Bilingualism & Language Contact - Linköping University Webpages/english-3/1.2279… · Language Contact – Welsh English dialects tend to shthit ti tt fl lWlhdilthare the intonation

Bilingualism & Language Bilingualism & Language Contact:Contact:

Welsh English & WelshWelsh English & Welsh

Nigel MuskNigel Musk

English 3 & Teachers’ Programme 61English 3 & Teachers’ Programme 61--90 hp 90 hp D t t f C lt & C i tiD t t f C lt & C i tiDepartment of Culture & CommunicationDepartment of Culture & Communication

LinköpingLinköping UniversityUniversity

Course StructureCourse Structure

1. National Standard & Dialects British English

2. Two National Varieties American vs British English

3. Bilingualism & Language Contactg g g Welsh English & Welsh

4. Pidgins & Creoles4. Pidgins & Creoles Caribbean English

5 English as a Second Language5. English as a Second Language Indian English

Bilingualism & Language ContactBilingualism & Language Contact

Bilingualism has rarely been absent from g y

important levels of the intellectual and

cultural life of Europe and nearly all

European languages have had long, and, inEuropean languages have had long, and, in

some instances, several successive periods

of language contact. (Lewis 1977: 23)

Some Language Contact ScenariosSome Language Contact Scenarios

Language contact is the norm rather than the exception ( f h ll l d d h ll(even for geographically isolated and ethnically homogeneous countries, e.g. Iceland)

Languages with official status e g Irish in Ireland Welsh in Wales (?) e.g. Irish in Ireland, Welsh in Wales (?)

Languages without official recognition e.g. Breton & Basque in France

Community Languages (immigrant languages) Community Languages (immigrant languages)

e.g. Indian languages in the UK

European LanguagesEuropean LanguagesLinguistic Outcomes of LanguageLinguistic Outcomes of LanguageLinguistic Outcomes of Language Linguistic Outcomes of Language ContactContact

Three-way division (Thomason 2001: 10):

1. Contact-induced language changell l e.g. all European languages

2. Extreme language mixture2. Extreme language mixture e.g. Anglo-Romany, W. Indian Creoles

3. Language death (obsolescence)G hi C i h M e.g. Gothic, Cornish, Manx

1. Contact1. Contact--Induced Language ChangeInduced Language Change

Phonology e.g. Welsh English, Irish English

Lexis (loanwords) e.g. all European languages

Morphologyp gy e.g. English under Norse influence

Syntax Grammar Syntax

e.g. Welsh & Irish English

Three (prototypical) sociolinguisticThree (prototypical) sociolinguisticThree (prototypical) sociolinguistic Three (prototypical) sociolinguistic situationssituations

1. Standard-with-dialects

2. Societal bilingualism (multilingualism)

3. Diglossia

S l t d T /CitiS l t d T /CitiSelected Towns/Cities Selected Towns/Cities of Walesof Wales

BethesdaBethesda

AberystwythAberystwyth

SwanseaSwanseaAbertaweAbertawe CardiffCardiff

CaerdyddCaerdydd

Selected Towns/Cities of Wales

Phonology: Welsh Accents 1Phonology: Welsh Accents 1

When I when I got married and I went up to London to live and uh my

fhusband’s family ’adn’t met me many times and they used to look in

my face and they used to say to me come on Sylvia say some more

you got a beautiful accent You sing song when you when you’reyou got a beautiful accent. You sing-song when you when you re

talkin’ you you’re lovely go on and the sister-in-laws at that …

because I I was the only child and I went into a family of six and they y y y

used to sit all round me and they used to say come on Sylvia. Oh sing

us something in Welsh now. Come on now. They they thought it was

marvellous. They never made fun of me or anything, well up in

London they didn’t, you know ’cause I think it’s it’s because they’ve

got such a peculiar accent themselves. The Londoners ’ave they have

really you know, yeah.

