Bilingual Code-Mixing

Bilingual Code-MixingGenesee, F. Paradis, J. & Crago, M. B.(2004)What is code-mixing? Code-mixing is the use of elements from two languages in the same utterance or in the same stretch of conversation.

Intrautterance code-mixing (intrasentential)Inter-utterance code-mixing (intersentential)

The mixed elements can include whole words, phrases or clauses, and even pragmatic patterns (repetition).

(sounds, inflectional morphemes)Adult Code-Mixingmixing in formal/informal settings grammaticality of mixingTypes of mixing and level of proficiencyflaggingAdult BCM is grammatically, socially and culturally constrained; it is not random.

Why Do Bilingual Children Code-mix?Unitary Language System HypothesisChildren(2-4 years old) in the process of acquiring 2 languagesChildren initially represent the two languages in a single neurocognitive system.

Problems with this argument

Gap Filling Hypothesis BCM serves to fill gaps in the developing childs linguistic competence. Lexical Gap Hypothesis! Evidences for this hypothesis:Young bilingual children codemix more when they use their less proficient language. Children codemix are much more likely to mix words for which they do not know the translation equivalent regardless of whether they are using their less or more proficient language. In addition, children can codemix when an appropriate word might not exist in the target language.

Mixing to fill gaps in childrens lexical or syntactic knowledge in their languages reflects their communicative competence.When bilingual children encounter monolingual people;They may not know the appropriate words in the target language,They may fail to grasp that the interlocutor is monolingual,They may not know many monolingual people in their daily lives

THEREFORE, they may persist in codemixing!

Pragmatic ExplanationsBilingual children may code-mix for pragmatic effect:To emphasize what they are sayingTo quote what someone else saidTo protestTo narrate

Moreover, one of their languages may have more affective load than the other, and they may use that language to express emotion when they speak. Social NormsAcquiring appropriate community-based patterns of code-mixing is an important part of bilingual childrens language socialization.In some communities, there is a great deal of tolerance and acceptance of mixing. BCM can be an important marker of social identity. Social norms in individual families can also influence child BCM. Persistence in using inappropriate mixing patterns even after some experience might suggest other factors are at play:Code-mixing fills gaps in the childs proficiency in the TL,Code-mixing is pragmatic,Code-mixing asserts the childs identity as a bilingual person or a member of a different cultural group.Is child bilingual code-mixing grammatically constrained or deviant???Studies show that the vast majority of bilingual childrens code-mixing is systematic and conforms to the grammatical constraints of the two participating languages.

Children learn to code-mix grammatically at the same time they learn their two languages, in other words, it comes automatically with being a bilingual learner.

In addition, they learn the frequency or patterns of mixing that characterize their own families and communities.BCMis a typical and widespread pattern of language among bilingual children and adults.is a communicative source.is shaped by social norms.may reflect the childs cultural identity.Some implicationsBCM should not be taken as evidence for language delay or impairment.

Children should not be scolded or explicitly discouraged from code-mixing.

Most bilingual children will adapt to the communicative demands of monolingual social situations, given appropriate time and supportive encouragement.CODE-MIXING IN EARLY L2 LEXICAL ACQUISITION Joanna Rokita(2006)INTRODUCTIONThe influence of age on second language acquisition

The Helen Doron method

Doron argues that early instruction is neurological: the childs brain rapidly overdevelops between the ages 2 and 10, being hyperactive at forming trillions of neuron connecitonINTRODUCTIONDorons investigation consists of these questions:

Do early L2 learners code-mix, and if so,

What are the reasons for code-mixing, and

What type of code-mixing do they perform?Code-mixing vs. Code-switchingCode-switching:alternate use of two or more languages in the same utterance or conversation Question: Intentional or not?

