (2000) Black pepper Piper nigrum. In: Ravindran PN (ed) HarwoodAcademic Publishers, India, p 525

Ravindran PN (2002) Cardamom the genus Elettaria, In: Ravindran PN, MadhusoodananKJ (eds) Taylor and Francis, London, UK, p 368

Sainamole KP, Sivakumar G, Josephrajkumar A, Backiyarani S, Murugan M, Shiva KN(2008) Management of anthracnose disease (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz)Penz & Sac.) of black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) in the high ranges of Idukki District,Kerala. J Spices Aromat Crops 17: 21-23

Saju KA, Sarma YR (2015) In vitro interactions between Trichoderma spp. andPhytophthora capsici. In: Mathew J, Roy BC, Jacob KC, Ramachandran N (eds)Phytophthora diseases of plantation crops. Westville publishing house, New Delhi,pp 49-52

Saju KA, Venugopal MN, Mathew MJ (1998) Antifungal and insect repellent activities ofessential oil of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.). Curr Sci 75: 660-663

583

Sally KM, Anu AM, Surendra GK (2010) A cheap nutritional liquid medium forenhancement of Trichoderma harzianum and Pseudomonas fluorescens population.Int J Plant Prot 3:186-188

Santhakumari P, Rajagopalan B (2000) Status of fungal foliar diseases of black pepper inKerala. In: Ramana KV, Eapen SJ, Babu KN, Krishnamurthy KS, Kumar A (eds)Spices and aromatic plants challenges and opportunities in the new century.Contributory papers, centennial conference on spices and aromatic plants at IndianSociety for Spices, Kozhikode, September ,20-23, 2000, pp 274–275

Sarma YR, Anandaraj M (1997) Phytophthora foot rot of black pepper. In: Agnihotri VP,Sarbhoy AK, Singh DV (eds) Management of threatening diseases of nationalImportance. Malhotra Publishing House, India, pp 237–248.

Sarma YR, Premkumar T, Ramana KV, Ramachandran N, Anandaraj M (1987) Diseaseand pest management in black pepper nurseries. Indian Cocoa Arecanut Spices J11: 45-49

Sarma YR, Ramachandran N, Anandaraj M (1991) Black pepper diseases in India. In:Sarma YR, Premkumar T (eds) Diseases of black pepper. National research centrefor spices, Calicut, pp 55-101

Sarma YR, Anandaraj M, Ramana KV (1992) Present status of black pepper diseases inIndia and their management. In: Wahid P, Sitepu D, Deciyanto S, Superman U(eds) proc. of International workshop on black pepper diseases at Institute forspice and medicinal crops, Bogor, Indonesia, 1992, pp 67-78

Sarma YR, Anandaraj M, Venugopal MN (1994) Diseases of spice crops. In: Chadha KL,Rethinam P (eds) Advances in Horticulture, vol 10. Plantation and Spice Cropspart 2. Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi, pp 1015-1057

Sarma YR, Anandaraj M, Venugopal MN (1996) Biological control of diseases in spices.In: Anandaraj M, Peter KV (eds) Biological control in spices. Indian Institute ofSpices Research, Calicut, pp 1-19

Sasi S, Bhat AI (2018) In vitro elimination of piper yellow mottle virus from infectedblack pepper through somatic embryogenesis and meristem-tip culture. Crop Prot103: 39-45

Sasikumar B, Haridas P, Johnson GK, Saji KV, Zachariah JT, Ravindran P, Babu NK,Krishnamoorthy B, Mathew PA, Parthasarathy VA (2004) IISR Thevam, IISRMalabar Excel and ‘IISR Girimunda’- three new black pepper (Piper nigrum L.)clones. J Spices Aromat Crops 13: 1-5

Selvakumaran S, David BV, Kumaresan D (1996a) Observations on the natural enemiesof the whitefly, Kanakarajjella cardamomi (David and Subramaniam) a pest oncardamom. Indian J Environ Toxicol 6: 26-27

Selvakumaran S, Mini K, Devasahayam S (1996b) Natural enemies of two major speciesof scale insects infesting black pepper (Piper nigrum) in India. Pest Mgmt HortEcosys 2: 79-83

Shashidhara S, Lokesh MS, Lingaraju S, Palakshappa MG (2008) In vitro evaluation ofmicrobial antagonists, botanicals and fungicides against Phytophthora capsici Leon.the causal agent of foot rot of black pepper. Karnataka J Agric Sci 21(4): 527-531

Sheela MS (2007) Nematodes-A menace to cardamom. In: Josephrajkumar A, Backiyarani