Welsh Accents 2Welsh Accents 2

Intonation – lilting or ‘sing-song’ accentg g g

I hate South Walian accents. My brother’s in university down

th d ti h b k h h thi S ththere and every time he comes back up he has this South

Walian accent and I can’t stand it … the enunciation I think

They speak like in a rhythm da-da-da-da-da-DA-da

Language Contact Language Contact – Welsh English dialects tend to

h th i t ti tt f l l W l h di l tshare the intonation patterns of local Welsh dialects

Welsh Accents 3aWelsh Accents 3a

Vowels

Received Pronunciation Welsh English Pronunciation

[ʌ] rubber, love [ə]

it’s not just the young people it’s my mum my grandmother as well …

everyone

[ə] [ə] [ə] [ə]

everyone

Language ContactLanguage Contact – Welsh lacks RP’s [ʌ]. Instead Welsh English has

[ə]

Language Contact Language Contact Welsh lacks RP s [ʌ]. Instead Welsh English has

adopted a similar vowel from Welsh [ə].

e.g. ysgol ‘school’, ysbyty ‘hospital’[ə] [ə] [ə]

F t B kC t lFront BackCentralClose iː uː

ʊɪ

Close-mid

ɔːe

Open-midə, ɜː

ɔːe

Open mid

ɒæʌ

Open

ɒæɑː

Welsh Accents 3bWelsh Accents 3b

Vowels


[ɜː] work, fur [øː]

It was so funny to learn ’im[øː]

Language ContactLanguage Contact – Welsh lacks both long vowels.

Welsh Accents 4Welsh Accents 4Vowels

Received Pronunciation Welsh English PronunciationReceived Pronunciation Welsh English Pronunciation

[ɑː] father, calm [aː]

’e wouldn’t say Cardiff like we say Cardiff

people call uh us from the North Joscyns which means like uhm

[aː] [aː]

people call uh us from the North Joscyns which means like uhm

farmers it’s like farmer farmers[aː] [aː] [aː]

Language ContactLanguage Contact – Welsh lacks RP’s long [ɑː]. Instead Welsh English

has adopted the closest vowel from Welsh [aː].

e.g. bach ‘little’, tad ‘dad’, cath ‘cat’[aː] [aː] [aː]


ʊɪ

Close-mid

ɔːe

Open-midə, ɜː

ɔːe

Open mid

ɒæʌ

Open

ɒæɑː

aː

Welsh Accents 5aWelsh Accents 5aVowels

Received Pronunciation Welsh English Pronunciationg

[æ] accent, cat [a]

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]he has this South Walian accent and I can’t stand it

[a] [a] [a] [a] [a]

Language Contact Language Contact – Welsh lacks RP’s [æ]. Instead Welsh English has

adopted a similar short vowel from Welsh [a].

e.g. afal ‘apple’, bardd ‘bard’, adar ‘birds’ [a][a] [a] [a][a]


ʊɪ

Close-mid

ɔːe

Open-midə, ɜː

ɔːe

Open mid

ɒæʌ

Open

ɒæɑː

a

Welsh Accents 5bWelsh Accents 5bVowels

Received Pronunciation Welsh English Pronunciationg

[ʉː] (contemporary RP) boot, shoot [uː]

[uː] [uː] [uː]two years ago I went back to school up to Cefn Hengoed school to take

up Welsh

[uː] [uː] [uː]

we have a nice s:mooth rhythm

L C t tL C t t W l h E li h h d t d th l l b k l

[uː]

Language Contact Language Contact – Welsh English has adopted the long close back vowel from Welsh [uː].