According to Appel and Muysken(1987) code-mixing is an intrasentential switch occuring in the mid-sentence.The possible functions of code-mixingReferentialDirectiveExpressivePhaticMetalinguisticPoeticThe StudyThe subjects are four very young learners of EnglishAdaAnastazjaDanusiaKonradand two children from bilingual families:ZosiaZbysData AnalysisYoung bilinguals put two words from different languages in juxtaposition

Example:Zosia : Mam glasses.Zbys: Nie ma worm(Ive got glasses)(Theres no worm)Data AnalysisSince the Polish language system differs considerably from the English system, the child seems to observe the difference and, while choosing and English word for the Polish sentence, adds the Polish accuasative case marker aExample:Z pania sobie narysuje hedgehog-a(Ill draw a hedgehog with the lady)Data Analysis3. The child overgeneralise the rule of the plural ending s and extend it to Polish lexis.

Example:To sa moje balon-s.

Data Analysis4. The rules of conjugation are transferred onto English verbs.

Example:Mamusiu, co ty do-isz?Data Analysis5. Finally, insertion is not the only type of code-mixing. The example is:

Eeh, ubral sie bo jest zimno, /je/.(Eeh, he put on clothes, because hes cold, yeah)Do early learners code-mix?What type or for what reason do early learners Code-mix?

Example:Ada : To jest bardzo dobre, yummy yummy.(This is very good, yummy yummy.)Anastazja : To jest moj daddy.(This is my daddy.)Do early learners code-mix?The examples from Ada and Anastazja clearly fulfil the criteria of the insertion type of code-mixing. 7. Konrad : Daj mi moj bus(Give me my bus)duzy truck(a big truck)In the example below, the English words bus and truck are clearly much easier than the Polish equivalents.Do early learners code-mix?Danusia has managed to acquire an L2 grammatical rule unique for this language, namely article:Example: Yummy! Co jest yummy ( What is yummy?) A galaretka. ( A jelly)ConclusionLexical interference or transfer is a dominant Phenomenon of the simultaneous acquisition oftwo languages. It is doubtful if it is considered starting age of language criterion for calling the language acquisition simultaneous. Due to theLimited amount of L2 input, the acquisition rate is much slower.

Japanese-English Conversational Codeswitching in Balanced and Limited Proficiency Bilinguals

Sandra S. FotosIntroductionOver half of the worlds population is bi- or multilingual.

One-third speaking English as first or second language or learning it as a foreign language.

A flexible multilingual perspective on language is more representative of the real-world situation.

The practise of mixing languages is an important communication strategy in multilingual communities.

In this study, it is JAPAN.Introductionincreasing bi or multilingualism in Japan.

This study aims to analyze Japanese-English code-switching in two types of bilinguals:those with equal proficiency in their two languages,those with only limited proficiency in English.

Literature ReviewWhat is bilingualism?The condition of knowing two languages rather than one.

It does not necessarily mean equivalently high levels of proficiency in both languages.

Balanced bilinguals are quite rare.

Thus, researchers have come to accept that a person may be called bilingual even with a very limited proficiency in the second language.Literature ReviewWhat are the effects of bilingualism on cognitive development?From the early 19th century up to the mid 1950s, the common belief was that bilingualism had an harmful effect on intellectual development.

With the research conducted after 1950s, luckily, it was foud that monolinguals and bilinguals did not differ significantly in intelligence.

Literature ReviewIn mid 1960s another major shift in view occured.

Studies suggested that the bilinguals had greater mental flexibility than monolinguals.

They were able to think more abstractly and were therefore superior to monnolinguals in concept formation.

Finally, the positive transfer effect was also suggested to be benefitting to the bilinguals.

However, this research has been criticized as being overly optimistic.Literature ReviewWhat about recent perspectives on bilingualism and cognition?

Valdes & Figuera note that bilinguals differe from monolinguals, whether positively or negatively, in three main areas:in cognitive developmentn the nature of brain hemisphere involvement in the learning and processing of L1 and L2n the nature of information processing

Cummins (1984) Thresholds Theory proposes that bilinguals level of competence in the L2 is the critical variable in determining whether bilingualism is negative, neutral or additive in terms of cognitive skills.

Literature ReviewWhat about code-switching?

Durin the 1950s, it was assumed taht code-switching was random and was the sign of someone who couldnt talk fluently in eitehr language.