584

S, Sivakumar G (eds) Gleanings in cardamom. Kerala Agricultural Universitypublication, pp 54-55

Sivakumar G, Josephrajkumar A, Dhanya MK (2012) Evaluation of bacterial antagonistsfor the management of rhizome rot of cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton).J Spices Aromat Crops 21: 9-15

Sivakumar G, Dhanya MK, Narayana R (2014) Validation of a technology for themanagement of Phytophthora foot rot disease in black pepper. J Mycol Plant Pathol44: 298-300

Sivakumar G, Dhanya MK, Murugan M (2015a) Induced defense response in smallcardamom plants by Bacillus subtilis strain Bs against capsule rot pathogen,Phytophthora meadii. J Spices Aromat Crops 24: 12-17

Sivakumar G, Dhanya MK, Narayana R, Murugan M (2015b) Management of Phytophthorafoot rot of black pepper (Piper nigrum). In: Mathew JC, Roy BC, Jacob KC,Ramachandran N (eds) Phytophthora diseases of plantation crops. Westvillepublishing house, New Delhi, India, pp 88-90

Sivaprasad P, Robert CP, Vijayan M, Joseph PJ (1995) Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizalcolonization in relation to foot rot disease intensity in black pepper. In: AdholeyaA, Singh S (eds) Mycorrhizae-biofertilizers for the future. Tata Energy ResearchInstitute, New Delhi, pp 137-140

Sreekanth M (2013) Field evaluation of certain leaf extracts for the control of musselscale (Lepidosaphes piperis Gr.) in black pepper (Piper nigrum L.). J Biopest 6:1-5

Srinivasan V, Bhat AI, Dinesh R, Ankegowda SJ, Hamza S, Biju CN, Krishnamurthy KS(2017) Rejuvenation of virus affected black pepper plantations through soil andplant health management. Indian J Arec Spices Med Pl 19: 24-27

Suvarna S, Vinod V, Rajendra H, Anil K, Reddy GC (2011) A unique water solubleformulation of â-asarone from sweet flag (Acorus calamus L.) and it’s in vitroactivity against some fungal plant pathogens. J Med Plants Res 5: 5132-5137

Thomas J, Vijayan AK (2002) Fusarium oxysporum, a new threat to cardamom cultivation.In: Sreedharan K, Kumar VPK, Jayarama, Chulaki BM (eds) proc. of the plantationcrops symposium (PLACROSYM XV) at Mysore, India, December,10-13, 2002,pp 535-540

Thomas GV, Sundararaju P, Ali SS, Ghai SK (1989) Individual and interactive effects ofVA mycorrhizal fungi and root- knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita oncardamom. Trop Agric 66: 21-24

Thomas J, Bhai SR, Vijayan AK, Naidu R (1991) Management of rot diseases of cardamomthrough bio-agents. National seminar on biological control in plantation crops atRubber Research Institute of India, Kottayam, Kerala, June, 27-28, 1991, p 21

Thomas J (2000) Biological control of rot diseases of small cardamom. In: Upadhyay RK, Mukerji KG, Chamola BP (eds) Biocontrol potential and its exploitation insustainable agriculture. Springer, Boston, MA, pp 223-238

Turner GJ (1971) Resistance in Piper species and other plants to infection by Phytophthorapalmivora from Piper nigrum. Trans Br Mycol Soc 57: 61-66

Vanaja T, Neema VP, Rajesh R, Mammootty KP (2007) Graft recovery of Piper nigrum L.

585

runner shoots on Piper colubrinum Link. rootstocks as influenced by varieties andmonth of grafting. J Trop Agric 45: 61-62

Varadarasan S, Kumaresan D, Gopakumar B (1990) Bi-annual report 1987-1988 and 1988-1989. Indian Cardamom Research Institute, Myladumpara, India, pp 65-66

Vidya K, Raji P, Sumiya KV, Johnkutty I (2015) Coconut water - a medium for commercialproduction of Trichoderma viride. Int J Agri Innov Res 4(3): 544-546

Vijayan AK, Francis SM, Sudharshan MR (2012) Incidence and management of Fusariuminfections of small cardamom in the field. In: Radhakrishnan B, Rajkumar R, PalaniN, Premkumar R, Ilango RVJ, Kumar SM, Krishnakumar V, Krishnakumar R (eds)proc. of International symposium of plantation crops (PLACROSYM XX) atCoimbatore, Tamil Nadu, December, 12-15, 2012, pp 93