[ ] [ ]e.g. sŵn ‘sound’, cŵn ‘dogs’

[uː] [uː]

F t B kC t lFront BackCentralClose iː uːʉ

ʊɪ

Close-mid

ɔːe

Open-midə, ɜː

ɔːe

Open mid

ɒæʌ

Open

ɒæɑː


VowelsReceived Pronunciation South Welsh English Pronunciation

[jʉː] few, tune [ɪʊ]

and they used to look in my face and they used to say to me come on [ɪʊ] [ɪʊ]

[ɪʊ]Sylvia. Say some more you got a beautiful accent

it feels stupid if you try to talk otherwise

[ɪʊ][jʊ]

Language Contact Language Contact – South Welsh English has adopted the same diphthong from Welsh [ɪʊ]from Welsh [ɪʊ].

e.g. yw ‘is’, byw ‘live’[ɪʊ] [ɪʊ]

Welsh Accents 7aWelsh Accents 7a

VowelsReceived Pronunciation South Welsh English Pronunciation

[eɪ] made, late [eː][eɪ] made, late [eː]

and they used to look in my face and they used to say to me[eː]

Diphthongs in RP pure

[eɪ]and they used to look in my face and they used to say to me

[əʊ] nose so [oː]

pure vowels in South WEng [əʊ] nose, so [oː]

we get that problem when we go away with the choir we go away[oː] [oː]

WEng

we get that problem when we go away with the choir we go away

pretty often

Welsh Accents 7bWelsh Accents 7bVowels

Received Pronunciation South Welsh English PronunciationReceived Pronunciation South Welsh English Pronunciation

[eɪ] made, late [eː]

Language Contact Language Contact – South Welsh English has adopted the pure vowel from Welsh [eː]. [eː] [eː]

e.g. sedd ‘seat’, beth ‘what’,

[əʊ] nose, so [oː]

[eː] [eː]

Language Contact Language Contact – South Welsh English has adopted the pure vowel from Welsh [oː]Welsh [oː].

e.g. sôn ‘talk’, bod ‘be’[oː] [oː]


Consonants


[ɹ] really, rude [ɾ] – flapped /r/

[Because if you didn’t speak Welsh] you were a foreigner[ɾ] [ɾ]

Language Contact Language Contact – Welsh English has adopted the /r/ phoneme from

Welsh [ɾ]Welsh [ɾ].e.g. gardd ‘garden’, cariad ‘love’

[ɾ] [ɾ]

Language Contact Language Contact – Welsh

Welsh Accents 9Welsh Accents 9 English has adopted the regional

variants from Welsh

Consonantse.g. mêl ‘honey’, glan ‘pure’


[l / ɫ] little, likeable South WEng [l] North WEng [ɫ]– no clear distinction between clear and dark /l/

[l][l]I was the only child

I d ’t t b t I h t h i t t i thi l l hi t[ɫ]

[l]

[ɫ]

[l]

I don’t compete but I have great uhm interest in, this local history

and our culture, so I think it’s important that we as young people [ɫ] [ɫ]

[ɫ]realise, uhm d’you know ou- our background

[ɫ]


ConsonantsIntervocalic (= between vowels) consonant lengtheningIntervocalic (= between vowels) consonant lengthening

butter [bətːə], money [mənːi]

Y i h ’ t lki ’[kː]

You sing-song when you you’re talkin’

I’m ashamed that I don’t speak it[kː]

Language ContactLanguage Contact – Welsh English has adopted long consonants from Welsh.Language Contact Language Contact Welsh English has adopted long consonants from Welsh.

e.g. sydyn ‘sudden’, mynydd ‘mountain’, pecyn ‘parcel’[dː] [nː] [kː]


ConsonantsSpecial Welsh consonants in loanwords & placenames

[x] – like German ach (velar fricative)[x] like German ach (velar fricative)

bach [baːx] term of endearment (= little)

ch arae teg [ t ] ‘fair pla ’chwarae teg [xwaɾe teːg] ‘fair play’

[ɬ][ɬ] – voiceless /l/ (lateral fricative)

llan [ɬan], Pwllheli [puɬheli]Language ContactLanguage Contact

Differences in LexisDifferences in Lexis

Loanwords Language ContactLanguage Contact

There are surprisingly few loanwords from Welsh

e.g. bach, del terms of endearment

ych a fi! ‘ugh!’