Code-switching was regarded as abnormal and bad in nearly every society in which it occured because of underlying ideologies of linguistic purity.

However, research has shown that it is systematic and rule-governed and serves important socolinguistic functions.

Today code-switching is recognized to be a legitimate form of communication for people who live in multilingual communities and is investigated as an important urban contact phenomenon.

Literature ReviewTwo main lines of research on code-switching:

syntactic nature of switch

the sociolinguistic function of switch

Literature Reviewsyntactic nature of switch

It investigates the type of constraints on switching which function to maintain the gramaticality during the switch.The general conclusion istaht code-switching is almost always grammatical.Less-proficient bilinguals tend to switch single items such as nouns or idioms.On the other hand, proficient bilinguals are able to switch gramatically at the sentence level

Literature Reviewthe sociolinguistic function of switchSituational code-switchingSuch research investigates switching for establishment and maintenance of social relationships.It depends on the setting and the roles and the the relationship of teh people involved. So, in some contexts switching is unmarked while in others it si un unusual and un expected, so it is marked.

Conversational Code-switchingBilinguas often tend to discus certain topics only in one language and not in the other.The discourse markers which distinguish frames are usually code-switched.It is possible to express personal feelings in one language and the objective events in the other.

RESEARCH QUESTIONSIn her report, Fotos presents the findings from her analysis of the data that she collected in two preliminary studies.

Those earlier studies collected data from respectively four English-Japanese bilingual children and limited-proficiency bilingual Japanese university EFL learners.

Her comparison of two data sets indicated (Fotos, 1990) that regardless of their proficiency level, limited-proficiency bilinguals, just like balanced bilinguals, maintained grammaticality in their codeswitching during conversation. Also, codeswitching of both groups served useful discourse management functions. RESEARCH QUESTIONSFhotos asked 3 research questions:

1. What items were most frequently switched by the limited-proficiency bilingual EFL learnersand was the switching generally grammatical?

2. What functions did the switches serve in the conversations of the EFL learners?

3. Were there significant differences in the switching patterns between the limited-proficiency EFL learners and the balanced bilingual children reported on previously (Fotos, 1990)?METHODSBALANCED BILINGUAL CHILDRENThe subjects were two bilingual American older sister/younger brother sibling sets attending an international school in Tokyo. That they were balanced bilinguals was proven by tests. Data Collection:Data was obtained by leaving a tape recorder on two occasions of 4 hours in total. Only 40 minutes of data was transcribed and analyzed. For quantitative analysis, switches were coded into syntactic categories (i.e., noun, verb, dependent clause, etc.) following the categories used by Poplack (1980).Data Analysis:To determine what function the switch performed in the conversation, the categories proposed in the research literature (switching to clarify meaning, to get and hold attention, to change or focus on the topic of discussion, to use special items culturally linked to one of the languages, to indicate reported speech, and to personalize or objectivize events) were used to examine representative switches.METHODSLIMITED-PROFICIENCY JAPANESE EFL LEARNERSThe subjects of the second study were 53 first-year Japanese university EFL learners, most of whom were male. The learners had one required 90-minute period per week of oral English with a native speaker instructor. The instructor was Fotos herself. That they were limited-proficiency bilinguals was proven by tests.Data Collection:Groups of 3-4.1. Adverb placement task (8 mins)- Generation of grammar rules2. Indirect object placement (23 mins)- Correct vs. incorrect discussion3. Relative clause task (9 mins)- Correct vs. incorrect discussion & Generation of grammar rules

METHODSAll task performances were audiotaped. A total of six and a half hours of audiotape was obtained. A balanced bilingual Japanese research assistant transcribed the tapes in full, writing out the Japanese utterances in romaji (Roman letters).Data Analysis:For quantitative analysis, switches were coded into the same syntactic categories used in the first study. Results and Discussion

Results and Discussion

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONDISCOURSE FUNCTIONS OF CONVERSATIONAL CODESWITCHINGSwitching to indicate topics:EFL learners codeswitched task-related terms.e.g. task recording haitteiru? enter-ing Is it being recorded?The bilingual children codeswitched culturally-linked terms. They discussed school-related terms in English since they attended an international school.e.g. This bracelet was for san byaku en. three hundred yen This bracelet was for three hundred yen.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION2. Switching for emphasis: This was usually in the form of repetition of the important utterenace in the switched-to language. EFL learners:e.g. Place adverbs between noun and noun Meishi to meishi no aida. noun with noun Poss. between Between noun and noun.