eisteddfod ‘competitive arts festival’

nain, mamgu ‘grandma’ (N. Wales, S. Wales)

taid, tadcu ‘grandpa’ (N. Wales, S. Wales)

Welsh English dialect

Most Welsh English dialect words are local or regional

e.g. tidy ‘nice’ (S. Wales)

Eisteddfod Genedlaethol BrenhinolEisteddfod Genedlaethol Brenhinol Cymru Differences in Grammar 1Differences in Grammar 1

Language ContactLanguage ContactInvariant question tags

Is it?/isn’t it?/innit?

e.g. They do a lot of work, is it?

[I feel really ashamed that I can’t speak and understand

Welsh] and especially on holidays, innit?

“Leave it till the mornin’, mab. Well, for a couple of

hours, init, seein’ it’s four o’clock now.”

Under influence from invariant tag questions in Welsh

e.g. “Esgusodwch fi, on’d ife?” (= not is he/it?)

‘Excuse me, isn’t it?’

Differences in Grammar 2Differences in Grammar 2

Language ContactLanguage ContactSubstitution of have

Be with used instead of have

e.g. I never worry about bein’ with with a Welsh accent I

never worried about it

Under influence from the lack of a single verb for have in Welsh

e.g. Mae car ’da fi (= is car with me)

‘I have a car’

Differences in Grammar 3Differences in Grammar 3

Foregrounding for emphasis (predicate object inversion)

Instead of normal word order, i.e. subject verb object (SVO):

object subject verb (OSV)

e.g. Money they’re not short of.

Goin’ down the mine ’e is.

Under influence from emphatic word order in Welsh (OVS instead of

VSO)

P bl b l hi ( bl l i it)e.g. Problem bersonol yw hi (= problem personal is it)

‘It’s a personal problem’Language ContactLanguage Contact




3. Diglossia

SS S h t f Bili liS h t f Bili liSomeSome Snapshots of Bilingualism Snapshots of Bilingualism in Walesin Wales

TV series: Pam Fi Duw? (Why Me God?)

Welsh homepages

Signposting

Demographics

Official Language Policy & Planning Official Language Policy & Planning

A Bilingual A Bilingual WebsiteWebsiteBilingual Bilingual R d iR d iRoadsignsRoadsignsin Cardiffin Cardiff

CardiffCardiffCardiffCardiffCaerdyddCaerdydd

Fig 2 Percentage & Numbers of Welsh Speakers

PercentagePercentage & No of Welsh speakers& No of Welsh speakers

Fig. 2 Percentage & Numbers of Welsh Speakers60 1200000

50 1000000

30

40

% 600000

800000

bers

20

30%

400000

600000

Num

b

10

20

200000

400000

01901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001

0 %no1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 no.

Bilingualism Bilingualism gua sgua sin Walesin Wales

Our VisionOur Vision

Our vision is a bold one[: …] a truly bilingual Wales by whichtruly bilingual Wales, by which we mean a country where people can choose to live their p plives through the medium of either or both Welsh or English and where the presence of the two languages is a source of pride and strength to us allpride and strength to us all. (WAG 2003: 1)

BilingualismBilingualism

Idealised “native speaker” as the norm

Early views:

“the native-like control of two languages” (Bloomfield 1933)

“The ideal bilingual switches from one language to the other

according to appropriate changes in the speech situationaccording to appropriate changes in the speech situation

(interlocutors, topics, etc.) but not in an unchanged speech

situation and certainly not within a single sentence ”situation, and certainly not within a single sentence. (Weinreich 1953)

Definition: BilingualDefinition: Bilingual

Having an effectively equal control of two native languages. Thus a minority of people in Wales are bilingual in Welsh andThus a minority of people in Wales are bilingual in Welsh and English; many in England are bilingual in English and e.g. Punjabi. A bilingual community, as in Welsh-speaking parts of

l h h b l l lWales, is one in which bilingualism is normal.

Loosely or more generally, in some accounts, of people or communities that have two or more different languagescommunities that have two or more different languages, whether or not control is effectively equal and whether or not more than one is native. Bilinguals in the ordinary sense are then variously called ‘ambilingual’ or ‘equilingual’, or are qualified as ‘full’, ‘true’, ‘ideal’, or ‘balanced’ bilinguals.The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics. P. H. Matthews. Oxford UniversityThe Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics. P. H. Matthews. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.

Three myths about bilingualismThree myths about bilingualism

Bili l lik t li l ll d i t Bilinguals are like two monolinguals rolled into one.

Bilinguals have two equally developed languages Bilinguals have two equally developed languages

Bilinguals who master two languages do not usually Bilinguals who master two languages do not usually

code-switch

CodeCode--switching 1switching 1

“the ‘alternating use of two or more “codes” within one ti l i d ’ ”conversational episode’ ” (Auer 1998: 1)

Early view of code switching:Early view of code-switching:“[N]o one has been able to show that such rapid alternation is governed by any systematic rules oralternation is governed by any systematic rules or constraints and we must therefore describe it as the irregular mixture of two distinct systems.” (Labov, 1972: 457)

L b th l id d h ll t th li i tLabov thus laid down a challenge to other linguists.


John Gumperz (a linguistic anthropologist) was the first to draw

attention to ways in which code-switching is used as a

meaning-making resource.

In conversation “speakers associate one alternative expression with

the casualness or intimacy of home or peer-group relations

(we-code) and the other with the formality of public or out-

group relations (they-code).” (Gumperz 1982: 84)

Thus bilingual communities ascribe different sets of symbolic values to each code. By switching they can claim distinct id titiidentities.


Gumperz also highlighted that code-switching functionsGumperz also highlighted that code switching functions

as a contextualisation cue used to signal “what

th ti it i h ti t t i t bthe activity is, how semantic content is to be

understood and how each sentence relates to what

precedes or follows” (Gumperz, 1982: 131)


Gumperz (1982) also proposed a preliminary typology of p ( ) p p p y yp gy

discourse functions: ”

(i) quotations (direct or reported speech) (i) quotations (direct or reported speech)

(ii) addressee specification

(iii) inte jections (iii) interjections

(iv) reiterations (for emphasis or clarification)

(v) message qualification

(vi) personalization vs. objectivization

CodeCode--mixing 1mixing 1

“bilingual medium” (e.g. Welsh and English) as a default optiong ( g g ) p

unmarked choice (i.e. no additional local meaning) (Myers-

Scotton 1993)Scotton 1993)

there may be an identifiable pattern of “insertional” or

“alternational” mixing (Auer 1999: 315)alternational mixing (Auer 1999: 315)

yet it may (or may not) signal group identity (Auer 1999: 318)

CodeCode--mixing 2 mixing 2 (FGD1, FG3, 24:52)(FGD1, FG3, 24:52)

Participants: Louise (L), Carys (C), Llinos (Ll), Martha (M), Amy (A)

1 Louise: └fi’n credu┘ gyda [ysgol 2] ddo os chi’n edrych ar I part. believe with [name of English school] though if you part. look on

I think with [school 2] though if you look atI think with [school 2] though if you look at2 y tables thing nw sy’ gyda nw fel un o’r top (.)

the they who are with they like one of thethe tables thing they have they’re like one of the top,

3 f l l ’ ( h th h) ’ b l3 ┌ones ┐ for a ┌levels┐ an’ (uh through) ma’ pobol are people

ones for A levels an’ (uh through) people4 Amy: └mm ┘ │ │

└ ┘5 Carys: └ie ┘yeah

6 Louise: yn ffonio lan ’na yn meddwl mai private schoolpart. phone up there part. think that p p p pphone up there thinking that it’s a private school