The bilingual children:e.g. The hammer was in the hand like this. Kou iu fuu ni. ??????????? Like this.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION3. Switching for Clarification:It includes elaboration, with the phrase after the switch containing more information than the original utterance. EFL learners:e.g. My English ability is very short/ I don't say well. itai koto ga ienai. want-to-say thing Top. cant say I cant say what I want to say.

The bilingual children:e.g. They were really fake/ but they were exactly like Reeboks. Honmono mitai. Zettai ni honmono ni mite iru.real like absolutely Loc. real Loc. like isThey look like the real thing. They absolutely lok like the real thing.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION4. Switching to Frame Discourse:This is switching to attract and hold the listener's attention. It occurs at boundaries as an intensifying strategy to emphasize the utterance. EFL learners:e.g. Ja/ I read number three sentence.WellWell, I read sentence number three.

The bilingual children:e.g. I saw MoonWalker. MoonWalker was so weird/ dayo. it-isI saw Moonwalker, Moonwalker was so weird indeed.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION5. Switching to Separate Feelings from Facts:This refers to the tendency to talk about personal feelings in one language and factual, objective events in the other. EFL learners used Japanese for their feelings, and English for factual information.e.g. Possible place of adverbs is nanda/ wakaranai. what-is/ I dont knowWhat is the possible place of adverbs? I dont know.

The bilingual children, on the other hand, used Japanese for factual information, and English for their feelings.e.g. I wanted it. Soshite katta. so buy-Past I wanted it. So I bought it.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION6. Switching to Signal Repair:The switch indicated that the previous utterance was incorrect and that a repair would follow. This mainly occurred in EFL learners speech.e.g. She looked/ oh / I mistake / look janakute. so-notshe cooked a delicious dinner.She looked. Oh, I made a mistake. Not look. She cooked a delicious dinner.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION7. Switching to Report Speech: This mainly occurred in the bilingual childrens speech probably because of their more informal conversational situation and longer interaction period.e.g. and then he said, doshita no? ?????????And then he said, What is the matter?RESULTS AND DISCUSSION8. Switching to Emphasize or Dramatize a Single Item:Its occurrence was mainly limited to the children's data.e.g. Mou asobanai hou ga ii. Anymore play-not side Top. goodBoring dakara. becauseMaybe we shouldnt play anymore. Because it is boring.

WHY DO WE SWITCH TO ANOTHER CODE WHILE SPEAKING IN THE CLASS?

56 According to J. Eldridges article (1996), there are seven functions of code-switching:EquivalenceFloor-holdingMetalanguageReiterationGroup membershipConflict control Alignment/Disalignment57THE STUDYIn Deniz High School, a small Turkish secondary school where English is taught as a second language. Learners aged 11-13 at an elementary and lower intermediate level.Tape recordedTranscribed The learners were also asked to comment on why they code-switched.581. EquivalenceThe students make use of or elicitation of an equivalent item in the other code.Ex: S1: Teacher, cave it means in Turkish maara? (cave)59 seviyorum your eyes cnk onlar very nice kalbim tic tac for you bi kerecik look at me ondan sonra dont forget me .