7 Louise: ┌yw e¿┐ ’chos ma’r results mor dda ┌yn a level ┐is he ’cause are the so good in

it i ’ th lt d t A l lit is ’cause the results are so good at A level8 Llinos: └wir. ┘

truereallyreally

9 Amy: └ma’ nw yn y ┘ are they part. uh

they are uh10 A d ll ’di10 Amy: darllen ┌’di nw mm mm

read past theythey’ve read mm mm

11 Louise: └ y fourth t- uh out o- the to- uhythe

the fourth t- uh out o- the to- uh12 Amy: °(xx)° ┐13 L i th ’ th ┘ f th t i b it i h l13 Louise: they’re the┘ fourth top in britain: school


14 Louise: ┌┌yw ┐e¿ two years ago¿┐ is he

th tthey are two years ago15 Amy: └│on’ │ ma’ nw’n rî:l┘i encourago plant nw.

but are they part. really encourage children theirbut they really encourage their childrenbut they really encourage their children

16 Llinos: └ffach┘ cor




3. Diglossia

Bilingualism & Bilingualism & DiglossiaDiglossia

bilingualism: “The capacity to make alternate (and sometimes mixed) use

of two languages ” (Concise O ford Companion to the English Lang age 1998)of two languages. (Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language 1998)

“Bilingualism is the use of two (or more) languages in one’s everyday

life and not knowing two or more language equally well and optimally ”life and not knowing two or more language equally well and optimally.(Grosjean 2002: 2)

diglossia: in some speech communities there is “one particular kind of g p p

standardization where two varieties of a language exist side by side

throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play”

(Ferguson 2000 [1959]: 65), one of which is a superposed variety, that is,

not a primary “native” variety, but one learnt in addition to the native

variety.

DiglossiaDiglossia: high : high vsvs lowlow

“The varieties are called H and L, the first being

generally a standard variety used for ‘high’ purposes

and the second often a ‘low’ spoken vernacular. […]

L is typically acquired at home as a mother tongue […]

H, on the other hand, is learned through schooling and

never at home, and is related to institutions outside the

home.”(Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language 1998, my highlighting)

Ferguson’s nine criteria forFerguson’s nine criteria forFerguson s nine criteria for Ferguson s nine criteria for determining determining diglossiadiglossia (2000 [1959])(2000 [1959])

1. function

2. prestige

3. literary heritagey g

4. acquisition

5 standardisation5. standardisation

6. stability

7. grammar

8. lexicon

9. phonology

Ferguson’s four prototypical cases ofFerguson’s four prototypical cases ofFerguson s four prototypical cases of Ferguson s four prototypical cases of diglossiadiglossia (2000 [1959])(2000 [1959])

Situation 'high' variety 'low' varietyArabic Classic Arabic Vario s regionalArabic Classic Arabic Various regional

colloquial varietiesSwiss German Standard German Swiss GermanSwiss German Standard German Swiss GermanHaitian Standard French Haiti CreoleGreek Katharévousa Dhimotiki

The case of Arabic The case of Arabic diglossiadiglossia(Ferguson 2000 [1959]: 68)(Ferguson 2000 [1959]: 68)

Situation H L

Sermon in church or mosque xInstructions to servants, waiters, worksmen, clerks xPersonal letter xPersonal letter xSpeeches in parliament, political speeches xUniversity lecture xyConversations with family, friends, colleagues xNews broadcasts xRadio 'soap opera' xRadio soap opera xNewspaper editorial, new story, caption on picture xCaption on political cartoon xPoetry xFolk literature x

DiglossiaDiglossia vsvs bilingualismbilingualism

Problems (Musk 2006: 74-77)( )

Domain analysis needs to accommodate more parameters in order to

acknowledge the real choices that bilinguals make and can make in

talk-in-interaction (including code-switching).

The simple binary distinction H vs L cannot capture either the range

of possible situations or domains, nor in many cases the languages or

language varieties.

But a formality/intimacy continuum (Fasold 1990 [1984]: 53) is at least one

contributory factor which can influence the choice of language(s) or

l ( ) b l l l l llanguage variety(-ies) in bilingual or multilingual societies.

Bilingualism & Bilingualism & DiglossiaDiglossia in Wales in Wales (Musk 2006: 79)(Musk 2006: 79)

‘Lay’ Description of‘Lay’ Description of DiglossiaDiglossia in Walesin WalesLay Description of Lay Description of DiglossiaDiglossia in Wales in Wales 11

Does a lot of that go on these days then, you’ve you’ve got English with -io at the end?

A: Yeah like cookio and stuff. Instead of coginio, which is cooking in Welsh.

B: I uh say hatio which hate I hate something and I say hatio they they say it say it in the Welsh oneit in the Welsh one

C: Casàu.

B: You’re supposed to say casàu yeah.

C: It feels stupid if you try to talk otherwise. If you di- if you didn’t e- even use your (x)

A: If you (spoke) proper former Welsh just like everyday it just it wouldn’t soundA: If you (spoke) proper former Welsh just like everyday it just it wouldn t sound right somehow.

B: Sounds like you’re reading a book: if you uh speak proper Welsh it’s like you’re reading from a boo Welsh bookyou re reading from a boo- Welsh book.

‘Lay’ Description of‘Lay’ Description of DiglossiaDiglossia in Walesin WalesLay Description of Lay Description of DiglossiaDiglossia in Wales in Wales 2 2 (Musk 2006: 368; (Musk 2006: 368; FGD2, FG4, 13:57FGD2, FG4, 13:57))

1 Cornilov: a fi’n ┌meddwl┐ ┌siarad┐ cymraeg nawr naturally yn and I part. think speak Welsh now part.and I think speaking Welsh now naturallyand I think speaking Welsh now naturally

2 Batman: └a- ┘ │ │?

3 A Man: └ie ┘yeahyeah

4 Cornilov: golygu ((points towards himself with both hands & smiles)) mean

means5 naturally yn golygu ca’l geirie saesneg5 naturally yn golygu ca l geirie saesneg

part. mean get words Englishnaturally means having English words

6 ynddo ┌fe he┐fyd ┌ie?┐= in him him too yeahin him him too yeah

in it too yeah?7 A Man: └ie ┘ │ │

yeah8 Batman: └ie ┘=8 Batman: ie

yeah

DiglossiaDiglossia in Walesin Wales

vernacular: Galle’ nw at least halacould they send

literary: Gallent (hwy) o leiaf anfoncould (they) they of least send( y) y

They could at least send

l t i l C âplant nw i ysgol Cymrâg.children their to school Welsheu plant (hwy) i ysgol Gymraeg.p ( y) y g y gtheir children (their) to school Welshtheir children to a Welsh school

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Auer, J. C. P. (1999) “From codeswitching via language mixing to fused lects: Toward a dynamic typology of bilingual speech.” International Journal of Bilingualism 3.4: 309-332

Blom J & J J Gumperz (1972) “Social meaning in linguistic structures: codeswitchingBlom, J. & J. J. Gumperz. (1972) Social meaning in linguistic structures: codeswitching in Norway.” Directions in Sociolinguistics. J. J. Gumperz & D. Hymes (eds). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston

Bloomfield, L. (1933) Language. New York: Holt, Rhinehart and WinstonCoulmas, F. (2005) “Diglossia and bilingualism: functional restrictions on language

choice.” Sociolinguistics. The study of speakers’ choices. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 126-139

Fasold, R. W. (1990 [1984]). The Sociolinguistics of Society. Oxford: Blackwell


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Bilingualism & Language Contact - Linköping University Webpages/english-3/1.2279… · Language Contact – Welsh English dialects tend to shthit ti tt fl lWlhdilthare the intonation