602. Floor-holdingThe speed of retrieval is slower for certain items in the target code than in the native code, then the use of the latter may be said to function as a kind of stopgap, while the former is being retrieved.Ex: T: Was this done on your own?L: Tek bama (on my own) ... on my own.613. MetalanguageStudents think that the tasks should be performed in the target code while comment, evaluation, and talk about the task may take place in the mother tongue.Ex: LI: Where did Gary go?L2: Ben soracam (I will ask). Where did Gary go?624. ReiterationIf the message is not understood in one code, students switch to the other code to clarify, to emphasize, to reinforce the message.Ex: LI: Flowers ... he? ... flowers.T: Flowers.L2: Flowers ...iek. (flowers)635. Group membershipThrough 'wordplay', where switches and mixes are creatively manufactured for comic effect, students show their belonging to a group.Ex: 'I like speak half Turkish half English. For example, 'My best friend'im'.' (my)646. Conflict controlTo create ambiguity in order to deal with situations in which there is a potential conflictEx: 'I say 'liar' (in English) to my friends, because I don't want to say yalanc (liar) because I'm not sure. I say 'no' to my cousin because I don't want to say bad things to her or disagree with her.'657. Alignment /DisalignmentIn a conversation, participants may either try to sustain a particular role, or, alternatively, they may feel the need to adopt different roles as a conversation proceeds. What may also occur are overt attempts to change both the roles of fellow participants and the type of talk taking place.66Ex: LI: What did you do yesterday?L2: Neden siz ...(Why are you ...) (indecipherable) (This creates a slight commotion, with general reversion to Turkish for a few seconds).L3: Be quiet.L4: Please be quiet, friends.67Pedagogical ImplicationsA flexible attitude towards classroom code-switching.Course books at the beginners and pre-intermediate level should give importance to floor-holding mechanisms.

68Code-switching is a strategy that yields short-term benefits to the second language learner, but with a risk of hampering long-term acquisition.It is developmental, and premature attempts to reduce its use would thus impede second language acquisition.There may be a strong relationship between learner styles and abilities and code-switching.

69Finally, it is worth emphasizing once more that decreasing mother tongue use in the classroom does not automatically increase the quality and quantity of target language use.70TEACHING VOCABULARY THROUGH CODE-MIXINGMEHMET ELK(2003)71M. eliks study shows;Using code-mixing to introduce new vocabulary is an efficient and effective method.

How code-mixing can be applied to vocabulary teaching in EFL/ESL classes.

7219 Turkish Subject:

15 female, 4 maleFirst year university EFL Teacher TraineesIntermediate and upper-intermediate level

73 A story OK, you know, everyday so many people are killed on the roads. There are many reasons for this, of course. One of the reasons may be that the laws are very gevek. We know that laws are really lax. This laxity is hard to overcome for many reasons. So this situation is a problem for yetkililer too. What can they do? I mean the authorities. Not much really. Because the authorities can only bring solutions using mevcut laws. But you see existing laws are very lax. More effective laws should be introduced to replace the existing laws. However, there is another problem. It is to do with police officers. You see they are msamahakar towards drivers. They tend to let them go when they break a traffic law. So, we can easily say that police officers are lenient towards drivers. I strongly believe that a lenient attitude, or leniency, is the root of so many other problems in the society. Also, there is no denetleme on police officers. No inspection, no result. I mean inspection is very necessary for overall traffic. Another thing is that police officers are not willing to report the problems to their amirs. We dont know why, but they dont tell their superiors about the physical problems on the roads. Maybe they are afraid of their superiors. I mean, what if their superiors come and inspect what they do, how they do? Then, they can say that lenient police officers should be inspected by their superiors for the safety of people although the existing law are lax.74In the oral task,The students used many of the target items.

In the written task, They never used L1 lexis.They tended to paraphrase the concepts THEY WERE NOT INSTRUCTED TO USE THE NEW VOCABULARY!75The results:No negative effect on vocabulary acquisition

Some minor spelling problems No inhibited production

No L1 usage (speaking/writing)

76BENEFITS:TimeNo additional material

CONSTRAIN:Same L1 background

DRAWBACKS:Production problems = SpellingInaccurate syntactic forms77Principles and Practical Issues: Teaching: Needs-driven, context drivenL2 item should be presented in the same syntactic function as its L1 equivalent.Explaining the item using near-synonyms or related words. (that is, I mean)Reducing the tempo when pronuncing the target itemRepetition of the target words

78To sum up: In the classroom where L2 learners share the same L1, new vocabulary may be introduced through code-mixing. Story-telling is a useful activity to present new words with this method.79